NI The Nautical Institute On Command

The Nautical Institute
COMMAND
CONTENTS
Foreword ...............................................................................................................................................
5
by Captain E.M. Scott RNR RD** FNI, Senior Vice President, The Nautical Institute
Preface ............................................................................................................................................... 6
by Captain T.J. Bailey FNI, Chairman of the Conlmand Book and Scheme Revision Group
The Nautical Institute Conlmand Diploma - the road to promotion ...............................................................8
by Captain P. Boyle MRIN FNI
Letter to a newly promoted master ......................................................................................................................
10
by Captain A.C. Collop MNI
SECTION I - Responsibilities of the Shipmaster
Chapter
1 The Nautical Institute on command .......................................................................................................
11
A Council report prepared by The Nautical Institute Command Working Group
2 What a ship owner requires from a master ..........................................................................................
15
by Captain P. Chawla MICS FNI, General Manager Quality Assurance and Training,
Anglo Eastern Ship Management Ltd.
3 Training for command ............................................................................................................................. 21
by Captain P. Roberts BSc FNI
4 The master's responsibilities in law ........................................................................................................
27
by Captain M.S. Maclachlan MICS FNI
5 The ISM Code and the master ...............................................................................................................
33
by Captain I. Mathison FNI, Fleet Safety Manager, Bibby Harrison Management Services Ltd.
6 Health management on board ...............................................................................................................
.40
by Dr. A.C. Kulkarni, Consultant in Diving Medicine, India
7 International oil pollution legislation and conventions - an update ................................................ ..44
by Captain N.K Gupta MICS MNI, Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust, India
8 Marine insurance and the mariner .........................................................................................................
48
by Mr. P. Anderson BA (Honsj FNI
9 Surveys and the shipmaster ...................................................................................................................
.59
an extract prepared by Lt Cdr J.A. Hepworth RN Ret'd MNI from the
Shz$ Survey and Audit Conzpanion by Captain W. Vervloesem AMNI
10 Flag states and the shipmaster ...............................................................................................................
..70
by Captain D.J.F. Bruce FNI, Liberia
11 Port state control and the U.S.A. ..........................................................................................................
..80
Principal features at a glance - an extract from Port State Control,
published by the UK P&I Club 1998
12 Distress - the master's responsibilities ..................................................................................................
.87
extracts from Peril at Sea and Salvage The International Chamber of Shipping
-
13 Salvage - contracts and the master .......................................................................................................

.89
by Mr. C.P. Beesley, Companion, Ince & Co., London
SECTION I1 - Management
Chapter
14 Commercial management and the shipmaster ...................................................................................101
by Cdr. R.L. Tallack RNR RD" BSc FNI, Northstar Maritime & Environmental Consultancy
15 Managng safety on board .....................................................................................................................
114
by Captain C.M. Mahidhara FNI
COMMAND 1
CONTENTS (continued)
16 Measures of economic efficiency in shipping .....................................................................................

118
by Professor R.O. Goss MA PhD FNI, Department of Maritime Studies, Cardiff University
17 Running costs ..........................................................................................................................................
121
by Mr. J.M. Downard (rcjrodured bypermzsszon ofFarrplay Publzco,toni Ltdfiom ihe book of lhe same name zn thc~rShzp Mai~a~ernentSercerj
18 Managng people on board ...................................................................................................................
129
by Captain E.M. Scott RNR RD** FNI
19 Managng shipboard maintenance .......................................................................................................
132
by Captain U. Zuber, Osterreichischer Lloyd Shipmanagement, Austria
20 Managng information technology at sea ............................................................................................
136
by Mr. D.J. Patraiko BSc MBA MNI, Project Manager for The Nautical Institute
21 Managing risk on board .........................................................................................................................
142
by Captain T.J. Bailey FNI
22 Planning a dry-dock ...............................................................................................................................
148
by Mr.J.L. Hutchinson CEng MIMarE
23 Managng dry dock maintenance .........................................................................................................
153
by Captain S. Chandorkar MNI
24 A guide to the 'Crewman' standard ship management agreement ....................................................
163
by Photis M. Panayides BSc, University of Plymouth
(reproduced from SEAWAYS, the journal of The Nautical Institute)
25 Managng social relationships with multi-cultural crews ...................................................................
166
by Captain A. Achuthan ExC MICS MNI
26 On your own ............................................................................................................................................
175
by Mr. C.J. Parker BSc FNI, Secretary, The Nautical Institute
SECTION I11 - Operational aspects of command (practical)
Chapter
27 Port procedures .......................................................................................................................................
183
by Captain C.M.R. Lloyd FNI
28 Picking up the pilot ................................................................................................................................187
by Commodore R.M. Thorn CBE FRGS FNI
29 Navigation in pilotage waters ................................................................................................................
189
by Captain F. Baillod FNI
30 What the salvage tug will want to know in the event of damage ....................................................194
by Captain D. Hancox FNI, consultant salvage master
31 Towing - receiving the tug and making fast ........................................................................................
197
by Captain W.V. Hopper MNI, formerly Towing and Operations Superintendent,
United Towing Company Ltd.
32 Shiphandling and berthing with tugs .................................................................................................
200
by Captain R.W. Rowe FNI
33 Anchoring systems - some insights for mariners ..............................................................................210
by Captain A.O. Ojo and Professor J. King MSc FRIN FNI, Cardiff University
34 Anchoring and anchorage in strong tides ............................................................................................
214
by Captain S. Chaudhari FNI
35 Anchoring a VLCC .................................................................................................................................
217
by Captain C.A. McDowall MSc CEng MIMechE MRINA FNI
2 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

36 Man overboard - rescuing survivors from the sea .............................................................................

226
by Captain M. Williams FNI
37 Master's standing orders ........................................................................................................................
229
by Captain E.H. Beetham FRSA FRIN FNI
38 Working with the chief e n p e e r ...........................................................................................................
233
by Mr. M. Jerkovic CEng, Chief Engneer, Croatia
39 Working with the catering department ................................................................................................
240
by the Committee of the Association of Marine Catering and Supply
40 Using shipboard computer-based maintenance systems ...................................................................245
by Captain M. Macleod FNI
41 Entry into enclosed spaces ....................................................................................................................
260
by Captain F.G.M. Evans BA CertEd GradIFE FNI
42 Safety on deck in rough weather ..........................................................................................................
266
by Captain E.W.S. Gill FNI
43 Fire and damage control ........................................................................................................................
269
by Mr. G.B. Standring, Managing Director, Marine Safety Services Ltd.
44 Bunkers - what the master needs to know ..........................................................................................
273
by Mr. D. Barrow MIBIA FInstPet AMNI
45 Onboard training and development ....................................................................................................
278
by Captain L.A. Holder ExC MPhil FRIN FNI
46 Altered command responsibilities for pirates, stowaways, illegal drugs and terrorism .................284
by Brigacher (Ret'd)B.A.H. Panitt CBE, Companion, Chairman, International Maritime Security
47 Seafarers and welfare support ...............................................................................................................
289
by The Rev'd Canon K. Peters, Companion,Justice and Welfare Secretary, The Mission to Seafarers
SECTION IV - Technical and environmental
Chapter
48 Modern communication systems and GMDSS ..................................................................................
293
by Mr. I. Waugh, Mobile Radio & Satellite Communications Training & Consultancy
49 Marine paint technology .......................................................................................................................
297
by Mi-. K.E.M. Haugland, Jotun-Henry Clark Ltd.
50 Standing by a newbuilding ....................................................................................................................
307
by Mr. M.P. Coles IEng AMIMarE, Chief Officer (E) R.F.A.,
MOD Integrated Logistic Support Manager
51 Ship structures inspection and maintenance .......................................................................................
311
via IACS, summarised by Lt Cdr J.A. Hepworth RN Ret'd MNI
52 The use of electronic aids to navigation ..............................................................................................
314
Marine Guidance Note MGN 63 (M+F), February 1998
53 Working on secondment ........................................................................................................................
320
by Captain R.F. Walker BSc MCIT MNI, Mobil Shipping and Transportation Company
54 Waste management on ships .................................................................................................................
324
by Captain D.N.L Yeomans BA FNI
55 Ballast water environmental and safety issues ....................................................................................
329
56 Oil pollution prevention and emergency response - the shipmaster's responsibilities .................334
by Captain C.J. Shill MNI, Chevron Shipping Company
57 Weather routeing and voyage planning ...............................................................................................340
58 The Nautical lnstitute Command Partnership and Diploma Scheme ..............................................
348
SECTION V - Case studies
Chapter
59 Man overboard .......................................................................................................................................
3.50
60 The grounding of passenger vessel HANSEATIC ...............................................................................
352
extracts from the Transportation Board of Canada,
Marine Occurrence Report Number M96H0016

FOREWORD
Senior Vice President, The Nautical Institute
SHIPMASTERS TODAY A N D THOSE I N CO M M A N D OF NAVAL V ~ S S E L Shave unique authority which is different to that of
the factory manager or civil servant. Ships, although under the jurisdiction of the Flag State, are treated in law as
independent 'out-posts'. The master and commanding officer are expected to uphold the general rule of law and
to ensure the safety of the crew and the ship using their best judgement.
Distress, search and rescue are mutual responsibilities and are shared between ships and shore coordination
centres. Still, the oceans are too wide for any nation adequately to provide emergency coverage economically, so
the principles of self-sufficiency are reinforced. But as every shipmaster is aware, the environment of command is
changing. The old values are still expected but there are a growing number of restrictions which make command
more difficult.
In commercial fleets, economics, efficiency and competition are a dominant influence. There are few
overmanned cargo ships and seldom enough time or resources to meet all demands. The networks of trade
sustained by shipping tend towards longer logistic supply lines as more products are manufactured in developing
coulltries and consumed in the developed world. Under these terms, quality of service becomes ever more
important.
With the growing trend towards free flags, ships are becoming increasingly exposed to port state and regional
inspections. Unless they are on a regular trade, shipmasters never quite know what to expect when visiting ports
in other countries.
Shipmasters are becoming more exposed to unlawful practices which are generally outside their control. The
pressure on econoinic migrants is increasing and stowaways are becoming more numerous. Piracy shows no
signs of being brought under control and ships continue to be used for traffic in narcotics.
Although ships may have a life expectancy in excess of twenty years the shipping industry, like all others, is
taking advantage of new technology. There is thus a widening gap between the outfit and control of new and old
ships. The crew, of course, have to interchange and are therefore exposed to a more varied spectrum of technology
than ever before.
Few masters, except perhaps in coastal trades, would disagree that manning is now universally international.
My own relatively small vessel currently has seven nationalities of crew and they all work well together as a team.
However, for a shipping company, the problems of identifying the best personnel for command is becoming
more difficult because those moving into the senior chief officer range now come from many different countries,
backgrounds and cultures.
It cannot be assumed that the essence of cornilland can just be picked up. Assuming authority and managing
the voyage through delegation, whilst exercising good judgement to keep many often conflicting demands in
balance whilst optinlising the owner's return on the venture, is not a job for the uninitiated. Indeed, shipmasters
today are exposed to an increasingly severe climate of financial penalties for injury, negligence, environmental
damage and poor out-turns.
In my own current part of the industry, passenger safety and care for passengers even when not on board is my
responsibility. A careless accident could cause my company to become involved in litigation costing millions of
dollars.
Where people are concerned, the days are long since past when the role of the ship's staff was simply to take
the ship safely from one location to another. There is significant competitive advantage in repeat passengers and
we want to create an atmosphere where passengers will choose us again.
I want to emphasise that command, like all other aspects of management, is changing. Being a good chief
navigator is essential but it is not enough. Shipmasters have to be able to contribute to the success of their
companies and it is with this in mind that The Nautical Institute has developed the Command Partnership
Prog-ramme and revised this book on Command.
The Nautical Institute has taken the view that if we as shipmasters want standards to improve we have to play
our part in achieving this objective. The command book and scheme is our contribution to providing international
industry-wide support to our future captains.
COMMAND 5
PREFACE
by Captain T.J. Bailey FNI, Chairman of the Command Book and Scheme Revision Group
W HEN T HE FIRST EDITI O N OF THENALITICAL INSTITCITEON COM~~UND was published in 1986 my predecessors had the
difficult task of distilling the best advice into a single publication. They did so with admirable skill and the book
has sold in large numbers since that time.
But with the passage of time there have been significant changes to our industry, not only in terms of legislation
and technology but also in the manner in which ships and shipping companies are operated, the background of
the people involved and continuing changes in training and career development. Changes in technology -have
taken us from steam power to 'cyber power' and the Internet. Many more ships are now owned by banks and
finance companies; they are operated by ship management companies and more and more seafarers are employed
on a contract basis - there is no longer the philosophy of a 'job for life'.
In trying to revise and review this fundamental work, it was necessary to reflect on these factors and to consider
the parallel development of The Nautical Institute as an influential professional group.
Everywhere knowledge horizons are expanding and so it was felt necessary to provide a framework in which
to structure the 'best advice' into a format that would be most helpful to busy people who want to do the right thing
and who want to avoid costly mistakes.
We took the model of the ISM Code as an underlying template. The functions of policy, procedures,
implementation, review, audit and improvement are the elements of management. The master's role then becomes
one of developing clarity of purpose, achieving results with least effort and encouragng positive participation
from the crew.
The content of the book is not exhaustive and nor can it be: so much of the role of master/commander can
only be learnt by experience. To cover every possible experience with written articles would be impossible and
nonproductive - the prospective master/commander must learn for himself.
In this new edition the spread of authors is more international, reflecting the changes in Institute membership,
ownership, registration and manning. The authors have provided an extraordinary richness of response which
einphasises one crucial point behind the whole of this exercise. As masters we hold independent positions but no
single master could have written this book on his own. Although often lonely, our position is not alone and the
focus of our professional Institute can bring together a relevant collection of advice and guidance to build up that
level of knowledge and awareness which provides 'good judgement'.
Let us take maritime law as just one subject. How much should the master know and to what level? Whole
libraries have been written on maritime conventions, mandatory provisions, guidance notices, contract law, charter
parties, bills of lading, insurance and now there is environmental legislation, health and safety, international law
and the laws of coastal states. We have tried to provide some basic advice for the master.
The section on management has been expanded and the legal chapters have been redesigned to reflect the
changing status of international conventions and the importance of customer satisfaction.
Captain Peter Boyle, my predecessor who put the origmal book together, asked past Command Diploma
students to discuss the value of following a command development programme. Their comments make encouraging
reading.
Captain Ian Mathison introduces the ISM Code which is, of course, new but it will soon become mandatory
for all ships. For some, there is experience already of its implementation but for many this is not the case. Using
the code to improve company and shipboard performance is such a sensible and positive response to this mandatory
requirement.
New techniques and issues have been introduced where they are topical and The Nautical Institute can be
helpful through the knowledge and experience of its members.
Captain Alan McDowall admirably covers the anchoring of large ships. Environmental issues like waste
management are put into perspective by Captain Derek Yeomans and Mr. David Patraiko addresses ballast water
safety issues. The demise of the radio officer has caused much controversy but GMDSS is covered by former
radio officer Mr. lan Waugh. Similarly, Captain Murdo McLeod brings the use of shipboard computers for
maintenance much inore up-to-date.
6 THE NAUTICAL IW8I7TUTE

A number of chapters from the old book are reproduced because of their classic value and some are redeveloped.
The chapter on navigation in pilotage waters by Captain Francois Baillod encourages good master/pilot relationships
and describes practical safe management in passage planning.
To all the contributors who have helped to provide an answer to that difficult question " W h a t is the best advice
that I can give sh@masters?' - a very sincere and heartfelt "Thank you".
I would also like to express my sincere thanks and admiration to all the staff at The Nautical Institute headquarters
for their unfailing support throughout the project.
COMMAND 7
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE COMMAND DIPLOMA
The road to promotion
by Captain P. Boyle MRIN FNI
It is twelve years since The Nautical Institute developed its Command Diploma scheme. There have been many
changes since then and The Nautical Institute Command Working Group consider that the time has come for a
new edition of the study guide and a reappraisal.
What does the international shipping industry require of its captains? They must be skilful at doing their job is
the short answer but in order to achieve this a captain has just about to be all things to all men. Not only must he
be very good at the quantifiable skills of navigation, stability, cargo care, ship handling, pollution prevention,
safety, commercial awareness, etc. but he must also be very good in more fuzzy areas such as mail management,
relationships with owners, charterers, agents and with port and national authorities, stevedores and pilots.
In the previous paragraph I have deliberately stated that captains must be 'very good' at doing their tasks. Any
lesser standard is not good enough for the industry. How can captains become 'very good' at what they do? In
times gone by future captains learned much of their skills by watching and absorbing the style and ability of their
superior officers. They usually did this under some form of apprenticeship scheme attached to one shipping
company, slow promotion to senior officer level where the company could ascertain whether the chief officer was
suitable command material and eventually promotion to command of his own ship. Surely one of the most
satisfying events in any seaman's life. There was a mutual acceptance that the company and the new captain
would be good for one another. Even when personnel moved between companies their training was similar and
national characteristics and cultural styles determmed the quality of training.
All has now changed. Systems of employinent at sea today are very different to what they were twenty years
ago. Standards of training are, in many cases, not good enough. It is no use absorbing the style or the ability of an
inadequately trained senior officer. Owners, however, still require captains. It is expected that the Seafarers Training
Certification and Watchkeeping requirements as amended in 1995 (STCW'S.5) will address the problem of
inadequate training and ensure that there is an acceptable minimum standard for all seamen. Minimum standards
are not good enough for captains however.
How can today's shipowner identify the right man to promote to captain? 'The system is such that he can no
longer watch a potential captain, perhaps over a period of years, before giving him a command. What is more,
many modern shipowners, not having knowledge of ships other than as cost centres, do not know what to look for
in a future captain. The Nautical Institute Command Partnership Scheme will give the holder an edge when
seeking promotion and it will indicate to owners that a person undertaking such a course of study is worthy of
promotion.
Change is taking place throughout the world at an increasing rate. Aided by IT, the Internet, increasing use of
computers, etc. the totality of knowledge is growing exponentially. Ship's captains can't afford to get left behind.
The master of a ship is every bit the managing director of his enterprise as his colleague running a factory ashore.
His financial responsibilities are huge and frequently in excess of 100 million dollars of ship and cargo. It requires
an intelligent, numerate and literate person to run such an enterprise. Participating in the Command Partnership
Scheme will enable the person of the right calibre to develop his potential to the full, a potential which may well
carry him to the highest levels of ship operations.
Some twelve years ago, the first person to enrol in the Nautical Institute Command Diploma scheme was
Captain Peter Roberts FNI. After being awarded his diploma he went on to achieve command, became Marine
Superintendent of a shipping company, wrote a very successful book ( S h i SNfr.ty
~ ntzd Cargo M o n u p m m t in POT<a
Nautical Institute publication) and he is now a successful maritime consultant. Captain C.M. Mahidhara FNI says
"the Command Diploma Course ...... brought new enthusiasm and zeal to my job ...... I think it will be useful for
anyone aspiring to command, as it is a very practical guide". Captain Michael Fagan M N I says that he approached
a number of prospective employers before agreeing to work for his present employer. "In every case the interviewer
seemed to be more interested in the Command Diploma than in anything else ...... taking the Diploma made me
think again about all manner of various issues and made me go back to the pen". Captain Fagan goes on to say
that doing the Command Diploma Course has stimulated his intellectual curiosity.
CaptainJames T.Jamieson MNI found that the Diploma Course was mentally stimulating and he obtained the
Luddeke prize for the highest overall score in 1997. He goes on to say "I would urge all senior chief officers and
newly promoted masters to undertake the Diploma for their own benefit as it will make them better officers".

Captain John Dunne NINI obtained his Command Diploma in 1995 and was promoted to command in 1996. He
states "I attribute my achieving command to two main factors - that I had worked at completing the company's
own 'promotion checklist' and that I had completed the Nautical Institute Command Diploma Scheme and was
able to send a copy of the diploma to my employers". Ian C. Biles Master Mariner, BEng (Hons) MA CEng MNI
obtained his Command Diploma in 1990. In 1992 he started up his own very successful consultancy business. Ian
says "the Command Diploma was to start my mind thinking again and to return to the routine of studying. Having
been away from 'academia' for some time since passing my master's certificate I felt I could go further and the
Command Diploma was my first step". Ian has fulfilled his ambition as the letters after his name indicate and he
goes on to say that "Having now developed the study ethic I have continued with what I see as my 'Continual
Professional Development"'.
Captain Christopher J. Shill MNI obtained his Diploma in 1996. He says "I found the Command Diploma
Scheme an extremely useful aid to furthering my career" ...... "undertaking the scheme helped my promotion
prospects ...... seen by (my company) as positive and has been rewarded". Captain Martin Stott MNI obtained his
Diploma in 1994 and achieved command in 1996. He subsequently changed employers and states "the Diploma
stood me in good stead when applying for (my present) position". He goes on "The scheme was very rewarding in
completing it". Captain Stott achieved the highest marks in the scheme in 1994. Captain R.S. Gilbert (the 1998
Command Diplollla prizewinner) goes on to say that "the master was in no doubt as to what my aspirations were.
I also had a break in command employment and being able to pick up the Command Diploma after a period was
an advantage to me".
The foregoing gentlemen, being men of achievement, have suggested a number of areas where this second
edition of The Nautical Institute on Command can be modified and updated. Their suggestions have been
incorporated.
Today's favoured management style is that of the "network" rather than that of the "hierarchy". The manager
in the network is needed for his expert knowledge and not solely for his ability to be a good subordinate. The
good shipowner and manager will understand that and allow the captains in their organisational networks to
contribute their unique expertise to the profitability of the company. Up to date expertise can only be achieved
through continuous learning. The Nautical Institute Comnland Partnership Scheme and Diploma is a step in the
direction.
COMMAND
LETTER TO A NEWLY PROMOTED MASTER
by Captain A.C. Collop MNI
Dear Bill
Congratulations on your well-deserved promotion. O n thinking back to my own first command and all its pitfalls, I thought
maybe that you would appreciate a bit of advice. As far as discipline and your comportment as captain are concerned, you
will have made up your own mind about these aspects long ago. The following are just a few bits of practical advice.
O n taking over command, the outgoing captain may not know it is your first trip and will not have written his handover
notes on that basis. Therefore, when talking things over with him, make sure he sticks to the subject. A master being relieved
visibly drops quite a burden from his shoulders and is inclined to be talkative - especially to another master. He will talk
about everything under the sun if you let him and it will often be difficult to keep him to the point.
After reading the handover notes your best bet is to read the incoming and outgoing e-mails, telexes and faxes at least for
the current month. It is by far the best way to find out what has been going on and you often come across items not in the
handover notes. Read them while the relieved master is still aboard and ask questions about things you are not sure about.
Make sure you know where everything is and who keeps what. There is nothing more embarrassing than having a
superintendent or repair squad chief asking where such and such a document or plan is and you do not know. The mate and
chief will probably be busy and there is no-one to ask. Most companies will have handover forms, usually requiring you to
sight and sign for these, but not all items are always included. They are normally not important - except on that one vital
occasion.
For instance, if you have to take over on the run, say by helicopter off Dubai a day before you go in to load, make sure you
know where the last port clearance is kept. Failure to find it can land you in trouble with the next port authorities.
Port authorities, in some parts of the world, can be very unpleasant for the master. I don't mean surveyors, port state
inspectors and such like - they usually do a reasonable job. It is the Customs, Immigration, Port Health and some Harbour
Authorities who can cause problems. They often seem to have a power far out of proportion to their responsibilities or their
capabilities. Sometimes even the Agent, usually the master's best friend, can be on their side in some ports. Generally you just
have to grit your teeth and bear it.
Before arriving in port, read all the pertinent books carefully. Do not do what I did on my first trip in command. Before
arrival at Rotterdam I had heard that it was a free port. "Oh, good" I said to myself, "no port papers to do". So I didn't do any,
despite the doubts of the Chief Steward, who also happened to be new at the job. We sailed blithely in with absolutely nothing
done. A good job we had an excellent agent there. We spent the next few hectic hours running round, getting the officers and
crew to sign manifests, countiilg the cigarettes and bonded stores, typing crew lists - the lot. The port authorities were very
good to me that time. In fact, they laughed their heads off!
Try to get on with the chief engineer, so there is no 'divide and conquer' syndrome on board. If you find yourself with a
bad cook, get rid of him as soon as you can. If you have a good one, then spoil him. He'll help to make a happy, contented
ship. We British tend to treat the catering staff with contempt. Try not to and you will have a happier ship.
You will have to look after some thousands of dollars and other currencies. Make certain you keep a note of every penny
going in or out of the safe. I usually keep an 'In and Out' account on the computer and back it up with a ledger type book. If
you don't do this or let it slide you can have problems at the end of the month or upon being relieved yourself. Also, do not
let the outgoing captain short change you when he hands over the cash to you. Every last cent must be accounted for - or you
could find yourself out of pocket. I have seen some relieved masters miss their flights home due to money they cannot trace.
Pilots can be a pain in the neck at times. There is usually no problem with them when entering port or manoeuvring. It's
the tyingup when the problems usually start. They think you have a large crew and you can see your three men on the foc's'le
head, desperately trying to put out springs and headlines and let go the tug at the same time. If you get a pilot who gives loads
of unnecessary orders when tying up, then I found it best to relay them all over the walkie-talkie - but omit sometimes to
press the 'send' button. As you know, I was an offshore pilot myself at one stage of my career. Due to this I don't agree at all
that pilots should interfere with the ropes and wires. I seldom did.
Finally, when you leave your first port as master, remember you have no 'L' plates on display. None of the other ships
around you know it is your debut. Always ask the pilot to point out the next buoys or marks before leaving. Things are easier
now, when you can mark them on your radar displays.
Anyway, Bill, all the \.cry best of luck and love to Jenny and the girls.

Chapter 1
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE ON COMMAND

A Council report prepared by The Nautical Institute Command Working Group
Nature of command Management decisions relating to the best use of

C OMMAND IS EXERCISED through the organisation on resources require a different supporting structure
board a ship, which has been developed over a long which must enable those concerned to acquire all
time to minimise the risk of danger to the ship when relevant information and provide the opportunity for
at sea. everybody involved with the use of' resources to
The characteristic of a command structure is that understand their role in optimising results or
it is quick to respond; so enabling decisions to be taken minimising costs. Similarly, when running a meeting
to avoid accidents. where conflicting demands on down time or
resources are involved between departments, the
The master or commanding officer is ultimately captain is best placed to adopt the role of chairman
responsible for ensuring that the command to weigh up the arguments and assign priorities.
organisation is effective. He has to satisfy himself that
the vessel can be run safely by day and night in all The level of involvement of the shipmaster in the
prevailing weather conditions and port situations. He management of the ship depends upon company
delegates authority to his subordinates to operate the policy. Where all decisions are devolved to the ship,
ship under his command. with management in support, the master becomes
accountable for vessel performance, retaining
A ship is also a commercial or fighting unit and maximum revenue, keeping stores, maintenance and
has to be managed accordingly. This involves labour costs within budget, and minimising losses.
communications between departments on board and
with the supporting organisation ashore. In addition Alternatively, some companies maintain a
to his other duties, the captain therefore has an centralised control system so that the master is
important coordinating role. As titular head of the ship primarily concerned with navigational safety, ship
the captain must be a leader and a counsellor. handling and crew welfare.
By law the shipmaster has to have a certificate of In between there are a variety of different
competency and has the authority to take decisions approaches which depend upon the type of ship
in the best interests of the ship, her cargo and all being operated and the management style of the
who sail in her. Where the safety of the ship is company. Whichever system is used it is the captain
concerned he has the duty not to take his ship to sea who must retain the coordinating role.
if, in his opinion, the vessel is unseaworthy. Where the Navy is concerned, the manning levels
are such and the tactical demands so immediate that
Advantages and limitations of the there is an established role for the commanding officer
command structure who is backed up by a specially trained ship's
The supporting organisation on board, of which company. The complexity of modern warfare also
the captain is the head, derives its structure from the dictates that a very responsive and dynamic approach
need for routines and a system of communication is adopted towards the interpretation and use of tactical
which feeds information to him quickly and data and weapon systems. The concept of appointing
accurately. It follows that the captain, with his a principal warfare officer to a ship relates more to
experience and overall appreciation, is the best the principles of management than to a traditional
person to assess a situation and take the appropriate system of passing orders down the line.
decisions, especially in an emergency.
Command decisions need systematic
Delegation evaluation
Delegation is necessary to maintain continuous W h e n considering the basis u p o n which
operation of the ship. It is not an exact process and command decisions are made, the, Council of The
depends upon the relationship between people and Nautical Institute recommend that a careful analysis
the tasks to be undertaken. Successful delegation is undertaken of all those factors which can influence
requires that a ship be operated on consistent policy the way decisions are taken on board.
lines so that particular phases of operation may be
delegated without having to pass more instructions This is necessary whenever an incident is being
than the junior can assimilate at the time. investigated and a proper system of enquiry must be
COMMAND 11
introduced. To this end The Nautical Institute has
produced a check list which should be used by all Members of The Nautical Institute
parties involved as a way of establishing the underlying Command Working Group
causes of the accident and the remedies to b e
Captain T.J. Bailey FNI, HSS master.
implemented. The checklist is included at the end of Captain P. Boyle FNI, various/bulkers, Vice-President.
this chapter. Captain K. Appleby FNI, various/offshore supply and
anchor-handling tugs.
Promotion from chief officer to captain is
Captain G.P. Blyth MNI, worldwide tramping.
significant. Clearly, the human qualities (professional Commodore C.A.F. Buchanan MNI RN, submarine
competence, ability to plan and carry through a and surface ships.
programme of work, flexibility, stamina, integrity, the Captain R. Cahill FNI, various/containers.
ability to make decisions, leadership and that sixth Captain W. Crosbie ExC MNI, various/tankers.
sense or shipboard awareness), which make for a Captain G.A. Eades MNI RN, various surface
good captain, cannot be tested by examination alone warships.
and the process of selection is crucial. Captain W.H. Eggert MNI, various/spent nuclear fuel
carriers.
Notwithstanding, there are fewer traditional Captain C.P. Margeson FNI, varioudreefers and
companies with a full programme of career container ro-ro.
development from cadet to master and, increasingly, Captain J.M. Murray FNI, various/gas carriers/
bulkships.
the modern officer is having to go out and sell his
Captain P. Nind MNI, various/bulkers.
services in a variety of companies overseas. It is Captain F.W. Quick FNI, hovercraft/hydrofoils ferries.
unlikely that such an officer will have received any Captain R.M. Thorn FNI, various Royal Fleet
formal training after completing studies for his Auxiliaries.
master's certificate of competency. Mr D. Williams FNI, formerly shiphusband and owner.
Mr C.J. Parker FNI, Secretary.
The Council of The Nautical Institute therefore
believe it is desirable to have a voluntary scheme for
be delegated; equally important then is the industrial
those who want to follow a programme of study to
or military context in which the ship is operated.
prepare themselves for command.
In one sense the commanding officer is the head
The Nautical Institute therefore believe it is
of a command tree, in another sense he is part of it.
desirable to have a voluntary scheme for those who
Certain decisions he can make concerning the use
want to follow a programme of study to prepare
of people and resources; but he seldom decides which
themselves for command. To this end the Institute has
cargo will be carried, which weapon systems fitted,
prepared this self-development programme leading
who will be appointed, promoted or trained. In this
to a Command Diploma. Further details appear in
sense the organisation has to assuine some
chapter 58.
responsibility for command, yet this may not be fully
Need for properly defined terms recognised in law.
The concept of command is given two principal Problems arise therefore when the same words are
meanings in general English usage. In one sense it given different meanings in the varied contexts in
implies the subject or area under command: in an which they are used. If steps are to be taken to improve
active way it means to order or demand with authority. the effectiveness of command then it is essential that
Command is expressed at three levels: in terms of definitions are provided which differentiate between
society as a whole; in the context of an organisation the different aspects of command and the way it is
and specifically on board. exercised.
Authority is a more ambiguous word since at one Definitions

Accountability: The process by which control is: exercised
level it implies a legal power or right, but on the other
over decisions a n d actions which is
hand it has an equally positive meaning as the
implicit in the concept of responsibility.
influence exercised by virtue of character, office,
mental or moral qualities. Authority: T h e power and the right to require
obedience to instructions.
A commanding officer is given one kind of
authority by status but because he works within an Authority, The authority given to an individual by
organisation he needs a management authority to legal: society to fulfil specific obligations within
control resources to achieve objectives and personal the law.
qualities of competence and ability to obtain support. Authority, The authority given to an individual by
organisational: military or commercial organisations to
Delegation is entrusting authority to a deputy, but discharge the function of command in
the problem with this general idea is that there are pursuit of military o r c o m m e r c i a l
certain obligations implicit in coillmand which cannot objectives.

Authority, The authority exercised by virtue of Liability. The civil liability attaching to an employer
personal: character, experience and officer-like vicarious: for the negligence of his employees.
qualities.
Management: The process of involving people and
Authority, The authority given to an individual utilising other resources to achieve a
shipboard: derived from legal and organisational given objective.
authority to meet the obligations of the
commission or voyage. Responsibility: The duty to meet obligations.
Chain of The means by which orders are passed Responsibility, The duty placed upon those concerned
command: down devolving authority. legal: with the control of seagoing craft to
ensure that the ship is operated within
Charge of the Authority delegated to an officer for the the law.
ship: safe conduct of a vessel in accordance
with standing orders and captain's Responsibility, The obligation placed upon those in
instructions. organisational: organisations owning the ship to ensure
that it is provided with competent
Command, naval: The authority vested in an individual to personnel, material and is in a fit state to
direct, coordinate and control naval fulfil the requirements of the commission
forces. or voyage.
Command, ship: The authority to direct and control a ship. Responsibility, The moral/ethical and professional way
personal: through which command is exercised.
Commanding Captain of a naval ship commissioned
officer: by the appropriate national defence Responsibility, The responsibility which attaches to the
authority who has ultimate responsibility ultimate: captain of a ship for its overall safety and
for the safe conduct and fighting efficiency.
efficiency of the ship and the wellbeing
of the ship's company. In the event of Ship manager: An individual or company contracted by
death or incapacity command normally the ship owner to carry out the
descends to the Executive Officer and operational management of the ship. Full
then by seniority through those entitled management will comprise crewing,
to exercise ship command. technical management, insurance, freight
management, accounting, chartering,
Delegation: Entrusting authority to a competent provisions, bunkering and operations. A
person and holding that person ship management contract may include
accountable to the level set. all or some of the above provisions and
is usually negotiated in relation to a 12
Designated A suitably qualified and experienced shore monthly budget. Sometimes additional
person: based employee required under the ISM payment may be requested for training
Code for monitoring the safety and
purposes.
pollution prevention aspects of the
operation of each ship with the Ship master: The captain of a merchant ship qualified
responsibility to ensure that adequate b y the appropriate certificate of
resources and shore-based support are competency who is appointed by the ship
applied when needed. The designated owner. H e has the responsibility to
person should have both independence efficiently prosecute the voyage and an
and authority to report deficiencies to the overriding responsibility to ensure the
highest level of management and is safety of his passengers, crew, ship and
responsible for ensuring that non-
cargo with the duty generally to save and
conformities derived as a result of the
preserve life at sea. In the event of his
safety management system are rectified. death or incapacity command descends
Discipline: The requirement for personnel to conlply to the second in command who is the
with regulations and respond to authority. senior deck officer and then through the
other deck officers in order of rank.
Liability, The obligations to pay compensation for
civil: damage caused through negligence. Ship owner: The person or persons whose names
appear in the ship's register. They may
Liability, The liability to suffer a fine or penalty for be the managing owner, ship's husband
criminal: breach of a Regulation. or other person entrusted with
management. The owner seeks to use his
Liability, The criminal liability arising when spec- ship(s)for profitable enterprise but in so
strict: ified regulations are unwittingly doing has to comply with national and
breached. It is often called 'absolute international legislation. The shipowner
liability' though the regulation imposing has to ensure that the ship's safety
it usually provides defences which can certificates are in order, that the ship is
b e pleaded on proof of certain seaworthy, properly manned and in a fit
circumstances. condition to meet the requirements of the
intended voyage.
COMMAND 13
I --
- 7 : . IXI0 -Assembly invites 3. Organisational responsibility ashore
2 i ~ - ~ n m e nror stake necessary steps to (a) Was the captain adequately prepared by training and
..
-.--...&,.r& z,.: a-eguard the international shipmaster experience to meet the contingency?
:&-5#:~~-~xon-1443 in the proper discharge of his (b) Did the captain have all the relevant information
_XI International responsibilities in regard to maritime and equipment on board and know how to use it?
*Maritime safety and the protection of the marine ( c ) Was the ship adequately provided with trained
Organisation environment by ensuring that: personnel to carry out efficiently and safely the
15 Nov 1979 (a) The shipmaster is not constrained routine duties?
by the shipo~vner.charterer or an!- (d) Was the ship adequately provided with trained
other person from taking in this personnel and material to meet the contingency?
respect an\- decision x h c h . in the ( e )What action was taken to support the captain at
professional ludgement of the the scene of the accident?
shipmasrer. is necessary; ( f ) What systems of accountability were in operation
b The shipmaster is protected by for the safe operation of the ship, her commercial
appropriate provisions, including performance and crew incentives?
the right of appeal, contained in,
inter alia, national legislation, 4. Personal responsibility
collective agreements or contracts ( a ) Who was in charge at the time of the incident?
of employment, from unjustifiable (b) What steps were taken to avoid the incident?
dismissal or other unjustifiable (c) Were the actions taken consistent with company
action by the shipowner, charterer instructions and the operating philosophy on board?
or any other person as a (d) Were the actions taken consistent with good seaman-
consequence of the proper exercise like practice?
of his professiorlal judgement. General
What corrective measures werr taken?
Note: These facts may also be used to determine legal
The Council of The Nautical Institute concludes
liabilities but must first be subjected to legal tests of
that the principles and practice of exercising effective reasonableness and remoteness.
command at sea is an essential part of the expertise of
the nautical profession.
IN THE EVENT OF AN INCIDENT

Annex - In the event of an incident
Any person investigating a marine incident should
establish the basis upon which command decisions
were taken.
1. The incident
(a) Record what happened and all relevant times with
supporting documentation.
(b) Record all relevant communications.
(c) Establish what steps were taken after the event to
minimise the risk of danger to those on board the
ship, the cargo, life, property and the marine
environment.
2. Ultimate responsibility on board
(a) What was the organisational structure on board and
what nornlal or special operating precautions were
established to minimise the risk of the incident
occurring?
(b) Had authority been delegated properly?
(c) Did subordinates fully understand their obligations
and duties?
(d) Were there available enough competent personnel
to carry out routine duties?
(e) Were there available enough competent personnel
to meet the contingency?
Figure I. I In the event of an incident
(f) If not, what compensating measures were adopted?

Chapter 2
WHAT A SHIP OWNER REQUIRES FROM A MASTER

by Captain P. Chawla FNI MICS
General Manager, Quality Assurance and Training, Anglo Eastern Ship Management Limited
Captain Chawla started his seagoing career in 7974 and was appointed master in 7986. In 7992 he was brought ashore to set up the
quality management systenz throughout the Anglo Eastern Group. Captain Chawla has represented the Hong Kong Ship Owners
1 Association and The International Shil, Managers Association at the IMO.
Introduction a port state control inspector, the terminal

THESTRUCTURE OF SHIP O ~ ~ N I Ncompanies
G has been representative, a charterer's representative and the
changmg continuously over the last couple of decades. company's en?neering superintendent.
A 'ship owner' today might be a large corporation, a The voyage orders have been changed and you
company owned doctors Or l a v e r s , a trading house are to go to an additional port. The bills of
or a bank, etc. The traditional ship owning office has lading a r e n o t available, and the charterer,s
therefore given lo a number of different of representative would like you to accept a letter of
management of ships. The expectations from a ship's indemnity and discharge the cargo.
master may therefore be quite different in different
companies. What actions do you have to take?
In order to put forward to you a wide range of You sort out the situation with the charterers,
views of what ship owners expect from their ship vetting inspectors, port state inspector and the
masters, a survey was carried out amongst senior superintendent and are about to get some rest when
executives of various ship owners and ship managers. the second officer comes up to you. He has just spoken
The views of a few serving ship masters were also to his family and has been informed that his home
was damaged by a typhoon. He would like to be
taken, to see whether there was any difference in the
relieved immediately, as he is extremely worried about
perceptions of the ship owners and presently serving
senior ship masters. I am pleased to say that the good the welfare of his family.
qualities listed by the shipowners as well as the serving Handling all these situations require different types
ship masters were very simi1a.r. of skills and qualities. Handling emergencies,
This chapter is essentially a collection of the understanding the commercial business of the ship and
common requirements which were put forward by motivating the ship crew are just a few of the abilities
various people, mingled with my personal views. I expected from a ship master.
take this opportunity to thank all those who were kind Since the time man learnt the art of building a ship,
enough to assist in the writing of this chapter and hope the person in charge - the master - has been fully
that the students of the Nautical Institute Command responsible for the safety of people, ship and cargo
course and newly promoted masters find it useful in on board his ship and will continue to be so as long as
their daily lives on board. people are required to operate ships. Hence some of
Let us consider a few situations you may find the qualities expected by a ship owner from a master
yourself in as a ship's master. You are sailing on a fully have not changed over the centuries. What is written
loaded VLCC, in the North Sea, through terrible in this paper will therefore, in some part, be a repetition
weather. It is 0400 hours, and you are called up to the of traditional advice available in many books.
bridge by the chief officer. You rush to the wheelhouse At the same time, seafaring has changed
and are told "the second engineer just called saying significantly in the last couple of decades. Crew sizes
they have a problem with the fuel oil system and it have reduced from 30 to 40, to the present day norm
may take some time to repair". You quickly look at of 12 to 22 people on most ships.
the chart and realize you have just 2 hours before the
ship drifts into shallow waters! Global Positioning Systenls (GPS), GMDSS,
electronic navigation charts combined with the
What will be your actions? International Safety Management (ISM) Code and
You are lucky. The engineers are able to run the STCW 95 require learning of new skills and new ways
engnes and you arrive in port safely, after being awake of management on board.
on the bridge for twenty hours.
The shipping industry is presently going through
The immigration, customs, port health, agent and a phase of serious introspection and change. The ISM
ship chandler are followed by two vetting inspectors, Code, STCW 95, Port State Control, Fbsk Assessment,
COMMAND 15
. .
;C-:.:-.
.LL7.;--:--..; ;- I?(:)
:I -. L ~ L L~ 1 adnimber ot' an>-bod>-,in the proper discharge of his responsibilities
.- - . - -.
- ..
. -- - - - - - -;
. .
-
. ... . . :. . - .-.:-.-. _ r e ;nal:cn.i?ng traditional in regard to maritime safety and the protection of the
.". ---
n
- - -. . .
- - ..i - lL-L management of ships. These
-.. -
. -... -. .. marine environment.
- - .- - .-.--;*.:I I E-.-~ C C cl-e? crew member on board, but
.- - -. - - .
- -
- . -- - - - 2. Thorough knowledge
--- -.IcLcr 1-ou will be affected the most.
If the company has decided to give you command,
Change is always difficult in any industry. As a you have obviously been considered competent! The
master in today's world, you need to manage this reason for making this point is that a master's
change. Traditional values, which have served us well responsibility includes certain new areas, for which
over the centuries, will need to be retained. New ideas nobody else on board may have adequate knowledge,
will have to be tried out with an open mind and for example, seaworthiness (legal and commercial
nurtured with care so that the next generation of implications). A good knowledge in such subjects is
seafarers is trained to cope with the new demands of therefore essential. Maintaining a good reference
the industry. library on board is helpful to refresh your knowledge.
Managng this change is a responsible task and will In this changing world of new regulations, it is also
require your devoted attention as a ship's master. The important that you stay abreast of the changes in
list of desirable qualities and advice collected together regulations. The ISM Code also implies that the
here will, we hope, assist you to appreciate the industry codes and guidelines must be adhered to as
traditional values and at the same time manage this applicable. A modern day master thus needs to read
change . We hope they help you meet the various a lot and it is essential that the process of continuous
demands made on you while in command as a ship's learning is maintained even after attaining command
master. of the vessel. Try to read as much as you can, about
the developments in the industry. The Nautical
No individual is likely to possess all these qualities Institute magazine SEAWAYS is a good one to start
in a perfect balance, and different circumstances will with! As a master, you need to know your ship
require the use of different methods, so do not dissect thoroughly. You are expected to know the full details
your personality to shreds over it! Knowing your of whatever is happening on board your vessel. A first
personal strengths and weaknesses is the first step in hand knowledge is especially important when you are
good management. reporting a problem of any kind to the ship owner or
Before I list the qualities desired by shipowners, it manager.
is probably worth mentioning something that no 3. Personnel management skills /
master must ever forget. Ship owning is a commercial communication skills / leadership
venture with the aim of earning profits for the ship The efficient running of a ship, similar to an office
owner or the shareholders of the ship. As a master or any business unit, is dependent on the contribution
you are the owner's representative and therefore every of each individual on board. A master is the leader of
decision that you take must be in the interest of the this team. He is expected to be capable of motivating
owners. At the same time, you are also the crew's his team.
representative with the owners. This leads us to the
first and the most important responsibility and desired What do 'leadership' and 'motivation' mean? Every
quality of a master. seafarer knows that the work people do, is sometimes
done superbly and at other times it is done atrociously.
1. Safety of people, ship, cargo and environment The main reason for that difference is motivation or
Under all legal systems, for centuries past, the the lack of it. It is the difference between doing as
master is fully responsible for the safety of the people little as one can get away with and doing everything
on board, the ship, the cargo and the environment. one possibly can. Motivation is the art of helping
By gving you command the ship owner entrusts you people to focus their minds and energies on doing
with his multi million-dollar asset - his ship. The cargo their work as effectively as possible. It is the art of
owners entrust you with their cargo, which may be creating conditions that allow everyone to give out
worth millions of dollars, and above all the crew their best.
entrusts you with their lives. Society expects you to
take care of the environment. The ship owner and Innumerable books and theories have been written
others expect you to carry out your duties with the on motivation. In the 'real world', even if you were to
highest sense of responsibility at all times. read all the theories, the facts do not always allow the
direct application of the theories. There is no
Recognizing the importance of your motivational technique which works with everyone.
responsibilities the law gives you complete and In fact it is unlikely that the same technique will work
'overriding authority' in all matters of safety of the with the same individual all the time.
crew, ship, cargo and environment. In resolution
A.433(Xl), IMO urged governments to take steps to So what does work? How does a master motivate
safeguard the ship master from being pressurised by his crew? Wow does a master lead his team? I mention

below some of the beliefs that have served me well in 4 Commercial skills
my experience of sailing with seafarers of eighteen Different trades and different owners have very
different nationalities in a variety of companies. different expectations from masters in terms of their
commercial duties. O n a container liner service public
All human beings, irrespective of colour, religon, relations with agents and appreciation of keeping to
nationality or cultural diversity like to be treated with schedules may be the most important commercial
respect, compassion and impartiality. Irrespective of expectation. On a bulk carrier, loading the last possible
any cultural differences, if you treat people as you tonne of cargo, or understanding the importance of
would like to be treated, you will not go wrong. You hold cleanliness surveys may be more important than
should be able to understand the other persons arriving at the pilot station on schedule.
viewpoint. You must treat others with respect, even if
you disagree with their views. People like to be An owner expects the master to make decisions
recognized for their efforts in public, but prefer to be keeping in mind the effect of the decision on the profits
reprimanded only in private. People like to participate and reputation of the shipowner. A master must
in decisions affecting them and appreciate their views therefore try to learn the requirements of the trade
being listened to attentively. People like to be gven and the owner's special requirements in detail. A
responsibility and left alone to carry out the task in master is expected to have a thorough knowledge of
their own way. commercial matters. T h e syllabus covered for
certificate of competency examinations is typically of
Most people try to do a good job. If they are not an academic nature only. You need to supplement it
performing to your satisfaction, other factors like their by extensive reading in order to gain sufficient
training level, working environment and relationships practical knowledge.
with their immediate supervisor may need to be
investigated. To get the best out of people, you need The legal interpretations of seaworthiness, safe
to convince them why the job needs to be done well. port, arrived ship, deviation, delivery, notice of
readiness, speed and consumption clauses in charter
Motivating people requires strong conlmunication parties, are some of the topics on which you may need
skills. To be able to comnlunicate well with people to supplement your knowledge. Legal responsibilities
you need to relate well with people. Without going assumed by the master's signature must be clearly
into any theories on interpersonal relationships, it is understood. Never sign a paper without reading it
sufficient to remember that an important part of carefully and understanding the liabilities that you or
communicating is LISTENING. If you are having the owner may be subjected to, by signing it.
problems in motivating people, talk to them and you
will find that by solving their problems, your problem The master must take a keen interest in reading
of motivating them gets solved by itself. You should the governing charter-parties, understanding the
be easily approachable at all times. possible problems with bills of lading, a n d
understanding the master's legal obligations under
In today's work environment, the traditional tasks voyage and time charters. A good knowledge of P&I
of navigation and cargo work have been made easier Club rules and marine insurance clauses, are some of
by technology. Keeping a lookout with the help of a the things that would help in becoming a commercially
radar is far easier than sitting in a crow's nest, in astute master.
freezing weather. Loading a tanker from a remote
control room is certainly easier than opening valves There are a number of good books available on
with a long spanner. But the task of motivating the commercial knowledge for ship masters, including
staff on board has not changed. some published by The Nautical Institute. The Institute
can help in directing you to the right ones.
The autocratic ways of the past are no longer
acceptable in shipping, or in society. Hence as a 5. Handling of emergencies
master, it will be necessary that you learn as much as Every ship owner expects a master to be able to
you can o n how modern day participative handle all shipboard emergencies with a good
management can be carried out on board. Having said presence of mind and with rational, logcal thinking.
that, there should be no hesitation on the part of a The ability of the master to handle emergencies
master in being assertive and taking full control and effectively is one of the most important qualities
responsibility, whenever required, especially during required and perhaps the most difficult to predict.
emergencies.
How does one learn to handle this responsibility?
Safety meetings, quality circles, senior officers The traditional advice is training, training and more
meeting, etc. whether done formally or infornlally over training. In the past, one obtained the necessary skills
coffee time, are all designed to encourage participative by observation of seniors and through personal
management in day to day operation of the ship. experience. Traditional ship owning companies were
Remember, you are only as good as your team. Lead able to retain the same seafarers for many years.
by setting a good example in all the qualities that you Promotions to senior ranks were slow and training was
want your team to have. given a high priority.
COMMAND 17
Every senior master will agree that there is no 8. Honesty
substitute for hands-on, on the job training. A chief A ship owner entrusts the master with his multi
officer doing ship handling, or learning to direct an million-dollar asset. It is therefore a position of great
emergency drill under the watchful eye of a master is responsibility. Even the slightest suspicion or doubt
perhaps the best way to train for 'Command'. But about the honesty or integrity of the master is likely
today, with fast turnaround in ports and reduced to result in adverse consequences!
manning levels, senior officers seem unable to devote
adequate time for training their juniors. The traditional 9. Public relations
methods of training therefore need to be supplemented A ship owner expects the master to present a good
with modern aids like simulators. image of his company to all the people with whom he
deals e.g. port state inspectors, charterers, shippers,
Simulators provide the opportunity of practising surveyors, port authorities, etc. Tact, diplomacy and a
response to all kinds of emergencies, which cannot be pleasant manner go a long way in presenting a good
replicated in on-the-job training. Courses like bridge image of the vessel and its owner.
resource management, bridge team management, etc.,
may not get the adrenaline flowing fully, but they do In some ports, the number of visitors may well be
help an aspiring master to gain some skills, which can overwhelming and consequently trying on the master's
patience. Yet it is in the master's own interest that all
prove useful in emergencies.
shore authorities are treated with courtesy and respect.
An important aspect of handling emergencies Mistreated shore personnel can create problems, when
expected by shipowners from their masters is good least expected! At the same time, there may be
ship-shore communications. A master must ensure that situations that require a master to be assertive, in order
in any emergency the ship owner/managers are to protect the owner's interests. For example, getting
continuously updated on the evolving situation. In any stevedores to sign damage reports, or firmly telling
emergency a number of stakeholders e.g., owners, the pilot that you do not consider it prudent to proceed
charterers, shippers, consignees, underwriters, P &I at "full sea speed" in two mile visibility in heavy traffic!
Club, etc., need such information as fast as possible.
A master is expected to be appropriately dressed
While the first priority must always be to handle and presentable at all times. This may require
the emergency situation itself, the master must try to alternating between full uniform to attend to the
send in reports on the progress of handling the owner's customers and dirty overalls to accompany
emergency in the best way he can. the surveyor!
6 Analytical thinking 10. Administrative skills/reports writing

Today, thanks to satellite communications a master Managing a ship is like operating a small village.
can contact the office at any time. The shipowner's The large number of tasks, with a limited number of
office may be able to g v e decisions in an emergency, people, requires a lot of administrative skills. A
and may even like to do so, but it must be understood methodical approach is essential. Not many seafarers
that their decisions are based on the information given like doing mundane jobs, such as filing and record
by the master. The shipowner therefore relies heavily keeping. For centuries seafarers have been proud of
on the master for a correct analysis of the situation on their hands-on approach to problems and have
board. A good analytical mind is essential. A master considered 'paperwork' to be a job beneath the level
must investigate the situation carefully, objectively, of 'practical people'. Unfortunately, over the years the
and in depth, in order to provide the office with the laws in every country have increasingly relied on
best possible information. 'paper' evidence. Courts and lawyers cannot do
without it.
You must therefore, try to develop the ability to
stand back, and review a situation and consider the Efficient record keeping is therefore an essential
pros and cons of every action and its short term as part of a master's responsibilities and must be carried
well as long term effects. out. The importance of keeping factual and precise
logs must be fully understood. The ISM Code, in fact,
7. Self-motivation has made the task of proper record keeping of all
The ISM Code recognizes that a safety management aspects of shipboard operations a regulatory
system can only succeed with 'commitment from the obligation.
top'. This includes the shore management as well, but in
case of a ship, in most situations, it is the commitment of It is expected that a master can write reports in
the master, which determines the success of the safety a clear, factual and concise manner. Writing accurate
management system on board. reports is especially important in case of emergencies/
accidents which may lead to claims or legal cases. A
It is expected by the ship owner that the master poorly written 'statement of facts' may cost your
does not need to be reminded to carry out his duties. owners millions of dollars! The Nautical Institute book
It is expected that the master will be self-motivated, Tlie Mariners Role in Collecting Euidence is an excellent
enthusiastic and committed about his job. guide to assist you.
1 8 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

11. Information technology In practical terms, when delegating, you need to
2000 is the decade of information technology (IT). explain:
Personal computers, e-mail, digtal cameras, etc. are
changing working practices in every office in the WHY - Why the job needs to be done?
world. It is affecting work practices on board the ships WHAT - What needs to be done?
too. It is very likely that within the next three to five WHO - Who must do the job?
years a number of work practices will change WHEN - When does the job have to be done?
significantly due to rapidly declining ship-shore HOW - How should the job be done?
communication costs. It is quite possible that in case 13. Maintenance
of a breakdown, you may be seeking advice of a shore Most companies expect extensive maintenance
based specialist by showing him the broken equipment work to be carried out by the ship's crew because of
via video-conferencing over satellite! the increasing pressure on repair costs.
A modern day master is therefore expected to A master is expected to be able to organise, plan
possess or acquire some computer skills to be able to and monitor such maintenance jobs. This may often
handle the increasing expectations of shore personnel involve organising a large number of "riding crew".
to exchange / receive information. Manning levels are Equipment and material required for the repairs or
unlikely to increase and paperwork is unlikely to maintenance will need to be planned carefully.
reduce. Computers can help in a small way to manage
documentation better. You are also expected to be familiar with the
various technical guidelines issued by classification
12. Delegation societies and other bodies on methods of repair and
A master is expected to be in control of all that is maintenance.
happening on hidher ship. It is not humanly possible
for the master to do everything by himself. Learning Conclusion
to delegate may be difficult in the first few daydmonths The qualities desired by a ship owner can be
of getting command, but it is essential that a master remembered very easily. The word 'ship master'
learns to delegate. In the beginning when you try to covers them all!
delegate work, some of these thoughts may cross your
S - Safety of crew, ship and cargo
mind:
I f y o u want a job done properly, do it yourse6 H - Honestlhard-working
I - Ingenious and adequate knowledge of IT
True - but if you try to do every job yourself, you P - Personnel management
will not have the time to do your own job. What if he M - Money/commercial and maintenance skills
makes a mistake? But don't we all make mistakes A - Analytical thinker
sometimes. Mistakes can be corrected. But 1'11 lose S - Self motivated
control. You will actually increase your control.Junior T - Thorough knowledge/training
officers will be more motivated on being given the E - Emergency handling skills
responsibility, and you will have more time to get other R - Relations with shore personnel
jobs done. The important point to remember when
delegating is that the person to whom the job is being Getting your first command is a great occasion.
given must understand it clearly and must be capable Prepare yourself well for it with the 'Command
of doing it. The keywords to remember when Scheme' and then take up the job with confidence and
delegating are well expressed in these verses of maturity. Keep your common sense sharp at all times
and you will make a success of it.
Rudyard Kipling:
Getting 'command' is the first step. Building up a
"I kept six honest serving men.
reputation 'as a good master' with the ship owner and
They taught me all I knew.
Their names were What and When and Where, gaining the respect of your crew are the goals that
Why and How and Who." you must aim for. The job of a ship master may have
its drawbacks, but it is still one of the finest jobs in the
world!
COMMAND 19
Charterer -
ore speed, more c
o room -
Chief Engineer -
allast water contamination
Eigurc 2.1 All irr u duyd wwk!

Chapter 3
TRAINING FOR COMMAND

by Captain P. Roberts BSc FNI
Captain Roberts served his apprenticesh$ with Elder Dempster Lines, remaining at sea with the Ocean Group for the next twenty-five
years until they withdrew from sh$ owning. He commanded Panamax Bulk Carriers with he International United Shi;bpir~gAgency
ofHong Kong, and was appointed Marine Superintendent of Cathcart Sh$ping Ltd. in London. He now works as a consultant with
London and Offshore Consultants Ltd.
He is the author of The Nautical Institute publication "Watchkeeping Safety and Cargo Management in Port': is a founder
Member and Fellow of The Nautical Institute and presently serves on its Council, Education and Eaining Committee and the Bulk
Working Group.
All views expressed in this chapter are entirely personal and do not reflect those of his present or previous employers.
Introduction
DOES A M ASTER M ARINER ' S C ERTIFICATE of
first casualties was the training budget. This has
Competency qualify its holder to command a ship?
resulted in a manpower shortage both in terms of
To the examining authority, the answer appears to be
quantity and quality. Although there is still a reluctance
yes. To most informed observers in the marine
on the part of many ship operators to invest in training,
industry, the answer must be no, or at best partially.
there are signs that resources are once again being
The statutory certificate, or licence, made available. Without investment in all stages of
demonstrates that the holder has a proven level of training, covering initial (pre-sea), intermediate (pre-
knowledge of the theory of the operation of a ship, certification) and ongoing (updating), there will
mainly from a safety and legal point of view. Important continue to be insufficient properly qualified personnel
though these aspects may be, in order to effectively available to efficiently operate the world fleet.
and efficiently command a ship a lot more skills are
In the past, those aspiring to command acquired
required.
the necessary skills from the traditional training
Prominent amongst the skills which are usually schemes of established ship owners. Whilst the fine
omitted from most courses for statutory certificates details of such systems changed over the years, the
are: end product was of a uniformly accepted standard.
Commercial awareness. As one rose through the ranks, often slowly, there was
General management abilities. time for everyone to be exposed to a wide variety of
Personnel management and interpersonal skills. events, and undertake a vast range of activities, which
Practical ship handling. provided the experience necessary to make reasoned,
informed decisions. Many of the newly emerging
So just how does the aspiring master acquire the nations followed a system adopted by one of the
training necessary for successful command. Some of traditional maritime powers.
the required knowledge can be obtained by reading
and studying the published works of experienced Today there is a whole range of different training
practitioners. Other skills can best be acquired by schemes in place, with widely varying standards. With
attending training courses, particularly those involving increased mobility of labour, and the internationalising
simulators. However, there will always remain those of shipboard staff, it is difficult to know what skills are
most desirable attributes which can only be assimilated possessed by today's seafarers. Despite the recent
by that great teaching method known as experience. I changes to the STCW convention, it will be a long
believe this covers both job experience and experience time before the candidate for command can rely on
of life. Command is still one of the few remaining true an industry system to provide him with the education
crafts, in the traditional sense. No amount of formal and training necessary for him to acquire all of the
qualifications can replace the breadth of knowledge requisite skills.
that comes from doing the job for an extended period,
So, except for the few lucky seafarers employed
preferably under the guidance of a variety of different
by first class operators, most have to rely on their own
experienced and professional teachers - the true
resources for their maritime training and education.
oripnal craft master and his apprentice.
In many ways command is an occupation which relies
Background on personal initiative, the captain is frequently on his
The industry has endured an extended period of low own in a hostile environment - be that physical or
returns on capital employed. When economies were commercial. Hence perhaps it is a fitting introduction
sought in order to improve profitability, one of the to this career that he has to organise his own training.
COMMAND 21
One must not think that the master's job is so moving ahead or astern, and the effects of draft
different than many other occupations in other and trim.
industries. Essentially, the master is the general Anchor in an open roadstead.
manager of that small commercial unit of operation Anchor in a specific location in a confined
known as a ship. His only difference from others anchorage.
holding that title is that he is often acting completely Manoeuvres in confined waters, sea lanes, narrow
alone, as he is usually physically separated from all channels, etc.
other management assistance and backup. The use of engines, thrusters, and tugs.
Manoeuvre to pick up a pilot in open waters.
The formal training for command as provided by Manoeuvre to pick up a pilot in confined waters,
the STCW certificate structure is well documented channels, rivers, etc.
elsewhere, and the reader aspiring to command can Unberthing and proceeding to sea; plan passage
readily obtain this information from statutory with a pilot.
regulations and a whole range of other commercial Plan the approach to a berth.
publications. I limit the scope of this short chapter to Manoeuvring in heavy weather. Heaving to.
those aspects of command for which I believe no Manoeuvring alongside another vessel.
formal training- exists, and whilst I do not have the
answer as to how the aspiring commander can acquire Sometimes it is useful for the officer to present the
these skills, I hope I can provide some pointers, and a master with a formal plan designed to assist with his
few points on which to ponder. ongoing training. The Command Diploma Scheme
run by the Nautical Institute is very useful in this
Shiphandling respect. It includes a log book, with a section on ship-
There are a few books describing the principles of handling. The presentation of such a log book may
ship handling, and providing hints from experienced encourage an otherwise reluctant master to permit his
practitioners. The candidate for command should junior the opportunities to practice and acquire ship
study these carefully, but there can be no substitute handling skills.
for learning by doing it yourself. One should not loose
any opportunity to watch masters and pilots in action, One often hears the term ship handling being
try to relate their actions to principles discussed in the referred to as seamanship. But I prefer a much wider
textbooks. It is especially useful to anticipate their definition of that term. Seamanship is the application
actions, try to imagine what you would do in the of common sense and experience to the marine
circumstances, before action is taken. environment.
As you gain more experience on the bridge, you Personnel management

should actively enquire from masters and pilots the I have always believed that a major part of the master's
reasons for their actions. Many of these professionals job is personnel management. For this he receives no
will be only too willing to teach a junior officer who formal training. Indeed, a lot of personnel skills are a
shows an active interest, though usually few will offer reflection on his character. That is not to say that these
advice if this is not requested. skills cannot be improved by training and, of course,
they certainly change with experience.
Experience can best be gained by practice in non-
critical situations. After demonstrating his interest, the Many books are written o n personnel
officer should request that the master allow him to management, although very few apply directly to the
undertake some of the normal manoeuvres which are marine industry. Those aspiring to command would
required during his watch. As he builds up confidence do well to study a selection of textbooks dealing with
and experience, more complicated situations can be the various aspects of personnel management. Some
tackled, always under the supervision and guidance training courses are also available, and the lessons
of the master. learned from role-playing are especially useful. It is
possible to organise role-playing situations onboard
A suggested work experience list (in progressive ship, so that the junior officers may learn valuable
order): lessons on how to deal with others.
1. Manoeuvres in open waters: simple alter courses. A good master is one who can inspire others, a
2. Anti-collision manoeuvres deep sea. leader who can bring out the best in his subordinates
3. Recovery of a dummy man overboard. by encouraging their strengths and retraining their
4. Obtain original data for turning circles (and crash weaknesses.
stops).
5. Manoeuvres in sheltered waters: maintaining the A well run ship is achieved by the master taking a
desired track after an alter course, taking into personal interest in his crew. It is by encouragmg others
account wind, tide, etc. to give of their best that the ship's crew perform in the
6. Anti-collision manoeuvres in areas of busy traffic. best possible manner. Taking the time to talk to all the
7. Knowledge of variations in pivot points when crew can pay huge dividends. Take an interest in their

day-to-day jobs, encourage good performance and do itself simply as a lack of cooperation, but in extreme
not limit contact to reprimands. Present a human face, cases can result in open hostility. There can be similar
encourage frequent dialogue with all onboard, hold problems even between personnel from one country,
regular informal meetings, preferably in their own where regonal, tribal, political or religious differences
environment. The use of the crew bar with a can of can be a source of controversy.
beer can break the ice and much more will be revealed.
Listen to their problems, both job related and personal. There can be an unwillingness to become involved
Ensure mail is regular and take an interest in their in the whole ship concept. We have all come across
welfare and their families. the 'not my job' syndrome. Some people are much
more flexible than others, but it is the master's role to
With multinational crews, there is sometimes a knit these various personalities into one viable
tendency for some people to misunderstand other shipboard working team. Another personnel problem
cultures. This can lead to problems with work, and is the inability to give or take orders.
even to a breakdown of relationships, which ultimately
results in a very inefficient and unproductive crew. Another trait to overcome is the preconception that
One important part of experience is the ability to deal certain tasks are beneath one's dignity. We have all
with the various nationalities found onboard most come across the officer in a pristine sparkling white
ships. As we have to deal with an increasingly wide boiler suit and gloves who regards himself as a
and varied spectrum of cultural backgrounds onboard, supervisor and that only the ratings actually do manual
so we must all learn to cope with their individual work. It is sometimes difficult to persuade such juniors
idiosyncrasies. There are vast differences in the best that they are part of a working team.
ways of dealing with various ethnic groups. If some I am not really too sure how any education or
people onboard have no experience of dealing, training can assist with problems of personalities, other
working, and living with some of the other ethnic than the overall education of character development
groups onboard, then the master must be prepared to that comes with exposure to having to deal with such
give them guidance with their approach. problems. Perhaps recognising that they exist is the
first lesson. In general, the master's ability to deal with
One must be careful not to tar all members of one these problems will depend upon his own strength of
nationality or ethnic group with the same brush and character, and personal characteristics. I believe that
to avoid the thoughts that all --- act like that. That is life is a great teacher in this respect, and that the
not to say that one should not be alive to national or experience that the passing years brings is invaluable
ethnic characteristics. in personnel work. Hence my strong belief that there
The potential master must never allow himself to is a definite minimum age before which no candidate
acquire prejudices, be these colour, race, religion, should be considered for promotion to master.
regional, educational, political, and so on. He must Some people onboard may b e unable to
strongly discourage such prejudices in others onboard. comprehend onboard training and guidance due to
Too often one sees an unproductive crew, whose poor language difficulties, or due to a lack of basic
work is really a result of the uncompromising attitudes education. There is only the reward of personal
of their senior officers. satisfaction for the master who is both willing and able
to teach basic educational and personal skills to the
A problem with some groups is the attitude to those
underprivileged shipmate. Time should be taken to
more junior. Many nations have a strict social structure
teach people about unfamiliar tasks and it is
in which the elite members have a rather low regard
advantageous to have a briefing session before
for the lower classes. This can become an extremely
undertaking any non-routine job. The right person in
thorny point when transcribed into onboard the right place at the right time makes operations go
relationships in a multi-cultural crew. Clicking of the
much smoother.
fingers to summon assistance may seem disgusting
behaviour to the westerner in these days of equality. Another aspect of the master's personnel work is
Indeed it is often viewed a such by some of the assessment. The master must keep himself well
recipients. But the perpetrators of such actions may informed on the abilities, attitudes, and character of
have been brought up in an envii-onment where such everyone onboard. These must be monitored regularly
behaviour is perfectly acceptable, and they need to spot early signs of problems before they get out of
careful nurturing out of what others see as denigrating hand. He should be able to present unbiased reports
habits. on each member of the crew to the owner at regular
intervals, so that suitable candidates can be offered
Similarly there is a problem of seemingly natural re-employment or promotion. Further, the master
antagonism. Certain people just don't seem to be able must be able to detect those who may have false
to get along with certain others, and there are often qualifications.
problems when they sail together. This may sound
like a sweeping generalisation, especially when applied The ship has a social infrastructure, and the master
to nationalities, but I found it to be true. It can manifest must be able to spot social problems before they effect
the ship's operation. This includes alcohol or other involved. The extra effort will be more than rewarded
drug problems, sexual problems, excessive gambling, in the future when he becomes responsible for the
and character defects which result in bullying, vessel's accounts.
violence, thieving, bribery and extortion, etc. Although
everyone onboard has their own characteristics, Today's master must also be computer literate. This
strongly antisocial behaviour of any form must be does not mean he needs to be an expert programmer
strongly discouraged. The saying that a happy crew is but he should have a working knowledge of the
an efficient crew is still valid. operation of a personal computer (PC), and be able
to use a basic word processor and spreadsheet. The
Above all, the master must exercise effective master needs to be a good organiser, and there are
leadership. The master who fails to maintain standards, various standard management tools which can assist
both professional and personal, cannot expect others him with such tasks. Apart from reading through
to maintain them. standard textbooks on management skills, a good
appreciation of the systems involved can be obtained
It has been suggested that all masters should
by enrolling on the Nautical Institute's management
undertake a course in psychology and psychiatry to self-development programme. This covers setting
enable them to deal with the numerous personnel
objectives and planning, control, solving problems and
problems which arise sometime on most voyages. making decisions, leadership and motivation,
Unfortunately, that is not a practical possibility for delegation, time management, running meetings, and
most, so that all the master has to draw upon is his training.
own strength of character, his experience of life, and
good old fashioned common sense. A knowledge of logistics and stock control will assist
the master to control the stores in an economical
Perhaps this is a good point at which to consider manner and maintain a realistic level of stocks. This
what characteristics make a good shipmaster. There means there will be sufficient spares available for use
will always be as many styles of command as there on the current voyage, without too many items being
are styles of character. Some personal characteristics
held in the stores, which means tying up capital - an
are genetic or acquired during early life. Those unnecessary financial burden on the ship owner.
desirable in a master include loyalty, honesty, integrity,
humaneness, a sense of fair play and the ability to Commercial awareness
command respect. Commercial awareness really means being alive
Other characteristics can be altered by education, to the financial consequences of one's actions and
and experience. In this group I would include decisions.
leadership, perception, judgment, flexibility, Whilst the legislative and contractual obligations
con~munication,interpersonal skills, commercial associated with the carriage of goods by sea is well
awareness and the ability to assume responsibility. covered by the syllabus for the master's licence, such
The master needs to be a forward thinker and teaching concentrates on knowledge of facts. Little is
someone who can plan ahead and anticipate problems. done to train the master for the commercial decisions
An intelligent assessment of what might happen has he will have to make in running the ship, especially
avoided many a potential tragedy. He should be judgment skills.
authoritative (not authoritarian), enthusiastic, positive The general lack of commercial awareness amongst
in his approach to the inevitable problenls which occur mariners has been addressed recently by the P&Iclubs,
almost daily and not to be depressed by setbacks. He who ultimately pick up the bill for the mariner's errors.
must be able to cope with stress, and have the physical They all issue newsletters, and have various other
and mental stamina necessary to withstand the programmes available to try to improve the mariners
pressures of a concentrated and/or extended knowledge of the commercial implications of their
workload.
actions, judgments and decisions.
General management skills The UK Club went further than most in sponsoring
As the general manager of the ship, the master will the Nautical Institute in the publication of two practical
have to compile the vessel's accounts. The degree of guides aimed at raising the level of commercial
his involvement will vary with the practice of the expertise amongst junior officers and ship masters.
owner, but increasingly, more financial accountability These textbooks can be wholeheartedly recommended
is being place upon the ship, and hence the master. to all seafarers, particularly those aspiring to command.
Apart from improving his numeracy skills, the aspiring
master is well advised to undertake some self education The subjects covered by Commercial Management
in general accountancy. This can be achieved by for Shipmasters and Watchkeeping Safety and Cargo
studying elementary textbooks, but it is preferable if Management in Port for junior officers enable the
he enrolled on a basic introductory distance learning mariner to make decisions and take actions onboard
course, to provide an understanding of the principles ship which will have a beneficial effect on the

profitability of the voyage, and thus of the company The shipowner's view
employing him. Space does not permit here to go into What does the ship owner require from his master?
much detail, but they give the reader a good 1. First and foremost, someone who will look after
background to the law and practice of contracts use the owner's interests above all else. A person who
in the maritime industry. is dedicated to the success of the business.
The master needs a good working knowledge of 2. A person who is commercially aware:
- Someone who has a full working knowledge
the documents used for the carriage of goods by sea.
He will need to study the clauses of standards voyage of contracts of carriage, and their numerous
and time charter parties, and bills of lading, and be implications.
- Serve the charterer according to the contract
aware of the responsibilities implied in each clause.
He must know the exact division of responsibility and cooperate with their operations, but
between the ship owner and charterer, and fully always remembering who pays his salary.
understand such standard clauses as the Interclub - Minimise expenditure, control budgets,
agreement. He must appreciate what is involved in reduce delays.
establishing cargo quantity and condition, and the use - Maximise income.
of a notice of readiness, statement of facts, letter of - Keep tight control on information regarding
protest and letter of indemnity. He should understand the operation of the vessel. Do not reveal facts
delivery, lay time and weather working days. He must to others which may embarrass the owners
have a full working knowledge of the various surveys financially, legally or morally.
which are regularly undertaken onboard his ship - 3. A skilled negotiator. Someone who can deal with
hold condition, on/off-hire, draft, cargo condition, flag surveyors, inspectors, officials, and the crew, and
and port state control, P&I condition, class and the problems these create. The ability to deal with
statutory surveys. corruption in a sensible manner.
4. A decision maker. Someone who can weigh up
The master must ensure that full records are the pros and cons of a situation, make a reasoned
maintained onboard, and he should be aware of the decision, and act upon it.
documents required both for routine operations and 5. A good personnel manager. Maintain a happy,
following a n incident. T h e Nautical Institute healthy, disciplined and efficient crew, who give
publication 7'1z.e Marit/cr's ).ole in Collecting Evidence is a fair days work to the best of their ability. Deal
highly recommended. with all shipboard problems without involving the
Also under this heading, the master must make office.
himself aware of all local regulations whenever he 6. A good communicator. Know just how much to
enters a new port. Apart from not wanting to break say, to whom, and when. Know what not to say
local statutes, he must be alive to the implication of and when! Understand all the implications of that
local labour rules, so that he does not inadvertently famous expression "economical with the truth".
land the owner with a huge bill for infringing union 7. A good accountant. Maintain the vessel's accounts
agreements. for wages, victualling, bond, cash, stores and
general expenditures. Stock control. Do not order
How does the potential master acquire commercial large quantities of items which will remain unused
awareness? Partly by continually observing all that is for some time, so that large quantities of capital
happening around the ship and its operations, and are tied up in idle resources.
thinking about the costs involved in each activity. No- 8. A good operations manager Someone who can
one must forget that we are engaged in a competitive exercise the correct balance between what should
business, and for a commercial enterprise to succeed be done, what could be done, and what needs to
income must exceed expenditure to realise a profit. be done.
Despite all the efforts that can be put into running a 9. A professional master mariner. A qualified and
good ship, these will be fruitless if the ship does not experienced seafarer who will conduct the voyage
earn a profit for the owners, as ultimately it will be with due regard to the safety of the ship, her cargo
sold, and all the efforts will have been in vain. and her crew and all relevant international
regulations.
The Marine Society's education officer can assist
in identifying other courses which, although primarily Conclusions
designed for other industries, may be suitable for the How does one train for command?
mariner. This organisation also provides the 1. Undertake the N.I. command scheme.
encouragement which many mariners need to 2. Expand your knowledge by studying practical
complete these schemes. The education provided by books written by other professionals who have
the Institute of Chartered Shipbrokers as part of their different experience from you. The Nautical
membership entrance examination system is highly Institute has a range of valuable guides which are
recommended to potential masters. all up to date and highly relevant.
COMMAND 25
3. Watch the methods of all masters under whom 8. Read the instruction manuals of all new equipment
you serve. Try to emulate those characteristics fitted to your ship and ask the manufacturer for
which you consider to be their strengths, and learn background literature.
from their weaknesses. Would you act in the same 9. Attend as many updating courses as possible.
way, or make the same decisions? What would 10. Attend all seminal-s and industrial exhibitions you
be the implications? are able.
4. Read, read, read: 'M' notices, IMO publications 11. Try to gain as much practical experience as
(new international regulations), Lloyds list, possible. Never miss an opportunity to participate
SFAWAYS, any other nautical magazines which in an unfamiliar activity.
come to hand and as many commercial and 12. Personnel skills are learned from your very first
management textbooks as possible. Keep up to voyage. Getting on well with people means that
date. you will be able to get the best out of people, which
5. Continually watch what is happening both also helps you to do well. Treat others just as you
onboard your own ship, onboard others you come would like to be treated yourself.
across, and around all the ports you visit. Be aware 13. Try to appreciate the benefits of tact and
of developments by personal observation. diplomacy. Learn to engage brain before engaging
6. Enrol on self-tuition courses. Interactive schemes mouth.
using onboard PCs are especially useful. References
7. , Discuss experiences with contemporaries. Tallack, R.L., Commercial Management for
Everyone has something to learn from other Shzjbmasters, The Nautical Institute, 1998
people's experiences and it is always best if Roberts, P., Watchkeeping Safety and Cargo
someone else makes the error. Institute events are Management in Port, The Nautical Institute, 1997
useful meeting points. The Mariner's Role in Collecting Evidence, The
Nautical Institute, 1998

Chapter 4
THE MASTER'S RESPONSIBILITIES IN LAW

by Captain M.S. Maclachlan MICS FNI
Malcolm Maclacfzla~ztrained on HMS Worcester in the early 1960s and serued a deck apprenticesh$ with Alfied Holt CYComnpatzy.He
commanded seven Bell Lines'short-sea containersh$s in the 7980s and has taught Business and Law at Glasgow College ofNautical
Studies since 1989. He is the author of The Sh$master k Business Companion, published by The Nautical Institute, and The Business
and Law Self-Examiner for Deck Oficers, published by North Sea Books.
Introduction
IT I S DIFFICULT TO THINK OF .4NY WORKER, in any for the most part by judges in English civil courts, your
industry, with so many legal responsibilities as a ship chief responsibilities as master can be summarised as
master, or with a liability to heavier criminal penalties follows:
than those of a ship master. Long books could be To preserve the safety of the crew, passengers, ship
written on the master's legal responsibilities, but this and cargo (acting as if ship and cargo were your
volume allows one short chapter. Saying so much in own uninsured property).
so few words - for an international readership subject To safeguard the marine environment.
to the regulations of over 150 flag states (in addition To prosecute the voyage with the minimum of
to laws of port and coastal states) - calls for a good delay and expense.
deal of licence and brevity; the following notes are To act always in the best interests of the owners;
therefore condensed mostly from 7he Shi$ma.~ter's To carry out all that is usual and necessary for the
Businpss Companion, which attempts to explain only employment of the vessel.
United Kngdom law. Happily, many other maritime To obey the owner's lawful instructions (but
states have adopted the same international without any requirement to obey unlawful
conventions as the UK and to q v e them legal effect instructions, e.g. where a breach of a statutory
have enacted broadly similar statutory regulations as requirement or prohibition would result).
the UK's, while in many countries the civil law To exercise care of the goods entrusted to you as
applicable to ship masters is similar to English civil bailee and to see that everything necessary is done
law. to preserve them in good order and condition
during the voyage.
Whose law?
The law governing any shipboard matter will Statutory duties
depend chiefly on ( I ) whether any international Acts and statutory instruments
convention deals with the matter, (2) whether the Most of your detailed duties as master are defined
convention has any legal effect in the flag state, (3) by government and given Parliament's approval in
where the flag state is not a party to the convention, acts and statutory instruments (SIs). Although these
any other law in the flag state and (4) the law of the documents are not legally required to be carried on
coastal state or port state in which the vessel is. Not all board, ignorance of their requirements through your
maritime states have adopted the major maritime company's failure to supply them will be no defence
conventions, and it is unsafe to assume that the law when charged with a breach. How, then, can you stay
applicable to your ship is the same as the law informed of the law? Merchant Shipping Notices
applicable to another. (MSN), which must be carried, do not describe all
statutory requirements. No current MSN, for example,
In overseas ports it is essential, if you are to avoid informs you of the two '2.50,000 offences', or the
fines and detention of your ship, to be aware of any nine '50,000 offences' which you might commit. You
quirks of local law. Your best sources of advice - apart could request your company to keep you fully briefed
from your owners or charterers or their agents - are, on legal requirements, but unless they have a legal
for customs, pilotage, health clearance and department it is doubtful whether they could. If they
immigration requirements, corrected Sailing do place shipping legislation on board, it should be
Directions and Lists of Radio Signals and for cargo, corrected up to date like a chart folio, which is no
pollution and other matters involving liability to a third easy task. Not surprisingly, many masters sail in
party, your P&I club's local correspondent. The consul ignorance of some of their legal obligations.
for the flag state may be able to advise on local
commercial law. The Merchant Shipping Act 1995 (MSA 1995)
consolidated the shipping law of the previous 101 years
Common law responsibilities and is now the 'principal act' that spawns most new
In English common law, i.e. the law as interpreted UK merchant shipping regulations. Amendments to
MSA 1995 appear in newer acts, such as the Merchant take over all documents relating to the ship and her
Shipping and Maritime Security Act 1997 and in time crew which, under MSA 1995, must be delivered by
much confusing cross-referencing will become the off-going master when he ceases to be master. He
necessary. having made an entry (jointly signed by both of you)
in the narrative section of the Official Log Book
Several less prominent acts, such as the Carriage confirming delivery of the items, you legally assume
of Goods by Sea Act 1971 and the Marine Insurance command and total responsibility - even for the
Act 1906 also have a bearing on your legal duties, appalling state of affairs he might leave behind!
while roughly 200 SIs contain dozens of detailed
obligations of masters. A list of your statutory duties Log books and records
in relation to lifting plant alone would run to half a You must keep an Official Log Book (OLB), an
page of this book! The vast majority of relevant SIs Oil Record Book, a Garbage Record Book and a Radio
are listed in a useful Marine Information Note (MIN) Log Book and make entries in accordance with
published annually by the Maritime and Coastguard relevant SIs. However, unless you have a copy of the
Agency, but the MIN does not include regulations Schedule to the Official Log Books Regulations you
concerning public health, customs or immigration may be at a loss to remember the nineteen entries
matters, which also impose duties on masters of ships required in the blank 'narrative' pages of the OLB,
arriving at UK ports. since no instructions about them are given in the book!
As far as the civil (i.e. non-criminal) law is concerned,
Penalties
judges and arbitrators prefer contemporaneous
For a breach of most statutory duties contained in
evidence recorded at or just after the event, not at a
acts and SIs there are two types of penalty. Most minor
more convenient later time and you have a duty to
offences - but also some quite serious ones - are
keep even scribbled notes of cargo temperatures,
generally dealt with by UK criminal courts under
damage, etc. on dirty scraps of paper. (See The
'summary procedure', which may result in 'summary
conviction'. For numerous offences a magistrate or Mariner's Role in Collecting Evidenc~for more on this
sheriff may fine you, like any ordinary citizen, up to topic.) Compliance with the ISM Code Regulations
5,000 on summary conviction, but for two oil entails keeping a multitude of records confirming that
pollution offences they could fine you up to 250,000. you have adhered to your ship's Safety Management
Nine offences attract fines of up to 50,000, while System and the recording of all non-conformities.
three offences of pollution by garbage and noxious Ship's construction, equipment, certification
liquid substances carry maximum fines of 2,5,000. and publications
Numerous breaches carry summary conviction It is the company's responsibility to have the ship
penalties described as 'a fine of the statutory constructed, equipped and surveyed under the Cargo
maximum' (which currently means 25,000), or a fine Ship or Passenger Ship Construction Regulations, and
of a certain 'level' between 1 and 5 on the 'standard the Fire Protection and Life-saving Appliances
scale'. (Currently Level 1 equates to 200, Level 2 to Regulations. However, these SIs also impose several
500, Level 3 to &1,000, Level 4 to 2,500 and Level personal duties on the master, such as that in the
,5 to 5,000, but these sums will eventually be raised Passenger Ship Construction Regulations to ascertain
by Parliament to reflect increased wealth.) 'Conviction and record draughts, trim and freeboard and to
on indictment' may follow ajury trial in a higher court calculate stability before departure. Many such duties
and result in a penalty (at the judge's discretion) of an may be delegated to another officer, but if he fails to
unlimited fine, a jail sentence of up to two years, or carry out the duty, you have breached the law. If in
both! doubt as to who bears responsibility, check the
Many merchant shipping offences are crimes of regulation in the relevant SI headed 'Penalties' and
strict liability, meaning that, in order to secure a look for wording such as '.....shall be an offence on
conviction, the prosecution will not have to prove that the part of the owner or master' or 'the owner and
you had mens rea (literally, 'guilty mind'). Under the master of the ship shall each be guilty of an offence
MSA 1995 there is strict liability to con~ply,for punishable on summary conviction......'.
example, with a 'Section 137 direction' given by the
Proceeding, or attempting to proceed, to sea
MCA following a pollution incident. That the offence
without SOLAS and Loadline Convention certificates
was committed will be enough, whether or not there
renders you liable to prosecution. You must produce
was any intent or fault on your part. Set against this
intimidating background, some - but by no means all the certificates on demand to authorised officials and
- of your statutory responsibilities are outlined below
post up copies. To maintain validity of any SOLAS
in relation to the ship, the crew, the ship's employment, certificate, you (and the owner) must ensure, under
operations at sea, and operations in port. the Survey and Certification Regulations, that:
The ship and equipment are properly maintained
The ship in accordance with the applicable regulations.
Handing over No material change is made to the ship after survey
Your first statutory duty on joining as master is to without approval of the certifying authority.
28 THE IVAUTICAL INSTITUTE

* Any accident or defect affecting safety or the document the master's responsibility with regard to:
efficiency or completeness of the ship is reported
as soon as possible to the certifying authority, a Implementing the safety and environmental-
proper officer and the appropriate authorities of protection policy of the Company;
the port state. Motivating the crew in the observation of that
policy;
MSA 1995 requires you to keep the Certificate of Issuing appropriate orders and instructions in a
Registry in your custody and produce it on every clear and simple manner;
occasion when clearing outwards from a UK port. Verifying that specified requirements are
Other countries' laws may require you to produce it observed; and
before clearing their ports. Reviewing the Safety Management System and
reporting its deficiencies to the shore-based
Classification is not a statutory requirement and management.
there are no criminal penalties for breaching cIass
rules. If your ship falls out of class, however, the owners The Company (paragraph 5 continues) should
may lose their hull and machinery insurance and P&I ensure that the SMS operating on board the ship
cover, which could put them in breach of ISM Code contains a clear statement emphasising the master's
requirements, with detention in port a likely authority. Furthermore, the Company should establish
consequence. Where a foreign ship is found deficient in the SMS that the master has the overriding authority
in condition or equipment, the Port State Control and the responsibility to make decisions with respect
regimes will usually ensure that it is the owner who is to safety and pollution and to request the Company's
penalised (by the ship's detention), but in some assistance as may be necessary. Annex 2 provides an
countries you will be made the scapegoat and fined. appropriate statement of the master's authority, and
Regulations require you to carry the necessary reminds you that you have full operational
charts and publications for the intended voyage; lack responsibility on board, while the Company has
of them will amount to unseaworthiness in carriage of overall responsibility for the safe operation of the ship.
goods and insurance law. You must also carry A scan through the remainder of Annex 2 reveals the
navigational equipment complying with regulations. vast number of obligations under the SMS and the
Proceeding or attempting to proceed to sea without mountain of checklists and other paperwork required
carrying some required installation, or if an installation as evidence of conformity with practices that - for
fails to comply with regulations, makes you many masters - have long been the rule, simply as
automatically guilty of an offence, i.e. strictly liable. matters of good seamanship and command practice.
Ship operation and safety management Insurance

For ship operators, the International Safety Until an international convention is adopted
Management (ISM) Code has spawned the most requiring all ships to be insured, statutory regulations
onerous and fai--reachingregulations of the last decade, demand only that cover is held in respect of oil
yet they impose only one brief and apparently pollution by ships carrying more than 2,000 tons of
innocuous obligation on the master. Regulation 7 cargo oil. Entering or leaving any port on such a ship
provides: 'The master of every ship shall operate his without an Oil Pollution Insurance Certificate (OPIC)
ship in accordance with the safety management system makes you liable in a UK court to a maximum fine of
on the basis of which the Safety Management .250,000 on summary conviction.
Certificate was issued'. When one considers all that is
involved in 'operating in accordance with the SMS' The crew
(a subject dealt with in depth in another chapter of Safe manning, hours of work and watchkeeping
this book) it is hard to think of a sentence more heavily A 1997 SI gves effect in respect of these matters
loaded with obligations. Breach of Regulation 7 carries to STCW 95 and requires that you ensure that your
a fine on summary conviction of the statutory ship does not proceed to sea unless there is on board
maxinlunl, or o n conviction o n indictment a valid safe manning document and that the manning
imprisonment for up to two years, or an unlimited of the ship complies with that document. In other
fine, or both, indicating its importance. The operation words, you are no longer allowed to sail short-handed.
of some high-risk ship types, such as gas carriers, ro- MSN1682(M) explains that 'the responsibility to
ro ferries and high speed craft, is meanwhile subject ensure that ships are safely, sufficiently and efficiently
to additional regulations, all of which impose further manned rests with owners and managng operators',
duties on the master. which appears to absolve you as master from
responsibility. However, the SI provides that the
Whether you need to be told your duties or not,
master must ensure that the watchkeeping
'the Company' must now tell you. Marine Guidance
arrangements for the ship are at all times adequate for
Note M G N 4 0 reproduces the Annex to I M O
maintaining safe navigational and engineering
Resolution A.741(18)containing the ISM Code, which
watches, having regard to Chapter VIII of Section A
states in paragraph 5 (Master's Responsibility and
of the STCW Code. You must also give directions to
Authority) that the Company should clearly define and
COMMAND 29
the deck watchkeeping officers responsible for Musters and drills
navigating the ship safely during their periods of duty, You are personally responsible for compiling the
in accordance with Part 3-1 of Section A VIII/2 of muster list, keeping it up to date and ensuring that
the STCW Code and any requirements specified by copies are displayed conspicuously throughout your
the Secretary of State (which in practice means the ship. You must ensure that every crew member
Maritime and Coastguard Agency). It may be a relief participates in at least one boat drill and one fire drill
to know that responsibility for giving directions for each month, and in a passenger ship must hold drills
engineering watchkeeping arrangements is the chief each week. Your duties are well-detailed in MGN17;
engineer's, and that he can be fined up to f5,000 for if every SI was so comprehensively explained, the
breach of that duty. master's legal duties would be much easier to define,
if no less difficult to carry out!
The Safe Manning Regulations further require you
to ensure that all seamen who are newly employed in Health and safety law
your ship are given a reasonable opportunity to The Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1997
become familiar with the ship's equipment, operating consolidate the old SORADO Regulations and Health
procedures and other arrangements needed for the and Safety: General Duties Regulations and provide
proper performance of their duties, before being that the master must, with the Company and employer,
assigned to those duties. Hopefully you will have provide the necessary facilities to enable the
enough time in port! 'competent person', safety officer and safety
representatives to carry out their statutory duties under
It is the ship operator's duty to ensure that a the regulations. The general duty of ensuring the health
schedule of duties is produced setting out hours of work and safety of workers and other persons on board is
and rest periods, but before this is done you must seek that of the employer, but you, as the employer's
the views of your officers and of the ship's safety representative on board, are normally expected to
committee or the seamen or their representatives or a carry the heavy practical burden.
trade union, as appropriate. The final decision on the
schedule rests with the operator, who has the Ancillary health and safety regulations cover
responsibility to ensure that it is safe for the ship and protective clothing and equipment, means of access,
the performance of duties, but you are required to entry into dangerous spaces, safe movement on board
ensure, as far as reasonably practicable, that the ship, guarding of machinery and safety of electrical
schedule is adhered to. equipment, and hatches and lifting plant; compliance
with corresponding chapters of the Code of Safe
Documents Working Practices for Merchant Seamen will ensure
The Safe Manning Regulations also require you to that obligations under these SIs are met. The 1998
ensure that there are on board at all times all orignal edition of the Code (which must be carried), also
certificates and other documents issued pursuant to contains detailed advice o n how to make risk
the STCW Convention (including the 1978 version) assessments and carry out health surveillance; these
indicating the qualifications of any member of the crew onerous and time-consuming duties are imposed by
to perform his or her professional functions. the HSW Regulations on the employer, but their
Engagement and discharge implementation on board will probably be devolved
Regulations require you to maintain two Lists of to you.
Crew - one of seamen who are engaged on a crew Accidents
agreement and one of those who are not, e.g. riding You must make reports to the MAIB of specified
crew, supernumeraries and ship staff contracted to accidents and dangerous occurrences, while other
another employer. You usually have a duty to act as 'hazardous incidents' such as 'near misses' may be
the employer's representative in signing the proper reported either to the MAIB or to The Nautical
crew's agreement, but since you are not employed on Institute's MARS scheme. Should any person die on
the same terms, you are not required to 'sign on7with board, or if a crew member dies ashore, you must
them and should instead put your details on the make a Return of Death to the Registrar of Shipping
ALCl(b). (Your own contract may be contained in and Seamen in Cardiff, inform the next-of-kin within
written or oral instructions from directors, three days, and make entries in the OLB, including a
superintendents or the superseded master, and in the list of the deceased's property.
custom and traditional practice of masters.)
Discipline
Inspections If the UK's Merchant Navy Code of Conduct is
You must make weekly inspections of provisions, written into the crew agreement (which will be the
water and the crew accommodation and record the
case where your crew is on a 'BSF' agreement), you
results in the Official Log Book. These, like inspections
must deal with breaches of discipline in strict
of LSA and fire appliances, may be delegated, but
accordance with the Code. Since the Code only
legally they remain your responsibility.
documents the basic principles of natural justice (as

interpreted in the UK), there is no reason why its to using automatic pilot, sending distress messages,
procedures should not be followed in other cases, complying with Collision Regulations, sending
unless the crew agreement or the flag state's law mandatory ship reports and navigational warnings and
dictates otherwise. Under the Code you act as judge talung mandatory routes. The common law meanwhile
and jury, but must hear evidence from both sides, and requires that your vessel takes the shortest route
record it, and give the accused a copy of relevant log consistent with safety and the law, which is normally
entries. You may no longer impose fines, but can give the customary route for the trade. If she is not insured
oral warnings, written reprimands or - your ultimate for going beyond Institute Warranty Limits, you must
sanction - dismissal. advise the owners when it becomes necessary to do
so. Ordinarily, you are prohibited from taking your
The ship's employment ship into offshore safety zones.
Common law duties
Contractual disputes have yielded judges' Master's discretion
interpretations of the master's responsibilities with A 1997 SI prohibits the owner, charterer or
respect to matters such as deviation, voyage speed, manager, or any other person, from preventing or
tendering of notice of readiness and use of unsafe restricting you from taking or executing any decision
berths. You may not enjoy reading a mass of small which, in your professional judgement, is necessary
print, but charter party and bill of lading clauses are for the safe navigation of your ship - a useful tool
meant to be read and understood by masters as well against those who might seek to undermine your
as lawyers! supreme authority on board.
Bills of lading Pollution prevention

Even where you do not personally sign Bills of In U K law you currently have duties under SIs
Lading (B/Ls), you must, as the carrier's servant and dealing with prevention of pollutioil by oil, noxious
agent, take proper care of the merchant's goods. liquid substances and garbage. Within a few years, SIs
Whenever a B/L or sea waybill has been issued, either covering air pollution and sewage will also be in force.
the Hague Rules or Hague-Visby Rules will almost Discharging oil or a mixture containing oil into UK
always be part of the contract (see the Clause national waters, or breaching MARPOL's discharge
Paramount) and will impose a duty to 'properly and criteria anywhere beyond them, will render you liable
carefully load, handle, stow, carry, keep, care for and for a fine of up to 6250,000, while pollution by other
discharge any goods carried'. If the shipper demands, substances carries a maximum fine of 2,5,000. You
either the carrier, or the master, or the carrier's agent have a duty to report any 'serious harm to the
must issue a B/L to him, but you need not insert any environment' to the MAIB and any oil or NLS
inaccurate statements or give any details which you pollution to the nearest coastal state in accordance with
cannot reasonably check, such as weights. M 1614. Growing concern for the marine environment
has in recent years added 'custodian and protector' to
On time charter your various roles.
You should pay special attention to the text in a
Distress, rescue and salvage incidents
time charter party, including all those confusing
Under the Distress Messages Regulations you have
deletions, insertions, side clauses and rider clauses.
a duty render assistance (if you can do so without
You are obliged to carry out the charterer's orders as
serious danger to your vessel and the persons thereon)
far as employment of the vessel is concerned and must
to any person in danger of being lost at sea - but not
ilormally give him 'customary and reasonable to maritiime property, salvage being a commercial
assistance'. Remember, however, the Master's venture. If you go in for it, Article 8 of the Salvage
Discretion Regulations which prohibit any interference Convention - as enshrined in the MSA 1995 - will
with your decisions concerning safe navigation. impose several duties on you, whether you are salvor
Cargo-related SIs or master of the property in danger; in either case
you must exercise due care to prevent or minimise
The Carriage of Cargoes Regulations impose
damage to the environment.
several duties and prohibitions on you with regard to
acceptance, documentation, loading, stowage and In port
securing of cargo, while other SIs define your duties Arrival
regarding the carriage (and disposal) of dangerous The contract in a voyage charter imposes a clear
goods and marine pollutants, the carriage of dangerous duty on you to tender notice of readiness at the earliest
or noxious liquid substances in bulk, and the weighing opportunity on the owner's behalf; the charter party's
of goods vehicles and other cargo. wording should be carefully read, however, for
detailed instructions. In most ports you will have
At sea statutory duties in connection with pilotage and to
General; routeing make declarations to customs, port health and
Statutory regulations create many obligations on immigration officials. T h e r e may b e a local
you as master when at sea, for example with respect requirement for you to note protest, particularly if
landing damaged goods; your P&I club correspondent the seaworthiness of the ship for the voyage at the
can advise on this. time when the voyage commences, and to keep the
ship in a seaworthy condition for the voyage during
Stowaways the voyage. This obligation applies notwithstanding
I M O Resolution A.871 (Guidelines on the
any agreement to the contrary (i.e. it cannot be
Allocation of Responsibilities to seek the Successful
contracted out of).
Resolution of Stowaway Cases) contains suggested
responsibilities of masters in such cases, running to Load line
half a page of MGN70(M).Even so, if you are to avoid You will be guilty of an offence if your ship, not
a fine, bringing stowaways to a foreign port will require being exempted, proceeds or attempts to proceed to
special attention to local law. sea without being surveyed or marked with deck and
load lines, or fails to comply with Conditions of
Watchkeeping in port
Assignment or to carry statutory stability information.
Chapter VIII of the STCW Code provides clear
You commit a further offence if your ship is overloaded
guidelines on responsibilities for safe watchkeeping
in port, and another if you attempt to take her to sea
and pollution prevention in port, including when
overloaded. Serious overloading could render your
carrying hazardous cargo and the Safe Manning
ship 'dangerously unsafe', as could undermanning and
Regulations require you to follow them. Port State
a range of other defects and deficiencies.
Control regines will check your compliance with the
Code. Passengers
SIs dealing with boarding cards, counting and
Seaworthiness recording systems, emergency information and
Section 98 of MSA 1995 provides that if a ship in
musters and drills all impose further legal duties on
a U K port, or a UK ship in any other port is
you in connection with passengers, while carrying
dangerously unsafe, then subject to certain provisos,
more passengers than is allowed by the Passenger
the master and the owner of the ship shall each be Certificate is another f50.000 offence.
guilty of an offence punishable on summary co~lviction
by a fine of up to 50,000 or on conviction on Conclusion
indictment by imprisonment for up to two years, or While a shipmaster's traditional authority has been
an unlimited fine, or both. The penalty is aimed reduced by modern communications, this brief outline
primarily at owners of substandard ships, but if the shows that his legal responsibilities have grown
prosecutor cannot find the owner, the master makes a enormously. Amendments to maritime conventions
convenient alternative target. The common law have brought new and onerous duties, the ISM Code
requires your ship to be seaworthy before departure alone generating what amounts to a wholesale change
for each stage of her voyage in respect of (1)technical in the master's job description. I n EC waters,
matters (e.g. structure and stability), (2) cargo care, meanwhile, a whole new branch of shipping legslation
and (3) 'fittedness for the voyage' (meaning manning, grows with each new Directive, while the mandatory
charts and publications, stores, bunkers, etc.). Where status of new UK Merchant Shipping Notices means
the owner has contracted only to exercise 'due yet more documents to be read and filed away in the
diligence' to ensure that the vessel is seaworthy for master's memory.
the voyage, you have a duty to make (and record)
every reasonably practicable check before departure. The weight of both the legal burden and the extra
Section 42 of MSA 1995 provides that in every paperwork accompanying it has become intolerable
contract of employment between the owner of a UK for masters. Regulators ashore should not be surprised
ship and its master or any seaman employed in it, at the growing shortage of future masters, for what
there is an implied obligation on the owner that the office worker would want to leave his family to become
owner, the master and every agent charged with the legal scapegoat for the shortcomings of a
loading the ship, preparing the ship for sea or sending shipowner, manager, charterer or classification society,
the ship to sea shall use all reasonable means to ensure while accepting the physical risks of seafaring?
References
Maclachlan, M.S., The Shipmaster's Business
Companion, The Nautical Institute, 199%

Chapter 5
THE ISM CODE AND THE MASTER

by Captain I. Mathison FNI
Fleet Safety Manager, Bibby-Harrison Management Services Limited
Captain Mathison started his seagoing career in 1965 with Ellerman and Papayanni Line of Liverpool. On obtaining his first
certzjicate of competency in 1969 he sailed with Palm Line for two voyages - deciding West Afiica wasn't for him bejbre moving to his
present company, Thos. &]as. Harrison Ltd., ofliverpool, in 7970. During his nearly 3 0 years of service with this traditional sh$
owner he has sailed in every rank, third mate to master and was seconded as Operations Manager ashore in Houston and London in the
period he was classed as sea staff He was appointed Chief mar in^ Superintendent in 7994, a position he retains with the parent
company Charente Steam Shil, to this day. In 7997, when the two oldest shil,ping companies in Liverpool formed a joint venture
company, Bibby-Harrison Management Services Ltd., he was again seconded, this time as Fleet Safety Manager. His safety related
responsibilities now encompass all class of vessels, managed by BHMS, the offshore and accommodation units.
Introduction
T HE INTERN.~TIONAL SAFETY M ANAGEMENT (ISM)Code Before dissecting and, in certain cases, translating
or to give it its full title, the International Management the elements of the Code, it must be said that for
Code for the Safe Operation of Ships and Pollution masters who have served on well run vessels during
Prevention, was adopted by the International Maritime their seagoing careers and who now manage similar
Organization (IMO) by resolution A.741(18) at the vessels there is absolutely nothing new in the Code.
1994 Safety of Life at Sea Convention. It is embodied Because the Code was written by persons who were
with Chapter IX of the SOLAS convention and formerly involved with the quality assurance industry,
required that all passenger ships, oil tankers, chemical key words and phrases have been adopted by the Code
tankers, gas carriers, bulk carriers and high speed craft which have been transposed from that sphere. Once
of 500 gross tonnage and above complied 110 later than these are explained then I am certain the visibility, as
1st July 1998. All other ships and mobile offshore far as the Code is concerned, improves dramatically.
drilling units of again 500 gross tonnage and above
The certificate relating to the Code is a trading
will have to comply by no later than lstJuly 2002.
certificate similar to the Load Line, Safety Equipment,
Certain commentators have stated that the Code Safety Radio etc., etc. and, as the name implies,
is the most radical shipping legslation to come before without them your vessel will cease to trade. We can
the international shipping community for many years. now see how important this legislation is, and how
When the Code is studied in detail, which we will do the master's responsibility is recognised and in fact is
later, it can be seen quite clearly how the I M O has enhanced by implementation of the Code.
tried to address under one chapter of SOLAS all the As I stated previously there is nothing new in the
maritime disasters which have occurred over the last Code, but certain of the phrases have been transposed
thirty-five years. The Torrey Canyon - Clauses 7 from the quality assurance world and to assist you here
"Development of Plans for Shipboard Operations" and is a small glossary which should help you when we
Clause 8 "Emergency Preparedness". The Amoco look at the elements of the Code in detail.
Cadiz - Clause 5 "Master's Responsibility and
Authority", the Herald of Free Enterprise again Clause Brief glossary
7 "Development of Plans for Shipboard Operations" Audit inspection
and Clause 4 "Designated Person(s) Ashore". The Object evidence
Scandinavian Star - Clause 3 "Companies Documented proof i.e., signed and completed
Responsibilities" and the Grace Darling Clause 2 checklists, passage plans, etc.
"Safety and Environmental Protection Policy" and Non-conformance
Clause 10 "Maintenance of the Ship and Equipment". A part of the Safety Management system is not
being complied with.
The maritime industry has, up to this time, always Major non-conformance
been retroactive in its legislation but hopefully with An element of the Safe Management Code is not
the correct use of the Code and remembering the basis present or not being complied with e.g., no
of good seamanship practice, this may be the first internal audit or no emergency preparedness.
opportunity that the shipping industry can prove to Defect
the world at large that we are at last being pro-active Part of the "hardware" is not working e.g., fire
towards legslation. nozzle seized, fire extinguisher empty, etc.
COMMAND 33
Obseruation must produce an organogram for the management
An auditor's opinion as to how the Code should structure ashore and afloat. The Company must also
be interpreted. develop procedures for reporting accidents and non-
Safety management system conformance~(see definitions), to prepare for any
The Company's interpretation of the ISM Code. emergency situations and carry out internal audits and
reviews.
The Code
In formulating the elements of the Code, of which The points highlighted under the first sections are
there are 13, the International Maritime Organization very broad based in their definitions. As we move
has recognised and highlighted in the preamble that through the following sections of the Code it will be
no two ship owners or shipping companies are the seen how they are expanded but not to such an extent
same and the Code has been written in broad terms that it does not allow for a degree of interpretation.
(some would say too broad, which is allowing for
Safety and environmental protection policy
individuals to interpret it incorrectly). To ensure The Company must establish a policy and then
widespread application the foundation to good safety ensure it is implemented throughout the organisation,
management is the absolute conlmitnlent for both ashore and afloat. How the policy is implemented
implementation of the Code from the top. The top in and who implements it are described in other sections
this instance is not only you on board but also the of the Code.
very highest levels of management within companies
and we will see how this commitment can be shown Company responsibilities and authority
graphically when companies' organograms are The Code requires that within this heading the
displayed. Company responsible for the management of the
vessel provides the Administration with its full name
The Code itself is divided into a preamble and 13 and details and it must also define and document the
sections and I will attempt to expand on each section levels of management and how the lines of
as follows: responsibility are interlinked. This will normally take
Preamble the form of an organopam and a typical simplistic
-
Recognises that no two ship owners or managers Company organisation could be as follows:-
are the same and whilst each operate under a wide
range of conditions, the Code is based on general Board of Directors
I
principles and objectives. I I
I
Fleet Manager Safety Manager Accounts Manager
The emphasis is that the foundation of good ship I
management is total commitment from the top in all

matters of safety and pollution prevention is essential. Operations Manager Technical Manager
General
This is divided into four subsections entitled
I
Ship Manager (Ops)
I
Ship ~ a n & e r(Tech)
Definitions, Objectives, Application and Functional
Requirements for a safety-management system.
I
Ship Manager (Ops)
I
Ship ~anAger(Tech)
The Definitions given are for the ISM Code itself,
I
the Company and the Administration.
The Objectives of the Code are simply those which
should try to achieve, namely
a safe working environment is
Figure 5. I qpical simplistic company organisation
provided, standards will be continually improved and
that all mandatory rules, regulations and industry
recoinmendations are followed. The Company must also provide adequate
resources and support to ensure that the designated
The Code is Applicable to all ships (after the year person ashore can fulfil hidher duties. It can be seen
2002). that the intention of this part of the Code is to ensure
that corporate responsibility is totally transparent and
The Functional requirements of the Code stipulate
those that are responsible for all operations are now
that the Company must develop and maintain such
easily identified.
items as a safety and environmental protection policy
and develop instructions and procedures for the safe Designated person(s)ashore (DPA)
operation of ships. (This heading, when the number This is one of the most important sections of the
of operations on board which relate to safety are Code, both for the ship's master and the Company in
considered, is all embracing). The Company must general. Before discussing the implication of section 4
define levels of communication and authority i.e., it it is important that the text is known:

"To ensure the safe operation of each ship and to and bring it to the attention of the Board of Directors.
provide a link between the Company and those on If, in the examples given, additional monies above
board, every Company, as appropriate, should Board approved figures are required, the Board will
designate a person or persons ashore having direct then have to approve or otherwise any additional
access to the highest level of management. The expenditure. If they make the decision to veto the
responsibility and authority of the designated person masters/DPA7srecommendations then, if an incident
or persons should include monitoring the safety and occurs in the future, it can now be proved the
pollution prevention aspects of the operation of each responsibility rested with the highest level of
ship and ensuring that adequate resources and shore- management within the Company.
based support are applied, as required".
The position of the DPA can now be seen to be
The key words in this text are "link", "monitoring" extremely important within any Company, not only
and "adequate resources". The DPA is the link to protect the master's interests but also to ensure that
between the master and the Company's Board. If the Board of Directors is kept fully aware. Make certain
possible, he or she should be removed from the day you know who the DPA is within your Company.
to day line management of the vessels and not have
any budgetary responsibilities for the vessels' running Master's responsibility and authority
costs. Section 5 is divided into two parts. Part 1 requires
the Company to "define and document" the master's
T h e DPA must also monitor the safety and responsibility regarding implementing the policy,
pollution prevention aspects of each ship. In practice motivating the crew to observing their policy, issuing
he/she must be aware of most facets of the ship because orders and instructions, verifying that special
the majority of operations on board vessels today have requirements are observed and reviewing the Safety
a safety or pollution aspect to them. Management System (SMS) and reporting any
deficiencies to the shore based management. Three
The DPA must also ensure adequate resources and
of these five subsections are self-explanatory i.e.,
shore based support are provided to the vessel, this
implementing the policy, issuing orders and verifying
can encompass the supply of equipment and stores to
special requirements. The remaining two sections are
ensuring sufficient shore management time is
worthy of an explanation.
allocated.
Motivating the crew
To illustrate the functions of a DPA the following
How is this done? Remember, in the ISM regime,
organograln is shown: objective evidence is required. Safety and
Directors 4 1 management meetings are held on a regular basis on
well managed vessels. Each of these meetings will
consist of representatives from the junior officers and
the ratings and will be minuted. Members of the
committee should be encouraged to pass on to their
shipmates the dialogue of the meetings. Safety drills
are held with post drill discussion afterwards, when
(Ship managers/ 4- (on board 4 all crew members should participate. Again, these
superintendents) management) discussions should be recorded by the safety officer.
Safety videos are shown and their contents discussed.
Figure 5.2 Functions of a DPA Heads of departments, when giving out work
schedules, will discuss what personal protection
In the "normal" course of managing a vessel the equipment is required and presumably the safety
ma er, as chairman of the onboard management
8
s ucture, communicates with the ship managers/
Auperintendents ashore. They in turn are responsible
implication involved when the work is being carried
out. When crew members do not adhere to Company
requirements regarding P.P.E. then disciplinary action
to the Board of Directors for operating the ship in a is taken. All these factors can ably demonstrate to an
safe condition and in line with Board approval auditor that you "motivate the crew".
concerning running costs.
Reviewing the safety management system
If a condition arises on board which the master How this is achieved is entirely dependent upon
considers unsafe, for example the radar is giving the master and the Company. It can be as simple as a
persistent problems or the oily water separator has sentence in the Safety Minutes that the system has
ceased to function correctly, he would in the first been reviewed or a checklist which shows clearly what
instant approach the respective manager or sections have been scrutinised. The important point
superintendent requesting action. If this action is not is that the system isn't "carved in stone". It is, in fact,
forthcoming and the master is still concerned he now or should be, a "living, breathing" set of documents
has the option of approaching the DPA. It is then and it is only by the input of both shore and ship based
incumbent upon the DPA to investigate the situation management will it really work.
COMMAND 35
The second part of section 5 requires the Company line is a matter for individual companies, whether by
to ensure that a statement is embodied in the SMS translation or by ensuring that all officers and ratings
giving the master clear and unambiguous authority to have a common language and an understanding of
take whatever steps he deems necessary in respect of English, or a combination of both.
safety and pollution prevention. Be sure you are aware
of this statement and where it is within your S.M.S. The final sub section requires that the Company
ensure that personnel on board can communicate
Resources and personnel between themselves. It should be noted that the word
This section is divided into seven subsections and language is not used and how people communicate
defines what the Company should do. It must ensure may in certain instances relate to onboard
that you are properly qualified for command, fully management.
aware of the Safety Management system and are given
the necessary support.
Development of plans for shipboard
operation
It must also ensure that the vessel is manned by This is the smallest section of the Code, two
qualified, certificated and medically fit seafarers. Today sentences which make up three and a half lines, but
the majority of seafaring personnel are employed by the largest section within any Safety Management
inaiming agents and therefore the contractual System.
obligations and verification procedures between ship
owners or ship managers and these agencies are a It is easy to see why this section is so long when all
critical part of ensuring the "letter" of the Code is the shipboard operations are considered, for example,
observed. If you have any doubts regarding the arrival and departure from port, cargo operations,
qualifications or fitness of newly appointed crew bunkering procedures, navigation, engineering
members then this must be brought to the attention practices and the host of other operations which ensure
of the Company without delay. the vessel moves safely from port to port.
The third subsection of section 6 requires that new Emergency preparedness

personnel must be given familiarisation related to The Company must establish procedures which
safety and environmental protection. Within the identify potential emergency situations which could
system there should be a familiarisation procedure occur on board. Having identified these potential
which must be given to new joiners. My definition of situations, a programme of exercises and drills must
a new joiner is anyone who stays on board the vessel be drawn up to ensure all concerned are fully prepared
overnight. This thereby ensures that everyone is aware to react to these situations.
of the location of fire fighting equipment, emergency
signals and their survival craft location. This will predominantly be the crews on board the
vessels, but the Code requires that the "Company's
The Company must ensure that all personnel have Organisation" can respond at any time to emergency
an understanding of the "relevant rules, regulation situations. This means that the shore emergency
codes and guidelines". How do you carry out the organisation must be known to the ship and an
company's requirements for this? One of the simplest emergency contact communication system should
methods are signature pages attached to the company's have been set up.
SMS, Merchant Shipping Notice Files, Statutory
To ensure that the procedures are effective, regular
Instrument Files, Technical Indices, etc. etc. I am aware
drills must be held and the results documented, not
of the old adage "you can take a horse to water but
only for those drills on board but for ship-to-shore
you cannot make it drink". But you, the master, must
drills. The period between drills will be specified
ensure that individuals have access to all the required
within the SMS and you should be guided accordingly.
inforination and once you prove that (objective
evidence again) then it becomes that individual's Reports and analysis of non-
responsibility. conformance~,accidents and hazardous
The training needs of all personnel involved in the occurrences
SMS must be identified. The Company should The Code requires the SMS has provision for
establish and maintain procedures for this. It must be making certain that any non-conformances (a part of
remembered that the training required is to maintain the system which is not being complied with)
the SMS and the ISM Code is part of the SOLAS accidents, or near misses are reported, investigated
convention. and analysed. Having done that then the appropriate
corrective action is applied.
The Company should stabilise procedures to
ensure the ship's complement receive relevant SMS This was the section of the Code which, on first
information in a working language(s) which is reading, I thought needed translation but when related
understood by them. The keyword here is relevant, to good ship management practices it made sense.
and how that relevant information is passed down the Safety Committees, both ashore and afloat, have

encompassed the requirements of this section. Fleet Company Verification, Review and
circulars have advised of others misfortunes and Evaluation
statistics produced during the year have produced the Having established a Safety Management System
analysis required. Once again there is nothing new in the Code now requires the Company to carry out
the Code. internal audits to verify the system is fully operational
and section 12 and its 6 subsectiolls deal with this. A
Maintenance of the ship and equipment procedure will have been established within the system
This section requires the Company to establish which should dictate the minimum period between
procedures to ensure the ship is maintained to a audits, phrases such as "at least once year" are used.
minimum requirement by the relevant rules and This then allows Companies a degree of flexibility in
regulations, specified by Flag Administration, scheduling visits. An audit schedule should be drawn
Classification Society, Insurance Underwriters etc., but up, which is normally only available ashore in the
also any additional requirements it specifies. office. I firmly believe that your ship should be ready
for an audit at any time without the necessity of pre-
The section itself is divided into four sections and
warning.
in addition to stating that rules and regulations must
b e complied with, the Company must ensure I have seen Flag State and on their behalf
inspection takes place, and defects are rectified and Classification Society auditors conduct audits and for
records are kept. your benefit here are examples of the type of questions
asked of Masters during these periods.
The Company must identify any equipment or
system, the failure of which could result in a hazardous For the Master:
situation for example steering gears, electrical Show me all the certificates
generators, anchor systems, etc. Having identified such Show me in the SMC where it describes your
systems then they should be tested regularly together duties and describe the familiarisation procedure
with any backup equipment. in force on board your ship.
Describe the format of the safety cornillittee
Documentation meeting
All docu~nentationand data used within the How are the crew made aware of Merchant
SMS must b e controlled. The Company is Shipping Notices (or their equivalents) and
required to ensure that documentation is available Statutory Instruments.
at relevant locations and that any changes are only What is and show me the Company's Drug and
made by authorised personnel a n d obsolete Alcohol Policy. How do you check and review
individuals consumption on board?
documents are removed. To facilitate this,
How are the hours of work and rest recorded on
documentation within the system is usually
board? What actions do you take if they are
"controlled" or "uncontrolled".
exceeded?
There will be a procedure which should describe How d o you know when tank a n d hold
how sections within the SMS are numbered, collated maintenance has been carried out?
and corrected. Show me your standing orders and the official
logbook.
The final sentence in this section states that "Each Describe your handover procedures and show me
ship should carry on board all documentation relevant any documentation relating to this.
to that ship". This does not only apply to the obvious Show me the last internal safety audit report.
certification but also refers to plans, instruction books, Show me the Officers and ratings' certificates and
navigational charts and publications and, of course, any Flag State endorsements.
crew documentation. Who is the designated person ashore?
An element of document control are those Obviously other senior officers and certain ratings
diagrams and instructions previous Masters, Chief are questioned during the same audits so here are brief
Enpneers and Heads of Departments have produced examples of the type of questions they are asked
and posted on various notice boards and bulkheads Chief Engineer
throughout the ship. When you join the ship have a Explain your planned maintenance system and
look around and if you agree with what has been show me the history of a general service pump,
posted up sign and date it. Similarly for the Chief lubricating oil pump, emergency fire pump and
Enpneer, and heads of department. If you or they steering gears.
don't agree with the notices take them down. For such The ISM Code Section 10.3 requires the company
diagrams and drawing as the Safety and Fire Plans to establish procedures in its SMS to identify
these should be signed and dated to indicate when equipment and systems, the sudden operational
and by whom they were last checked. failure of which may result in a hazardous
COMMAND 37
situation. Show m e in your system what Cook/Steward
equipment has been identified. What do you do with the used oil from the deep
Describe the procedures that are in place for when fat fryer?
the main engine fails. What chemicals do you use in the galley for
Describe your actions with regard to the generator cleaning?
failure, where are these procedures in your SMS. How do you clean the galley filters?
Describe your bunker procedures. Show me the How do you activate the fire alarm?
checklist for the last occasion when you bunkered. How many fire blankets do you have and who
How do you communicate with the bunker barge? checks them?
How do you check the bunker receipt? How often are the fire blankets checked?
Show me your standing orders and your night What do you do with the tins and bottles?
orders. Inspected domestic fridges and galley?
Describe how your sewage system is chlorinated. How do you rotate the stock?
Show me the permit to work records for hot work
and entry into enclosed spaces. These are only examples of the type of questions
Show me the certificates for the engine room chain asked but you can see the patterns emergng. You know
blocks. your Safety Management System better than any
external auditor, so carry out audits on your own vessel
Chief Officer to ensure other members of the ship's complement
How do you calibrate the gas monitor? are fully familiar with the aspects of the system which
What is the deck maintenance and greasing relate to them.
schedule?
Explain the de-ballasting/ballasting operations. Certificates, Verification and Control
How do you exchange information with shore ISM documentation is divided into two parts, the
authorities? Document of Compliance (DOC) and the Safety
How often do you inspect the ballast tanks? Show Management Certificate (SMC) each issued by the
me the records. Flag State Administration or their authorised bodies.
How do you check the vessel's water tightness T h e Document of Compliance is issued to the
before proceeding to sea? Company and under the Code the Company can
How do you pass on information to the 2nd and either be the owner of the ship or manager who has
3rd Officers during your off duty time.
assumed the owners responsibilities in the operation
How do you assign work to a first trip cadet to
of the ship. The D.O.C. must be issued prior to the
ensure he works in a safe manner.
ship's SMC.
Checked the cargo gear register.
Checked "Garbage" manual. To obtain a Document of Compliance the
Company must demonstrate to Administration
Second Officer auditors that it has a structured and documented
Checked chart catalogue. system in place ashore and afloat. The certificate is
Show me the charts for last voyage. valid for five years and is subject to annual reviews
Checked a number of chart corrections. and a copy must be carried on board your vessel. The
Checked passage plan against charts. SMC is issued to the ship when it has proved, following
Checked arrival and departure checklists. an audit on board, that it complies with the Conlpany
Checked pilot card. Safety Management System. The certificate is also
Checked Ship/Shore checklists. valid for five years with an intermediate external
Show me the compass error book. review after 2l/, years. (As will be shown, the Code
also requires the Company to carry out internal
Safety Officers reviews, so don't be under the misapprehension that
Checked Safety Officers Record Book. once the S.M.C. has been issued personnel on board
Checked Safety Committee Minutes. are devoid of scrutiny for thirty months).
Show me evidence that the Company provides
the ship with safety information. The two certificates now form the ISM certification
Sighted records of drills. and, as stated previously, they are trading certificates
and therefore if withdrawn could result in the ship
Bosun and Company being unable to trade. Therefore if the
What are the emergency signals on this ship? Company ceased trading then those or1 board and
How do you receive your instructions regarding those ashore would not be required. It is imperative
deck maintenance? that all Masters and Managers play their full part in
\ Are you responsible for the paint locker?

Show me how the paint locker sprinkler system
works?
When you grease wires, how do you dispose of
ensuring that the Code works, because in theory it
could be possible for an SMC to be withdrawn on
one of the company's vessels which would result in
the D O C being withdrawn which would then in turn
the rags and residue? stop the rest of the fleet from trading.

Summary The Code is here to stay and it must be used to its
Hopefully this has given you, the master, a flavour of full advantage by those onboard. It is and will become
what the Code is and how it is supposed to work and more and more imperative that everyone is fully
it will inevitably generate an amount of paperwork, if familiar with it and how it works. That having been
only to provide the objective evidence. There are said it is also imperative that the system is in place
various ways to reduce this paperwork or at least the and working, your heads of department should not
archiving of it. It will depend upon whatever system be so focused on ensuring that all the paper is in place,
your company has in place. that the cargo compressors are not working, the
hatches will not open, or the purifiers in the engne
An example of how my company deals with such room are defunct. The right balance must be achieved
returns is as follows. The arrival and departure bridge between time in the ship's office and out on deck or in
checklists have been laminated and are completed the enpne room.
when required. Then, instead of filing the checklist,
an entry is made in the deck log confirming the fact it Finally whenever port state inspectors,
has been completed. The entry in the logbook then classification society auditors or those from the office
becomes the objective evidence that is required by come aboard remember it is your system and you
auditors. This methodology can be used for numerous should know it better than anyone!!
other checklists thereby reducing the amount of paper
which is stored onboard.
COMMAND 39
Chapter 6
HEALTH MANAGEMENT ON BOARD

by Dr. A.C. Kulkarni
Consultant in Diving Medicine, India
Introduction Weight control

During the past decade or so the shipping industry Regular exercise also helps to keep weight under
has undergone vast change. New regulations about control. Being overweight makes an individual
marine pollution, cargo carrying, safety management, susceptible to many disorders. Calculating body mass
etc., are strictly implemented by various authorities. index (BMI) is a simple method of determining
Ships have become bigger and crew sizes smaller; "obesity level". BMI is a ratio of
documentation has increased but very little time is
Weight in kilograms
available to complete it. Contract periods have Height in metres2
reduced but the time in port is almost nil. Signing off
crew members have often complained of "difficult, Ideally the ratio should be between 20 and 25. If it
trying times" on board. is above 30, the individual is definitely overweight.
This should be investigated and remedial measures
It is not uncommon to find a 300,000 ton tanker taken.
fully loaded, cruising at 18 knots with a handful of
fatigued crew. During the entire contract period they Weight control and regular exercise reduce
have seen only the shore terminals at loading and cholesterol levels, which is the single most contributing
discharge ports! The same applies to bulk carriers or factor in coronary artery disease (CAD).
container vessels. Preserving the physical and
psychological wellbeing of the crew, therefore, is Drugs and alcohol
another important responsibility of the master. A strict control on drug and alcohol indulgence is
maintained by Port State Controls and many ship
Although every crew member undergoes a owners. Every endeavour must be made to enforce
periodic medical examination, one of the commonest drugs and alcohol policies. Crew returning aboard after
health problems observed amongst seafarers is being shore leave are likely to "smuggle" these on board.
overweight. A seafarer requires 2500 to 3500 calories Additionally, the master should be vigilant about the
per day, depending on the amount of physical work innocuous looking new "intoxicants" which are
performed. Overindulgence in the wrong types of food available on board, e.g. cough syrup. Most cough
is often the cause of being overweight. Isolation and syrups have an alcohol content of more than 15 to
boredom quite often lead to this over indulgence. 20%. People are known to consume large quantities of
cough syrup daily, which is equivalent to several
Exercise whiskies.
Regular exercise is an absolute must. Exercises
should be chosen so that they can also be done in the "Sniffers"
confines of a cabin. The exercises should increase the Tanker crew will recall the sickening, sweet smell
heart rate to a minimum level, called target heart rate of naptha on board. These crew often complain of a
( T H R ) . Target heart rate can be calculated by 'heavy head' after working for a while. All volatile
deducting age from 180, i.e. for a 35 years old cargoes produce a similar effect. 'Heavy head' is due
individual the target heart rate will be 145. Exercise to intoxication. "Sniffing" is a fairly common mode of
should be sufficiently vigorous to increase the heart intoxication. Aromatic compounds like paint thinners,
rate to 145 beats per minute, continuing the exercise varnishes and dilutants give a "kick" when sniffed.
and maintaining it for about eight to ten minutes. Toners used in photocopying machines are another
Jogging on the spot is the most convenient way of commonly available intoxjcant, extensively used by
achieving this without any equipment. "sniffers".
Precautions should be taken to wear proper Smoking, tobacco and its derivatives
footwear, to avoid damage to knee joints by jogging Cigarette smoking is a habit picked up very easily
, on a hard deck surface. Another practical exercise
regime used extensively is the "modified British Army
during youth. Quite often it starts with a supposed
"macho" image and soon an individual is addicted to
Physical Fitness Test". This test involves stepping up the nicotine. The nicotine content of cigarettes varies
and down on a stool 43 cms in height, - 30 times a considerably from brand to brand and in the same
minute for five minutes. If you can complete the test brand, depending on the geographical location of
you are fit! You need not count the pulse. distribution and sale.

Smoking affects respiratory and the cardiovascular facilities exist on board. The tape can then be replayed
system. The effects are observed as chronic bronchitis, to understand the instructions. Transcripts can be
emphysema and cancer of the lungs. It also affects obtained when required, especially in case an enquiry
heart rate, blood pressure, hardening of the blood is ordered afterwards.
vessels and is a major contributory factor in coronary
artery disease. A heavy smoker, due to reduced The scale of medical equipment and medicines has
physical fitness, would become a liability in case of increased considerably. A variety of modern diagnostic
an accident. equipment is now available on board and the master
must make himself familiar with its use. In case of an
Chewing tobacco produces local effects in the emergency he would be required to use them. "The
mouth. Cancer of the tongue and mouth are buck stops at him!"
commonly seen amongst those who chew tobacco.
Recently a number of orally consumed tobacco Medical inventory
derivatives have been introduced, mainly in the Indian Current medical scales provide an extensive
subcontinent. In addition to tobacco these have a medical inventory. Certain "controlled" drugs need
mixture of many ingredients. Some of these to be kept in safe custody and their use accounted for.
compounds have been found to be carcinogenic. It is practicable to replenish the stock of medicines
directly from ship owners/operators by having
Strong willpower is required to quit smoking. There supplies hand carried aboard by crew when joining
are many anti smoking programmes available to assist the vessel. These medicines will a need certificate from
an individual. Nicotine slun patches are freely available the company's medical advisor before transportation.
as an "over the counter (OTC)"item. They have been
found to be very effective amongst chronic heavy Whenever medicines are obtained directly from
smokers. Consumption of tobacco derivatives should "non-English speaking" ports, the generic names of
be discouraged in a manner similar to smoking in the medicines must be written on the packaging. Help
public places. from local medical authorities could be sought for this.
Medical emergencies Disposal of hospital waste
The Shipmaster's Medical Guide is an excellent Waste from a ship's hospital would not usually be
reference book which is a mandatory publication to contaminated like that from a regular surgery or
be held on board. It should be referred to while hospital. However, the waste must be disposed of
handling sicknesses and accidents on board. While hygienically as per the "Waste Management Plan" of
obtaining radio medical advice, the instructions the vessel. Needles and sharps must be capped and
received could be read in conjunction with the guide. syringes broken off before disposing of them. Out of
This will make implementation easier. date medicines should be destroyed in a similar
manner. In the case of the disposal of "controlled"
Radio medical advice drugs, a destruction note (certificate) will need to be
Inmarsat has improved communications on board. prepared.
During medical emergencies the master must contact
the company's medical adviser or the nearest coastal Use of 0, resuscitator
station for advice. These medical authorities are The current medical scale recommended by the
familiar with the facilities on board and the constraints International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) includes
under which the crew operate. Except to obtain oxygen resuscitators. These resuscitators provide pure
relevant past medical information, the victim's G P oxygen to the patient. Various flow rates can be
should not be contacted. regulated but four litres a minute is most commonly
preferred. It is also possible to dilute the oxygen
History taking content. Positive pressure resuscitators, when fully
History taking is an art. It provides a lot of charged, provide oxygen for over an hour. Some of
information about an acute exacerbation of a chronic the resuscitators have an additional air cylinder
disease. For example, in the case of pain in the attached which can be used as a suction device to clear
abdomen, a crew member on questioning might reply the throat of secretions, vomit, etc.
"I often get acidity. One to two tablets of an antacid
normally give relief, but today I have not got any In spite of various training programmes and on
relief". Diagnosis of an acute peptic ulcer is more or board safety instructions, cases of "gassing" do occur.
less a certainty. The master should not impose his During "gassing" the victim is affected by the effects
authority while history taking but should adopt the of hypoxia or toxic gases, or by both. Such victims
attitude of a concerned "next of kin". Relevant should always be resuscitated by an 0, resuscitator.
symptoms, the history and signs should be written Mouth to mouth respiration provides only about 18
down before asking for radio medical advice. to 19(Yu of required oxygen and should continue only
until an oxygen resuscitator can be brought to the site
While obtaining radio medical advice, it is of the accident. With this the victinl has a better chance
recommended that the conversation be taped, if such of survival.
COMMAND 41
Every crew member should be thoroughly well balanced emotions are necessary to withstand
proficient in the use of an oxygen resuscitator. Regular difficult stress situations.
drills must be carried out to demonstrate competence c) Will power
in use of the equipment. Periodic pressure records d) Intelligence
should be maintained. This is vital life saving Intellectual factors such as quick appreciation of
equipment and should always be in a state of a situation, flexibility, concentration, imagination,
operational readiness. faculty to abstract and a retentive memory are of
basic importance. Officers, especially, must be
Evacuation by stretcher able to recognise interrelationships in new
While evacuating an injured/sick seaman, adequate situations, to find adequate solutions and to
attention must be paid to strapping the casualty to the verbalise them. Actually, we do not yet know the
stretcher so that there is no possibility of the casualty effect of intelligence - whether a higher level
slipping out. This is particularly important when the produces fewer mistakes or an average one
stretcher is manoeuvred vertically through manholes produces a better capacity for observation and
or from holds, etc. During a ship to ship transfer when better work output.
the stretcher is required to be picked up by a crane, it e) Perception
is advisable that the stretcher is secured inside a rubber Every individual has limits of perception under
inflatable (Zodiac) if available on board. Slings should trying conditions.
be attached to the inflatable. One crew member can f) The man-machine interface
also escort the casualty. This is a much safer way of Advancement in the technical components of the
casualty transfer, especially during heavy weather. ship demand special capabilities, technical
knowledg-e and know how, control of operations
Psychological aspects of seafaring and quick reactions, etc.
T h e seaman lives and works in a peculiar
environment, where he has constantly to adapt to Factors in a ship's environment which may
changing conditions. He may join a vessel in a tropical contribute to psychological malfunctioning
port, pass through the Roaring Forties to a snow A new equilibrium in working and living
covered port and return to another tropical port - all conditions. For most careers ashore, working and
within a month! Under these conditions, monotony living conditions can normally be separated into the
of life becomes unbearable and added to this are the working environment (when "on duty") and the social
problems of continuous noise, vibration, fatigue, lack and family environment (when "off duty"). There are
of sleep, an unsettled way of life and exposure to different functions and roles under the two
hazardous cargo. Reduced manning levels on board environments.
have enhanced the problem. He is exposed to these
abnormal and hazardous factors for 24 hours a day On board, both the environments are inseparable
and has no respite or period of recovery away from and unchanging. In fact, both merge into one single
these conditions, as happens to an industrial worker environment where one aspect constantly influences
ashore. the other aspect. There is a fixed working hierarchy
and schedule, unvarying living conditions and quarters
When combinations of these factors interplay along and the ever present and never changing company of
with worry, homesickness and other mental tensions
the other crew members. This means that crew
continuously and constantly, a peculiar reaction is set
members cannot play different roles during working
in motion. The deleterious effect of these psycholo~cal
time and leisure time. However, psychologcal theories
reactions may prove to be much worse than a single
propose that for normal mental hygiene and
psychological trauma. Hence the basic personality
development a change in roles is essential. If a person
assets of a seafarer become an important factor.
However, although unified and stringent medical is denied such a change it may result in frustration,
standards for seafarers have been evolved worldwide, leading to aggression and indifference which may
psychological selection is not yet obligatory nor is it manifest itself as accidents, sickness, crime, quarrels,
widely applicable. Hence a background knowledge fights, alcoholism and so on.
of the psychological aspects of seafaring will go a long Change from a natural to artificial environment
way to understanding and capitalising on the innate Under natural environmental conditions, people
strengths and weakness of the crew vis a vis the react as if by an innate instinct to avoid failure.
peculiar working conditions of seafarers. However, modern day ships present an artificial
Desirable psychological characteristics environment, hence people can no longer rely on
a) Motivation innate instincts - they have to adapt to specific laws
Motivation influences the power of observation and rules to master the technical world. If they
at sea, decision making and sustains hardship. continue with natural patterns of behaviour under the
b) Emotions new artificial environment, this may result in more
Emotions affect the capacity for work stability and failures.

Communication on board 3. Breakdown of support system ashore.
Multinational crews have become an accepted 4. Broken pron~ises.
feature of seafaring, hence communication among 5. Inadequate/inappropriate induction or training.
crew members may not be possible on all vessels to 6. Poorly designed equipment or technology.
any great extent. Although good communication is 7. Job/career dissatisfaction.
indispensable for the safety of the crew, the vessel and 8. Alcoholic beverages and food.
for smooth operations, it has added necessity from a 9. Physical environment and amenities.
psychological point of view. Communication with 10. Personality clashes.
other people is necessary if individuals are to be 11. Insecurity of employment.
balanced and efficient. Isolation results in changed 12. Class structures and attitudes.
mental attitudes and abnormal behaviour with 13. Failures, sensitivity to appreciate interplay of work,
resultant undesirable consequences. Linguistic social, personal and community relations.
competence is essential for achieving a versatile
personality and development of a broader approach "Man management" is the key to preventing these
to life. problems. The master cannot be indifferent and "mind
his own business". The master must know his crew
Body language well. With a little effort he should be able to remember
Certain body language may be considered their names within a week. If an able seaman, oiler or
offensive in some societies whereas it may be normal cadet is called by his name and not by his position,
or accepted in others. Know your crew well! there is an instant feeling of closeness or belongmg.
The master must keep his eyes and ears open to
Psychological consequences of separation from identify potential victims; for that, he should be
family and society accessible to all. He has to play the role of a counsellor.
Separation from family not only influences the Knowledge, skill and experience of the "wise old man"
emotional relationships between partners, but also will be on test.
causes problems in family management and the
upbringing of children. Mostly, this results in changing Every endeavour must be made to break the
from a patriarchal form of management to a monotony on board. There are numerous ways of
matriarchal system during the absence of the seaman doing it. The essential component of this stress
father, since the mother has to solve all daily problems. relieving is group activity. Revival of some old
This situation changes again during the long vacation seafaring traditions and customs is one such group
stay of the male seaman. activity. How m a n y of us know of and have
participated in a "crossing the line" ceremony? It is
On board he has to live with other seamen and he an age old custom!
has no chance to select his co-workers. He has to come
to terms with others, whether he likes them or not. If the crew are having a table tennis match, the
His real friends are ashore and far away and he misses master should preside over and g v e away the prizes.
the privileges of good friendship, confidence, Ideally he should take part in the tournament. There
relaxation, empathy, common interests, etc. A few of is no harm (or insult) if a seaman or oiler defeats him!
the potential sources of dissatisfaction / conflict are:
1 . Knowledge and skills deficiency.
A "happy ship" will sail for a long time - in spite
2. Personal styles of interaction. of hard work.
COMMAND 43
Chapter 7
INTERNATIONAL OIL POLLUTION LEGISLATION

AND CONVENTIONS - AN UPDATE
by Captain N.K. Gupta MICS(UK)MNI
Deputy Conservator,Jawarharlal Nehru Port Trust, Mumbai, India
Captain Neerau Kunzar Gupta, as Deputy Conseruator, is the head of the Marine Department ofJawaharla1 Nehru Port Trust, Naui
Mumbai. He is responsible for pilotnge, jire and safety, marine conservancy, port craft, etc. He has ouer 25 years of experience in the
sh@ping industry. Earlier he alas with Bombay Port Trust as Master Pilot and prior to that sailed as Master with The Shqping
Corporation ofIndia Ltd. He is a member of The Institute of Chartered Sh@brokers(UK), The Nautical Institute (UK), and thejrst
Indian member of the International Harbour Masters' Association (UK).
Note I will now briefly outline the various legslation

This clzapter was origina1ly;bresentedas a paper at the First and conventions dealing with oil pollution only.
International Conference on Oil Spill Response, held in Concern over oil pollution originated shortly after
Mumbai on 19th and 20th April 7999. World War 1. The first international convention
regarding oil pollution, 'The International Maritime
Introduction Conference', was held in Washington in 1926. It was
Most of the time, the world's 85,000 ships perform not ratified by any nation due to legal and technical
their business silently, out of sight
- and out of mind. problems and therefore failed. World War 2 caused
Yet, whenever an oil pollution incident occurs which considerable pollution, particularly on the shores of
is caused by a ship, it attracts headlines world over, as the Atlantic, as a result of torpedoing and sinking of
we all know. Whether the shipping industry has been ships. Consequently, concern about oil pollution began
unfairly singled out is somewhat a debatable issue. to grow again.
To my mind marine pollution will continue to OILPOL 1954
occur, despite the best of efforts and measures. This is The 'International Convention for Prevention of
a fact of life. There have been incidents both millor Pollution of the Sea by Oil, 1954', was held and
and catastrophic, such as Torrey Canyon in 1967, Amoco adopted in London in 1954. I t was the first
Cadiz in 1978, and Exxon Valdes in 1089, each at international convention dealing exclusively with oil
intervals of 11 years. Judging by the time intervals is pollution. It prohibited the discharge of oil and oily
the year 2000, i.e. the new millennium, slated for mixtures from certain vessels in specified ocean areas.
another major pollution disaster? I sincerely hope not. It came into force on 26th July 1958, after almost four
years. I M O took over responsibility for this treaty in
These and other incidents have had a profound
1959. Although it contributed to cleaner seas, no
effect on inaritime transportatioil and regulations.
enforcement system existed other than the flag state.
There exists a very real relationship between major
marine disasters and new international regimes. I have India ratified OILPOL'54. It continues to be
applicable in many countries, though it is superseded
made an attempt in this paper to establish the fact
by MARPOL 73/78.
that pollution incidents have led to more legislation,
regulations, enforcement, inspections, etc. As a result, Torrey Canyon, a tanker, ran aground in March 1967
the amounts spilled over the years have dramatically and spilled more than 120,000 tons of crude oil into
reduced - from 301,000 tonnes in 1970 to 67,000 the sea. It grounded 16 miles from the south west
tonnes in 1997. -
corner of England, beyond the three miles jurisdiction,
as England then claimed a territorial sea of three miles.
The merchant cargo fleet is a ~ ~ r o x i m a t e l ~ The concept of EEZ had not yet emerged, 80,000
45,000 700 dwt and 500 gt tonnes of crude oil spread along the British and French
According to Intertank', the number of coasts. Until then illost people believed that the oceans
operating worldwide is 3428, totalling 300 million dwt. and seas were big enough to cope with any pollution
Tankers comprise 40/o of the total fleet in dwt terms. caused by human activity. Ultimately the ship had to
The Indian merchant fleet comprises 478 ships of 11 be bombed by the Royal Navy as there was no better
million dwt of which 93 are tankers, totalling 5 million way to deal with the wreck and the oil. I ) claims~
dwt. The total annual cargo transported worldwide in the UK amounted to 6 million and in France to
by sea is 4.22 billion tonnes. 4fi0/oof this i.e. 1.9 billion FRF 41) million. ~t is interesting to note that this
tonnes of oil, is nloved in tankers. Of this amount illcident had the same impact in the USA as in E ~
99.999ii"/o is delivered safely, i.e. only about 0.0005('/0 since the US Congress realised that it had no law for
is lost. compensation caused by marine oil pollution.

The direct result of the Torrey Canyon disaster was were servants or agents of the ship owner, but now
two international conventions, one private also include crew, pilots, charterers, salvors and
international agreement and the formation of the their servants.
Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) 3. Right to break the shipowner's limitation of
of IMO. liability was "actual fault or privity" of the
shipowner. This has now been made more difficult
CLC 1969 and changed to the concept of "wilful misconduct
The International Convention on Civil Liability of the shipowner". This is done to reduce litigation
for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969, (CLC'69) was held in view of enhanced amounts.
in Brussels in November 1969 and entered into force 4. The tonnage on which limitation is based is
on June 19, 1975. As at the date of writing (1999) 75 changed from Limitation ton which is the sum of
countries are party to it. India ratified it on May 1, Net Tons and the engine room space to Gross Tons.
1987 and it entered into force on July 30, 1987. 5. Ballast passages including bunker spills of tankers
Until 1969 no liability was placed on polluting are now covered in the Protocol provided some
ships, though there were port rules and regulations, cargo residues remain on board, which is usually
national laws, etc. The ship's total financial liability the case.
was restricted to the ship's liability tonnage as per the 6. Grave or imminent threat is now covered even if
Limitation Convention 1957, i.e. about US$ 60-70 it does not result in a spill, whereas previously
per ton. actual pollution must have occurred to claim
compensation.
The CLC establishes liability limits of ship owners 7. Whereas earlier only Territorial sea was covered
for payment of damage caused by oil pollution. It now the Exclusive Economic Zone is also covered.
provides a uniform set of international rules and
procedures for determining liability and consequently FUND 1971
provides compensation to those who suffer damage T h e International Convention o n the
due to the escape or discharge of persistent oils from Establishment of an International Fund for the
laden tankers. It is based on strict ship owner liability, Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage 1971. It
compulsory insurance and limitation of liability. entered into force on October 16, 1978. Today 52
countries are party to it. India ratified it on July 10,
CLC applies only to all tankers carrying oil in bulk 1990 and entered into force on October 8, 1990.
but insurance is required only when a tanker is
carrying 2000 tonnes or Inore oil in bulk as cargo. Oil It was considered necessary to shift some burden
should be "persistent oil", i.e. crude, fuel, heavy diesel, of compensation to the oil industry, the other main
lubricating and whale oil. The owner is required to beneficiary of the carriage of oil by sea. Fund'71 creates
maintain an insurance or other financial security for an oil spill compensation fund, funded by oil
an amount as required under CLC. In India the companies in the member states to supplement
certificate for such financial security is issued by the compensation provided by the ship owners under
Director General of Shipping. P&I Clubs usually stand CLC. These two conventions therefore form an
guarantee for CLC liability. More importantly, P&I integral part of the international oil pollution
Clubs offer US$500m of cover for oil pollution claims. compensation regime.
The 1976 Protocol entered into force on April 8, The Fund pays compensation to claimants where
1981 and in India on July 30, 1987. It was not until the total claim exceeds the shipowner's limit or where
1992 that another Protocol was agreed. It came into compensation is not receivable from a shipowner or
effect 011 May 30, 1996. To date 39 countries have when full compensation is not available under CLC.
ratified it. In India it is under consideration by the The types of claim covered by both schemes include
government. Whereas the main purpose of this physical damage to property, cost of preventive
Protocol is to increase the shipowner's limit, it has measures when a spill actually occurs and reasonable
become very difficult to break the right to limitation costs of clean up.
so as to protect the ship owner. The 1976 Protocol entered into force on November
The main differences between the convention and 22, 1994 but not many states have accepted it. The
its Protocol of 1992 are: 1992 Protocol entered into force on May 30,1996.
1. The amounts have more than doubled. From SDR Today 39 countries are party to it. India has yet to
133 per limitation ton to a maximum of SDR 14 ratify it as the matter is under consideration by the
million, under the Protocol it is SDR 3 million for government. The main difference between the Fund
up to 5000 gt. For ships of more than 5000 gt and and its Protocol of 1992 are:-
up to 140,000 gt it is SDR 3 million plus SDR 420 1. The maximum amount is more than doubled
per gt beyond 5000 gt. For more than 140,000 gt from SDR 60 million to SDR 135 million. In
it is SDR 59.7 million. special circumstances it can be increased to SDR
2. Persons who could not be prosecuted for claims 200 million.
COMMAND 45
2. The other three differences are same as those However, just a few weeks later the Titanic of the
stated in CLC under 4, 5, 6 and 7. tanker disasters occurred. O n March 16, VLCC Amoco
Cadisran aground in rough weather off the north coast
The advantage of the '92 Protocol is that much of France. She struck rocks twelve hours after a steering
higher amounts are available for disbursement.
failure, despite the assistance of tug PaczJic. She broke
Therefore if an incident occurs in our waters, be they up quickly, spilling her entire cargo of 230,000 tonnes
territorial or EEZ, those who have suffered economic of crude oil, resulting in the single largest spill in
loss such as fishermen or seaside residents, etc. or even history. It also resulted in France becoming a fierce
those involved in cleanup operations, etc., will have a regulatory state from a pragmatic maritime state. Final
much larger basket of money to claim from. It is settlement amounted to US$ 32 million for the ship
therefore very much in the interest of potential Indian and cargo and over US$ 253 million for claims by
claimants to see India joining the 1992 liability and French interests.
compensation schemes. Therefore it is clearly evident
that India would benefit and should ratify the Protocols IMO was then asked to take immediate steps to
as early as possible. prevent similar incidents. The Amoco Cadi~grounding
led to the eventual acceptance of MARPOL. It was
Italy is the largest contributor to Fund771, its agreed to amalgamate the convention and Protocol
contribution being 4Fi.04OIo. India, with 13.6OI0, is the '78 into one single instrument. Accordingly it is titled
second largest contributor. If Italy also leaves and joins MARPOL 73/78. It eventually entered into force on
the Protocol of 1992 as many countries have done so October 2, 1983 after 10 years. This disaster also
then India will be the largest contributor to the Fund, showed that CLC and the Fund were inadequate to
exceeding 50/o of the total contribution. It is hardly a meet claims and led to their revisions. It also led to
desirable situation. It is also in the interest of Indian oil the re-examination of the Law of Salvage, which was
receivers to join the new regme because their obligation also found to be inadequate for serious oil spillages.
to contribute to the 1971 Fund will become heavier and
heavier, as less and less countries remain in it. Today 106 states, comprising 94OIo of the world
tonnage, have ratified the convention. India ratified it
Intervention Convention 1969 on September 24, 1986 and entered into force on
T h e International Convention Relating to December 24, 1986. Annex 1 deals with regulations
Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil for prevention of pollution by oil. Four of the five
Pollution, 1969. It was held in Brussels in 1969 and Annexes are in force. A new Annex VI, on Air
entered into force on May 6, 1975. It has been ratified Pollution has been accepted by only two states so far.
by 72 countries comprising 67% of the world's tonnage. Another Annex VII, on Ballast Water Management,
India has yet to ratify it. is on the anvil. India has so far ratified only Annex 1
and 11, whilst the others are under consideration by
It was adopted in the aftermath of the Torrey Canyon
the government.
disaster. It provides coastal states with limited rights
to take measures on the high seas to prevent, mitigate OPRC 1990
or eliminate danger which may pose a grave and The International Convention on Oil Pollution
imminent risk from pollution by oil to its coastline, as Preparedness, Response and Cooperation, 1990. It
a result of a maritime casualty. The Protocol of 1973 entered into force on May 13, 1995 and is ratified by
entered into force on March 30, 1983. Today 41 40 countries comprising 43.14O10 of the world's
countries have ratified it. tonnage. India ratified it on November 17, 1997 and
entered into force on February 17, 1998.
In the UK, for example, it permits the Secretary of
State for Transport to intervene after an accident has It was the direct result of the Exxon Valdez disaster
occurred to a ship which will or may cause pollution in 1987. It is one of a number of measures adopted by
to UK waters and or the coastline. The powers are I M O in response to the disaster. Although it did not
exercisable when pre-defined conditions are met. enter into force, it received its first test when major oil
spills occurred in the Persian Gulf due to military
MARPOL 73/78 hostilities. I M O acted as if the convention was in force
The International Convention for the Prevention a n d set up a Disaster Fund and an Oil Spill
of Pollution from Ships, 1973 (MARPOL). It was Coordination Centre which provided valuable
adopted in November 1973 but was not ratified due assistance in preventing major damage to the
to its complexity. Between December 1976 and environment off the Saudi Arabian coast.
January 1977 a series of tanker disasters took place Under the convention the burden is on the
such as Argo Merchant, Olympic Games, Daphne, Grand government to prepare for response to spill
Zenith and Barcota. Almost all were caused due to emergencies. Its establishes a global system for
human error or failure. These disasters led to a responding to major oil spills. Parties are encouraged
conference which resulted in the MARPOL Protocol to develop contingency plans, establish stockpiles of
of 1978. equipment and develop expertise to be shared on

request with others. Parties are required to take legal development programs, increased potential liabilities
and administrative measures to facilitate arrival, and significantly increased financial responsibility
utilisation and departure of ships, aircraft, equipment requirements.
and personnel involved in dealing with an incident.
It covers all types of oils and all types of ships,
Ships are required to have Shipboard Oil Pollution
whereas the Convention regime relates to persistent
Emergency Plans (SOPEP) for dealing with spills.
oil and tankers only. The empirical approach of the
Ships are also required to report incidents of pollution
Convention regime was based on the circumstances
to coastal authorities. A survey by ITOPF in 141
surrounding the Torrey Canyon incident and the fact
countries established that governments in over 100
that only persistent oil was likely to cause significant
countries have accepted the primary responsibility of
pollution damage which required specific regimes to
dealing with ship-source oil pollution.
deal with it. It was felt that general liability law would
OPA 1990 suffice to cover pollution by nonpersistent oils or
Oil Pollution Act, 1990 of the USA. It was signed pollution from dry cargo ships.
into law on August 18, 1990. It is a unilateral system One of the biggest differences between the OPA
of the USA. and the CLC is that the CLC channels as much liability
It was drafted in the aftermath of the Exxon I'aldez as possible to the registered shipowner, whereas the
disaster of March 24, 1989. This tanker of 214,816 US law seeks to impose liability on as many people as
tonnes was under the command of Captain possible. Under OPA, the principle is "the polluter
Hazelwood. After sailing from Valdez terminal, shall pay". In the USA, owners and operator's of
Alaska, she ran aground on Bligh Island Reef, 45 pleasure boats have been fined to the tune of US$ 16
minutes after the pilot disembarked. She was loaded million to date.
with 177,000 tonnes of crude. Eight of her eleven tanks Conclusion
suffered extensive damage resulting in a spill of 37,
There is no international regime for pollution
000 tonnes of oil. To date it is the worst spill in the
damage caused by non-tankers carrying persistent oils.
USA. Captain Hazelwood and Third Officer Gregory
Owners may limit their liability as per the Limitation
Cousins were found guilty of criminal negligence and
of Liability for Maritime Claims Convention, 197(i
had their licences suspended by the court of enquiry.
(LLMC'76). Owners are not required to maintain
The captain was fined a punitive US$ 5000.
insurance as in the case of CLC. Many European
A sum of US $3.5 billion has been paid so far to countries, including the UK, have introduced national
fishermen, property owners, municipalities, etc. for legislation making owners of non-tankers strictly liable
compensatory claims, fines, damages etc., though the for damage caused by persistent oils.
total bill for the spill is reckoned to be US$ 18 billion.
Also, there is no international regime covering
Only a company such as Exxon could have survived
nonpersistent oils. Compensation in these cases is
such a catastrophe. The vessel, now named SeaRiver
governed by rules of the Admiralty or common civil
Mediterranean, is barred from entering Prince William
law.
Sound, Alaska, under OPA'90. The only criminal
A cost analysis done by the International Oil Spill
charge that could be brought for the spill was for
Database, USA indicates that spill cleanup costs vary
discharging oil in navigable waters without a permit,
considerably. A simple manual recovery can cost as
a misdemeanour. Available criminal penalties for such
little as US$0.37 per gallon or US$ 108.78 per tonne.
a discharge were viewed as insufficient for such a
Shore line cleanup, wild life rescue and rehabilitation,
damaging spill. It thus gave impetus for OPA'90. Today
etc., add significantly to the cost, making it almost US$
violators can be prosecuted for a misdemeanour if the
297 per gallon or US$ 87,111 per tonne. In the
discharge is done negligently with penalties of
February 1996 spill of Sea Empress in which 72,361
imprisonment up to one year and or fines up to US$
tonnes were spilled in Milford Haven, UK, the cost
25,000 per day of violation. If done knowingly,
came to US$ 18.32 million or about US$ 0.86 per
imprisonment could be up to three years and or fines
gallon or US$ 253.23 per tonne.
up to US$50,000 per day.
In conclusion, I wish to say that 40 years after
OPA'SO deals not only with pollution as a result of
OILPOL'54 marine pollution has become a major
maritime transportation, but also pollution from oil
cause for concern in the international community. A
facilities producing oil at sea. It encompasses
formidable and complex array of international,
prevention and response as well as liability and
national and regonal regulatory regimes have been
compensation. It sets new requirements for vessel
- construction, crew licensing and manning. It mandates
put in place for ship operations, with serious fines,
detentions, imprisonment and even vessel confiscation
contingency planning, enhanced federal response
for pollution incidents. All this has had a profound
capability, enhanced enforcement authority and
and positive effect on the number and quantity of spills
increased penalties and creates new research and
as well as in the way oil is now transported globally.
COMMAND 47
Chapter 8
MARINE INSURANCE AND THE MASTER

by Mr. P. Anderson BA(Hons) FNI
Phil$ Anderson is a master mariner and head of loss prevention at The North of England P@IAssociation. He is also Vice President
of The Nautical Institute. He has written a number of books and guidance documents including "The Mariner's Guide to Marine
Insurance"fiom which extracts are reproduced in this chapter.
The nature of marine insurance their insurance policies or contracts, the master of the
I NSURANCE EXI S T S TO AV O ID or minimise financial ship is very likely to become involved. Whether or
uncertainty. It provides individuals and organisations not the master takes the correct action at the correct
with financial protection against the outcome of events time in response to such an incident can often make
which involve monetary losses or liabilities which were the difference between the matter remaining a minor
not anticipated or predicted and over which they had inconvenience which is kept under control or else a
no effective control. In return for this financial major disaster which quickly gets out of control, usually
protection, the 'insured' individual or organisation involving the shipowner in considerable expense.
pays money, usually by way of a 'premium', to another
individual or company, the 'insurer', and a policy or In reality, for any one incident there may be a
contract of insurance is drawn up to formalise the legal number of insurers involved. For example, if the cargo
relationship between those parties. has been damaged this may involve not only the cargo
insurer but also the shipowner's protection and
The Marine Insurance Act 1906 actually provides indemnity (P&I)club and possibly the time charterer's
a definition of marine insurance at section 1: P&I Club. A collision may involve these insurers as
A contract of marine insurance is a contract whereby the well as hull and machinery (HPrM) underwriters,
insurer undertakes to indemnia the assured, in manner and personal insurers of individuals, property underwriters
to the extent thereby agreed, against marine losses, that is to and so on.
say, the losses incident to marine adventure. The master may find that in law he has obligations
Much of the language used in marine insurance, and duties to many of the insured parties and
particularly where Lloyd's policies or institute clauses consequently to their underwriters - for example as
are concerned, is archaic. However, over many years, an agent of necessity. But his principal and indeed
the courts and the industry have given very specific employer - the shipowner - may find itself in conflict
meanings to particular words and phrases, such that with these other parties. If they can prove a breach of
those involved in the marine insurance business know contract or negligence against the shipowner, they may
exactly what is meant and to change the wording be able to pursue an indemnity claim against it. It is
would lead to confusion and uncertainty. therefore crucial that the master has a clear
understanding of the different types of insurances
In the case of a shipowner or shipmanager, which may be involved in the many potential
insurance is usually confined to the financial accidents, incidents and liabilities with which he may
consequences of damage to its own ship, damage to be confronted during his time in command.
other people's property or death or injury to people.
A charterer's insurance requirements, particularly a 7'0 bring the whole issue of insurance into
time charterer's, are similar in many respects to those perspective and to consider its real implications for
of the shipowner. A cargo owner's requirements are the ship master, it is important to appreciate the
usually confined to loss or damage to its cargo. enormous financial implication of claims. H&M and
cargo claims on the London insurance market alone
Crew members, supernumeraries, passengers, amount to more than US$10,000,000,000 each year.
pilots, stevedores, port officials and many other Annual P&I claims cost a further US$2,000,000,000.
categories of individuals who may find themselves on
board a vessel will usually require their own personal But what is the cost to the individual shipowner?
insurance for injury, illness or death. Some risks are The answer is not straightforward as it depends on
virtually uninsurable such as freight, demurrage and the type, size and age of the vessel being considered,
a whole range of bad debts and disputes under the trade in which the vessel is involved and a number
charterparties, for example. of other relevant factors. However, the most significant
factor influencing what any particular shipowner is
If there are any accidents or other incidents during paying for insurance is the past claims record. A
the voyage involving any of the parties under any of shipowner with a bad claims record will be paying

many times more for insurance than one with a good The master and his officers and crew can have a
record. major effect on whether or not there are accidents and
clai~llsand also to protecting the shipowner's position
Figure 8.1 shows the daily operating budget of a by taking the correct action quickly if there is an
reefer vessel of 300,000 cu.ft. and figure 8.2 shows the incident. It is therefore crucial that the nlaster has a
percentage breakdown of claims by number derived good understanding of the various insurances involved
from The North of England P&I Association. Where in the commercial operation of the ship, of what he
tankers are involved, with the attendant high risk of can do to minimise the risk of accidents occurring and
pollution claims, insurance can typically reach 40/0 of what to do in the event that problems do arise.
of the operating budget. It is a major item and needs
to be carefully managed accordingly. The shipowner's insurance requirements
The shipowner or ship manager has many different
Management fee
insurance requirements. Figure 8.3 identifies some of
the Inore usual insurances.
T h e two most significant insurances for the
shipowner are H&M and P&I. An approximate
analogy could be drawn with the normal insurance
which may be considered for a motor car. P&l
insurance might equate to straight 'third party' cover
and, with the addition of H&M, would constitute 'fully
comprehensive' cover.
Hull and machinery (H&M)

Hull and machinery (H&M) insurance covers the
ship itself and the equipment on board the ship
including the propulsion and auxiliary machinery,
3% ' Equipment 12%
cargo handling and navigation equipment, and similar
5% items of plant. H&lM may also cover the ship's
contribution to general average and salvage as well as
F i p w 8.1 Daily operating budget - repfer vessel 3'00,000 cu.$. '/I of the Lability to the other vessel in a collision.
Protection and Indemnity (P&I)
M~sc
Pollution 4.0,- - During the course of operating ships, a shipowner
can incur liabilities towards all manner of third parties.
Protection and Indeillnity (P&I) insurance provides
this third party liability cover. P&I also covers a variely
of other losses which a shipo~rnermay suffer and
which may not be insured elsewhere, although there
are a number of specific exclusions from cover.
Cargo
48%
A shipowner may also have additional insurance
requirements depending very much upon the type of
vessels involved, and the trade or use to which the
vessels are being put. For example, a shipowner
Injuries and ~llness
operating a fleet of container ships may require
insurance cover for the containers themselves. Some
of the more usual additional insurance could include
the following.
Freight, demurrage and defence (FD&D)
FGrlre 8.2 Percentage breakdown of clazmr by number - source
North ofEngland - Poliq I'ear 1998 A shipowner is exposed to a number of liabilities
or losses for which it does not have iilsurance cover.
Examples include disputes under charterparties and
In order to keep insurance premiums as low as sale and purchase of ship disputes. Freight, demurrage
possible, shipowners usually take ever larger and defence (FD&D)cover does not provide insurance
'deductibles'. This is the part of any claim which the for these risks, but, rather, provides a legal costs
shipowner insures out of its own resources and may insurance. It covers the cost of providing legal and
amount to many tens or even hundreds of thousands technical support and assistance to defend or prosecute
of dollars. In addition to any human suffering, a wide range of uninsured claims and disputes. Many
inconvenience or annoyance an accident or claim may P&I Clubs offer FD&D as an additional class of
bring, it can also prove to be financially disastrous for insurance available to its members. There are also
the shipowner. independent FD&D associations.
COMMAND 49
Strike insurance Voyage charterers who own the cargo - which is
Strikes by stevedore labour, ships' officers and crew often the case in trading bulk commodities such as oil
or others who can disrupt the normal working of the - would also be interested in cargo insurance.
ship can have devastating financial consequences.

Strike insurance is available to alleviate the serious The cargo owner's insurance
losses which may arise from strikes. requirements
The cargo may be owned by the charterer or even
War risks the shipowner but, in the majority of cases, belongs to
If a vessel finds itself in a war zone or other area of a third party. Whoever owns the cargo would usually
hostilities, the normal H&M and P&I insurances are arrange for insurance cover on the cargo to protect
likely to be suspended. War risks insurance provides themselves against loss or damage as well as their
the shipowner with continuity of cover as required. contribution to general average and salvage. If the
The charterer's insurance requirements cargo sale contract was on cost, insurance and freight
-
Dependant upon the terms and conditions of the (CIF) terms, then the seller would usually arrange for
the insurance. O n free on board (FOB) terms, it is
charterparty, a charterer may be exposed to many
usually the buyer who insures.
siinilar risks and liabilities as a shipowner. This is
particularly the case wit11 time charterers. The important point for masters to note is that,
It is unlikely that the charterer will be exposed to even though a cargo owner may have insured the
liabilities with regards to collisions or pollution or cargo, it (or its insurer under subrogated rights) can
pursue an indemnity claim against the carrier - usually
damage to third party property or personal injuries to
the shipowner but possibly the time charterer - if the
the crew, for example, but may very well find that it
cargo is lost or damaged while in the carrier's custody.
has an exposure to cargo claims.
Under Hague or Hague-Visby Rules or similar carriage
A time charterer can in fact take out full 'P&I' cover of goods by sea acts, carriers can raise various defences
with a P&I Club and be provided with the same cover to such claims provided they can show they exercised
as a shipowner member - although the method of due diligence to make the vessel seaworthy and that
underwriting will be different. An unusual situation they properly cared for the cargo.
arises with a time charterer's P&I cover in that the
time charterer may include damage to the ship in its If the cargo owner or subrogated cargo underwriter
P&I cover. This is something which is specifically is successful in its claim against the carrier then the
shipowner/charterer should be covered for such
excluded as far as a shipowner member of a P&I Club
liabilities through its P&I Club. I t is important,
is concerned. As far as the shipowner is concerned,
then obviously damage to his own ship is covered however, to recognise the important distinction
between what cargo underwriters cover and what P&I
under the H&M policy. The reason a time charterer
Clubs cover - P&I Clubs are liability underwriters,
may decide to take thls cover through a P&I Club is
that, as far as the charterer is concerned, the ship is not cargo insurers.
another piece of third party property. If the ship is The principles of marine insurance
damaged as a result of some negligence on the part of Underpinning every contract of marine insurance
the charterer - say because of some badly stowed that is written in England and/or is subject to English
cargo shifting - then the shipowner may have a valid law is the Marine Insurance Act (MIA) of 1906.
claim for compensation against the charterer. Specifically, this Act applies to H&M, P&I and cargo
In a similar way, although it is not quite as common, insurances and at section 3 it describes how every
a charterer may also require FD&D insurance, war lawful marine adventure may be the subject of a
risks insurance and strike insurance but not usually contract of marine insurance. Selected sections are
H&M. considered and they provide:
Hull and machinery

H&M
Freight, demurrage
and defence FD&D 1-1
I
Ship owner
w
1-1
War risks
Strike
Protection and
indemnity P&l 4 Loss of hire
Fgure 8.3 Tyibical inczlrancesfor a sh$b owner

3. (I) Subject to the provisions of this Act, every lawful attributable to that unseaworthiness, then the insurer
marine adventure may be the subject of a contract may refuse to pay the claim. But exactly who is the
of marine insurance. 'assured'? Is the knowledge of the master, for example,
(2) (a) Any sh$, goods or other moveables are exposed sufficient to implicate the shipowner? The answer,
to maritime perils. Such property is in the under English law at least, is probably no. However,
Act referred to as 'insurable property'; with the reporting requirements of the safety
(6) The earning or acquisition of any freight, management systems of the ISM Code and the
passage money, commission, profit, or other appointment of the designated person ashore, it may
pecuniary benefit, or the security for any become increasingly difficult for a shipowner to argue
advances, loan or disbursements, is that it did not know of the unseaworthiness and had
endangered by the exposure of insurable no reasonable means of knowing. Of course, if there
property to maritime perils; is a failure to make the necessary reports, then that is
(c) Any liability to a thirdparty may be incurred likely to constitute a serious breach of the ISM Code
by the owner oA or other person interested in requirements.
or responsible for, ilzsurable property, by
If there was a breach of section 39(5)of the MIA,
reason of maritime perils.
then not only would the shipowner run the risk of
losing its P&I cover but it may seriously risk losing its
'Maritime perils' means the perils consequent on, or
right to limit its financial liability i n certain
incidental to, the navigation of the sea, that is to say, perils
circumstances.
of the seas, jre, war perils, pirates, rovers, thieves, captures,
seizures, restraints, and detainments ofprinces and people, There are a number of other underlying basic
jettisons, barratry, and any otherperil, either of the like kind principles of most marine insurances of which the
or which may be designated by the policy. master should be aware. Firstly, it would usually be a
strict condition that the vessel must be classed with
Section 39(5)on seaworthiness would usually apply
to H&M and P&I insurance though the whole section an approved classification society and that class is
maintained. This does not necessarily mean that the
is reproduced here since a number of the other
classification society actually has to cancel the
policies, such as cargo insurance, may need to be
classification - simply for a situation to exist which
considered under one of the other sub-sections:
would have led to withdrawal of class would be
39. Warranty of Seaworthiness ofSh$ sufficient.
(I) In a voyage policy there is an implied warranty
It is also usual that insurance cover may cease if
that at the commencement ofthe voyage the sh$
the shipowner does n o t comply with certain
shall be seaworthy for thepurpose of theparticular
international conventions, in the form ratified by their
adventure insured.
flag state administration - for example the SOLAS
(2) Where the policy attaches while the sh@ is in port,
convention. Indeed many insurers have made it a
there is also an implied warranty that she shall, at
specific requirement that relevant vessels must have
the conzmencement of the risk, be reasonably fit to
valid ISM safety management certificates (SMCs) and
encounter the ordinary perib of the port.
the operating company a valid d o c u m e n t of
(3) Where the policy relates to a voyage which is
compliance (DOC). This probably also extends to
peformed in dzferent stages, during which the
actual implementation and maintenance of the safety
ship requires different kinds of or further
management system (SMS) of the ISM Code.
preparation or egz~i;bment,there is an inzplied
warranty that at the commencement of each stage [see jootnote]
the sh$ is seaworthy in respect of such preparation The ISM Code will be the benchmark against
or equ$mentfor the purpose of that stage. which such things will be measured in the future and
(4) A sh$ is deemed to be seaworthy when she is there may well be cases whereby shipowners are
reasonably Jit in all respects to encounter the considered to have failed to act as a prudent insured
ordinary perils of the sea of the adventure insured. if they have not been maintaining the recruitment/
(5) In a time policy there is no implied warranty that employment procedures of their SMS.
the s/z@ shall be seaworthy at any stage of the
adventure, but where, with the privity of the Hull and machinery insurance
assured, the sh$ is sent to sea in an unseaworthy The standard perils covered by the ITC (Hulls)
state, the insurer is not liable for any loss 1.10.83 policy are set out in clause 6 of the policy. It is
attributable to unseaworthiness. worthwhile separating these risks into two categories:
Section 39(5) basically means that, if the insurer

can demonstrate that the ship was unseaworthy when [Footnote: For a detailed discussion of related issues see
it put to sea and that the assured had positive Anderson P. 'The ISM Code A Practical Guide to the Legal
knowledge or 'turned a blind eye' to facts which and Insurance Implications' LLP Limited, 1998, ISBN
rendered the ship unseaworthy and the loss was 1 85978 621 91.
COMMAND 51
Basic perils - set out in clauses 6.1.1 to 6.1.8 An explanation as to why H&M only covers three-
inclusive. fourths in this so-called 'running down clause' (or
'Inchmaree' perils - set out in clauses 6.2.1 to 6.2.5. RDC) is provided later dealing with P&I Club cover.
The P&I Clubs tend to cover the remaining RDC and
Basic perils it was this unusual split of the collision liability, which
6.7 This insurance covers loss of or damage to the partly led to the formation of the P&I Clubs.
subject matter caused by:
6.7.7 Perils of the sea, rivers, lakes or other navigable Also of relevance to the P&I Clubs is section 8.4
waters. of the ITC (Hulls) - 1.10.83 policy which sets out
6.7.2 Fire, explosion. specific exclusions. Because they are excluded under
6.7.3 Violent theft by persons from outside the vessel. the H&M policy, they are usually included under the
6.7.4 Jettison. P&I cover. Section 8.4 reads:
6.1.5 Piracy.
6.1.6 Breaking of or accident to nuclear installation 8.4 Provided always that this Clause 8 shall in no
or reactors. case extend to any sum which the assured shall
6.7.7 Contact with aircraft or similar objects, or objects pay for or in respect 08
falling therefrom, land conveyance, dock or 8.4.7 Removal or disposal of obstructions, wrecks,
harbour equ$ment or installation, cargoes or any other thing whatsoever.
6.7.8 Earthquake, volcanic eruption or lightning. 8.4.2 Any real orpersonalproperty or thing whatsoever
except other vessels or property on other vessels.
Inchmaree perils 8.4.3 The cargo or other property on, or the engagements
6.2 The insurance covers loss of or damage to the oJ;the insured vessel.
subject matter insured caused by: 8.4.4 Loss of life, personal injury or illness.
6.2.7 Accidents in loading, discharging or shzJting cargo 8.4.5 Pollution or contaminatioiz of any real or
or fuel. personal property or thing whatsoever (except
6.2.2 Bursting of boilers, breakage of shafts or any other vessels with which the insured vessel is in
latent defect in the machinery or hull. collision or property on such other vessels).
6.2.3 Negligence of masters, oficers, crew andpilots.
6.2.4 Negligence of repairers or charterersprovidedsuch Another major cover provided under the H&M
repairers are not an assured hereunder. policy is the vessel's proportion of general average
6.2.5 Barratry of master, oficers and crew, provided (GA) and salvage and there would usually be a
such loss or damage has not resultedfiom want requirement that the adjustment of general average
of due diligence by the assured, owner or would be in accordance with the York Antwerp Rules.
managers ...... The other contributing parties to general average and
salvage would be the cargo owner/cargo underwriter
There is also an additional clause, which is included and possibly time charterer's bunkers if their property
here for reasons of completeness: was saved, and possibly freight.
6.3 Master, oficers, crew or pilots not to be con.sidered If an accident or incident does occur which is likely
owners within the meaning of this Clause 6 to result in a claim being made under the H&M policy,
should they hold shares in the vessel. it is very important - and probably a condition of
cover - that the underwriter should be advised. It is
O t h e r clauses cover accidents in loading, quite normal still to see in the policy terms that, if the
discharging or cargo handling. vessel is abroad, then the nearest Lloyd's agent should
Section 8 of the policy covers certain liabilities be contacted.
arising out of collisions - the relevant part reads as Insurances are usually warranted 'class
follows: maintained'. Also it is usually a condition of cover
8.1 The underwriters agree to indemnzh the Assured that the class does not change during the period of
for three-fourths of any sum or sumspaid by the insurance. Similarly, the ownership of the vessel must
Assured to any otherperson orpersons by reason not change during that period. Any of these events
ofthe Assured becoming legally liable by way of could mean that the insurance becomes void.
damagesfor: Of special relevance and interest to the master and
8.1. I loss of or damage to any other vessel or property those on board is a duty on the assured (i.e. the
on any other vessel. shi p owner) to take such measures as may b e
8.1.2 delay to or loss of use ofany such other vessel or reasonable for the purpose of averting or minimising
property thereon. a loss which would be recoverable under the H&M
8.1.3 general average oJ; salvage oJ; or salvage under policy. This duty is usually referred to as 'sue and
contract oJ; any such other vessel or property labour'. If steps to minimise, reduce or avoid the loss
thereon, ...... or further damage are not actually successful but are
reasonable and taken in good faith, then the losses -

even though they may now exceed what they would Liabilities in respect of people.
have been if no steps had been taken - would still be Liabilities in respect of cargo.
covered under the policy. Liabilities in respect of ships.
Protection and Indemnity insurance P&I insurance liabilities - people

The scope of cover provided by any one P&I Club A shipowner has a general duty of care towards
member of the International Group will be almost anyone who comes on board its ship or even finds
identical with the cover provided by any other themselves in proximity of the ship. It must provide a
member club, although the specific wording may vary safe access to and from the ship, it must not allow
slightly. The reason for this is that all the clubs are unauthorized people to wander around the ship, it
sharing in the larger claims through the pooling must provide safe routes around the ship as well as a
agreement and also in the cost of the reinsurance safe work place and generally a safe environment
contract. It would therefore be unfair and unworkable where all reasonable steps have been taken to prevent
if each club was covering different risks and liabilities. people being injured. If the owner fails in this duty of
care and someone is injured as a consequence then,
In addition to the heads of risk specifically provided the claimant can demonstrate that the owner
identified in the rule book, the club also covers the was in some way negligent, they will be entitled in
costs of correspondents, lawyers, surveyors and other many jurisdictions to bring a claim for damages against
experts who may be needed to investigate or otherwise the owner.
handle and deal with a particular problem.
Such people might include members of the crew,
Set out below is a list of the heads of cover passengers, supernu~nerariesand third parties such as
specifically identified by a typical P&I Club: stevedores, pilots, port officials, P&I surveyors and
Liabilities in respect of seamen. even people who should not even be on board such
Liabilities in respect of supernumeraries. as stowaways. In addition to this general obligation of
Liabilities in respect of passengers. a duty of care, a shipowner will also have specific
Liabilities in respect of third parties. contractual obligations to certain categories of people
Stowaways. such as the crew under the relevani crew contract and
Diversion expenses. passengers under the passenger ticket contract.
Life salvage. Crew contracts differ widely in the conditions of
Person in distress. service offered and this includes compensation
Quarantine. payments in respect of illness and injuries suffered.
Liabilities arising from collisions. Passenger contracts may include the terms of an
Non-contact damage to ships. international convention such as T h e Athens
Damage to property. Convention, which sets out the respective
Pollution. responsibilities and liabilities including financial limits
Wreck removal. of liability.
Towage.
Contracts, indemnities and guarantees. The P&I Club will cover the shipowner member
Liabilities in respect of cargo. for most liabilities to people in negligence and in
General average. contract, as well as under certain domestic laws and
Fines. statutes such as health and safety at work acts, or the
Legal costs, sue and labour. Jones Act in the US. It is essential that the P&I Club
Risks incidental to ship owning. managers be pven the opportunity of reviewing the
Special cover. respective contracts prior to agreeing financial terms
Special cover for salvors. for the insurance.
Special cover for containers.
In addition to compensation to the injured
Special provisions for charterer's entry.
individual or his or her family if deceased, along with
The percentage breakdown of claims under the all the hospital and other medical bills, the club will
different liability categories will vary from club to club also reimburse the shipowner for the costs of any
and will be influenced by the membership profile of necessary repatriation expenses of the injured person
the particular club. For example, a club with a large and the costs of sending out a substitute. Neither the
tanker entry may show a relatively large proportion shipowner nor its P&I Club operate private health
of pollution claims and a club with a large passenger insurance although the extent of cover being provided
ship entry may show a relatively large number of in some crew contracts could be viewed by some as
passenger injuries. getting very close to that position.
The above list of liabilities can be shortened since There may also be other incidental expenses which
most of the liabilities covered by a P&I Club can probably the shipowner may have incurred such as the costs of
be included under one of three general headings: fuel, wages and other expenses while diverting to land
COMMAND 53
a sick or injured individual. In certain circumstances To understand exactly what sort of cargo liabilities
the club may also cover loss of 01- damage to the the P&I Club will be covering it is worth looking at
personal property of the crew if the shipowner has what article 111, rules 1 and 2 actually say:
such a liability towards its crew.
Article I11
Another important and significant head of claim
which could fall into the category of liabilities in Rule I. The carrier shall be bound before and at the
respect of people a n d which is becoming an beginning of the voyage to exercise due diligence to:
increasingly difficult and expensive problem to deal (a) Make the ship seaworthy.
with is that of stowaways. The P&I Club would usually (b) Properly man, equip and supply the ship.
expect to see evidence that the member has taken (c) Make the holds, refrigerating and cool chambers,
reasonable steps to prevent stowaways coming on and all other parts of the ship on which goods are
board and to detect them prior to sailing. carried, jit and safe for their reception, carriage
and preservation.
Subject to that caveat the P&I Club will cover a
member for the direct costs incurred in having the Rule 2. Subject to the provisions of article I x the carrier
stowaways on board as well as the costs of supplying shall properly and carefully load, handle, stow, carry,
guards, when necessary, and the expenses involved keep, care for, and discharge the goods carried.
in repatriating the stowaways back to their home The obligation in both these cases is one of
countries. Sometimes this process of repatriation can 'reasonableness'. It is not a strict obligation of
not only be very expensive but also extremely seaworthiness but the shipowner, usually through the
frustrating when the stowaways have hidden or lost activities of the master, officers and crew, must show
their identity papers, will not cooperate by declaring that they did all that was reasonably and realistically
their true details such as name and nationality, and possible to check and ensure that the ship was in all
where ports and countries of call will not assist - which respects seaworthy and in a suitable condition to load
is becoming increasingly common. Sometimes the ship the intended cargo.
is even fined for having the stowaways on board, but
usually the club would cover such a fine. The most common types of problem encountered
which lead to cargo damage are:
Liabilities with respect to cargo
The first important point to realise is that neither Leaking hatch covers and ventilators.
the shipowner nor the P&I Club is a cargo insurer, Dirty or inadequately prepared carrying
and nor is the club offering cargo insurance to the compartments.
shipowner. The prudent owner of cargo will need to Inadequate ventilation.
insure its cargo properly. However, if the cargo Cargo shortage.
becomes lost or damaged while in the custody of the Cargo in "apparent good order and condition"
carrier, usually the shipowner, then the carrier may which is not so.
very well have to compensate the cargo owner unless
it can bring itself within one of the exemptions of the Whereas there will be liabilities to be considered
Hague-Visby Rules, for example. between the shipowner and the cargo owner under
the terms of the contract of carriage evidenced by the
The cargo owner may not wish to have the trouble bill of lading, there will also be various obligations
of pursuing a claim against the carrier in the name of between the shipowner and the charterer arising under
the cargo owner. This right is known as subrogation. the terms of the relevant charterparty. In many cases,
if a shipowner is found to have a liability towards a
The majority of cargo claims are brought against
cargo owner, or subrogated cargo underwriter, under
carriers by subrogated underwriters. These cargo
the terms of the contract of carriage evidenced by the
claims are frequently dealt with by recovery agents
bill of lading the shipowner may very well have a legal
acting on behalf of the cargo underwriter and the P&I
Club claims handler on behalf of its members. indemnity claim against the charterer under the
charterparty.
Under regmes which have incorporated the Hague
or Hague-Visby Rules into their domestic legislation, Consequently the shipowner would make a
often under a carriage of goods by sea act (COGSA) or recovery from the charterer rather than from the P&I
as part of their national commercial code, there are a Club. Alternatively, a charterer may be considered to
series of obligations imposed upon the carrier. Article be the legal carrier under certain bills of lading and it
111, rules 1 and 2 of the Hague-Visby Rules set out the may be the charterer which has to deal with cargo
most important obligations and it is a failure on the part claims in the first instance. It may therefore be the
of the carrier which leads to most of the cargo claims charterer which brings the indemnity claim against
handled by P&I Clubs. If either of these rules are not the shipowner under the terms of the charterparty.
complied with then it is very unlikely that the shipowner Under normal circumstances the charterer cannot take
can rely upon the long list of defences which are set out advantage of the shipowner's P&I cover but rather
in article IV, rule 2. would take out its own, independent, cover.

There are numerous charterparty forms but often If the shipowner has accepted a so-called 'letter of
there will be provision whereby the charterer has a indemnity' (LOI) to issue 'clean' bills of lading, then
responsibility with regard to the loading and stowing it could try and recover under that LOI. But if the
of the cargo. For example, in a GENCON Voyage shipper or charterer refused to honour their promise,
charterparty form, there is a 'free in and out stowed there is little the shipowner can do. The courts will
and trimmed' (FIOST) clause, meaning that the not recognise LOIS as having any validity since they
charterer is undertaking these functions and not the came into existence to perpetrate a fraud and the
shipowner. In time charters such as the NYPE form shipowner is implicated in that fraud. It may therefore
'charterers are to load, stow, trim the cargo at their have to bear the loss out of its own resources and also
expense'. Again this is a charterer's operation and, as lose its P&I cover.
such, is likely ultimately to involve its liability if it does In addition to describing the apparent order and
it wrongly or badly. Charterers can, and time condition of the cargo, the bill of lading will also state
charterers frequently do, take out their own P&I cover the date when the cargo was loaded. This date may
primarily to provide themselves with liability be crucial under the terms of the sale contract. If the
insurance cover for these risks. date has not been correctly stated and consequences
One of the most frequent problems which arises arise, then the shipowner is likely to be liable to
with the carriage of cargo, giving rise to potential compensate the cargo owner and may also lose its P&I
claims and the risk of a shipowner losing its P&I cover, cover.
is where cargo is loaded on board not in 'apparent It is not possible to go into too much detail in this
good order and condition' but so-called 'clean' bills chapter, but more information is contained in the book
of lading are issued. The Mariner's Guide to Marine Insurance. For example,
deviation can give rise to claims and there are different
The bill of lading performs a number of different
legal rules applying carriage requirements. General
functions. A very important and fundamental function
Average is usually covered by the H&M policy but
is as a receipt for the cargo. To comply with the can be a P&I concern if the ship was unseaworthy at
requirements and obligations of the Hague-Visby the commencement of the voyage.
Rules, or similar, it should describe the apparent order
and condition of the cargo at the time of loading and Also, if the cargo interests simply refuse to pay their
also state the number of pieces or weight of the cargo. contribution then that would be a bad debt - for which
the shipowner would not have any insurance cover.
As a receipt it will be given to the shipper of the However, if the shipowner did have FD&D cover then
cargo, which will then use the bill of lading in another the FD&D lawyers may assist the shipowner with the
way: as a document of title or negotiable instrument. debt recovery exercise.
Under the contract of sale which will have been
negotiated between the buyer and the seller of the Liabilities in respect of ships
cargo, there will have been established, in most cases, It could be said that P&I insurance covers those
an irrevocable letter of credit (LOC) within an risks which have not been covered under the H&M
international banking system. Under the LOC the policy. To some extent this is true and particularly so
seller will be paid for the goods provided it produces when considering risks specifically relating to the ship
certain documentation in a particular form. This will itself in contrast to risks related to people and cargo.
inevitably require a bill of lading, which will confirm Most P&I Clubs assume that their members will
that: be contracting for their H&M cover on Lloyd's Marine
T h e goods have been shipped on board a Policy with Institute Time Clauses (Hulls) - 1.10.83
particular ship at a particular port and bound for or similar. However, whereas these particular H&M
a particular port. policy terms are very popular, shipowners will make
The goods were loaded by a particular date. their own choice as to the terms and policy under
The goods were in apparent good order and which their hull and machinery risks are covered.
condition, or in such a condition as allowed under There are other popular H&M policy terms in
the terms of the LOC. place in other insurance markets around the world
A particular quantity had been loaded. such as, but not limited to, Scandinavia, Germany and
the US. These may differ significantly from the
The buyer of the cargo is thus relying on the
standard forms used on the Lloyd's market.
statements in the bill of lading when handing over its
money to the seller and, if these statements It is extremely important for the shipowner to know
subsequently turn out to be inaccurate or untrue, then what is covered under its H&M policy for two related
the shipowner will have to compensate the cargo reasons. Firstly, if certain risks are covered under the
receiver. If such a bill of lading was issued by the H&M policy then those same risks do not need to be
master or the shipowner (or with its knowledge) then covered under the P&I insurance. This reduced risk
the P&I cover may be prejudiced. should be brought to the attention of the P&I
COMMAND 55
underwriter, who should take it into account when cargo or for smuggling, for having illegal immigrants
calculating the call level for that particular member. o n board (e.g. an undeclared stowawa y ), as a
Secondly, within the rules of the P&I Club, there will punishment following a pollution incident and for
probably be a 'double insurance rule', which says that many other violations and offences. All of these fines
if a particular risk is covered under some other will be covered by P&I although the directors of the
insurance policy, then it is not covered by P&I. club may need to be satisfied that the members were
not privy to the incidents for which the fines were
Of course the master also needs to know the terms being levied. It is possible under this particular head
of the H&M policy since, if there is an incident of risk that the P&I Club, rather than the H&M
involving the ship, he needs to know whether to call underwriters, inay have to compensate the shipowner
in the P&I correspondent or the H&M representative. for the loss of its ship. This could arise if, for example,
The risks covered in this section include: customs or police found a large consignment of drugs
which were being smuggled on board the ship. As a
Collisions. consequence, and by way of a punishment, the local
Non-contact damage to ships. authorities or court confiscated the ship by way of the
Damage to property. fine or penalty.
Pollution.
Wreck removal. As stated, P&I cover is open-ended. Because of the
Towage. unique way in which the clubs are structured they can,
and do, respond to new risks and liabilities which arise
The extent to which a P&I Club will provide cover or changes in the law which may occur. The aim is to
for liabilities arising out of a collision will depend very provide the protection the shipowner members of the
much upon the terms of the hull and machinery policy. club require during the commercial operation of their
Under the ITC (Hulls) - 1.10.83 H&M policy terms, ships. If a risk or liability arises and, provided it is not
three fourths of the collision liability (three quarters specifically excluded and it is of a P&I nature, then
RDC) will be covered. The other quarter RDC would the claim call be referred to the board of directors of
be covered by P&I. Damage to the shipowner's own the club under the omnibus rule for approval.
ship falls under H&M insurance.
Freight demurrage and defence (FD&D)
Another liability risk which is not usually covered The purpose of FD&D insurance is to provide the
under the H&M policy, although it may be under member with cover for the enforcement of all proper
certain policies, is damage to third party property. Such claims and the defence of all claims improperly
damage can often arise when the ship comes into brought relating to:
physical contact with the third party property. For
example, the ship may run into a wharf, jetty or pier Freight, deadfreight and demurrage.
or hit the arm of a container gantry crane or a General average, insurance monies and salvage.
navigational marker buoy - plus an almost unlimited Breach of charter or contract of affreightment or
range of other so-called 'fixed and floating objects' hire.
(FFO) incidents. Detention through collision or any other cause.
The negligent repair or alteration or the supply of
Pollution is included here because many of the short, defective or improper outfit, equipment,
potential liabilities arising from a pollution incident bunker fuel or other necessaries.
are basically in respect of damage to third party Loading, stowing, trimming, or discharge of cargo.
property - except that in this case it is likely to involve The building, purchase or sale of the ship.
cleaning the property rather than rebuilding a physical Disputes with mortgagees of the ship.
structure. Wrongful arrest.
Improper action by national authorities or similar
It is natural to think of thick black oil when the
bodies.
word pollution is mentioned, but there can be many
other different types of pollution - from chemicals H&M claims below deductible.
and garbage to smoke and hold sweepings. The P&I FD&D also covers legal representation at coroner's
Club provides insurance cover for most types of inquests, formal investigations or other inquiries into
pollution, including claims for damages, clean up and casualties, or the conduct of servants of the member.
fines. However, the financial level of cover available
within the P&l Club for oil pollution is limited at The actual cover provided by different FD&D
us$500,000,000. insurers may vary slightly from the above list; there
inay be some additional areas specifically identified
During its employment a vessel or the people or some of the above may not be specifically
operating it may find themselves being fined for all mentioned. The various areas of cover identified may
manner of alleged or actual offences. These could also have restrictions imposed before cover is provided
include fines for failure to maintain safe working - for example, if FD&D was assisting a member with
conditions, customs fines for short or over-landed a claim falling below the H&M deductible then the

member would need to demonstrate that the H&M them. The agent may also be used to relay advice of
deductible was set at a realistic and reasonable level. the incident to the shipowner or shipmanager.
However, some cautioil may need to be exercised
Responding to an incident - the crucial
because the agent may find itself in a slight conflict of
role of the master interest situation. If, as is often the case, the vessel is
Imagine a ship which has arrived at the discharge operating under a charterparty then the ship's agent
port, the hatch covers have been opened and discharge is likely to have been appointed by the charterer rather
has commenced. Damaged cargo is then discovered. than the shipowner. If the incident has arisen from an
Often the master on board the ship will be amongst alleged breach of the bill of lading contract by the
the first to be aware of the problem. Whereas the shipowner, as carrier, this may also involve, for similar
master may be in a position to render some 'first aid' reasons, a breach of the charterparty contract. It may
measures to keep the situation under control, it is therefore be inappropriate for the charterer, via its
important that he recognises that he should advise his agent, to become involved in the investigation 0x1
shipowners or shipmanagers as well as the P&I Club board until the facts have been clarified and the
immediately in order that the necessary back up and evidence collected.
support call be provided. Once the immediate problem has been resolved
Figure 8.4 shows that there are a number of possible the extent of the damage has been minimised, the
routes which the master may take. He may initially quantum of the damage has been established, security
report the problem to the operations department at has been provided, if necessary, and the ship has sailed,
the shipowner's office. The shipowner or shipmanager then each of the interested parties will assess its
may then establish contact with its P&I Club to advise respective position.
the club of the problem. There is no reason why the Prior to the vessel sailing- the master should have
master should not contact the P&I Club directly but been working closely with the surveyor, lawyer and
this does not occur very often - it being more usual possibly consultant who were attending on behalf of
for the master to contact the local representative or the shipowner and its P&I Club to ensure that all the
correspondent of the P&I Club. relevant evidence has been collected together and that
The master should have on board the list of any statements that need to be taken have been taken.
correspondents of the particular P&I Club covering The role of the master and his officers in this activity
that particular vessel. He should therefore have is crucial.
available all the relevant details of the local The Mariner's Role in Collecting Euidence should be
correspondents. However, he may approach the local consulted for guidance on the types of evidence
ship's agent, who will usually know who the local P&I required for the particular incident under
correspondents are and how to commu~licatewith consideration.
Cargo
underwriter
P&I club + MASTER

I
- I
Local agent
I receiver
Cargo I
t -
v
Local P&l
I
v
Charterer
I
.+
reps
I Charterer's
Pa1 club
Figure 8.4 Initial reporting options
COMMAND 57
Conclusion system of the ISM Code. Checks and inspection
Whatever the type of incident might be, whether should be done to exercise due diligence to make the
it is a P&I incident, FD&D or HBM, the matter will vessel seaworthy but records should also be kept of
need to be investigated to try to establish the cause all those activities which can then be used to
and the documentary evidence will need to be demonstrate, to a court of law if necessary, that the
collected and reports will have to be prepared. The due diligence was indeed exercised.
evidence and the reports prepared by the master and Almost as a by-product, the activity of creating
his team on board will be crucial if the shipowner and evidence as part of the running of a ship in this way
the P&I Club are to be protected. will in fact make everyone more conscious of what
If the claims cannot be resolved amicably then that they are doing which, in itself, is a most powerful loss
documentation and the reports may have to be prevention tool.
produced in a court or before an arbitration tribunal
and the oripnator of that evidence, the master or References
officer may have to stand up and testify on oath that 7Ie Mariner's Role in CollectingEnidence,The Nautical
the information presented is accurate and correct. Institute, 1997.
The collection of evidence is not something which
The Mariner's Guide to Marine Insurance, P. Anderson.
is done just following an accident or problem but
The Nautical Institute, 1999.
rather it is an ongoing exercise as part of a well run
ship. Log books should be properly maintained, Distance Learning Course in [email protected], The North
records kept, reports made, and procedures followed of England P&I Association in conjunction with
both of the QA system and the safety management South Tyneside College UK.

Chapter 9
SURVEYS AND THE SHIPMASTER

a brief summary of a book by Captain W. Vervloesem AMNI
prepared by Lt Cdr J.A. Hepworth RN Ret'd MNI
Captazn Walter Ervloesem was born and educated in Antwerp. After graduation )om the Antwerp Maritime Academy, he was
employed by different Belgian and Dutch shipping companies where he served on various types of ships (general cargo/multi purpose
ships, reefer sh@s and gas carriers). After havinggained sea experience as deck oficer in both deep sea and coastal service, he left the sea
in 7988 in the rank of chief officer on short-sea trade vessels.
He then decided to redirecthis career and started as a marine surveyor in Antwerp where his activities subsequently comprised P H I
work, surveys on behalf of cargo and hull & machinery underwriters. Shortly after coming ashore, he became actively involved in
various types of ship inspection programmes and ship surveys, comprising condition surv~ys,forseveral leading P&I clubs, H&M
underwriters, pre-purchase inspections, jlag state - and sea~orthinessinspections.
He is presently apartner in IMC$ a well established survey company in Antwerp with seven branch ofices througlzout Europe,
Russia and Ukraine, and co-manages the Antwerp based head ofice. His special interests include ship inspections, I S M consultancy,
accident and damage investigation together with a wide range of transport and cargo problems.
Captain kruloesem is founding chairman of the Belgian Branch of The Nautical Institute, which was established in April 1998.
Introduction
THE S HIP SURVEY AUDIT C OMPANION, authored
AND the survey in order to achieve the intended result. This
by Walter Vervloesem, was published in April 2000 generally consists of a properly elaborated report,
by T h e Nautical Institute. I t is a detailed and including the required information amplified by a
authoritative publication on the work of the ship number of useful comments and constructive remarks
surveyor and provides an enormous range of checklists on the matters concerned.
for various situations.
'Normally, principals will provide their
Captain Vervloesem's book can be used as a guide surveyors or inspectors with pro forma reports that
not only for training institutes, students and cadets, cover the most important items likely to be found
but by ship's staff as a reference for cross-checking aboard ships. It will be appreciated that these checklists
their own inspection programmes and in helping them a11d formats have a general character and not all items
to organise surveys and assisting inspectors in a proper can be covered. More specific inspection paths and
way. criteria against which an item needs to be checked or
tested are generally not mentioned and are left to the
Masters will be aware of the demands on their time discretion and professional judgement of the surveyor
from surveyors. It is useful, therefore, to have an in attendance.'
overview of what they are trying to achieve and how
best to prepare for their work. As the author's foreword The book contains many samples of these checklists
says: and a glance at them will help ship's staff to be aware
of what the surveyor may be seeking during a visit.
'In the late nineteen eighties and partly as a result This should assist the master and officers to prepare
of a series of unexplainable bulk carrier losses, a wide for the survey and to ensure it is of least inconvenience
variety of ship inspection programmes were worked and most benefit to all concerned.
out and existing programmes were expanded. The aim
of these various types of ship inspection programmes Some examples of these checklists are shown:
was (and still is) to make an appraisal about the
Master's responsibility and authority (checklistfor
condition of a ship, to identify specific areas of concern
ISM Section V) (figure 1.8.5 in the book)
and to provide those who initiated the inspection with
Example of a port state inspection report (figure
information which will help them in a decision making
1.8.16 in the book)
process, in advising their customers and clients, or in
Ship certificate index (figure 2.3.2 in the book -
determining strategies and the way forward.
first three pages only)
'Every type of ship inspection consists of a very Mooring and anchor equipment checklist (figure
complex process whereby the ship inspector or auditor 2.6.1 in the book)
will need to focus on various shipboard procedures Steering failure checklist (figure2.11.2 in the book)
and evaluate the condition of shipboard equipment Helicopter operations checklist (figure 2.11.17 in
and material. This requires careful planning and the book)
experience and surveyors or auditors will have to use Ship safety meeting minute format/guidelines
their organisational talents and flexibility throughout (figure 2.12.16 in the book)
COMMAND 59
SECI'ION VIII
Guidelines for audits ashore and on board
ISM Section V - Master's responsibility and authority
Available ?
Acceptable?
Satisfactory?
Details Yes No Comments / remarks
Shore items
Definitions of the master's duties,
responsibilities and authority. U D ................................................................
Evidence that master is provided with and
aware of details regarding his function,
duties, responsibilities, authority. U D ................................................................
- Statement of the overriding authority of
the master re-decision making in ship/
crew safety and environmental protection
related matters. cl D ................................................................
Request to master to implement the
S & E P policy of the company on board
and motivating crew with respect to
S & E P matters. cl D ................................................................
Statement and details re-observation of
SMS requirements re-shipboard operations,
shipboard management and S & E P
matters (ref. sections of book) El Ll ................................................................
Request/procedures for reviewing SMS
(min. l ~ / ~ e aand
r ) reporting deficiencies. Ll 0 ................................................................
Records of shipboard reviews of the SMS. D U ................................................................
* Evidence of immediate shipboard
reporting of changed circumstances which
might adversely affect the S & E P. U D ................................................................
Ship items
Definitions of the master's duties,
responsibilities and authority. U U ................................................................
Evidence that master is provided with and
aware of details regarding his function,
duties, responsibilities, authority.
Documented procedures for specific duties
delegated to officers under his command. D Ll ................................................................
Statement of the overriding authority of
the master re-decision making in ship/
crew safety and environmental protection
related matters. D CI ................................................................
Figzirr 1.8.5 Checklist for ISM Section V - Master's responsibility a ~ l dauthority

SECTION VIII
Guidelines for audits ashore and on board
ISM Section V - Master's responsibility and authority (continued)
Available ?
Acceptable?
Satisfactory?
Details Yes No Comments / remarks
Request to master to implement the

S & E P policy of the company on board
and motivating crew with respect to
S & E P matters (i.e. signature of crew
confirming that company procedures
manuals have been read/understood). U U ................................................................
Evidence re-specific measures to ensure
that procedures and instructions are
complied with during day to day shipboard
operations, shipboard management and
S & E P matters (checklists,job
instructions, etc.) Ll El ................................................................
Evidence that SMS is reviewed
(min. I ~ / ~ e aand
r ) deficiencies/
anomalies reported (Records of shipboard
reviews of the SMS). U CI ................................................................
Evidence of immediate shipboard reporting
re-changed circumstances which might
adversely affect the S & E P. CI U ................................................................
Figure 7.8.5 Checklist for ISM Section V - Master's responsibility and az~tl~ority
(continued)
Using these checklists, and the many others in the process and the checklists mentioned in Walter
book, masters can more easily prepare for the requests Vervloesem's book should be of assistance in seeing
and requirements of surveyors. For example, if life how the surveyor will be working out inspection
saving equipment is to be inspected, it is quicker and schedules by selecting from the required checklists or
more efficient if the gear is laid out beforehand. This parts thereof. Furthermore the selected material might
saves time and also gives the ship's staff a good also serve as an "aide-memoire" during the execution
opportunity to practice with the equipment. of the survey or audit.
Usually, the time window for inspection will Masters have a huge amount on their plate already,
be limited and the surveyor will have to work under so preparation for surveys, using Captain Vervloesem's
conditions of stress in order to coinplete his survey book as a guide, could make life slightly easier. The
prior to departure of the ship. Planning, organisation book is a very worthwhile investment.
and flexibility play a key role in the survey/audit
Annex 4 to Part I
Example of a Port State inspection report
Concentrated Inspection Campaign on selected items in respect of

ISM Implementation
Inspection Authority: Port State Co,~t,.ol

Port of Inspection: .......................................
Date of Inspection: .......................................
Name of ship: ....................................... IMO number: .........................

Ship type: ....................................... Name of Company: .........................
Flag of ship: ....................................... Auditing body if not Flag state: .........................
Call sign: .......................................
Yes No
1. Is the ISM Code applicable to ship as of 1/7/98? 0 C
l
2. ISM certification on board? 0 CII
3. Are certificates and particulars in order? 0 C
l
4. Is Safety Management documentation (e.g. manual) readily
available on board?
Ref: Section 1.4 of the ISM Code
5. Is relevant documentation on the SMS in a working language
or language understood by the ship's personnel?
6. Can senior officers identify the Company responsible for the
operation of the ship and does this correspond with the entity
on the ISM certificates?
Ref: Section 3 of the ISM Code
7. Can senior officers identify the "designated person"?
8. Are procedures in place for establishing and maintaining contact
with shore management in an emergency?
9. Are programmes for drills and exercises to prepare for emergency
actions available on board?
10. Can the master provide documented proof of his responsibilities and
authority, which must include his overriding authority?
11. Does the ship have a maintenance routine and are records available?
Ship detained 0 U
Do detainable deficiencies, if found, indicate a failure of the Safety 0 Cl

Management System?
Ref: 3.3.2 of Provisional Guidelines
Paris Memoraildurn of Understanding on Port State Control

15 May 1998
Figure 7.8.76 Example of a Port State inspection report

SHIP CERTIFICATE INDEX
(Note: All certificates carried on board must be originals)
REMARKS
ISSUED VALID/ * (INTERIM/
CERTIFICATE DATE PLACE EXPIRY/DUE EXEMPTION)
1. REG - REGISTRY
1.01 Certificate of registry indefinitely
valid
(FAL Convention)
2. STAT - STATUTORY
2.01 International loadline certificate 5 years
(LL Convention article 16)
Annual survey
Exemption
2.02 I 0 P P certificate 5 years
Intermediate survey
Annual survey
Form "A" (supplement)
Form "B" (supplement)
(MARPOL 73/78 Annex 1 Reg. 5)
2.03 Passenger ship safety certificate 1 year
(SOLAS 74/78 Ch. 1/12 as amended
by GMDSS amendments)
Exemption certificate
(SOLAS 74/78 Ch. 1/12)
Safety certificate for special trade
passenger ships
(STP Agreement Reg. 6)
Special trade passenger ships
space certificate
(SSTP 73 rule 5)
2.04 Safety construction certificate 5 years
Intermediate survey
Annual survey
Record of construction and
equipment for oil tankers (supp.)
by the GMDSS amendments)
2.05 Safety equipment certificate 2 years
Intermediate survey
Annual survey
Form "E"
Exemption
2.06 Safety radio certificate 1 year
Form "R"
Exemption
-"- Note: Validity and expiry dates may vary according to circumstances
Figure 2.3.2 Ship cert$cate inde.~
COMMAND 63
SHIP CERTIFICATE INDEX (continued)
REMARKS
CERTIFICATE
--- DATE PLACE EXPIIXY/DUE EXEMPTION)
2.07 Dangerous goods manifest or
stowage plan for current voyage
(SOLAS 74/78 Ch. VII/5(5))
(MARPOL 73/78 Annex I11 Reg. 4-5
as amended)
2.08 Document of authorisation for the
carriage of grain indefinitely valid
(SOLAS 74/78 Ch. VI/Y)
2.09 Document of compliance with special 5 years
requirements for ships carrying
dangerous goods
(SOLAS 74/78 Ch. 11-2/54.3)
2.10 Noxious Liquid Substances 5 years
Certificate
intermediate survey
annual survey
(MARPOL 73/78 - An I1 - R11.2)
2.11 S 0 P E P manual to be approved
(MARPOL 73/78 Annex I Reg. 26) by administration
2.12 U S Coast Guard Letter of 2 years yearly (mid-term)
Compliance inspections
3. QA/ISM - QUALITY ASSURANCE/ISM

3.01 Document of compliance specify type of ship
Initial survey 5 years copy on board
Annual survey f 3 months
(SOLAS 74 Ch. IX Reg. 4.1-4.2)
3.021 S M: between owenrs and
Marine management agreement present managers
3.03 Safety management certificate orignal to be on
Initial survey 5 years board
Intermediate survey 2-3 years
(SOLAS 74 Ch. IX Reg. 4.3)
4. CLASS - CLASS RELATED CERTIFICATES / INSPECTION DATES
4.01 Cargo securing manual to be clasdadmin-
(SOLAS 74 Ch. VI Reg. 5.6) istration approved
4.02 Class automation 5 years
Annual class automation
(SOLAS 74 Ch. I1 - 1 Reg. 46)
4.03 Classification certificates
A: Hull 5 years
special survey
continuous survey
intermediate survey
annual survey
" Note: Validiiy and expiry dates may nary according to circumstances
Figure 2.3.2 Sh$ certijcate index (continued)

SHIP CERTIFICATE INDEX (continued)
REMARKS
CERTIFICATE DATE PLACE EXPIRY/DUE EXEMPTION)
B: Machinery 5 years
special survey
continuous survey
intermediate survey
annual survey
C: Refrigeration machinery 5 years
special survey
continuous survey
intermediate survey
annual survey
4.04 Dry docking every 2-5 years
and 2x in 5 years
4.05 Exhaust gas boiler 2.5 years
4.06 In water survey only for intermediate
docking/mid-term/
class
4.07 Inert gas plant 5 years
Annual survey
(SOLAS 74 Ch. I1 - 1 Reg. 62)
4.08 Oil fired boiler 2.5 years
4.09 Tail shaft 5 years
4.10 Thickness determination (hull) every 5 years after
first 5 years (first
survey after 10 years)
5. LSA - LIFE SAVING EQUIPMENT

5.01 E P I R B check MMSI no. or
Hydrostatic release 2 years country code and
Battery expiry callsign or country
(SOLAS 74 Ch. IV Reg. 4.1) code and serial
number
5.02 Immersion suit certificate (approved type)
(SOLAS 74 Ch. 111 Reg. 7-30-33)
5.03 Life jacket certificate (approved type)
(SOLAS 74 Ch. 111 Reg. 7-30-32)
5.04 T P A certificate (approved type)
(SOLAS 74 Ch. I11 Reg. 30-34)
5.05 Lifeboat certificate/rescue boat 5 yearly test
launching appliances
5.06 Lifeboat falls renewed 5 years
Port and starboard side
* Note: ValidiQ and expiry dates tnay vary accordiilg to circumstances

Figure 2.3.2 Sh$ cert$cate index (continued)
MOORING AND ANCHOR EQUIPMENT CHECKLIST
............................
M.V: ........................................................ Date: Port: .......................................
Key:
1. Windlass (electro-hydraulic/steam)
2. Winch (electro-hydraulic/steam)
3. Capstan (electro-hydraulic/steam)
Fitted Condition
Equipment Provided Operational Good Fair Poor Remarks
WINDLASS/WINCHES / CAPSTANS
(ILO 134 Art. 4 3g)
Winch bed structure/structural integrity
Self tensioning devices
Wire/rope drums
Drum ends and whelps
Protection guards over moving parts
Platforms/operator stand
Platform/stand structure
Brake linings
Swivels
Securing pins
Adequate lighting
(SOLAS'74 Ch. 11-1Reg. 40 / ILO 134 Art. 4 3a)
For electro-hydraulic equipment
Piping arrangements
Drip traydsave-alls
Drip tray plugs
For steam driven equipment
Piping arrangements
Pipe insulation
MOORING ROPES/WIRES
(ILO 134 Art. 4 B3g)
Rope reels
Ropes
Wires
Wire ropes/nylon tail
Insurance wire
Emergency towing wires
Spare ropes
Spare wires
Fairleads
Old man rollers
Panama leads
ANCHOR EQUIPMENT
(ILO 134 Art. 3338)
Bow anchors
Stern anchor
Spare anchor
Anchor cables
Shackle marks
Securing chains
Devil's claw
Cable stoppers
Smit type bracket and mooring chain
Hawse pi e covers
B
Bitter en release
Bridge indication of shackles paid out
State last date of testing Windlass Testing due:

Winches Testing due:
Capstan Testing due:
State date of turning anchor chains end for end
Means of communication (talkback - portable VHF) Fzgure 2.6.1 Mooring and anchor equ@mentchecklist
66 THE NAUTICAL IIVSTITUTE

STEERING FAILURE CHECKLIST
A B C
IMMEDIATE CONSIDER/ REPORT TO
ACTION CARRY OUT OWNERS
01 Inform engine room a 01 Steering gear room to be 01 Time/date of incident (+ LT) LI

02 Inform master U manned as per emergency 02 Exact position of ship U
03 NUC lights/shapes exhibited U procedures U 03 Current conditions 0
04 Make appropriate sound signals U 02 Investigate situation U 04 Weather conditions & forecast U
05 Keep V H F watch 9 03 Record time, observations 05 Distance from coast/nearest
06 Follow switch over procedures and damage U land/ nearest port U
and engage manual/emergency 04 Establish type of damage 06 Damaged machinery/equip-
steering as appropriate U (damage to steering gear ment(use proper terminology) U
07 Take way off ship if necessary or loss/damage to rudder) U 07 State type of damage 0
(inform engine room) 05 Inspect damaged items in 08 State extent of damage U
08 Broadcast to other ships 0 accordance with manu- 09 State cause of damage CI
09 Pass vessel's position to facturer's instructions U 10 State if onboard repairs can be
R/O-Radio Room 06 State type of damage U carried out (makeshift or
10 Use bowthruster for course 07 State extent of damage U permanent) U
corrections 08 Establish cause of damage D 11 State if shore advice/assistance is
11 Check vessel's position at 09 Check if damaged item can required U
regular intervals & keep be repaired or is to be 12 State if spares are to be delivered
R/O-R/R informed ZI replaced U onboard ZI
10 Check if permanent or 13 State if docking is required 5
temporary repairs can be 14 State time necessary for
carried out 5 onboard repair 0
11 Check if required spare parts 15 Will vessel be able to proceed
are on board or fill out a store/ after repairs + ETA at port of
spare part order form U refuge or destination) 5
12 Use correct and appropriate 16 Is vessel able to complete
terminology in accordance with current voyage? 0
manufacturers instruction 17 Is towage/salvage assistance
manual. Make reference to required? U
page, section, # U 18 State actual condition and keep
13 Ascertain whether repairs can be owner informed about progress U
carried out by ships crew or if 19 State if further problems are
shore assistance is required to be expected U
14 Check if other problems are to 20 List materials used for repairs L l
be expected 5 21 State coast station for radio
15 Consider all safety aspects prior contact or other means of
to carrying out repairs U co~nmunication U
16 Keep damaged parts onboard
for future reference U
17 Take photographs U
18 Make protest letter C
I
Figure 2.11.2 Steeringfailure checkht
COMMAND 67
HELICOPTER OPERATIONS CHECKLIST
A B D
PREPARING FOR HELICOPTER
ASSISTANCE/OPERATIONS LANDING PROCEDURES REPORT T O OWNERS
01 Define whether helicopter hook 18 Consider weather conditions O 01 Advise crew at landing area about 01 Reason for helicopter assistance U
handling or landing operations 19 Discuss most appropriate heading time/moment of landing 02 Date and time of helicopter
will be involved U /speed with helicopter pilot U 02 Avoid shipping seas/sprays on landing and take-off U
02 Select the most appropriate hook 20 Prepare rope messengers for deck during landing manoeuvre O 03 Any allomalies during helicopter
handling/landing area (keep helicopter securing 03 Inform deck crew to keep clear operations, such as damage or
deck strength in mind) 21 Avoid intermittent discharge of rotors and exhausts U injuries cl
03 Remove obstructions/secure from pipelines/manifolds 04 Give proper and clear signs to 04 Whether operations was
loose objects and equipment 22 (Gas tankers) Avoid emission of pilot during landing manoeuvre Ll completed successfully U
04 Hoist pennant/windsock in gas/vapours on deck (when no 0.5 Ask pilot whether helicopter 05 Delays encountered on account
conspicuous position U IGS is fitted) El should be secured 0 of helicopter operations U
0,5 Establish communication between 23 (Tankers) Release pressure from 06 Keep detailed records of data
landing area and bridge U cargo tanks (30 minutes before time/course/speed/commun-
06 Establish comn~unicationbetween helicopter operations) 0 icationdlanding time/reason for
ship and helicopter U 24 (Tankers) Reduce IG pressure helicopter operations/any
07 Confirm when landing area is in cargo tanks U anomalies CI
ready for landing 25 (Tankers) Secure tank openings
08 Ensure appropriate firefighting following venting operations U
equipment is readily available 0 26 (Bulk carriers) Cease all surface
09 Keep firefighting squad ready for ventilation to dry bulk cargoes C
intervention and batten down hatch covers
10 Pressurise fire main and keep and access lids U TAKE-OFF PROCEDURES
fire pumps running E
l
11 Prepare medical assistance team
and arrange hospital to receive 01 Agree take-off procedures with
injured persons U
helicopter pilot U
12 Prepare a rescue room U
02 Tune radio equipment and establish
13 Prepare rescue boat (ready for
radio contact deck-bridge and
ship/helicopter 0
launching) U
14 Ensure emergency equipment is 03 Undo lashings and store them
readily available (crowbar, wire
well away from the take-off area cl
04 Observe same precautions/
cutters, red emergency signal/
guidelines as during landing
torch, marshalling batons) O
operations U
15 Arrange for proper illumination
05 Record date and time of take-off
of deck area U
and confirm operation successfully
16 Only allow necessary crew on
deck/at landing area U
completed 0
17 Consider ship's course/speed tl
SHIP SAFETY MEETING MINUTE FORMAT / GUIDELINES
M.V: ........................................ Date: ................. Port: ..................................
Persons attending the meeting:

Rank Name Signature
Master
First Officer
Chief Engineer
Second Officer
Other
Other
Safety meeting started at: .............................hrs. and was completed at: ...................... hrs.
Meeting Agenda
01. Review previous minutes.
02. Discussion of outstanding items.
03. Trading/current trade safety/health hazards.

(cargo, ballast, bunker, stowage/lashing and securing operations) precautionary measures.
04. Deficiencieddamages to safety equipment and corrective action.
05. Discuss accident, hazardous occurrences, danger situations.
06. Safety information communicated to company.
07. Safety information received from company.
08. Planning of next drills and consideration of scenarios.
09. Discuss on board training issues.
10. Welfare and recreation items.
11. Safety related items proposed/introduced by non-team members.
12. Safety of riding crew, shore labourers, visitors.
13. Corrective actions to be taken.
Note:
File original minute as appropriate in ship's file U
Send copy to office/company Ll
Display copy on crew messroom notice board CI
Display copy on notice board in officer's messroom Q
Figure 2.12.16 Ship safety meeting minuteformat/guidelines
COMMAND 69
Chapter 10
FLAG STATES AND THE SHIPMASTER

by Captain D.J.F. Bruce FNI, Senior Vice President - Europe, International Registries Inc.
Captain DavidJF: Bruce zeient to sea in 1956and, after serving as mastcr with Canadian PaczJicSteamsh$s, took up shore employment
with the Milford Haven Port Authority. He has worked with marine administrations and sh$ping registries since 7972, first with
Liberian Services Limited and then, after a period as Chief Marine Surveyor for the Isle ofMan Government, he took up his present
position as Senior Ece President - Europe with International Registries Inc., (IRl), in 7994.
IRI manages the maritime registriesforLiberia and the Marshall Islands. In charge of the operation ofIRYsfour European ofices,
Captain Bruce is responsible for safety inspections within Europe, Afiica and the Middle East, handling sh$ registrations and, as
Senior Deputy Commissioner for the Marshall Islands Marine Administration, attends IMO meetingsfor them in that capacity.
Definition for the role of the flag state. One such convention is
The flag state is the country in which a vessel is the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
registered and which has jurisdiction over that vessel which declares that each state may decide the
and the certification of the crew, including the master. conditions for entry onto its register. However, Ai-ticle
The master must ensure that he is aware of, and 94 of the convention delineates the jurisdiction and
complies with, the requirements of the flag state control the flag state may assert over the administrative,
relating to the operation of his vessel. He should technical and social matters of vessels flying its flag as
cooperate with the flag state in any investigations and are necessary to ensure safety at sea. It establishes steps
in the making of any necessary reports. which may be taken by the flag state such as to ensure
the utilisation of qualified surveyors and the provision
Flag states and the shipmaster of proper rlavigational equipment on board vessels. It
The relationship between shipmaster and a flag also requires that appropriate manning be on board
state is one which is dictated by law, developed over and crew appropriately qualified.
the ages according to changing needs and the position
of the mastel-.As all are aware, the master is the person A flag state's national legslation has, as its basis,
in command of a ship - but such privilege also has its the provisions of international conventions - many of
responsibilities, and these are well detailed by flag state these having been adopted through the International
administrations. In taking command of a ship, the Maritime Organization (IMO). These international
master is the person appointed by the shipowner to conventions are adopted by the member countries of
take case of the owner's property and, as such, may IMO, and each government then undertakes to give
be appointed and removed from office by the effect to their provisions - by including them within
shipowner. His duties, responsibilities and authority the government's national laws, and by implementing
are therefore governed firstly by his contract of and enforcing the requirements of each such
employment with the shipowner, by the general convention. However, whilst virtually all flag states
employment law of the country of the contract, and are members of I M O , their acceptance and
by the maritime law of the country in which his vessel implementation of international conventions are by
is registered. no means total. Complications arise where vessels of
countries not party to a particular convention still have
Why flag state? to comply with the provisions of that convention if
Vessels sailing on the high seas possess a national they are to be able to trade internationally. And, in
character usually granted by the regstration of the that case, the master may have to rely upon the
vessel in the public records of a state. This then permits national laws of the port state for guidance. However,
the vessel to fly the flag of and be subject to the laws international conventions are minimum standards, and
of that state. International law protects principles such many countries - or flag states - have additional
as that of the 'freedom of the high seas', but it also requirements or higher standards in their national
looks to individual flag states to enforce compliance legislation. These higher standards apply to a vessel
with safety and environmental requirements over the registered in that country.
national fleets under their jurisdiction. Hence the
concept of flag state control has been, traditionally, Certification of the vessel
the primary basis for the control of vessels. As proof that a vessel complies with the provisions
of international conventions, certificates are, after
The duties and responsibilities of the flag state are survey, issued to a vessel, by or on behalf of the flag
contained within a multiplicity of international state. Although the surveys in this connection are
conventions and regulations which set the parameters frequently carried out by classification society

surveyors, and the certificates issued by them, these However, the last half century has seen a rise in
certificates remain the responsibility of the flag state. the number of ship registers and in the popularity of
open registers. It is now very likely that a shipmaster
The number of these 'statutory' certificates required will be sailing on a vessel which is not regstered in
to be carried by a vessel is ever increasing, and it is the country of his nationality. This has placed an
wise for the master to maintain a file of certificates additional burden upon the shipmaster, for no longer
with a separate list detailing the expiry dates of the need he only be aware of the laws of his own country,
certificates and the dates when the next surveys or the country which originally certificated him and
inspections are due. found him competent to be master, but he must also
O n taking over command, the master should verify be aware of the laws of the country of regstry of the
that the vessel's certificates are in order. These vessel - or flag state.
certificates are frequently the first items to be checked Whilst the basic responsibilities of the master and
by port state control inspectors, so it is vital that a requirements under the convention remain the same,
complete record is maintained. flag state administrations do have differing national
Due to the large number of certificates issued under legslation regarding the operation of a vessel, and of
International Conventions, the permutations of vessels which the master must have knowledge. It is therefore
required to be so certificated and the gradual incumbent upon the master to be aware of the
implementation of the Harmonised System of Survey particular National requirements of a particular flag
and Certification, it is not possible to give here an state prior to joining a vessel otherwise he might not
accurate listing of required certificates. If in any doubt be able to operate the vessel to the requirements of
as to whether a vessel is required to be issued with a that flag state. 'This requirement is also contained
particular certificate, the master should refer to Annex within the STCW Convention Regulation 1/10 which
3 of the SOLAS Consolidated Edition 1997, published states:
by IMO, which lists, in some detail, certificates and Measures shall be established to ensure that seafarers who
documents required to be carried on board and present,for recognition, certiJcates issued under theprouisions
thereafter to refer to the applicable convention. of regulatiorzs 1112, IZI/2 or 111/3, or issued under VII/I at
the management level, as deJined in the STCW Code, have
Certification of the master an appropriate knowledge of the maritime legislation ofthe
Whilst the training of seafarers has been going on administration relevant to the functions they are permitted
for hundreds of years, it was only in 1978 that the first to perform.
comprehensive international conference on the
training of seafarers was held. This gave rise to the Accordingly, it would not be acceptable for a
International Convention on Standards of Training master or officer to state on some future occasion that
Certification and Watchkeeping of Seafarers (STCW) he was not aware of the national legislation of the
which came into force in 1984. An extensive revision country of regstry of his vessel. This is particularly
of the convention in 1995 is still being progressively important today with the implementation of the
introduced. International Safety Management (ISM) Code, where
maintenance of operational procedures is required for
The maritime law of the flag state will normally
both the Document of Compliance (DOC) and the
lay down the qualifications and certification (based
Safety Management Certificate (SMC) to remain valid.
upon the STCW Convention) required by the person
permitted to be master of a vessel registered in that For the master who did not study for, nor pass an
state. Also, as a result of these 1995 revisions to the examination held by the flag state, this knowledge is
STCW Convention, it is required that the master (and obtained from the regulatory publications supplied by
officers) of a vessel hold certification issued by the the flag state. In some cases, applicants for officer
flag state administration. Accordingly, a master, in certification based upon equivalency, are required to
addition to probably holding certification issued by sign that they have received a copy of and are aware
his own national government, is required to hold of the national legislation relating to their functions.
certification (known as an endorsement) issued by the Such a declaration, for instance, is included within the
flag state of the vessel on which he is master. application forms for both Liberia and Marshall
Traditionally, a ship's officer, and subsequently a Islands certification. Therefore, on taking over
command, the master must make sure that adequate
master would have been certificated by his country of
information regarding flag state requirements, is
nationality. He would be trained in accordance with
available on board.
that country's laws, would have a knowledge of the
maritime law of that country, and would have sailed It is important to realise that, whilst a state may
on vessels registered in that country. He would no issue certification to a person certifying they are
doubt also have been sailing to and from that same competent to be the master of a ship, it is the flag state
country, in which it might be said that the ship was administration which issues the certification, or license,
based. for a person to be master of a vessel registered in that
COMMAND 71
flag state. It has already been established that the 2) To maintain discipline on board the vessel and to
jurisdiction of the flag state applies on board that take all such steps as are necessary and appropriate
vessel. (bearing in mind that the law of theflag state applies)
Penalties which may be imposed for breaches of
Therefore, in disciplinary matters, the state which
discipline will be gven in the laws of the flag state.
has issued the master's certificate of competency or
license shall alone be competent, after due legal 3) To assume responsibility for the receipt of cargo by
process, to pronounce the withdrawal of such the vessel, stowage of cargo on board the vessel insofar
certificates, even if the holder is not a national of the as such stowage affects the safety or navigation of the
state which issued them. (Law of the Sea Convention, vessel, and for the discharge of cargo from the vessel.
Article 97). One anomaly to this is that, following such
a hearing, a certificate holder may have the certificate 4) To assume full responsibility for the safety of the
issued by that flag state withdrawn, while still be able members of the mew andpassengers, if any.
to retain certificates issued by other flag states. 5) To render assistance in the saving of life andproperty
at sea.
What does the flag state require of a
master? 6) To assume full responsibility for the navigation of
Simply put, the master is responsible to the flag the vessel
state administration for the safety of a vessel, and for This includes:
operating the vessel in accordance with the provisions The responsibility that the vessel will be fully
of all International Conventions to which the flag state and correctly manned with properly
is a party (such as SOLAS, COLREGS, MARPOL); certificated seafarers in accordance with the
other conventions, such as those developed through provisions of a Minimum Safe Manning
the International Labour Organization, to which the Certificate issued by the flag state.
flag state is also a party; and to that flag state's national Compliance with the Regulations for the
legislation. This national legislation is based upon the Prevention of Collisions at Sea.
international conventions as indicated above. That is Compliance with the appropriate sections of
the 'catch all', but some specifics are: the SOLAS Convention Chapter V
7) To enter into sh9ping articles with seamen: (including the necessity to have on board up
The master is responsible for the conduct and care to date charts and nautical publications for
of the crew - responsible that all crew sign the the voyage; to maintain an efficient lookout
whilst at sea and to report ice sighted at sea,
Articles of Agreement and that the terms of this
etc.).
agreement are maintained.
This places the master in the position of being 7) To see that the log books of the vessel are properly
both employer and employee. Whilst the master and accurately kept
is employed by the owner, he employs the Here, a master must be guided by the specific
seafarers on board his vessel and, therefore, also requirements of the flag state. Some states have
has the right to discharge them. In this, he is no their own Official Log Book which must be on
different from a plant manager ashore. board and utilised. Other states require that
specific entries are made in the Bridge Log Book.
Flag states will ilormally have their own form of Regardless,such entries will nearly always include:
shipping articles - the need for which is provided
in ILO Convention No 22. These Articles of Change of command.
Ageement constitute an employment contract A record of offences and penalties imposed
and it is up to the master to ensure that their (see para 2 above).
provisions are complied with by the crew Births, marriages or deaths. Note that under
members. It is of course a two way contract. It the laws of certain flag states, the master may
must also be ensured that the obligations to the also marry passengers or other persons on
seafarers are complied with by the company and board; issue birth certificates for children
born at sea; or bury persons who have died
by the master.
on board the vessel while at sea.
The master is permitted to make entries in the A record of accidents or incidents affecting -
Seafarer's Official Discharge Book or Record Book the vessel or persons on board. This includes
issued by the flag state, or may issue Certificates major incidents such as collisions, groundings,
of Service testifying to that seafarer's service on fires, equipment failures, spills of hazardous
board a vessel. In the event of a dispute with the and/or polluting substances, personal injuries
seafarer with regard to contractual obligations, the or deaths on board.
master must attempt to mediate before referring Load line and draft information prior to
the matter to the flag state administration. departure.

Details of boat and fire drills, musters and A change of command of the vessel.
emergency exercises, such as the lowering Changes of officers and crew on board.
and taking away of boats, or instruction in Accidents to the vessel or crew or persons on
the use of the line throwing apparatus. Note board. (The flag state may have minimum
that differentflag states stipulate different time requirements before such reporting needs to
intervals for conducting such drills, many of be made.)
whose requirements are more frequent than Vessel detention by port state control
the minimum stipulated in SOLAS. authorities or other bodies.
Closing and opening of watertight doors and Any reports or pending prosecutions for
other emergency drills such as the testing of alleged violations of regulations such as oil
emergency steering gear. pollution allegations, allegations of pollution
Stowaway searches prior to leaving port. by garbage; allegations of violations of traffic
separation schemes. The master should be
The above is just a sample of the type of entries aware that the flag state will be advised of
which should be made in the 'official' or Bridge Log those alleged violations by the port or coastal
Book and reference should be made to the state involved, but would much prefer to have
requirements of individual flag states in this regard. received a report from the master first. If the
There are numerous other log books and records that master does not report, then the flag state will
must also be maintained - Oil Record Book, Cargo be in contact with the ship owner, ship
Record Book, Medical Log Book, Engme Room and manager or even with the master directly.
Deck Logbooks, Engine Order or Movement Books
or Records - all of which should record the daily 70)To cooperate in flag state investigations
workings of the vessel together with details of any If a master is involved in a casualty or incident
unusual occurrences. which results in an investigation by flag state
The master should be aware that many flag states authorities, it is expected that the master will
operate their own ship safety inspection regimes and cooperate with the flag state inspectors or
the contents of log books will be checked during investigating officers. If the master cooperates
periodic inspections. Not only will failure to maintain fully, he will usually find the flag state looking
log books correctly result in a report or letter from much more kindly upon any violations, than if
the flag state administration to the ship manager or they are forced to find out for themselves. Should
owner, it may now be deemed to be a nonconformity the master be unlucky enough to be called to
with the provisions of the ISM Code. So the Safety attend an investigation, he should cooperate fully.
Management Certificate for the vessel could be in T h e master will not be able to avoid the
jeopardy. consequences, bearing in mind that the flag state
is the body which issued the certificate of
It is very wise for a master, if in doubt, to make an competency to be master of that vessel and, as
entry in the log book. One never knows when a mentioned before, they have the right to withdraw
contemporaneous record may be of use to the master that certificate.
or ship owner.
Responsibilities of the shipmaster
8) TO keep in his custody all the vessels documents, the A shipmaster has many responsibilities. He is
vessel's funds, and control the use and disbursement responsible to the owner for the ship, the crew and
thereof the out-turn of the voyage. He is responsible to the
cargo owner for the care of the cargo and he is
9) To make all reports as may be required by the flag responsible to the public through the flag state
state according to their laws and regulations administration. Keeping all these demands in balance
This is very important. Flag states do not like to can be difficult at times but a good relationship with
be ignored. Failure to make required reports may the flag state, complying in a timely manner with flag
be deemed to be a nonconformity within the ISM state requirements, will ensure that the ship is not held
Code and so could result in the suspension of the up or disadvantaged, particularly through port state
Safety Management Certificate for the vessel. control.
What should be reported?
COMMAND 73
SOLAS Consolidated Edition 1997
Annex 3
Certifiates and documents required
to be carried on board ships
(Note: All certificates to be carried on board must be originals)
Reference
1 All ships
International Tonnage CertiJicate(7969)
An International Tonnage Certificate (1969) shall be issued to every Tonnage Convention, art. 7
ship, the gross and net tonnage of which have been determined in
accordance with the Convention.
International Load Line Certificate
An International Load Line Certificate shall be issued under the LL Covention, art. 16
provisions of the International Convention on Load Lines, 1966, to
every ship which has been surveyed and marked in accordance with
the Convention.
International Load Line Exemption Certzjkate
An International Load Line Exemption Certificate shall be issued to LL Convention, art. 6
any ship to which an exemption has been granted under and in
accordance with article 6 of the Load Line Convention.
Intact Stability Booklet
All ships of 24 m and over shall be inclined on completion and the SOLAS 1974, reg. 11-1/22
elements of their stability determined. The master shall be supplied
with a Stability Booklet containing such information as is necessary to
enable him, by rapid and simple procedures, to obtain accurate
guidance as to the ship under varying conditions of loading.
Minimum safe manning document
Every ship to which chapter 1 of the Convention applies shall be SOLAS 1974 (1989 amdts.)
provided with an appropriate safe manning document or equivalent reg. V/13(b)
issued by the Administration as evidence of the minimum safe manning.
Certificates for masters, oflcers or ratings STCW 1978, art. VI
Certificates for masters, officers or ratings shall be issued to those
candidates who, to the satisfaction of the Administration, meet the
requirements for service, age, medical fitness, training, qualifications
and examinations in accordance with the provisions of the annex to
the Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and
Watchkeeping for Seafarers, 1978. Certificates for masters and officers
issued in compliance with this article shall be endorsed by the issuing
Administration in the form prescribed in regulation I/2 of the annex.
International Oil Pollution Prevention Certzjkate MARPOL 73/78, Annex 1, reg. 5
An International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate shall be issued
after survey in accordance with regulation 4 of Annex I of MARPOL
73/78, to any oil tanker of 150 gross tonnage and above and any other
ship of 400 gross tonnage and above which are engaged in voyages to
ports or offshore terminals under the jurisdiction of other Parties to
MARPOL 73/78. The certificate is supplemented by a Record of
Construction and Equipment for Ships Other Than Oil Tankers (Form
A) or a Record of Construction and Equipment for Oil Tankers (Form
B), as appropriate.

Oil Record Book MARPOL 73/78, Annex 1, reg. 20
Every oil tanker of 150 gross tonnage and above and every ship of 400
gross tonnage and above other than an oil tanker shall be provided
with an Oil Record Book, Part I (Machinery space operations). Every
oil tanker of 150 gross tonnage and above shall also be provided with
an Oil Record Book, Part I1 (Cargo/ballast operations).
Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan MARPOL 73/78, Annex 1, reg. 26
Every oil tanker of 150 gross tonnage and above and every ship other
than an oil tanker of 400 gross tonnage and above shall carry on board
a Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan approved by the
Administration. In the case of ships built before 4 April 1993 this
requirement shall apply 24 months after that date.
2. In addition to the certificates listed in section 1 above, passenger
ships must carry:
Passenger Ship Safety Certzj2cate1 SOLAS 1974, reg. 1/12, as amended
A certificate called a Passenger Ship Safety Certificate shall be issued by the GMDSS amdts.
after inspection and survey to a passenger ship which complies with
the requirements of chapters 11-1, 11-2, I11 and IV and any other
relevant requirements of SOLAS. A record of equipment for the
Passenger Ship Safety Certificate (Form P) shall be permanently
attached.
Exemption Certifiat8 SOLAS 1974, reg. 1/12
When an exemption is granted to a ship under and in accordance
with the provisions of SOLAS 1974, a certificate called an Exemption
Certificate shall be issued in addition to the certificate listed above.
Special trade passenger ships STP Agreement reg. 6
A form of safety certificate for special trade passenger ships, issued
under the provisions of the Special Trade Passenger Ships Agreement
1971.
Special Trade Passenger Ships Space Certificate SSTP 73 rule 5
Issued under the provisions of the Protocol on Space Requirements
for Special Trade Passenger Ships, 197'3.
3. In addition to the certificates listed in section 1 above, cargo
ships must carry:
Cargo Ship Safety Construction Certificate3 SOLAS 1974, reg.I/12, as amended
A certificate called a Cargo Ship Safety Construction Certificate shall by the GMDSS amdts.
be issued after survey to a cargo ship of 500 gross tonnage and over
which satisfies the requirements for cargo ships on survey, set out in
regulation 1/10 of SOLAS 1974, and complies with the applicable
requirements of chapters 11-1 and 11-2, other than those relating to
fire-extinguishing appliances and fire control plans.
Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificatd SOLAS 1974, reg. 1/12, as amended
A certificate called a Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificate shall be by the GMDSS amdts.
issued after survey to a cargo ship of 500 gross tonnage and over which
complies with the relevant requirements of chapters 11-1,II-2and 111
and any other relevant requirements of SOLAS 1974. A Record of
* The form of the certificate and its record of equipment may be

found in the DMDSS amendments to SOLAS 1874.
+ S1.S 14/Circ. 115 refers to the issue of exemption certificates.
** The form of the certificate may be found in the GMDSS
amendments to SOLAS 1974.
COMMAND 75
Equipment for the Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificate (Form E)
shall be permanently attached.
Cargo Ship Safety Radio Certzj?catt? SOLAS 1974, reg. 1/12, as amended
A certificate called a Cargo Ship Safety Radio Certificate shall be issued by the GMDSS amdts.
after survey to a cargo ship of 300 gross tonnage and over, fitted with
a radio installation, including those used in life-saving appliances which
complies with the requirements of chapters I11 and IV and any other
relevant requirements of SOLAS 1974. A Record of Equipment for
the Cargo Ship Safety Radio Certificate (Form R) shall be permanently
attached.
Exemption CertificateG SOLAS 1974, reg. 1/12
When an exemption is granted to a ship under and in accordance with
the provisions of SOLAS 1974, a certificate called an Exemption
Certificate shall be issued in addition to the certificates listed above.
Document of compliance with the special requirements for ships carrying SOLAS 1974, reg. 11-2/59.3
dangerous goods
An appropriate document as evidence of compliance with the
construction and equipment requirements of that regulation.
Dangerous goods manifst or stowage plan SOLAS 1974, reg. V I I / 5 ( 5 ) ;
Each ship carrying dangerous goods shall have a special list or manifest MARPOL 73/78, Annex 111, reg. 4
setting forth, in accordance with the classification set out in regulation
VI1/2, the dangerous goods on board and the location thereof. A
detailed stowage plan which identifies by class, and sets out the location
of all dangerous goods on board, may be used in place of such a special
list or manifest. A copy of one of these documents shall be made
available before departure to the person or organization designated
by the port State authority.
* The form of the certificate and its record of equipment may be found
in the GMDSS amendments to SOLAS 1974.
+ SLS. 14/Circ. 115 refers to the issue of exemption certificates.
Document of authorization for the carriage of grain SOLAS 1974, reg. VI/9;
A document of authorization shall be issued for every ship loaded in ~~~~~~~~~~~~~l c o d e for the safe
accordance with the regulations of the International Code for the Safe Carriage of Grain in Bulk, section 3
Carriage of Grain in Bulk either by the Administration or an
organization recognized by it or by a Contracting Government on
behalf of the Administration. The document shall accompany or be
incorporated into the grain loading manual provided to enable the
master to meet the stablility requirements of the Code.
Certificate of insurance or other financial security in respect of civil CI.C.69, art. VII
liability for oil pollution damage
A certificate attesting that insurance or other financial security is in
force shall be issued to each ship carrying more than 2,000 tons of oil
in bulk as cargo. It shall be issued or certified by the appropriate
authority of the State of the ship's regstry after determining that the
requirements of article VII, paragraph 1, of the CLC Convention have
been complied with.
Enhanced survey reportfile7 MARPOL 73/78, Annex I, reg. 13G;
A survey report file and supporting documents complying with SOLAS 1974 reg. XI/2
paragraphs 6.2 and 6.3 of annex A and annex B of resolution A.744(18).
Guidelines on the enhanced programme of inspections during surveys
of bulk carriers and oil tankers.

4. In addition to the certificates listed in sections 1 and 3 above,
where appropriate, any ship carrying noxious liquid chemical
substances in bulk shall carry:
International Pollution Prevention Certz$cate for the Carriage ofNoxious MARPOL 73/78 Annex 11, regs. 12
liquid Substances in Bulk (NLS Certificate) and 12a
An international pollution prevention certificate for the carriage of
noxious liquid substances in bulk (NLS certificate) shall be issued, after
survey in accordance with the provisions of regulation 10 of Annex I1
of MARPOL 73/78, to any ship carrying noxious liquid substances in
bulk and which is engaged in voyages to ports or terminals under the
jurisdiction of other Parties to MARPOL 73/78. In respect of chemical
tankers, the Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Dangerous
Chemicals in Bulk and the International Certificate of Fitness for the
Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk, issued under the provisions
of the Bulk Chemical Code and the International Bulk Chemical Code,
respectively, shall have the same force and receive the same recognition
as the NLS Certificate.
Cargo Record Book MARPOL 73/78, Annex 11, reg. 9
Every ship to which Annex I1 of MARPOL 73/78 applies shall be
provided with a Cargo Record Book, whether as port of the ship's
official log-book or otherwise, in the form specified in appendix IV to
the Annex.
where applicable, any chemical tanker shall carry:
Certificate of Fitness of the Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk BCH Code, section 1.6
A certificate called a Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Dangerous
Chemicals in Bulk, the model form of which is set out in the appendix
to the Bulk Chemical Code, should be issued after an initial or periodical
survey to a chemical tanker engaged in international voyages which
complies with the relevant requirements of the Code.
Note: The Code is mandatory under Annex I1 of MARPOL 73/78 for
chemical tankers constructed before 1 July 1986.
International Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Dangerous IBC Code, section 1.5
Chemicals in Bulk
A certificate called an International Certificate of Fitness for the
Carriage of Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk, the model form of which is
set out in the appendix to the International Bulk Chemical Code, should
be issued after an initial or periodic1survey to a chemical tanker engaged
in international voyages which complies with the relevant requirements
of the Code.
Note: The Code is mandatory under both chapter VII of SOLAS 1974
and Annex I1 of MARPOL 73/78 for chemical tankers constructed on
or after 1July 1986.
where applicable, any gas carrier shall carry:
Certzjkate of Fitness for the Carriage of Liquefied Gases in Bulk GC Code, section 1.6
A certificate called a Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Liquefied
Gases in Bulk, the model form of which is set out in the appendix to
the Gas Carrier Code, should be issued after an initial or periodical
survey to a gas carrier which complies with the relevant requirements
of the Code.
COMMAND 77
International Certzjkate of Fitness for the Carriage of Liquefied Gases in Bulk IGC Code, section 1.5
A certificate called an International Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of
Liquefied Gases in Bulk, the model form of which is set out in the appendix
to the International Gas Carrier Code, should be issued after an initial or
periodical survey to a gas carrier which complies with the relevant
requirements of the Code.
Note: The Code is mandatory under chapter VII of SOLAS 1974 for gas
carriers constructed on or after lJuly 1986.
7. In addition to the certificates listed in sections 1 and 3 above, where
applicable, high-speed craft must carry:8
High-speed Craft Safety Certzjkate SOLAS 1974, reg. X/3; HSC
A certificate called a High-speed Craft Safety Certificate should be issued Code, para. 1.8
after completion of an initial or renewal survey to a craft which complies with
the requirements of the High-Speed Craft (HSC) Code in its entirety.
* Subject to entry Inlo force of the amendments adopted by the 1!1114 SOLAS Conference o n 2 1 May 1884
Permit to Operate High-speed Craft HSC Code, para. 1.9

A certificate called a Permit to Operate High-Speed Craft should be issued to
a craft which complies with the requirements set out in paragraphs 1.2.2 to
1.2.7 and 1.8 of the HSC Code.
Misce- other cmia&m%
Special purpose ships
Special Purpose Ship Safety Certzjkate Resolution A.534(13)
A certificate may be issued after survey in accordance with the provisions of
paragraph 1.6 of the Code of Safety for Special Purpose Ships. The duration
and validity of the certificate should be governed by the respective provisions
for cargo ships in SOLAS 1974. If a certificate is issued for a special purpose
ship of less than 500 gross tonnage, this certificate should indicate to what
extent relaxations in accordance with 1.2 were accepted.
Additional Certificate for Offshore Supply Rssels Resolution A.673(16);
When carrying such cargoes, offshore supply vessels should carry a Certificate MARPOL 73/78, Annex 11,
of Fitness issued under "Guidelines for the transportation and handling of reg. 13(4)
limited amounts of hazardous and noxious liquid substances in bulk on offshore
support vessels".
If an offshore supply vessel carries only noxious liquid substances, a suitably
endorsed International Pollution Prevention Certificate for the Carriage of
Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk may be issued instead of the above
Certificate of Fitness.
Diving Systems
Diving System Safety Certificate Resolution A.536(13),section
A certificate should be issued either by the Administration or any person or 1.6
organization duly authorized by it after survey or inspection to a diving system
which complies with the requirements of the Code of Safety for Diving Systems.
In every case, the Administration should assume full responsibility for the
certificate.
Dynamically supported craft
Construction and Equipment Certificate Resolution A.373(X), section
To be issued after survey carried out in accordance with paragraph 1.5.l(a)of 1.6
the Code of Safety for Dynamically Supported Craft.

Permit to operate
Mobile Offshore Drilling Units Resolution A.414(XI) section 1.6;
resolution A.649(16) section 1.6
Safety Certz>cate
To be issued after survey carried out in accordance with the provisions
of the Code for the Construction and Equipment of Mobile Offshore
Drilling Units, 1979, or, for units constructed on or after 1 May 1991,
the Code for the Construction and Equipment of Mobile Offshore
Drilling Units, 1989.
Noise levels Resolution A.468(XII),section 4.3
Noise Survgr Report

A noise survey report should be made for each ship in accordance
with the Code on Noise Levels on Board Ships.
COMMAND 79
Chapter 11
PORT STATE CONTROL AND THE U.S.A.

Principal Features at a glance - an extract from Port State Control
published by The UK P&I Club
Agency ships transporting cargo to carry a limited number

T HE UNITED
STATES COAST G UARD. of individuals without being considered a
'passenger ship' for most inspection purposes and
Jurisdiction extension of this privilege to cargo ships of those
Foreign ships operating in US waters are subject nations that accord reciprocal treatment.
to inspection under Title 46 United Stales Code (USC) 46 USC 2101 (33)and 3301 (7).Directs that safety
Chapter 33. Reciprocity is accorded to ships of requirements of 46 U S C Chapter 3 3 are
countries that are parties to the Convention for the applicable to seagoing motor ships of 300 or more
Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) (46 USC 3303(a)).In gross tons.
addition, certain provisions of the pollution prevention 46 U S C 2101 (35) and 3301 (8). Safety
and navigation safety regulations (33 Code of Federal requirements for foreign small passenger ships
Regulations (CFR) 154-156and 164 respectively) apply carrying more than six passengers from a US port.
to foreign ships operating in US waters. 50 USC 191. Requirements for security of ships,
harbours and waterfront facilities, and provision
Relevant instruments for control of the movement of foreign ships in
Applicable domestic statutes US waters by the local OCMI/COTP.
46 United States Code (USC)5101-5116. Load line 33 USC 1221-1232. Statutes for advance notice
requirements for foreign ships. of arrival and navigation safety regulations.
46 USC 2101 (12) 3306(a)(5)and 49 USC 1801-
1812. Safety requirements for carriage of Applicable Regulations
dangerous articles and substances aboard foreign Most US regulations applicable to US and foreign
ships. ships, per Titles 33, 46 and 49 Code of Federal
46 USC 2101 (12) (21) and (35), 3504 and 3505. Regulations.
Safety requirements for foreign ships carrying
Applicable International Conventions
passengers from any US port to any other place
or country. International Convention on Load Lines 1966, as
46 USC 2101 (1 2), (21),(22) and (35),and Chapter amended and its 1988 Protocol. (LOADLINES
3fi. Inspection and certification requirements for 66/88)
all foreign passenger ships which embark International Convention for the Safety of Life at
passengers at and carry them from a US port. Sea (SOLAS), 1974, its Protocol of 1978, as
(These statutes are also relevant for ships having amended, and the Protocol of 1988, (SOLAS 74
valid SOLAS 74/78 Certificates or Canadian 78/88).
Certificates of Inspection, that must be examined International Convention for the Prevention of
to verify compliance with the flag administration's Pollution from Ships, 1975, as modified by the
safety verification requirement.) Protocol of 1978, as amended (MARPOL 77/78).
46 USC 2101 (12) and (39),3301 (10)and Chapter International Convention on Standards of
3% Safety requirements that apply, with certain Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for
stipulations, to all foreign ships regardless of Seafarers 1978, as amended (STCW 95).
tonnage, size, or manner of propulsion, whether Convention on the International Regulations for
or not carrying freight or passengers for hire, that Preventing Collisions at Sea 1972, as amended
enter US navigable waters while carrying liquid (COLREG 72).
bulk cargoes that are. Merchant Shipping (Minimum Standards)
a. Flammable or combustible Convention, 1976 (ILO Convention 147).
b. Oil of any type or in any form, including International Convention Relating to intervention
petroleum, fuel oil, sludge, oil refuse and oil on the High Seas in cases of Oil Pollution
mixed with wastes, except dredged spoil. Casualties, 1975 and the Protocol relating to
c. Designated as a hazardous substance under intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Marine
Section 311(b) of the Federal Water Pollution Pollution by Substances other than Oil, 1983.
Control Act (FWPCA) (33 USC 1321) o r . . .
d. Designated as hazardous materials under Ship Selection - The Boarding Priority
Section 104 of the Hazardous Materials Matrix
Transportation Act (HMTA) (39 USC 1803) Until 1994, the US Coast Guard's ship boarding
46 USC 2101 (21) and 3304. Permission for US programme was largely ad hoc, but now they have

developed a Boarding Priority Matrix to determine ratio (total number of detentions divided by the total
the probable risk posed by non-US ships calling at number of distinct arrivals). Classification societies are
US ports. The Matrix is used to decide which ships then assigned points according to where their
Port State control inspectors should board on any detention ratios fall in relation to the average detention
given day, in any given port. Ships are assessed in ratio.
various categories and then added together for a total
point score This numerical score, along with other Below the Average Detention Ratio = 0 Points
Between the average and 2 times the average = 1 Point
performance based factors, determines a ship's Between 2 times and 3 times the average = 3 Points
boarding priority from Priority I through IV. Between 3 times and 4 times the average = 5 Points
In developing this points system, the US Coast More than 4 times the average = Priority 1
Guard has identified five features which directly This list is sent to all Coast Guard Safety offices.
influence a ship's operational condition a n d
compliallce with international safety a n d Owner/Operator List
environmental protection standards. These are: T h e US Coast Guard Headquarters Ship
Compliance Division (G-MOC-21) compiles a list of
1. Flag States owners and operators associated with ships that have
2. Classification societies had more than one ship detained by the Coast Guard
3. Owner and operators list under the authority of an international convention
4. Ship type, and within the last twelve month period. Any ship making
5. History a US port call that is owned or operated by a person
The first three are particularly significant and are or entity that has had that ship, or a different ship,
explained below. subject to more than one intervention action within
the last twelve months, is accorded high priority status.
Flag States
The flag list is composed of those flag states whose T h e owners' list is updated monthly and is
detention ratios exceed the average detention ratios published on the USCG website and sent to all Coast
for all flag states whose ships call at US ports. Guard Marine Safety Offices. see figure 71.7 - Point
score summary.
A flag state's detention ratio is ascertained by
dividing the number of its ships which have been Boarding Priority Matrix - Priority I-IV
detained in the last three years by the total number of and effects thereof
its ships which have called at US ports within the same The points are added up for a total point score
period. For example, if a flag has had three of its ships and the ship's boarding priority determined as follows:
detained during the last three years, and a total of 60
Priority I ships:
of its ships have had US port calls in the same period,
17 or more points on the Matrix, or
the detention ratio would be 360 x 1000h = ~O/(I. The
Ships involved in a marine casualty, or
average detention ratio is ascertained by dividing the
Where USCG Captain of the Port determines a
total number of detentions by the total number of
ship to be a potential hazard to the port or the
arrivals for all flag states. environment, or
The flag list is updated annually on 1 April and Ships whose classification society has ten or more
remains in effect for the ensuing twelve months. This arrivals the previous year and which a detention
information is sent to all Coast Guard Marine Safety ratio more than four times the average, or
Offices. A flag state is removed from the list when its Ships whose classification society has less than ten
detention average drops below the overall average flag arrivals the previous year and which have been
state detention average or when it is associated with associated with at least one detention.
less than two detentions within a twelve month period. Port entry may be restricted until sh$ is examined by the
Coast Guard. Przority Zsh$s are targetedfar examination
Classification Societies prior to entry into USports. Where feasible, these sh$s are
This consists of a two-stage process whereby any boardedprior to port entry to ensure dejciencies are corrected.
classification societies with less than ten arrivals to the Otherwise, they are boarded upon entry and prior to
US in the previous year are eliminated from the commencement of cargo transfer operations or passenger
process. embarkation.
Then, classification societies with more than ten Priority I1 ships:
distinct arrivals in the previous year are evaluated on 7 to 16 points on the Matrix, or
their performance over the previous two years. Their Outstanding requirements from a previous
performance is based on their detention ratio (number boarding in this or another US port, or
of detentions divided by number of distinct arrivals). The ship is overdue for an annual tank or
This ratio is then compared to the average detention passenger exam.
COMMAND 81
POINT SCORE SUMMARY
Owner Listed owner
5 pts
Flag Listed flag state
7 pts
Class Priority 1 10 arrivals with detention ratio more than 4 times the average
OR <I0 arrivals, but involved in a detention in the previous 2 years
.5 points 10 arrivals with ratio between 3 & 4 times the average
3 points 10 arrivals with ratio between 2 & 3 times the average
1 point 10 arrivals with ratio between average and twice the average
0 point 10 arrivals with ratio below average
OR <I0 arrivals. 0 detentions in the previous 2 years
History Intervention within 12 months 8 PtsEsa
Other Oper. Control within 12 months lPtEa
Casualty within 12 months 1 PtEa
Not boarded within 6 months 1 PtEa
Ship Type Oil or chemical tanker I Pt

Gas carrier 1 Pts
Bulk freighter > 10 years 2 Pts
Passenger ship 1 Pts
Carrying low value commodities in bulk 2 Pts
Figure 77.7 Owner/Operator List - Point Score Summary
Cargo operations may be restricted until sh$ is examined Voyage damage will not be associated with a
by the Coast Guard. Priority IIsh$s are targetedfor boarding classification society non-conformity unless other
prior to commencement of cargo transfer operations or class-related deficiencies are noted during the
passenger embarkation. An exemption to the requirementfor course of the damage survey.
boardingprior to commencement of cargo transfer operations Class non-conformities will only be associated wit11
or passenger embarkation may be granted if there are clear equipment covered by a survey, conducted by
indications that the ship is in substantial compliance with class, or in which class issued the certificate on
applicable standards. behalf of the flag state.
When multiple deficiencies are noted, only those
Priority I11 ships:
4 to 6 points on the Matrix, or deficiencies serious enough to justify detention will
Alleged deficiencies reported, or be evaluated to determine class non-conformities.
T h e ship is overdue for a n annual freight Outdated equipment, when the cause of an
examination intervention, will not be associated with a class
non-conformity unless the equipment was
Priorily IIIsh$s may be targetedfor boarding afier entry outdated at the time of the last survey conducted
into port, but no operational restrictions are imposed. by the class society on behalf of the flag state.
The absence of easily stolen equipment, such as
Priority IV ships:
fire hose nozzles and extinguishers, will generally
3 or fewer points on the Matrix
not be listed as a class society non-conformity
Priority I V s h q s are not targetedfor boarding, but may unless a large number are missing and the
be boarded and examined by the US Coast Guard at the inspection takes place within 90 days of the last
discretion of the local Captain of the Port or the Oficer in survey by the class society for the flag state.
Charge, Marine Inspection. Expired certificates will not be associated with a
class non-conformity unless the certificates were
Ship Inspection Principles not endorsed or were improperly issued by the
In addition to the Boarding Priority Matrix the US class society when it conducted the last survey for
Coast Guard has also published the 12 'principles' the flag state.
employed as guidance by its ship inspections. These are: Interventions based on manning- issues will not
Detentions are conducted only when a ship is unfit be issued as class non-conformities.
to proceed to sea or poses a threat to the marine A time limit of 90 days will generally be placed
environment. on associating non-conformities with equipment

failures, such as non-operational fire pumps, and or allowing the ship to proceed to another port for
emergency generators, unless it is apparent that repairs.
the deficiency is long standing.
Failure of human-factor-related testing - such as Nonconforming Ship. Any ship failing to comply
fire drills and abandon-ship drills - will be with one or more applicable requirements of US law
associated with a classification society non- or international conventions is a nonconforming ship.
conformity only when the class society issued the A nonconforming ship is not necessarily a substandard
relevant certificate on behalf of the flag state within ship unless the discrepancies endanger the ship,
30 days on inspection. persons on board, or present an unreasonable risk to
Serious wastage or other structural deficiencies not the marine environment.
caused by voyage damage will be listed as a class Substandard Ship. In general, a ship is regarded as
society non-conformity. substandard if the hull, machinery, or equipment, such
Note: The class society will be notified in writing as lifesaving, firefighting and pollution prevention, are
in all cases on society non-conformities. substantially below the standards required by US laws
or international conventions, owing to:
DefinitiodTerms of Reference a. The absence of required principal equipment or
The following are key definitions and terms of arrangement.
reference employed by the USCG as part of its Port b. Gross n o n c o n ~ p l i a n c e of equipment o r
State Control programme. arrangement with required specifications.
c. Substantial deterioration of the ship structure or
Contravention. An act, procedure, or occurrence its essential equipment.
that is not in accordance with a convention or other d. Noncompliance with applicable operational and/
mandatory instrument, or its operational annex. or manning standards or
e. Clear lack of appropriate certification, o r
Deficiency. A condition found n o t to be in
compliance with the conditions of the relevant demonstrated lack of competence on the part of
convention, law and regulation. the crew.
Detention. A control action which restricts a ship's If these evident factors as a whole or individually
right of free movement. The iillposition of a restriction endanger the ship, persons on board, or present an
on the movement of a ship constitutes a detention unreasonable risk to the marine environment, the ship
should be regarded as a substandard ship.
regardless of whether or not a delay from a ship's
normal or expected itinerary occurs. Detentions may Valid Certificates. A certificate that has been issued
be carried out under the authority of SOLAS 1974 as directly by a contracting government or party to a
amended. Regulation 19, ICLL Article 21; MARPOL convention, or on the behalf of the government or
Article ii;STCW Article X and Regulation 1/4; ILO party by a recognised organisation, and contains
147 Article 4; the Ports and Waterways Safety Act, or accurate and effective dates, meets the provisions of
a US Customs detention. the relevant convention, and corresponds to the
particulars of the ship and its equipment.
Examination. The process of assessing a ship's
compliance with the relevant provisions of applicable Types of Examination
international conventions, domestic laws and USCG Port State Control examinations consist of
regulations. The scope of an examination shall be to annual examinations and then re-examinations or
the extent necessary to verify the validity of the deficiency follow-up examinations. These
relevant certificates and other documents, and to examinations may be broadened in scope or depth
ensure no unsafe conditions exist. An examination into an expanded examination if clear grounds exist
may include, but is not limited to, checks of documents, that lead a boarding team to believe that the condition
certificates, manuals, the ship's structural integrity, of the ship or its equipment does not correspond with
machinery, navigation, pollution prevention, the certificates or the ship does not comply with
engineering a n d safety systems, maintenance applicable laws or conventions.
programmes and crew proficiency.
Annual Examinations
Intervention. A control action taken by a port state An annual examination consists of the specific
in order to bring a foreign flag ship into compliance procedures outlined in the freight, tank, or passenger
with applicable international convention standards. ship examination chapters of the Marine Safety
Interventions are undertaken by a port state when a Manual. It includes an examination of the ship's
ship's flag state has not, can not, or will not exercise certificates, licences and documents followed by a
its obligations under an international convention to general examination, i.e. "walk through" of the ship
which it is a party. This may include requesting to develop an impression of shell maintenance and
appropriate information, requiring the immediate or the general state of the deck and side shell of the ship
future rectification of deficiencies, detaining the ship, to determine its seaworthiness. It will also include
COMMAND 83
examination and testing of specific equipment, as well 22. Garbage
as the conduct of operational testing and emergency 23. Manuals and Instructions
drills to ensure the crew's proficiency at carrying out 24. Items to be Examined or Tested
critical tasks. As a minimum, the following items are 25. Operational Tests
part of each annual examination and are taken from 26. Muster List
the MSM Volume 1, Chapter 19, which sets out the 27. Conlmunication
requirements listed below in greater detail. 28. Fire and Abandon Ship Drills
29. Damage Control Plan
Certzficates, Licences and Documents 30. Bridge Operation
1. International Tonnage Certificate (1969) 31. Cargo Operation
2. Passenge Ship Safety Certificate 32. Loading, Unloading and Cleaning Procedures for
3. Cargo Ship Safety Certificate Cargo Spaces of Tankers
4. Cargo Ship Safety Equipment Certificate 33. Dangerous Goods and Harmful Substances in
5. Cargo Ship Safety Radiotelegraphy Certificate Packaged Form
ti. Cargo Ship Safety Radiotelephony Certificate
7. Cargo Ship Safety Radio Certificate Re-examinations
8. Exemption Certificates A re-examination is an examination to ensure that
9. International Certificate of Fitness for Carriage of a ship remains in compliance with appropriate US
Liquefied Gases in Bulk laws or international conventions between annual
10. Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Liquefied examinations. As with the annual examination, it
Gases in Bulk usually consists of an examination of the ship's
1I. International Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage certificates, licences and documents, and a general
of Dangerous Chemicals in Bulk examination conducted by walking through the ship.
12. Certificate of Fitness for the Carriage of Dangerous Except aboard passenger ships, a re-examination will
Chemicals r in Bulk not normally include operational testing or drills, but,
13. International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate in the case of foreign passenger ship re-examinations,
14. International Pollution Prevention Certificate for the re-examination should include the witnessing of
the Carriage of Noxious Liquid Substances in bulk fire and abandon-ship drills to ensure that the ship's
15. International Load Line Certificate (1966) crew can adequately ensure the safety of the passengers
16. International Load Line Exemption Certificate in any emergency.
17. Oil Record Book part I and I1
18. Cargo Record Book Expanded Examinations
19. Minimum Safe Manning Document An expanded examination is a more detailed
20. Crew Licences or Certificate of Competency, examination or testing conducted when an annual
Medical Certificates, of ILO Convention No 73 examination, re-examination, or deficiency follow-up
concerning Medical Exanlination of Seafarers establishes "clear grounds" for believing that the
21. Stability information condition of a ship, its equipment or crew are not in
compliance with applicable US laws or international
Areas/items/operations conventions. Expanded examinations should focus on
1. Deck Portion
those areas where "clear grounds" have been
2. Hull Portion
established and should not include other areas or
3. Ballast Tank Entry
systems unless the general impressions or observations
4. Load Lines
5. Seaworthiness of the boarding team support such examination.
6. Voyage Damage "Clear Grounds" for an Expanded Inspection
7. Machinery Spaces To assist the boarding team, a list of deficiencies
8. Operation that establish "clear grounds" to expand an
9. Maintenance examination has been developed. The following
10. Tests and Trials
deficiencies, grouped under the relevant conventions
11. Oil and Oil, Mixtures
and/or codes, are considered of such a serious nature
12. Sufficient Power
13. Lifesaving Equipment that they may warrant the detention of the ship
14. Fire Safety Equipment involved. This list is not exhaustive.
15. Fire Doors General
16. Ventilation Systems Absent or invalid certificates required under
17. Escape Routes applicable conventions.
18. Navigation Safety
19. Cargo Ship Safety Construction Items SOLAS
20. Cargo Ship Safety Radio Operation Failure of proper operation of propulsion and
21. Equipment in Excess of Convention or Flag State other essential machinery as well as electrical
Requirements installations.

Insufficient cleanliness of engine
- room, excess Missing or defective quick closing valves
amount of oil-water mixture in the bilges; Electrical installations not intrinsically safe or not
insulation of piping including exhaust pipes in corresponding to the code requirements
engme room contaminated by oil; and improper Ventilators in cargo area not operable
operation of bilge pumping arrangements. Pressure alarms for cargo tanks not operable
Failure of the proper operation of emergency Gas detection plant and/or toxic gas detection
generator, lighting, batteries and switches. plant defective
Failure of the proper operation of the main and Transport of substances to be inhibited without
auxiliary steering gear. valid inhibitor certificate
Absence, insufficient capacity, or serious
Areas under ICLL
deterioration of personal lifesaving appliances,
Significant areas of damage or corrosion, or pitting
survival craft and launching arrangements.
of plating and associated stiffening, in decks and
Absence, noncompliance, o r substantial
hull affecting seaworthiness or strength to take
deterioration - to the extent that it can not comply
local loads. However, this is waived if authorised
with its intended use - of fire detection system,
temporary repairs for a voyage to a port for
fire alarms, fire fighting equipment, fixed fire
permanent repairs have been carried out.
extinguishing installation, ventilation valves, fire
A recognised case of insufficient stability
dampers and quick-closing devices.
The absence of sufficient and reliable information
Absence, substantial deterioration, or failure of
in an approved form which, by rapid and simple
proper operation of the cargo deck area fire
means, enables the master to arrange for the
protection on tankers.
loading and ballasting of the ship in such a way
Absence, noncompliance, or serious deterioration
that a safe margin of stability is maintained at all
of lights, shapes, or sound signals. stages and at varying conditions of the voyage,
Absence, or failure of the proper operation, of the and that the creation of any unacceptable stresses
radio equipment for distress a n d safety in the ship's structure is avoided.
communication. Absence, substantial deterioration, or defective
Absence, or failure of the proper operation of closing devices, hatch closing arrangements and
navigation equipment, taking the relevant watertight/weathertight doors.
provisions of SOLAS Chapter V/12(0) into Overloading
account. Absent or improper draft and/or Load Line Marks
Absence of navigation charts and/or all other
relevant nautical publications necessary for the Areas Under Marpol Annex I
intended voyage, taking into account that Absence, serious deterioration, or failure of proper
electronic charts may be used as a substitute for operation of the oily-water filtering equipment,
the charts. the oil discharge monitoring and control system,
Absence of non-sparking exhaust ventilation for or the 15 ppm alarm arrangements.
cargo pump rooms. Remaining capacity of slop and/or sludge tank
Serious noncompliance with procedures stipulated insufficient for the intended voyage.
under the Certified Safety Management System Oil record book not available
on ships required to comply with SOLAS Chapter Unauthorised discharge bypass fitted
IX. Areas Under Marpol Annex I1
Areas Under the IBC Code Absence of Procedures and Arrangements Manual
Transport of a substance not mentioned in the Cargo not categorised
Certificate of Fitness or missing cargo information. No cargo record book available
Missing or damaged high pressure safety devices. TI-ansport of oil-like substances without satisfying
Electrical installations not intrinsically safe or not the requirements or without an appropriately
corresponding to the code requirements. amended certificate
Sources of ignition in hazardous locations. Unauthorised discharge bypass fitted
Contravention of special requirements. Areas Under STCW
Exceeding of maximum allowable cargo quantity Number, composition, or certification of crew not
per tank. corresponding with Safe Manning Document.
Areas Under the IGC Code Areas Under ILO 147
Transport of a substance not mentioned in the Insufficient food for voyage to next port
Certificate of Fitness or missing cargo information. Insufficient potable water for voyage to next port
Missing closing devices for accommodations or Excessively unsanitary conditions on board
service spaces. No heating in acco~nmodationof a ship operating
Bulkhead not gastight. in areas where temperatures may be excessively
Defective air locks. low.
COMMAND 85
For further details on the above points, consult the MSM Note: While a request for reconsideration or a formal
I/'olume 7, Chapter 79. appeal is pending, the original decision or actions remains
in efect, unless specZJ;callystayed by the District Commander
Intervention and Detention or Headquarters.
Detention Dissemination of Detention Information
Interventions of the USCG, may involve:
Blacklisting - Detention Information
allowing the ship to sail with the deficiency The Ship Compliance Division produces a List of
uncorrected (e.g. a warning). Ships Detained, under the authority of Titles 14, 33,
corrective action prior to returning to a US port.
and 46, United States Code.
allowing the ship to proceed to a specific port for
repairs. This List of Ships Detained includes the ship name,
denying port entry. I M O number, date of detention, ship type, port, flag,
detaining the ship in port until the deficiencies classification society and deficiency summary.
are corrected.
The list is subject to change without notice based
If a USCG inspector takes an intervention action on appeals made by the owner, operator, and/or
against a ship, the flag state must be notified of all the classification society.
circumstances, in addition to the classification society
as well as the International Maritime Organisation General Publicity Information
(IMO). If the ship is allowed to depart without all There is a lot of helpful information as to the criteria
identified deficiencies being corrected, the USCG employed by the USCG published by the United
must also notify the authorities of the next port of call States Coast Guard and available on the internet at
of the uncorrected deficiencies. http://www.dot.gov/dotinfo/uscg/hq/g-m/psc/
psc.htm. See in particular the Marine Safety Manual,
Appeals Procedure Volume 1, Chapter 19. T h e U S Coast Guard
A detention decision may be appealed under the I-Ieadquarters' Port State Control Branch may be
provisions of Title 46, Code of Federal regulations reached at the following address:
(CFR),Part 1.03-20 of Title 33, CFR, Part 160.7. The
appeal must be in writing within 30 days after the Commandant (G-MOC-2)
decision is made or action is taken, and should g v e US Coast Guard
reasons as to why the decision or action should be set 2100 Second Street S.W.
aside or revised. It should be addressed to the Coast Washington D C 20593-0001
Guard officer in command where the decision was Arrangements have also been made to exchange
made or action was taken, generally the Officer in information with other port state authorities,
Charge, Marine Inspection (OCMI), Captain of the international organisations, regional authorities, etc.
Port (COTP),or Commanding Officer, Marine Safety
Office (CO.MSO).
This chapter is provided by kind permission of the UK
If the initial appeal is unsuccessful, a formal appeal '@I Club.
may be made to the District Commander. A further
formal appeal may b e made to Coast Guard
Headquarters.

Chapter 12
DISTRESS - THE MASTER'S RESPONSIBILITIES

extracts from Peril at Sea and Salvage - The International Chamber of Shipping
The need for assistance

W HEN A S H I P S U F FE R S a casualty or is otherwise in a Account should be taken of all circumstances
position of peril, the master must decide, as a matter including the following:
of urgency, whether assistance, including salvage
assistance, is needed or if the situation can be handled Safety of personnel.
using the ship's own resources. Proximity to shore or shoal water.
Weather and sea conditions.
The master's responsibility Current and tide.
The master should be authorised to take whatever Nature of sea bed and shoreline.
measures he considers necessary to protect life, his Potential for safe anchoring.
ship and the environment, without reference to a third Availability of assistance.
party. Damage already sustained by the ship.
h s k of further damage to the ship.
Authority of the master Prospect of maintaining communications.
The authority of the master is not altered by Threat of pollution.
engaging salvors. He remains in command of the ship Manpower and material requirements.
despite the presence of a salvage master and he should
therefore ensure that he is fully aware of the action In addition to any threat to life, ship and cargo,
taken in the rendering of salvage services. Even though the necessity to avoid or reduce the risk of pollution
services have been accepted and assistance is being cannot be emphasised too strongly.
rendered, the salvor must cease his services in response Obtaining assistance
to a reasonable request to do so by the master.
Once the master has decided that assistance is
The master should cooperate fully with the salvors, necessary, he should act promptly to request it from
who are experts in salvage operations and in so doing any available source using the most expeditious means
exercise due care to prevent or minimise damage to at his disposal. When one or more suitable ships
the environment. He should take account of any advice respond to the call for assistance, the master should
given by the salvage master or other person in charge immediately request such ship(s) to undertake
of rendering or advising on salvage services. The whatever action is necessary.
salvors may not be experts in the safety and handling
Assistance should never be delayed merely to
of cargo or familiar with the ship. If in doubt about
negotiate a particular form of agreement or contract
the advisability of any action suggested by the salvors,
terms.
the master should not hesitate to challenge the advice
p e n , bearing in mind his overriding responsibility Generally, those rendering beneficial assistance to
for the safety of those onboard, the ship and its cargo. a ship in peril are entitled to salvage. It is not essential
to agree upon the contractual terms for the assistance
Legislation may exist in some countries requiring
required, since there is a right under maritime law to
the master to accept services or instructions provided
salvage which exists independently of contract.
by the coastal state concerned. In such cases the coastal
state to which the occurrence has been reported may If the assisting ship(s) request(s)the master to agree
be expected to inform the master of national to a contract for the assistance, Lloyd's Standard Form
requirements. However, the master should also consult of Salvage Agreement, known as Lloyd's Open Form
documents on board which might contain guidance, (see Appendices C and D), is the form most usually
e.g. sailing directions, notices to mariners, etc. offered and should be agreed upon to avoid any delay
in assistance being rendered. The Lloyd's Form
Assessment of urgency provides protection for both parties to the salvage
The master should immediately assess the dangers agreement.
to which the ship is exposed and the urgency with
which assistance may be required from outside Lloyd's Open Form has been revised to coincide
sources. It is better to overreact on the side of safety with the incorporation into English law (with effect
and pollution prevention than to delay action in the from 1 January 1995) of the provisions of the
hope that the situation may improve. When making International Convention of Salvage 1989 (the
judgements, it should be assumed that the situation "Salvage Convention"). The revised Forms bears the
will not improve. reference LOF 1995.
COMMAND 87
LOF 1995 can be agreed orally or by radio by a contractual basis stipulating ordinary tariff fixed
sending the following message: lump sum or daily rates. However, it is emphasised
that where life, the ship, its cargo or the marine
"ACCEPT SALVAGE SERVICES O N BASIS environment are in peril, such negotiations should not
LLOYD'S STANDARD F O R M L O F 1995 N O in any way delay the engagement of the salvors.
CURE N O PAY. ACKNOWLEDGE REPEATING
FOREGOING. MASTER". Masters of oil tankers should note that LOF 1980
is likely to remain the preferred salvage contract for
If an earlier edition of Lloyd's Open Form is offered salvors involved in mid-ocean laden tanker casualties.
and accepted, the message should refer to that Form. This is due to the 'safety net provision' contained in
The engagement of one salvor under LOF 1995 LOF 1980. This provision requires that salvors, while
does not preclude the master froin engaging other performing salvage services, also use best endeavours
salvors. Similarly, the salvors may engage other salvors to prevent the escape of oil from the ship and entitles
as sub-contractors. If more than one salvor is involved, salvors, as against the vessel owner only, to recover
every effort should be made to obtain the agreement their reasonable expenses and an increment thereon
of the salvors to cooperate with each other and to of up to 15010. The provision applies only in respect of
appoint one leading salvor. a tanker laden or partly laden with a cargo of oil and
to cases where a salvor is either unable to earn any
Other forms of contract salvage remuneration because the salvage efforts are
It is possible that the ship offering assistance may unsuccessful or only able to earn salvage remuneration
decline LOF 1995 and propose other terms or an which is inadequate to cover the salvor's expenses.
earlier edition of Lloyd's Open Form e.g. LOF 1980. Although LOF199.5 provides for a similar (but more
If the master considers that immediate assistance is enhanced safety net), it is geographically restricted in
essential, he should accept the terms offered, but if he that it is only applicable if the salvage operations
feels that the terms offered are unreasonable or prevented or minimised damage to the environment
extortionate he should register a protest immediately in 'coastal or inland waters or areas adjacent thereto'.
or, if he thinks that this may delay the assistance, on
completion of the service. If the master considers that This extract is taken from Peril at Sea and Salvage, a
immediate assistance is not essential it may be possible, guide for masters by kind permission of The Internatiotzal
where time allows, to have the assistance arranged on Chamber of Sh$ping.
88 'THE IVAUTICAL IIVSTITUTE

Chapter 13
SALVAGE - CONTRACTS AND THE MASTER

by Mr. C.P. Beesley, Ince & Co., London
Clrris Beesley has worked with Ince @ Co., Maritime Solicitors, since 7972 primarily dealing with all aspects of marine casualty law
and in particular salvage claims for slzipowners and salvors. In 7979 he s ~ up t thejrm's Hong Kong ofice from where he handled
marine casualties throughout Asia and the Paczjic Rim before returning to Ince t3Co. London in 7984. He is joint Clzairman of the
firm's Admiralty Group. He travels extensively andfiguently addresses seminars on safety and navigation issues and has had numerous
articlespublished in his specialist areas. He has also delivered papers on salzlage at the ever popular Nautical Institute Master and
Maritime Law Series of seminars in Newcastle and at the International Tug and Salvage Symposium.
but an enhanced salvage award will be made where

Summary lives as well as property were at risk and saved.
This chapter deals with the infrequent occurrence
where a master may be confronted with a number of Types of salvage contract
different salvage problems and contract wordings and The most common dedicated salvage contract in
examines his options from a practical rather than worldwide use is the Lloyd's Open Form. In its various
strictly legal viewpoint. The authority of the master to guises, this contract has been in common use since
engage help and his duties and obligations under the 1908 and there have been ten versions of the contract
most commonly used salvage contract (Lloyd's Open published by the Council of Lloyd's since then. In
Form) are also considered. those early days, the 'open' part of the title referred to
the amount of the salvage award: either the amount
Introduction was agreed between salvor and the ship's
A vessel in distress requires assistance and
representatives and inserted in the contract or it was
depending on her circumstances may be required to
left 'open' for determination by arbitration in London
seek help (MARPOL). A claim for salvage - can be at a subsequent date. The latest variant of the form,
pursued at common law by anyone who is a volunteer 1,OF 95, (and most of its recent predecessors) provides
(i.e. not acting under the existing obligation - for
for assessment of the award by arbitration in London
example a statutory duty that may be the case of some
and a ship's master should not be concerned that in
port authorities) and who saves property in danger
signing L O F h e is exposing his owners and
that has some value. This long established formula,
underwriters to an open ended payment of money. If
which still holds good today, is the foundation on
the ship, its crew, cargo or the environment is in any
which many published and widely used salvage
way threatened by a particular misfortune then
contracts are based - the 'No Cure - No Pay' principle.
engaging suitable salvage help on Lloyd's Form terms
There is no payment where property is not saved (if available) will invariably be the most sensible thing
except in certain pollution related cases.
to do. The level of the award will be determined by
Successful salvage claims have been pursued by amicable negotiation or by arbitration applying criteria
individuals (pilots, tug crew members, firemen and embodied in English (and also International) Law. An
lifeboatmen for example) as well as companies, owners award will only become payable when property is
and crews of merchant ships, tugs and of course saved ('no cure - no pay') except in certain
professional salvage companies. It is the intervention circumstal~ceswhen anti pollution measures are
of tugs and the confusion over their terms of undertaken. Salvage operations which predate the
engagement (on "contract" or "tariff" terms, etc.) which agreement to LOF can be included within the LOF
gves rise to most legal disputes concerning entitlement (clause 1 (d)).
to claim salvage. Salvage services can be refused or
A specimen LOF 95 appears in the appendices.
prohibited by ship's masters but only if 'reasonable'
Other versions of the form are also in use and contain
to do so1. Under those same conventions, masters of
very different terms, particularly LOF 80 (LOF 90 is
ships are obliged to render assistance to persons in
not materially different to LOF 95 and if a contract is
distress at sea. Responding to a distress message offered on these terms this probably represents 'old
however does not deprive a salvor of reward if
stock'). Space here does not allow a detailed
property is salved. English law does not recognise the comparison between LOF 80 and LOF 95 but
concept of life salvage (where only lives are saved)
significant differences in the level of the salvage awards
The Brussels Convention on Salvage 1910 and the London under each could arise in certain circumstances on
Salvage Convention 1989. a
identical facts and it is very unlikely that professional
COMMAND 89
salvor will be offering the old version of the form by International Convention on Salvage 1989
mistake. As in any situation where salvage assistance As incorporated into LOF 95, English and many
is being negotiated, then owners or local other countries' domestic laws).
representatives of insurers should be consulted where
the circumstances allow. Agreeing LOF rarely if ever Article 6
creates grounds for a salvage claim where these did 2. The master shall have the authority to conclude
not exist previously. In the legal systems of most contracts for salvage operations on behalf of the
countries each interest salved (ship, cargo, freight and ownel- of the vessel. The master or the owner of
bunkers) will be responsible for paying its share of the vessel shall have the authority to conclude such
the ultimate award or settlement in proportion to the contracts on behalf of the owner of the property
value of the property salved. on board the vessel.
Article 8
Most of the terms of LOF 95 relate to procedures Duties of the salvor and of the owner and
which will not concern masters of salved ships. master
However, some clauses are of a practical operational 1. The salvor shall owe a duty to the owner of the
character and should be familiar to masters, preferably vessel or other property in danger:
in advance and certainly after the contract has been
agreed or signed. In particular, masters should be (a) to carry out the salvage operations with due
aware of the following: care;
1 (a) The Contractor shall use his best endeavours:. (b) in performing the duty specified in sub-
paragraph (a),to exercise due care to prevent
(i) To salve the "[ship]"and/or her cargo freight or minimize damage to the environment;
bunkers stores and any other property (c) whenever circumstances reasonably require,
thereon and take them to ...................... or to to seek assistance from other salvors; and
such other place as may hereafter be agreed (d) to accept the intervention of other salvors
either place to be deemed a place of safety when reasonably requested to do so by the
or if no such place is named or agreed to a owner or master of the vessel or other
place of safety and property in danger; provided however that
(ii) while performing the salvage services to the amount of his I-eward shall not be
prevent or rninimise damage to the prejudiced should it be found that such a
environment. request was unreasonable.
1 (d) In the event of the services referred to in this 2. The owner and master of the vessel or the owner
Agreement or any part of such services having of other property in danger shall owe a duty to
been already rendered at the date of this the salvor:
Agreement by the Contractor to the said vessel
(a) to cooperate fully with him during the course
and/or her cargo freight bunkers stores and any of the salvage operations;
other property thereon the provisions of this
(b) in so doing, to exercise due care to prevent
Agreement shall apply to such services. or minimize damage to the environment; and
3. Owners coo~eralion:The owners their servants and (c) when the vessel or other property has been
agents shall cooperate fully with the contractor in brought to a place of safety, to accept
and about the salvage including obtaining entry redelivery when reasonably requested by the
to the place named or the place of safety as defined salvor to do so.
in clause 1. The contractor may make reasonable
use of the vessel's machinery gear equipment Modern communications now make it possible for
anchors chains stores and other appurtenances masters to be in contact with their owners/managers
and thus often allow discussion to take place before
during and for the purpose of the salvage services
salvage help is taken. Some hull insurance companies
free of expense but shall not unnecessarily damage actually require prior consultation and masters should
abandon or sacrifice the same or any property the be familiar with an insurers' own wishes in this respect
subject of this agreement. - often through claims handbooks or circulars. Whilst
5 (d) The owners of the vessel their servants and the master has actual authority to enter into salvage
agents shall use their best endeavours to ensure contracts on behalf of the ship, her cargo and bunkers
that the cargo owners provide their proportion of (regardless of ownership), where circumstances allow,
salvage security before the cargo is released. consultation is always preferable. Owners/managers/
insurers will have access to a number of international
19. Inducetr~entsprohihiled: No person signing this salvage companies and tug brokers and may be able
Agreement or any party on whose behalf it is to secure more favourable commercial terms than
signed shall at any time or in any manner perhaps a master left to his own devices. Consultation
whatsoever offer provide make g v e or promise also prevents an unfortunate situation developing
to provide demand or take any form of where more than one salvor is engaged to do the same
inducement for entering into this Agreement. job resulting in the possibility of double payment.

Salvors, by the nature of the agreement entered heard, generally months and sometimes even years
into, generally take a risk when salving a stricken after the event.
vessel. O n occasions, the best equipment for the job
may not readily be available and a vessel inappropriate Other forms of salvage contracts
for the entire contract may initially be offered on the A contract to perform assistance does not have to
understanding that a more substantial unit will be be in writing for a successful salvage claim to be made.
substituted at a later date. It is not uncommon, for A discussion over the V H F or an exchange of written
example, for a harbour tug to be despatched in an messages constitutes a contract upon which the
attempt to stabilise the position initially, on the foundations for a salvage claim exist. The most
understanding that a more powerful vessel will be common of such cases are the services "at request" or
provided subsequently. The master needs to assess the "engaged services". If a vessel in difficulties requests
risks that such proposals involve and ensure that a passing vessel to stand by whilst repairs are made or
insofar as is possible the best salvage "service" is weather abates then a successful salvage claim can be
selected. The closest salvor is not necessarily the best made. The ship standing by, does not have physically
nor is the cheapest offer necessarily the one that should to make fast or board the casualty (unless requested
be accepted. Obviously the urgency and severity of to do so) for her owners, master and crew to recover
the situation need to be taken into account, looking an award. To be successful in this respect, the ship
particularly at danger to life, risk to the environment and/or cargo must be saved - nothing would be
and the safety of ship and cargo. recoverable in the event that the ship was totally lost
- whether or not her crew were successfully rescued.
LOF or any other salvage contract does not have If a vessel is engaged to undertake a specific task (such
to be physically signed for there to be a binding as towage service) then merely standing by, having
contract in existence. There have been cases where failed to connect or perform the towage requested will
LOF has been a p e d over the VHF, by fax, telephone give rise to no award. The "comfort" created by a
or cable. vessel standing by to enable a crew to work on a
O t h e r 'standard' printed forms of salvage stricken vessel will however g v e rise to a claim as will
agreement also exist and contracts from the following the provision of spare parts to a vessel in difficulty or
areas are occasionally seen: Turkey, The Peoples the supply of some additional technical expertise.
Republic of China, some FSU countries, some In the UNDAUNTED a ship lost her anchors in
Scandinavian countries, Germany a n d Japan. heavy weather and a passing merchant vessel was
Professional salvors tend to prefer the certainty of LOF requested to seek a replacement anchor and cable.
however and this is also true of most underwriters and The merchant vessel duly put into port in accordance
P&I Clubs where no fixed price agreement can be with this request but in the meantime the
reached. I N D A U M X D reached port safely partly under her
Most of the recent changes to LOF (and some of own power and partly under tow of another vessel.
its overseas 'cousins') have been driven by changing The requested services gave rise to a successful salvage
world attitudes to the environnlent and the need to claim.
encourage salvors to be particularly careful to prevent The rationale behind engaged services is easy to
or reduce environmental damage - even where little understand. The mere presence of a vessel standing
or no residual property value remains at the end of by (invariably a merchantman) whilst essential repairs
the job. To take account of ever changing global needs are undertaken can very often provide the comforting
and problems, a new LOF is being discussed by the difference between property (and lives) being saved
LOF Working Group and it is quite possible that we or the ship and her cargo becoming totally lost.
will see LOF 99 or 2000. "Salvors" in these situations deserve encouragement
Fixed rate or lump sum contracts will invariably by way of salvage award. The law of contract applies
be entered into when there is no threat of imminent equally to salvage as it does in many other walks of
danger. Almost always in these circumstances, the life. If a request is made for a job to be performed and
contract will be negotiated and signed ashore. the job is successfully completed in accordance with
the terms of the request then a reward is payable.
In a salvage situation there is frequently danger Similarly, if an offer to perform a job is accepted and
and many worrying aspects for the master to consider. performed then again remuneration will be payable.
In most cases the last thing the master thinks of is This is the most basic form of salvage contract and
keeping a running note of key facts, position lines, masters should always take particular care in choosing
day's run, engine movements, availability of words for discussions with third parties as
personnel, communications, details of the salvage misunderstandings can and do frequently occur.
agreement and so on. Because salvage awards are
settled generally by arbitration the master will need
to testify in court and contemporary records, if possible
with photographs, will be invaluable when the case is (1928) 31 LLR 339
COMMAND 91
Fcpre 13.1 A routine berthing ofmation could giue rlse lo a salvage
claim ifsomething unexpected happew.
Plrotograph 6yMJ. Gadon, courtesy ofHoward Smillr Towage @Salvage
Figure 13.2 A vessel in (12flcul4 requiressaluage assiskznce

Legal procedures salvage cases but ships' masters should be aware that
Lloyd's Form currently provides for determination they can face Court procedures in this way at short
of the salvors remuneration by way of arbitration in notice and ensure that in conjunction with their owners
London. Much of the wording of the Lloyd's Form and insurers they have arranged adequate preparation
contract is taken up by the procedural methods by time before ally evidence is given.
which the salvors claim will be brought before a single Salvage claims under common law - that is to say
Arbitrator in London. There is a right of appeal from
where no contract has been agreed or specific request
that Arbitrator and, in rare cases, awards can be heard for help made - are not uncommon and salvors may
by the Courts in England if any point of law is involved wish to begin legal proceedings before the courts of
or the Arbitrator has perhaps mis-conducted himself
the location where the services are alleged to have
in some way. taken place. Tug owners in Italy, for example, are keen
In a salvage situation, danger to life and property to have matters determined before the courts of their
is often present and the master has many worrying own country although, in almost all cases, a.micable
matters to consider. In most cases the last thing the negotiation between all parties generally leads to a
master will think of is to keep a running note of key conclusion of the case short of a Court or arbitration
facts, position of ship and tugs, deployment of lines hearing. In some cases it is possible that local Court
and wires, engne movements and other details of the procedure will require the master to give oral evidence
salvage operation. Masters should bear in mind that soon after the incident in question either before the
whether or not they are required to give evidence in Court or perhaps to a specially appointed Court
person at any subsequent stage (and hearings can take Surveyor.
place years after the event) detailed records of events
should be maintained and that those records are likely
Salvage without contract
to come under close scrutiny in the future. Tape Whether seen by a ship's master or not, every ship
recordings, photographs and videos of key events may arriving or leaving port with the assistance of tugs has
prove valuable and put vital matters, which may (through her owners or agents) entered some form of
become contentious, beyond dispute. contract. Frequently, the terms of that contract will be
agreed in advance and be performed efficiently and
Following the successful termination of salvage without recourse to any claim. Tugs are engaged 'per
services it is usual for shipowners or their insurers to movement' or 'per hour' and all parties to the
appoint a third party to investigate the circunlstances transaction are usually happy - an invoice is rendered
of the casualty and the facts surrounding the salvage and paid.
services. Invariably the investigator will be a lawyer
- perhaps with seagoing experience, but in smaller
Many masters are surprised to learn that without
value cases, surveyors, local agents or even owners their having agreed (in writing or verbally] to any
themselves have been known to undertake the on variation of that original contract, circumstances can
board investigation. Arbitrations in London under arise where a salvage claim can be generated by the
LOF are almost always conducted on documents assisting tugs and/or their crews. The sudden onset of
alone. When LOF has been agreed there is no dispute bad weather or an intervening casualty such as fire or
that the services are salvage by nature giving rise to grounding can turn a routine berthing operation on
the entitlement to remuneration. There is accordingly tariff terms into a salvage situation. The leading
very little issue relating to the underlying merits of authority on the subject3 summarised the test to be
the claim. Experienced Arbitrators appointed by applied as follows:
Lloyd's are accustomed to dealing with issues of "To constitute a salvage service by a tug under
dispute on facts occurring during the salvage services. contract to tow two elements are necessary:
If a salvage claim is heard by the Court or by way of a
submission to arbitration without salvage being T h a t the tow is in danger by reason of
admitted then the need for oral evidence becomes circumstances which could not reasonably have been
more relevant and, in certain cases, ship's masters have contemplated by the parties;
been called to give evidence before the Court or That risks are incurred or duties performed by the
Arbitrator. This will take place after a passage of time tug which could not reasonably be held to be within
and the need to record facts as early as possible after the scope of the contract."
the events giving rise to the salvage claim cannot be
stressed too highly as this will form the backbone of There is little a ship's master can do in these
any evidence given subsequently. Lawyers will assist circumstances and he may sometimes be more than
ships masters and senior officers in preparing to give happy that 'salvors' are on hand to help (even at an
their evidence in this way. enhanced rate of pay). Masters should, however, be
aware that where circumstances arise which were not
In certain jurisdictions outside England, it is envisaged at the time the original contract for
possible that the master's evidence will be taken orally
by way of deposition. This is very rare indeed in " (1860) Lush 90 @ 92
COMMAND 93
assistance was entered into then a separate salvage material is contained in Peril at Sen and Salvr~ge- A
claim may be pursued. guide forMasters, jointly published by the International
Chamber of Shipping and the Oil Companies
Masters are often surprised to find themselves
International Marine Forum.
involved in a salvage claim long after they have left
the port in question. It is by no means unheard of for
masters to first hear of a claim from the lawyer Conclusion
boarding his ship to collect evidence relating to the In summary, masters should be aware that they
incident! An agreement for a tug to assist heave an have authority to engage salvage assistance
anchor or turn a ship through the wind without clearly appropriate in extent and form to the circumstances
agreeing terms will almost certainly provide the they face and consistent with I S M o n board
necessary ingredients for a successful salvage claim. procedures and S O P E P plans. LOF is the most
If an agreement to tug assistance on "tariff" terms is commonly used and accepted salvage contract but
made then those terms should be clearly spelled out some insurers/owners/managers are more keen than
and recorded - preferably in writing 01- if necessary others to explore alternatives and masters should be
on tape (audio or video). Masters and senior officers aware of any specific instructions in this respect.
should have in mind the useful guidelines and Extreme care should be taken when engaging
suggestions in the Nautical Institute publication, The assistance from harbour tugs to ensure terms of
M([cter.rRole in ColCcting E i e n Additional helpful engagement are clearly understood by all parties.

Annex 1 to Chapter 13 - Lloyd's Open Form
LOF 1995
LLOYD'S I
N o r a
Inrcrr nome u f p e r ~ o n,zgnrng on behalf of

Ow,>er>ofpropeny 10 hr ~ a l v r d The Marer rhould
~rp whrr~wrpar~ihh
2 Contraclorl ,nome $hhouuN olwuy~ he

rt8serrrd m hnr I and whenever the Apermmr h
u p l e d by the Mmrrr of [he Solvrtrg vrsspl or orhrr
person on boholf of rhr Conrrocror !he name r( rhr
M m e r or orher person mu21 also he imrrred m line 4
before rh@ w r d r 'Yor and on behalf o r 7hr word,
70, and on beholf qf' should be deleted where rr
C O ~ I ~ O~Cl ~g O
n s~ p e r ~ ~ t ~ / / ~ .
STANDARD FORM OF Insen place f a p e e d J, clovrr I ( ~ ( I ar~rl

)
currency f o p e r d m clou~rI ( * )
SALVAGE AGREEMENT
(APPROVED AND PUBLISHED BY THE COUNCIL OF LLOYD'S)
NO CURE - NO PAY
On board the ............................................................
Dated. ..................................
+.See Note 1
nhovc
IT IS HEREBY AGREED between Captain+...................................................................................................
for and on behalf of the Owners of the "........................................................................................................... ' her
cargo freight bunkers stores and any other property thereon (hereinafter collectively called "the Owners")
for and on behalf of ...................................................................
and ........................................................................
's*eNurr 2
ohow
..........................................................(hereinafter called "the Contractor"*) that:-
1. (a) The Contractor shall use his best endeavours:-
(i) to salve the "................................................................................ a n o her cargo freight bunkers

stores and any other property thereon and take them to # .................................................................. or
to such other place as may hereafter be agreed either place to be deemed a place of safety or if no such
place is named or agreed to a place of safety and
(ii) while performing the salvage services to prevent or minimize damage to the environment.
(b) Subject to the statutory provisions relating to special compensation the services shall be rendered and
accepted as salvage services upon the principle of "no cure - no pay."
(c) The Contractor's remuneration shall be fixed by Arbitration in London in the manner hereinafter
prescribed and any other difference arising out of this Agreement or the operations thereunder shall be
referred to Arbitration in the same way.
(d) In the event of the services referred to in this Agreement or any part of such services having been
already rendered at the date of this Agreement by the Contractor to the said vessel andlor her cargo
freight bunkers stores and any other property thereon the provisions of this Agreement shall apply to
such services.
(e) The security to be provided to the Council of Lloyd's (hereinafter called "the Council") the Salved
Value@) the Award andor any Interim Award(s) andor any Award on Appeal shall be in
# ............................................................. currency.
(f) If clause I(e) is not completed then the security to be provided and the Salved Value(s) the Award
andor Interim Award(s) andor Award on Appeal shall be in Pounds Sterling.
(g) This Agreement and Arbitration thereunder shall except as otherwise expressly provided be governed
by the law of England, including the English law of salvage.
COMMAND 95
PROVISIONS AS TO THE SERVICES
2. Definrtionx: In this Agreement any reference to "Convention" is a reference to the International Convention
on Salvage 1989 as incorporated in the Merchant Shipping (Salvage and Pollution) Act 1994 (and any
amendment thereto). The terms "Contractor" and "services"/"salvage services" in this Agreement shall have the
same meanings as the terms "salvor(s)" and "salvage operation(s)" in the Convention.
3. Owners Cooperation: The Owners their Servants and Agents shall co-operate fully with the Contractor in
and about the salvage including obtaining entry to the place named or the place of safety as defined in clause 1 .
The Contractor may make reasonable use of the vessel's machinery gear equipment anchors chains stores and
other appurtenances during and for the purpose of the salvage services free of expense but shall not
unnecessarily damage abandon or sacrifice the same or any property the subject of this Agreement.
4. Vessel Owners Right to Terminate: When there is no longer any reasonable prospect of a useful result
leading to a salvage reward in accordance with Convention Article 13 the owners of the vessel shall be entitled
to terminate the services of the Contractor by giving reasonable notice to the Contractor in writing.
PROVISIONS AS TO SECURITY
5. (a) The Contractor shall immediately after the termination of the services or sooner notify the Council
and where practicable the Owners of the amount for which he demands salvage security (inclusive of costs
expenses and interest) from each of the respective Owners.
(b) Where a claim is made or may be made for special compensation, the owners of the vessel shall on
the demand of the Contractor whenever made provide security for the Contractor's claim for special
compensation provided always that such demand is made within two years of the date of termination of the
services.
(c) The amount of' any such security shall be reasonable in the light of the knowledge available to the
Contractor at the time when the demand is made. Unless otherwise agreed such security shall be provided (i) to
the Council (ii) in a form approved by the Council and (iii) by persons firms or corporations either acceptable to
the Contractor or resident in the United Kingdom and acceptable to the Council. The Council shall not be
responsible for the sufficiency (whether in amount or otherwise) of any security which shall be provided nor the
default or insolvency of any person firm or corporation providing the same.
(d) The owners of the vessel their Servants and Agents shall use their best endeavours to ensure that the
cargo owners provide their proportion of salvage security before the cargo is released.
6. (a) Until security has been provided as aforesaid the Contractor shall have a maritime lien on the
property salved for his remuneration.
(b) The property salved shall not without the consent in writing of the Contractor (which shall not be
unreasonably withheld) be removed from the place to which it has been taken by the Contractor under clause
](a). Where such consent is given by the Contractor on condition that the Contractor is provided with
temporary security pending completion of the voyage the Contractor's maritime lien on the property salved shall
remain in force to the extent necessary to enable the Contractor to compel the provision of security in
accordance with clause 5(c).
(c) The Contractor shall not arrest or detain the property salved unless:-
(i) security is not provided within 14 days (exclusive of Saturdays and Sundays or other days
observed as general holidays at Lloyd's) after the date of the termination of the services or
(ii) he has reason to believe that the removal of the property salved is contemplated contrary to
clause 6(b) or
(iii) any attempt is made to remove the property salved contrary to clause 6(b).
(d) The Arbitrator appointed under clause 7 or the Appeal Arbitrator(s) appointed under clause 13(d)
shall have power in their absolute discretion to include in the amount awarded to the Contractor the whole or
part of any expenses reasonably incurred by the Contractor in:-
(i) ascertaining demanding and obtaining the amount of security reasonably required in accordance
with clause 5.
(ii) enforcing andlor protecting by insurance or otherwise or taking reasonable steps to enforce
and/or protect his lien.

PROVISIONS AS TO ARBITRATION
7. (a) Whether security has been provided or not the Council shall appoint an Arbitrator upon receipt of a
written request made by letter telex facsimile or in any other permanent form provided that any party requesting
such appointment shall if required by the Council undertake to pay the reasonable fees and expenses of the
Council and/or any Arbitrator or Appeal Arbitrator(s).
(b) Where an Arbitrator has been appointed and the parties do not proceed to arbitration the Council may
recover any fees costs and/or expenses which are outstanding.
8. The Contractor's remuneration and/or special compensation shall be fixed by the Arbitrator appointed
under clause 7. Such remuneration shall not be diminished by reason of the exception to the principle of "no
cure - no pay" in the form of special compensation.
REPRESENTATION
9. Any party to this Agreement who wishes to be heard or to adduce evidence shall nominate a person in the
United Kingdom to represent him failing which the Arbitrator or Appeal Arbitrator(s) may proceed as if such
party had renounced his right to be heard or adduce evidence.
CONDUCT OF THE ARBITRATION

10. (a) The Arbitrator shall have power to:-
(i) admit such oral or documentary evidence or information as he may think fit
(~i) conduct the Arbitration in such manner in all respects as he may think fit subject to such
procedural rules as the Council may approve
(iii) order the Contractor in his absolute discretion to pay the whole or part of the expense of
providing excessive security or security which has been unreasonably demanded under Clause
5(b) and to deduct such sum from the remuneration and/or special compensation
(iv) make Interim Award(s) including payment(s) on account on such terms as may be fair and just
(v) make such orders as to costs fees and expenses including those of the Council charged under
clauses IO(b) and 14(b) as may be fair and just.
(b) The Arbitrator and the Council may charge reasonable fees and expenses for their services whether
the Arbitration proceeds to a hearing or not and all such fees and expenses shall be treated as part of the costs of
the Arbitration.
(c) Any Award shall (subject to Appeal as provided in this Agreement) be final and binding on all the
parties concerned whether they were represented at the Arbitration or not.
INTEREST & RATES OF EXCHANGE

1 I . Inlere.rt: Interest at rates per annum to be fixed by the Arbitrator shall (subject to Appeal as provided in
this Agreement) be payable on any sum awarded taking into account any sums already paid:-
(i) from the date of termination of the services unless the Arbitrator shall in his absolute discretion
otherwise decide until the date of publication by the Council of the Award and/or lnterim
Award(s) and
(ii) from the expiration of 21 days (exclusive of Saturdays and Sundays or other days observed as
general holidays at Lloyd's) after the date of publication by the Council of the Award andlor
lnterim Award(s) until the date payment is received by the Contractor or the Council both dates
inclusive.
For the purpose of sub-clause (ii) the expression "sum awarded" shall include the fees and expenses referred to
~nclause I O(b).
12. Currency Correction: In considering what sums of money have been expended by the Contractor in
rendering the services and/or in fixing the amount of the Award a n d o r lnterim Award(s) a n d o r Award on
Appeal the Arbitrator or Appeal Arbitrator(s) shall to such an extent and in so far as it may be fair and just in all
the circumstances give effect to the consequences of any change or changes in the relevant rates of exchange
which may have occurred between the date of termination of the services and the date on which the Award
andlor Interim Award(s) and/or Award on Appeal is made.
PROVISIONS AS TO APPEAL
13. (a) Notice of Appeal if any shall be given to the Council within 14 days (exclusive of Saturdays and
Sundays or other days observed as general holidays at Lloyd's) after the date of the publication by the Council
of the Award and/or Interim Award(s).
COMMAND 97
(b) Notice of Cross-Appeal if any shall be given to the Council within 14 days (exclusive of Saturdays
and Sundays or other days observed as general holidays at Lloyd's) after notification by the Council to the
parties of any Notice of Appeal. Such notification if sent by post shall be deemed received on the working day
following the day of posting.
(c) Notice of Appeal or Cross-Appeal shall be given to the Council by letter telex facsimile or in any
other pennanent fomi.
(d) Upon receipt of Notice of Appeal the Council shall refer the Appeal to the hearing and determination
of the Appeal Arbitrator(s) selected by it.
(e) if any Notice of Appeal or Cross-Appeal is withdrawn the Appeal hearing shall nevertheless proceed
in respect of such Notice of Appeal or Cross-Appeal as may remain.
(0 Any Award on Appeal shall be final and binding on all the parties to that Appeal Arbitration whether
they were represented either at the Arbitration or at the Appeal Arbitration or not.
CONDUCT OF THE APPEAL

14. (a) The Appeal Arbitrator(s) in addition to the powers of the Arbitrator under clauses IO(a) and 1 1 shall
have power to:-
(i) admit the evidence which was before the Arbitrator together with the Arbitrator's notes and
reasons for his Award and/or lnterim Award(s) and any transcript of evidence and such
additional evidence as he or they may think fit.
(ii) confirm increase or reduce the sum awarded by the Arbitrator and to make such order as to the
payment of interest on such sum as he or they may think fit.
(iii) confirm revoke or vary any order andor Declaratory Award made by the Arbitrator.
(iv) award interest on any fees and expenses charged under paragraph (b) of this clause from the
expiration of 21 days (exclusive of Saturdays and Sundays or other days observed as general
holidays at Lloyd's) after the date of publication by the Council of the Award on Appeal andior
lnterim Award(s) on Appeal until the date payment is received by the Council both dates
inclusive.
(b) The Appeal Arbitrator(s) and the Council may charge reasonable fees and expenses for their services
in connection with the Appeal Arbitration whether it proceeds to a hearing or not and all such fees and expenses
shall be treated as part of the costs of the Appeal Arbitration.
PROVISIONS AS TO PAYMENT
15. (a) In case of Arbitration if no Notice of Appeal be received by the Council in accordance with clause
13(a) the Council shall call upon the party or parties concerned to pay the amount awarded and in the event of
non-payment shall subject to the Contractor first providing to the Council a satisfactory Undertaking to pay all
the costs thereof realize or enforce the security and pay therefrom to the Contractor (whose receipt shall be a
good discharge to it) the amount awarded to him together with interest if any. The Contractor shall reimburse
the parties concerned to such extent as the Award is less than any sums paid on account or in respect of lnterim
Award(s).
(b) If Notice of Appeal be received by the Council in accordance with clause 13 it shall as soon as the
Award on Appeal has been published by it call upon the party or parties concerned to pay the amount awarded
and in the event of non-payment shall subject to the Contractor first providing to the Council a satisfactory
Undertaking to pay all the costs thereof realize or enforce the security and pay therefrom to the Contractor
(whose receipt shall be a good discharge to it) the amount awarded to him together with interest if any. The
Contractor shall reimburse the parties concerned to such extent as the Award on Appeal is less than any sums
paid on account or in respect of the Award or Interim Award(s).
(c) If any sum shall become payable to the Contractor as remunerat~onfor his services and/or interest
and/or costs as the result of an agreement made between the Contractor and the Owners or any of them the
Council in the event of non-payment shall subject to the Contractor first providing to the Council a satisfactory
Undertaking to pay all the costs thereof realize or enforce the security and pay therefrom to the Contractor
(whose receipt shall be a good discharge to it) the said sum.
(d) If the Award andlor Interim Award(s) and/or Award on Appeal provides or provide that the costs of
the Arbitration and/or of the Appeal Arbitration or any part of such costs shall be borne by the Contractor such
costs may be deducted from the amount awarded or agreed before payment is made to the Contractor unless
satisfactory security is provided by the Contractor for the payment of such costs.

(e) Without prejudice to the provisions of clause 5(c) the liability of the Council shall be limited in any
event to the amount of security provided to it.
GENERAL PROVISIONS
16. Scope of Authorify: The Master or other person signing this Agreement on behalf of the property to be
salved enters into this Agreement as agent for the vessel her cargo freight bunkers stores and any other property
thereon and the respective Owners thereof and binds each (but not the one for the other or himself personally) to
the due performance thereof.
17. Notices: Any Award notice authority order or other document signed by the Chairman of Lloyd's or any
person authorised by the Council for the purpose shall be deemed to have been duly made or given by the
Council and shall have the same force and effect in all respects as if it had been signed by every member of the
Council.
18. Sub-Contractor(s): The Contractor may claim salvage and enforce any Award or agreement made
between the Contractor and the Owners against security provided under clause 5 or otherwise if any on behalf
of any Sub-contractors his or their Servants or Agents including Masters and members of the crews of vessels
employed by him or by any Sub-contractors in the services provided that he first provides a reasonably
satisfactory indemnity to the Owners against all claims by or liabilities to the said persons.
19. Inducementsprohrbited No person signing this Agreement or any party on whose behalf it is signed shall
at any time or in any manner whatsoever offer provide make give or promise to provide demand or take any
form of inducement for entering into this Agreement.
For and on behalf of the Contractor For and on behalf of the Owners of property to
be salved.
.. ................................................................................ ................................................................................
( T o be signed by the Contractor personally or by the (To be signed by the Master or other person whose
Master of the salving vessel or other person whose name is inserted in line I of this Agreement)
name is inserted in line 4 of this Agreement)
-NATIONAL CONVENTION ON SALVAGE 1989
The following provisions of the Convention are set out below for information only
Article 1
Definitions
(a) Salvage operation means any act or activity undertaken to assist a vessel or any other property in
danger in navigable waters or in any other waters whatsoever
(b) Vessel means any ship or craft, or any structure capable of navigation
(c) Proper@ means any property not permanently and intentionally attached to the shoreline and includes
freight at risk
(d) Damage to the environment means substantial physical damage to human health or to marine life or
resources in coastal or inland waters or areas adjacent thereto, caused by pollution, contamination, fire,
explosion or similar major incidents
(e) Puyment means any reward, remuneration or compensation due under this Convention
Article 6
Salvage Contracts
1. This Convention shall apply to any salvage operations save to the extent that a contract otherwise provides
expressly or by implication
2. The master shall have the authority to conclude contracts for salvage operations on behalf of the owner of
the vessel. The master or the owner of the vessel shall have the authority to conclude such contracts on behalf
of the owner of the property on board the vessel
COMMAND 99
Duties of the Salvor and of the Owner and Master
1. The salvor shall owe a duty to the owner of the vessel or other property in danger:
(a) to cany out the salvage operations with due care;
(b) in performing the duty specified in subparagraph (a), to exercise due care to prevent or minimize
damage to the environment;
(c) whenever circumstances reasonably require, to seek assistance from other salvors; and
(d) to accept the intervention of other salvors when reasonably requested to do so by the owner or master
of the vessel or other property in danger; provided however that the amount of his reward shall not be
prejudiced should it be found that such a request was unreasonable
2. The owner and master of the vessel or the owner of other property in danger shall owe a duty to the
salvor:
(a) to co-operate fully with him during the course of the salvage operations;
(b) in so doing, to exercise due care to prevent or minimize damage to the environment; and
(c) when the vessel or other property has been brought to a place of safety, to accept redelivery when
reasonably requested by the salvor to do so
Criteria for fixing the reward

1. The reward shall be fixed with a view to encouraging salvage operations, taking into account the
following criteria without regard to the order in which they are presented below:
the salved value of the vessel and other property;
the skill and efforts of the salvors in preventing or minimizing damage to the environment;
the measure of success obtained by the salvor;
the nature and degree of the danger;
the skill and efforts of the salvors in salving the vessel, other property and life;
the time used and expenses and losses incurred by the salvors;
the risk of liability and other risks run by the salvors or their equipment;
the promptness of the services rendered;
the availability and use of vessels or other equipment intended for salvage operations;
the state of.readiness and efficiency of the salvor's equipment and the value thereof
2. Payment of a reward fixed according to paragraph 1 shall be made by all of the vessel and other property
interests in proportion to their respective salved values
3. The rewards, exclusive of any interest and recoverable legal costs that may be payable thereon, shall not
exceed the salved value of the vessel and other property
Article 14
Special Compensation
1. If the salvor has carried out salvage operations in respect of a vessel which by itself or its cargo threatened
damage to the environment and has failed to earn a reward under Article 13 at least equivalent to the special
compensation assessable in accordance with this Article, he shall be entitled to special compensation from the
owner of that vessel equivalent to his expenses as herein defined
2. If, in the circumstances set out in paragraph 1, the salvor by his salvage operations has prevented or
minimized damage to the environment, the special compensation payable by the owner to the salvor under
paragraph 1 may be increased up to a maximum of 30% of the expenses incurred by the salvor. However, the
Tribunal, if it deems it fair and just to do so and bearing in mind the relevant criteria set out in Article 13,
paragraph 1, may increase such special compensation further, but in no event shall the total increase be more
than 100% of the expenses incurred by the salvor
3. Salvor's expenses for the purpose of paragraphs 1 and 2 means the out-of-pocket expenses reasonably
incurred by the salvor in the salvage operation and a fair rate for equipment and personnel actually and
reasonably used in the salvage operation, taking into consideration the criteria set out in Article 13, paragraph
,l(h), (i) and Cj)
4. The total special compensation under this Article shall be paid only if and to the extent that such
compensation is greater than any reward recoverable by the salvor under Article 13
5. If the salvor has been negligent and has thereby failed to prevent or minimize damage to the environment,
he may be deprived of the whole or part of any special compensation due under this Article
6. Nothing in this Article shall affect any right of recourse on the part of the owner of the vessel

Chapter 14
COMMERCIAL MANAGEMENT AND THE SHIPMASTER

by Cdr RL. Tallack RNR RD* BSc FNI, Northstar Maritime and Environmental Consultancy
Robert Ellack is a master mariner who followed service on a variety of general cargo, passenger and refrigerated vessels lvith wide
experience of commercial and technical ma?zage.mentwithin the sh$ping industry. He graduated in maritime studiesfollowing a course
in commercial sh$ping at Cardzff University after which he joined Larr~bertBrothers as a Sale and Purchase broker-.
He was then appointed a general manager for the Maersk Company and subsequently as managing director of a short-sea ferry
operation. Two years establishing a joint venture in Romania and subsequently acting as advisor to the Minister of Sh$ping brought an
understanding of both the problems and the potential of working within cent.ralised economies.
Robert Ellack now runs Northtar Maritinzc and Environmental Consultancy. He is both a vocational assessor and ISM/ISO
auditor.
L
Introduction in a consequential shift of large parts of the mailagerial

ALTHOUGH commercial objective of
THE O V E RRID I N G - and administrative - workload from the office to
the shipping industry is, quite reasonably, to make a the vessel. Whether this is seen as problem or potential
profit; for many at sea it may well feel that owners by those at sea is a matter of circumstance and
and managers concentrate more on reducing daily temperament.
operating costs than in striving to deliver a better and
more efficient service. This cost cutting approach finds Potential
expression in many ways, from a creeping reduction For it to be seen as potential and for this potential
in the maintenance resource to the provision of mixed to be realised, the master must understand the
crews of limited cohesion a n d an uncertain commercial dynamics of ship operations and, to a
competency - far too frequently followed by that early certain extent, international trade. He, or she, will need
casualty of belt-tightening; cuts in the training budget. to develop a wider perspective, learn to apply existing
All this provides an increasing challenge for the - and some new - knowledge in different ways and
professional master. to forge new relationships and lines of communication.

This can b e difficult, for the usual lines of
Changing rules and regulations communications run to those ashore whose remit is
T h e rewards of command have also been predominantly technical and whose own horizons are
constrained by a seemingly never ending flow of rules bounded by the need to keep within budget and meet
and regulations, policies and procedures and surveys all regulatory criteria. Indeed, even when one
and inspections which fill the modern master's penetrates beyond the technical operating area to that
horizon. Like a small light at the end of the tunnel, c.ommercia1 'cutting edge' of the chartering
there do now seem to be the signs of a change. O n the department, one may find that five cents on the charter
legislative side, the ISM Code has redefined the rate frequently outweighs the profit potential of
crucially important relationship between the shore optin~umperformance and good customer service,
management team (now legally identified through the generated through effective cooperation.
'designated and the master and his team on
board. At the same time, the master's authority, as Masters, depending upon their early maritime
well as his responsibilities, have been underwritten education, their temperament and experience and
and a recognition of the need for adequate resources their current employment may well see their
also forms part of the Code. professional role on a scale which runs roughly and
not in a particularly straight course, from 'high grade
These developments, it is suggested, open a technical bus driver' to, if not 'Master under God', at
window of opportunity, perhaps more in some trades least a manager who shapes his professional destiny.
than others, for the master to play a more active role This chapter is designed to provide a brief overview
in the commercial as well as the technical operation of those areas, some familiar some possibly less so,
of his vessel and consequently in the overall activities where the professional mariner may need to re-focus
of the company. This window of opportunity is opened his (and her) knowledge and develop new ways of
further in many cases, by the fact that recent reductions applying their skills. Some of these will be in the
in manning have extended beyond the vessel and cut technical 'ship driving', predominantly cost dominated
into the shore management organisation, leaving a areas and some in the cominercial 'ship trading' and
reduced resource there as well. These reductions are predominantly income earning areas. The contention
only partially offset by the expansion of information is that key to success is the effectiveness of the bridge
technology and communications and this has resulted between these two areas of activity and their
counterparts ashore. This chapter also argues, that the in dry-dock at their expense for an underwater
master's role requires his active participation in making inspection by a classification society surveyor,
and managing these links and that, except in moments surveying strictly in accordance with class rules.
of dire emergency, every technical operation has a
commercial perspective. There is a delicate relationship here between seller,
class surveyor and buyer. The buyer's representative
The alpha and the omega will naturally be interested in any borderline decision
The life of every ship starts in the shipyard, either on whether an item, rudder, propeller, etc., needs
as a design crafted to a particular owner's requirements repair falling in their favour, and influence on the
or as a standard shipyard design and almost inevitably classification society about the future class of the vessel
ends in demolition - the alpha and the omega. Along is not unknown. At this stage, the surveyor is still
the way, its life will frequently be marked by a number technically a servant of the seller, tasked to act (as they
of changes of ownership, bringng with them different always should) as an independent arbiter. Both the
maintenance and manning regimes and different master and chief engineer will need to monitor and
operating standards and procedures. Each change of perhaps manage this aspect of the delivery process
ownership will also bring the sadness of parting - and closely; substantial costs can be incurred or avoided
possibly the depressing prospect of redundancy - to depending upon the surveyor's decision.
one crew and new challenges and possibilities to By delivery, the master will need to have ensured
another. Despite the strong feeling of continuity that all owner and leased items, not staying with the
enjoyed by many, mainly northern European, liner vessel, are packed and landed. Professional courtesy
companies over the period 1945-1970, this is the requires that he should also endeavour to prepare a
natural background to seafaring. For many ship comprehensive handover to his successor. The actual
owners, selling vessels on a high market and buying handover and delivery frequently happens at difficult
on a low is an important, if not the most important, times of the day, which means that communications
source of ship related revenue and has ensured that a can be a problem and attention needs to be given to
number of companies have survived difficult times establishing good communications, with backup, to
when others have gone to the wall. There are three wherever the documentary, as opposed to physical,
points at which the master can have an impact on the delivery of the ship will take place. Since the transfer
successful outcome of the sale process. of US dollars is usually cleared through the New York
The first is the arrival on board of a potential banking system, delivery will probably take place
buyer's inspector. The master, by this time, should during American (east coast) banking hours.
have received instructions as to the level of the At the documentary delivery, representatives of
inspector's rights of inspection. Certainly, he will be buyer and seller will meet, probably for the first time
able to inspect and take photocopies of log books and
and quite probably in an anonymous meeting room
certificates. The extent to which he may require ballast
in an international bank. Sellers will have a Bill of
tanks, cargo spaces, or, indeed parts of the machinery
Sale, duly notarised and perhaps attested by the flag
to be opened up, should be clearly defined in the
state. Buyers will have a draft for the balance of the
owner's letter of instruction. Frequently, this
purchase money and a letter releasing the (usually 10
permission will be given on the basis of 'no delay or
per cent) deposit from a joint escrow account to the
expense to the vessel'.
sellers. The sellers will be anxious for proof that the
Inevitably, before the inspector arrives, an buyer's draft is 'good for value' and the buyers will be
inspection of the vessel's classification records will nervous about releasing large amounts of money for,
have been undertaken. The inspector can be expected for them, a relatively unknown asset. There are two
to focus on potential problem areas that have been areas which cause concern. The first is that the sellers,
identified from the inspection of records. The master if they had a loan secured against the vessel, would
should neither conceal nor volunteer informatioil but have wanted to raise the loan and release the mortgage
present the vessel in the best possible light. This will as late as possible although the Bill of Sale and a
inevitably require planning with the other involved transcript of the vessel's registry entry should prove
heads of departments on board and members of the this. At the same time, the buyers (and their lending
crew will need to be briefed not to 'volunteer' bank) will want to attach a mortgage to the vessel as
detrimental information about the vessel and its quickly as possible. Both buyers and their bank will
equipment. be very keen to ensure that there are no lingering
claims or liens attaching to the vessel.
The next stage comes as the vessel is prepared for
delivery. Usually, though not always, a vessel will be The other area of possible conflict is payment for
delivered in port and the terms of the sale contract bunkers remaining on board at delivery. During the
(the Memorandum of Understanding or MoU) will sale negotiation, the cost per tonne of the bunkers will
determine if and how dry docking is handled. have been argued, and not always amicably, agreed.
Generally the sellers will be required to put the vessel During the lead up to delivery, estimated bunkers on

delivery will have been requested from the vessel and as much of the relevant information as possible. In
advised by the seller to the buyer. The buyer has the other words it is a team task in which the master should
responsibility of organising payment, on the day of involve his shipboard management team.
delivery, of the exact amount. The fact that after the
vessel has settled on the blocks in dry dock and a new If the team is going to participate in a practical
round of soundings (plus the last 2 4 hours' and meaningful way, they will need to be properly
consumption and the final revaluation of what the chief briefed. In other words, a prerequisite of proper
engneer had up his sleeve), has changed the estimated planning is good communication. In many
ROB by 3.7 tonnes according to the sellers and 5.3 management systems, information equates to power
tonnes according to the buyer's representative can and influence, so disseminating information can be a
cause inordinate delays and tension. The master and difficult process. It also means that the decision making
chief engineer(s) should arrive at a firm and fair process is much more open and potentially subject to
compromise as soon as possible. criticism - no longer is it the unchallenged word
emanating from the ivory tower of seniority.
As soon as agreement is reached, both on board
and at the location of the documentary delivery that This shift in the process of decision-making from a
all is in order, Protocols of Delivery will be signed at closed to an open forum can be difficult. Initially, for
both locations, stating the exact time of delivery. This many, it may feel like abdicating the responsibility of
time is important to both pal-ties as the final act is to leadership but, in effect, it is only moving it into public
lift the seller's insurance and attach the buyer's cover, view. When all the information is gathered and all the
although this is usually done on a 'held covered' basis, advice and opinions assessed, it remains the master
with the exact time to be confirmed. who has to draw it all together and select the correct
course of action. Doing this in a forum where a
Management and managing people decision can be judged and even criticised takes both
The sale or purchase of a vessel represents more courage and professional competence.
than just an ending or a beginning. It represents a These skills really need to be learned as the young
major event which needs to be properly project officer is promoted to the managerial role of chief
managed. In fact, the operation of a vessel throughout officer. The good master, therefore, is not just a
its life is a succession of events, large or small, practitioner of these skills, he is also a teacher. In order
frequently repetitive but each unique in time and to achieve this, he needs to develop a range of
circumstance, which require proper management. As attributes starting with not just a good command of
such, they all need to be properly planned and each basic facts but also the relevant professional
plan, whether it be large or small, unique or routine, understanding to display them effectively. The master
warrants a careful and structured approach. also needs to be sensitive to changng events, including
The first and critical step in planning is the developing technology, knowing when to set aside the
collection, collation and assessment of information. old and familiar as well as when not to be seduced by
One of the major reasons why plans fail is because the new but unproved. This requires good analytical
insufficient time is allowed for planning and in the skills.
busy, time pressured life of a ship's master, this is easy The open forum of team based management
to understand. Another, important reason why mentioned earlier, as well as the master's unique
planning fails is because it is given a low priority command role in emergency situations, will demand
because the task is 'just routine', just another passage, highly developed problem-solving, judgement and
just another port. It is essential to remind oneself that decision making skills. The master's role and the fact
nothing is ever quite the same - it may be the weather that however he manages, he is in command, demands
or it may be the composition of the bridge both emotional resilience and social skills. The need
management team, or it might be a small equipment to plan and initiate will require proactivity and the
fault. Any one of these may trigger a sequence of iilclination to respond purposefully to events.
events which lead to a critical situation or even a major Creativity and mental agility together with the
accident. How many times has a major incident discipline to continue learning and developing skills,
appeared to be the result of an apparently coincidental are the hallmark of the good manager as is the critical
sequence of minor events? assessment of oneself as a manager and a person -
self-knowledge or 'knowing thyself'.
Identifying and guarding against these incidents is
where risk management should be woven into the Knowing thyself, understanding one's own
planning process. T h e first steps of hazard strengths and weaknesses, demands a high level of
identification - 'This is a new third mate' - and risk both honesty and commitment. The analytical
assessment - 'How competently can he or she fit into techniques which can help in this process are similar
my team?' may be time consuming, but they are to those that can help the master understand the
essential for good management. The process of hazard strengths and weaknesses of the officers and ratings
identification is based upon the principle of gathering who make up his management team and work force.
COMMAND 103
A number of the most commonly used methods of There are a number of other aspects of
analysis divide people's characteristics between four communicating and of managing people in teams
areas of attributes, with one usually dominant but not, which a good manager needs to know, covering such
generally, totally so. A master might consider whether diverse aspects as communicating effectively on paper,
his officers, his managers, are predominantly: managng meetings and negotiating. A manager today
needs new interpersonal skills just as he or she needs
Thinkers
new technical skills. If there are doubts about this
who are good at facts and figures, researching,
consider how both parent-child and employer-
systems analysis, and will probably be good at
employee relationships have changed over the past
setting up the on board computers. 'How?'
questioners. half century.
Sensors Management information systems
who are good at initiating projects, setting up deals, One of the skills which today's manager needs is
troubleshooting and converting ideas into action. the ability to manage the vast amounts of information
'What?' questions. which the electronic age has spawned. In many ways,
Intuitors
this consists of sifting the wheat from the chaff. One
who are good at long term planning, creative
of the areas in which management information can
writing lateral thinking and brainstorming - and
be more readily and more rapidly managed by
who are probably well able to manage change.
computer power, is an organisation's financial
'Why?' questioners.
performance. There are a number of problems
Feelers
associated with this as well as obvious benefits.
who are good at developing and cementing
relationships, counselling, arbitrating and will
-
It might be argued that computer based accounting
converse as happily with a stevedore as with a has given 'the accountant' undue influence within
-
ship owner. 'Who?' questioners. shipping companies and focused decision making too
Useful as these aids may be, people are complex far towards the cost side of the equation rather than
and there is a real danger in labelling people on the income or commercial side. It is dangerous to
inaccurately. These techniques are an aid to generalise but part of the reason for this is that
understanding and managing people, as with aids to accountancy feels happier working with cost figures.
navigation, they can be invaluable but need to be They are in general terms both 'dead' figures and
checked by visual observation at frequent intervals. factual - they represent what has happened and stay
where they are put (figurativel y speaking). The
T h e better the master understands the technical database of historical fact makes an excellent
characteristics of his officers, the better able he is to platform for future projection.
build an effective and efficient management team on
board. With reduced - and mixed - manning, a Income figures, however, are alive and can be more
properly managed team approach is arguably the best, problematical. They carry an aura of commercial
if not the only way in which to make best use the confidentiality, defy easy prediction, are cyclical and
human resource at the vessel's disposal. not under the owner's control and are associated with
Communication is a key element in achieving this. difficult concepts like quality of service. For this reason,
management information systems in the shipping
The greatest mistake made about communicating industry and consequently the managerial ethos
in a business environment is in considering it as a one frequently concentrates on cost based accounting.
way flow - down the chain of command.
Communication is the way in which management Conversely, one of the benefits of computer power
makes its needs and requirements known. It is also is the ease with which electronic data can be
the way in which other employees make their needs transferred from place to place. This, coupled with
and desires known too. It is important to them that the reduction in shore-based management staff has
their voices are heard in a considerate way. At the seen the ship's staff becoming increasingly involved
very least, their message might contain information in and aware of the cost side of vessel operations. For
which will improve the master's decision making. this involvement to be effective and professionally
In a multi-cultural environment such as a ship, the satisfying, authority needs to pass together with
proper use of two way communication becomes even responsibility.
more important, for the meaning contained within the One of the skills which the master and his team
communication has to survive, not only translation need in order to assimilate this extension of managerial
but also cultural differences. Whatever the culture, a responsibility is the management of budgets. This has
golden rule of communication is to take the time and two major aspects:
trouble to work out what information the other person
needs to know in order to enable them to carry out Building the budget and monitoring.
the required task efficiently. Managing expenditure.

Here might be mentioned one of the potential although they can be trimmed. This might be by laying
problems of budgets and the associated information the vessel up or, too many seafarers will be aware, by
system. A budget, like a passage plan, is there for cutting maintenance, personnel, training or other
guidance. They can indicate whether a vessel is off similar costs.
course (or budget) but not necessarily whether this is
good or bad. One does not sail through a major storm There are many different ways of marshalling
just because a line drawn on a chart five days operating (or technical) costs but whatever way they
previously takes the vessel through the storm's current are arranged, they should include:
location. In a similar way, safety requirements, as Personnel costs: the salary cost of sea-staff, the cost
opposed to routine maintenance, can defy budget of filling the berths on board 365 days a year,
constraints but, just as a vessel cannot steam if she has thereby taking into account overlap and leave pay
no bunkers, so she cannot be technically operated if as well as the associated social costs of pensions,
there are no funds. health insurance and employment taxes.
The analogy can be developed further. A master Shifting costs: or the costs of travel to and from a
will endeavour to use his navigational skills to achieve crew change. The size of this can be affected by
the best set of speed and consumption figures for a changes in the vessel's trading patterns and
voyage, with the least possible use of that cost item, reduces the longer crew members say on board.
bunkers. In a similar way, the master needs to use his Repair and maintenance costs: a large budget area
managerial skills in order to deliver the best possible which subdivides logically into a range of sub-
technical operation of his vessel within budget areas and responsibilities. Budgeting in this area
constraints. The effective budget manager should has a strong historical/statistical basis and relates
know where he has some flexibility to adjust budgeted to assumptions on trading patterns and machinery
expenditure and must bear in mind that if economic running hours. This is a cost area which will be
conditions change, so might the vessel's economic affected by the corporate philosophy of the
course. Unfortunately, the 'accountancy approach' to company ranging from 'repair when essential and
budgeting means that adjustments are all too keep the maintenance costs down' to a 'maintain
frequently on the cost reduction side and good properly and reduce the need for repair' approach.
commercial, or trading results are far too infrequently Stores and spares: an area where careful thought
fed back into the equation. and analysis can save money by differentiation
between high and low cost components and those
Vessel costs, or the costs which must be covered that are essential (ship stoppers) and less essential
by the income which the vessel must earn, can be spares. Put another way, thoughtful stock keeping.
logcally divided into three areas. The first and perhaps The overstocked vessel is effectively carrying
the most remote from the seafarer's point of view, are 'dead' resources - ineffectively tied up funds which
the finance costs which relate to the cost of having should be working for the vessel and for the
purchased the vessel. company.
Lubricating oils: an element usually borne in this
This budget area would typically include the
sector of the budget and directly related to the
interest due for payment during a p e n budget period,
expected use of individual machinery items and
on any bank or other loan that had been used to
to the vessel's anticipated trading pattern. This is
support the purchase the vessel. O n a statutory
an area where a good link between commercial
accounting basis, it would also include an allocation
of the vessel's depreciation over whatever realistic life planning and technical operation can make
the vessel is allocated (typically 15-20 years) reducing effective savings by increasing or reducing the
to a residual value of, perhaps, ten percent of the lubricating oil stock depending upon the expected
vessel's original cost. Perhaps more useful from a trading pattern.
management accounting point of view is the true cash- Victualling and Pantry Stores: usually handled
flow picture achieved by replacing the depreciation separately from the general stores and again an
by loan instalment repayments falling due during the area where advance notice of anticipated trading
budget period in question. patterns can contribute to cost savings.
Insurance: covering hull insurance, the vessel's
In many cases, the financial aspects of the vessel's entry into a P & I Club (liability insurance), war
budget will be dealt with, corporately within the risk insurance, etc., either as a direct cost or an
organisation. Nevertheless it is important to remember allocation from a fleet policy. It is always essential
that the vessel carries these costs every minute of every to remember that insurance, which imposes a high
day, whether on hire or idle, laid up or operating. cost item on the operational budget, never does
The next budget area covers the operating or more than recompense the owner for part of the
technical costs - typically the block of costs which true cost of an accident - the inevitable 'perils of
would be covered by a ship manager. Again these costs the sea' or the less inevitable negligence of master
must be borne before the vessel has earned a cent, or crew. The true cost of an accident is invariably
COMMAND 105
higher than the claim, especially when the loss of provider. The globalisation of industry and its
(potential earning) time and the call of managerial manufacturing and processing facilities both drives and
resources is taken into account. is driven by shipping's ability to deliver a fast and
Franchise: this is an allocation in the budget to efficient maritime link in an increasingly complex
account for the insurance deductible or excess, logistical network. The first major contribution to
the most obvious part of an insurance claim not industrial globalisation was in the form of the
refunded or indemnified by the insurer but not, economies of scale provided by the introduction of
as indicated, the only uncovered cost arising from the very large raw material carriers in the late sixties
an accident. (both VLCC and Panamax and Capesize dry bulk
carrier). This, despite frequent and often quite violent
Over and above this range of direct costs will be freight rate fluctuations, effectively pegged the cost of
another block, sometimes referred to as overheads, transporting low value raw materials, particularly
which relates to costs which might be spread over the crude oil, iron ore and steam coal at a level which
fleet or a particular class of vessel or which might have allowed other factors to determine where primary
implications going beyond that budget period. Costs processing, heavy industrial manufacturing and energy
of training may appear here together with the costs of generation would take place.
modifying or upgrading the vessel to ensure continued
compliance with national and international rules and This was followed by containerisation and other
regulations. There may also be an allocation of time forms of specialised carrier (such as the pure car
and travel costs for superintendents or other shore staff carrier) which, in a similar way, enabled other factors
visiting the vessel. than transportation cost and time to play a greater
role in the location of the lighter end of both
Finally, the shore establishment costs need to be manufacturing and processing industry. These other
apportioned and allocated across the vessels in the determinants include the cost and availability of an
fleet or, in the case of management, this may be efficient work force and a national governments'
replaced by a ship management fee. willingness to support the financing of the necessary
The third area of the vessel's budget covers the means of production (or factories to use a slightly
operation of trading the vessel and is of critical outmoded term). These decisions were overlaid in
importance, since it is the only sector of the whole certain cases by the need to locate final manufacture
budget which includes an income. This income may within reponal trade barriers in order to ensure tariff
come from charter hire (voyage or time) or from direct free access to markets. As a result, the components in
freight income (container rates etc.) or from passenger a manufactured item may have made a number of
fares. The costs associated with a vessel's trading substantial maritime journeys from raw material
budget cover such items as bunkers, port costs and through semi-finished components to final product
cargo-handling costs (except of course when on time before that product finally reaches its market place.
To a large extent, the cost of multiple maritime
charter). Unfortunately, and not always necessarily,
transportation is offset by an endeavour to keep
little of the information about a vessel's trading
stockpiles as low as possible and the means of delivery
performance reaches the master and his officers. The
as fast and flexible as possible - the basis of 'just in
pretext is generally 'commercially confidential
time' delivery systems.
information' although charter rates, to within a few
cents, are generally well known to those competing in Over this pattern must be laid the major
similar markets. uncertainties which disturb, to a greater or lesser
extent, the lopstics manager's endeavours to establish
This lack of information is a pity because the master
a steady supply train. Climate is one major factor,
and his team can make a very real contribution to the
which has its impact in two areas. Warm or cold
trading performance of the vessel in one of the key
(mainly northern hemisphere) winters have a direct
areas where customer service is, or should be,
effect on the demand for (liquid) bulk transportation
delivered. It is also the area in which the time pressures
which ripples through into the dry bulk sectors as
imposed by commercial trading requirements translate
combination carriers are drawn in or released. On the
into a heightened risk profile which can flow through
dry bulk side, it is the agricultural production of staple
the technical operation of the vessel. It is The Nautical
food crops - the rice and grain harvests - which
Institute's contention that this is an area where a much
directly affect vessel demand and freight rates.
greater involvement of the sea staff, coupled with a
International and regional conflicts, trade barriers and
wider understanding of the commercial aspects of the
tariff disputes as well as regional fluctuations in
ship operation, would be beneficial.
demand all impact back on the demand for shipping
Trading and contracts of affreightment services. Crucially, too, against this picture of a
The first part of commercial understanding comes monolithic, global trading system, there are new
from the recognition of what drives international trade markets emergng and ever changing opportunities for
and shipping's role as an, albeit critical, service traders to take advantage of inequalities in the market.

The first concrete stage in the process which leads Running parallel with this negotiation is the
to the movement of goods and thus directly to the decision of how and when the buyer will pay for the
employment of shipping is the negotiation of the sale goods - again a decision linked directly to the transfer
contract. It is at this level that the division of risks of title and risk and through this directly to the bill of
between buyer and seller is negotiated and the result lading and the actions of the master - even though no
of this negotiation of the terms of trade flows right vessel may yet have been contracted for the eventual
through the twin aspects of the logistical chain; the carriage of the goods. Probably the most common
physical movement of the goods and the financing of method of financing international trade is the deferred
and payment for the goods (and their transportation). credit1. The key and critical point to comprehend is
Central to the buyer-seller negotiation is the decision that this financial transaction is only linked to the
of when risk in and title to the goods will change hands physical activity of transporting and delivering the
and how this relates to the payment for the goods (and goods by paper - or more accurately, on what appears
their transportation). The outcome of this negotiation on a set of specified documents, of which the bill of
decides who will contract the shipping services (either lading is central, and whether the wording on these
through chartering-in tonnage or through the use of a documents agrees with what was agreed both in the
'common carrier' or liner service) and also indirectly sale contract and when the deferred credit facility was
affects that other 'evidence of a contract of put in place.
affreightment' the bill of lading.
Not surprisingly, the seller agreed to provide a
The terms of trade range from 'Come and collect certain quality and quantity of goods, in (apparent)
from my factory gates' to 'I will deliver it to you.' The good order and condition. The buyer and seller may
International Chamber of Commerce has codified the well have established a date by when the goods should
scale of variations into thirteen 'Incoterms' (from Ex be shipped on whatever vessel is eventually contracted
Works to Delivery Duty Paid) and into four main to transport the goods and frequently this date is used
groups (see figure 14.1).
Guide to Documentary Credit Operation: International Chamber of Commerce
Group B: Departure
EXW Ex Works (named place)
Group F: Main carriage unpaid: F signifies that the seller must hand over the goods to the nominated
carrier free of risk and expense to the buyer.
FAC Free Carrier (named place)
FAS Free Alongside Ship (named port of shipment)
FOB Free on Board (named port of shipment)
Group C: Main carriage paid: C signifies that the seller must bear certain costs even after the critical
point for the division of risk for loss or damage has been reached.
CFR Cost and Freight (C&F) (named port of destination)
CIT Cost Insurance and Freight (named port of destination)
CPT Carriage Paid to (named port of destination)
CIP Carriage and Insurance Paid to (named port of destination)
Group D: Arrival: D signifies that it is seller's responsibility that the goods arrive at the stated destination.
DAF Delivery at Frontier (named place)
DES Delivery ex Ship (named port of destination)
DE(L Delivery ex Quay (Duty Paid) (named port of destination)
DDU Delivery Duty Unpaid (named port of destination)
DDP Delivery Duty Paid (named port of destination)
Figure 14.1 Four main groups of Incoterms
COMMAIVD 107
to set a price against an international index or to meet concerned, it needs to confirm that the quality,
contractual obligations to ship so many tonnes per quantity and condition of the goods are as described
month. The bank, which may be but one in a chain under the original sale contract. At the operational
involving confirming banks as well as the buyer's and level it is also evidence of the contractual
the seller's (different) banks has only one criterion responsibilities of the ship owner for the 'safe carriage
against which to release what may be many millions and delivery of the goods' towards whoever might be
of dollars in payment for goods it has never, and will the legal owner of those goods. As has already been
never see. mentioned, the person or persons to whom the master
and ship owner hold this responsibility may change
This single criterion is 'Do the documents as title in the goods is sold and resold and may well
presented to me exactly match, word for word, the be unknown, in direct contractual terms, to the carrier.
documents specified by the buyer when the credit was
raised?' To add another layer of risk, since the goods The master's management of his vessel may also
may have been sold and resold, the person presenting be determined by one, if not two, charter parties, each
the documents necessary to trigger payment and of which, time and voyage, may have a different
release the cargo, including one (only) of probably impact and require different decisions. At one level,
three original bills of lading, may well not be the the vessel may be taken on time charter and, while
original buyer. this relieves the owner of a number of responsibilities,
of which a central one is the need to seek further
It can immediately be seen that this transaction employment, it also makes the master a servant of the
can be very different from the problems facing a time charterer in respect of the contractual carriage of
master and his chief officer as they contemplate rain cargo. Unfortunately, claims from unsatisfied receivers
wetted and rusting steel or torn bags of infested rice. of cargo tend to find a way through to the ship owner
Since shipping is a service industry, the answer is not despite the lack of a direct contractual agreement
to clause the bill of lading but to take early and pro- between them.
active action to enable the buyer and the seller to solve
the problem, and preferably this action needs to be In the case of a voyage charter, the owner and
put in motion before the cargo has been loaded. master have a much more direct relationship with both
the shipper and the receiver. Yet, even so, the owner
The often quoted 'carefully to load, stow, carry and of the cargo - the holder of the bill of lading - may
deliver' the cargo really needs extending to include be a third party who has no direct connection with
'carefully to take rece@t 08load, stow, etc.' the cargo. In these (charter party based) contractual arrangements
doing this the master assumes responsibilities to a but is (and justifiably so, according to the Courts)
number of different parties on behalf of the ship owner, relying on the master's signature to ensure that the
and with some of them, notably the receiver, neither bill of lading accurately describes the goods he has
the owner nor the master will necessarily have a direct contracted to buy (and for which he has possibly
contractual relationship. Nevertheless, the receiver will already paid) and that they will be delivered to the
be able to claim against the ship owner for the actions agreed port of discharge with due despatch and in good
of the master. condition.
The contractual arrangements which facilitate the Around these contractual agreements, or the strict
physical movement of the goods and the transfer of duties of a common carrier is the liner trades, have
title (ownership) in them can be complex, especially grown, over the years, a web of what can be fairly
since they will frequently involve two related but
described as risk control and risk offset facilities. Some
separate contracts. One of these contract will relate
are legal and some are insurance based and they can
primarily to the goods and to the shipper and receiver
illustrated in the form of protective circles around the
while the other will relate primarily to the provision
core master/ship owner relationship.
of the method of transportation, the ship. In other
words, the master will need to manage and coordinate Risk and insurance
the responsibilities and obligations surrounding both Two insurance facilities offer the ship owner and thus
the bill of lading and the charter party (or, in the case the ship master, protection in two different areas of risk.
of a vessel operating a liner service, the responsibilities The main role of what is generally termed Hull (or Hull
and obligations which flow from being a common and Machinery) cover is to indemnify the owner against
carrier). damage to his vessel. As such it relates mainly to the
In managing the contractual obligations which risks associated with the technical operation of
relate to the bill of lading, the master must take into maintaining and operating the vessel and of its navigation
account its three distinct but closely interrelated from port to port, including those risks generally
functions. Centrally, it is the title document to described as perils of the sea. It also, subject to certain
ownership of the goods. In addition it is the receipt constraints, provides recompense to the owner in the
for the goods issued on shipment and, so far as the event 'of negligence or mistakes by the master, officers
financial side of the contractual arrangements are and crew, the shipboard management team'.
108 THE NAUTICAL INSTITLITE

It is the liability cover provided by the mutual owner and the vessel remain within the protection of
protection and indemnity associations (the P&I clubs) the conventions and d o not breach any of the
which is most relevant to the commercial operation warranties contained within the insurance cover.
of the vessel under discussion in this chapter. Here
the cover reaches out into the area of charter party This means that the master and his officers should
and bill of lading, but, in strict terms, stops short of understand the overall contractual relationships
providing protection if the master incorrectly signs or relating to the employment and risk protection of the
clauses a bill of lading, delivers the cargo to the wrong vessel and its owner and be able to act in a way which
port or delivers the cargo without the correct takes into account the possibly conflicting priorities
presentation of a bill of lading. Having said that, the of the various interested parties. This does not mean,
P&I Clubs are owned, mutually, by the ship owners painstaking actions taking into account clause and sub-
they serve and they are well aware of the pressures clause; nor does it mean waiting until a lawyer or
and practices of international trade - and of the owner's representative arrives to advise on a
frequent non-availability of bills of lading at a discharge deteriorating situation. It means taking, and taking
port. early, 'the reasonable actions of a prudent seafarer',
both technically and commercially. Even more, it
The P&I Club, as well as the ship owner, will want means planning and thinking ahead in order to prevent
to ensure that as much protection as possible is given such situations arising. As stated earlier, the time to
to the commercial operation of the vessel from various negotiate the clausing of a bill of lading is when the
legal conventions. This means that the protection rust stained steel is on the quay, not when it is in the
offered by the Hague or The Hague-Visby (or the hold with the hatches closed.
Hague-Visby with Protocol, or the Hamburg) Rules,
which relate to the Bill of Lading (the contract of The key relationship is between owner and master
carriage of main interest to the eventual owner of the and the shore based and ship based management
teams. A good relationship at this level is, perhaps, a
cargo) needs to be linked to the voyage charter (the
contract of carriage between ship owner and shipper). shipping company's best way of managing risk and
This is, or should be, effected by a Paramount Clause one which has been squandered in recent years,
in the charter party. In a similar way, the holder of the mainly, it must be said, by the actions of the ship
bill of lading needs to be aware of the existence of the owners. It can be hoped that the International Safety
voyage charter and an Incorporation Clause brings Management (ISM) Code will help to rebuild this
the existence of the charter party to the bill of lading relationship both for the technical and the commercial
(and this complexity is why one of the roles of a bill of operation of the vessel. Neither side works in isolation
lading is described as 'evidence of', rather than 'the' and on the commercial side, the master is the person
contract of carriage). who has to manage the contractual arrangements and
make them work.
One of the most significant areas of protection
offered by the Hague Rules (and its derivatives) is that The next layer of risk management is education,
it provides the ship owner with the ability to limit his understanding, knowledge and the training to put the
knowledge into effective action. It can be argued that
liability, in monetary terms, against third party claims,
education has more than ever been replaced by the
including claims brought under the complex web of
expedience of 'training against regulations' in recent
contracts described above. Part of a master's
years - and even then, the training budget has been
responsibility is to manage the operation of the vessel
one of the first to suffer from 'the need to reduce daily
in both commercial and technical terms, so that the
running costs'.
protection offered by these conventions remains intact
and one of his foremost duties in this respect is to There are encouraging signs that this is changing,
ensure that the vessel is seaworthy (and cargoworthy) but knowledge and understanding do need to be
at the commencement of (each stage) of a voyage. encouraged amongst the younger generation of
officers.
The ship owner's ability to limit his liability (again
in monetary terms) provided by the Limitation of Considerations relating to bills of
Liability Convention, relates more closely to the lading
technical operation of navigating the vessels safely
Although a bill of lading can appear for signature
through the perils of the seas rather than the perils of
on the master's desk with little more ceremony than
the contracts. In the event of an incident - or a mistake
the many documents which he has to sign every port
- occurring which brings the ship owner into a position
call, its role and the potential liabilities which it carries
in which he will be relying on the protection offered
demand careful management and forethought. Some
by either of the liability conventions or of his two
of the considerations which the master should bear in
complementary insurance covers, it is essential that
mind are:
the master, and his team on board, actively manage
the situation. They must do this in a way which will 1. Is it possible early during the port stay to sight,
mitigate (minimise) any loss whilst ensuring that the from the agent or shipper, a proforma bill and
COMMAND 109
establish whether there are any special terms and/ The condition of the cargo - if there is no
or conditions or conflicts with any charter party? statement as to condition, one should not be
Are the cargo officers briefed to bring promptly added, although there is generally the
to the master's attention any potential problem of statement 'shipped in good order and
marks, quantity, quality or condition. These condition' printed on the face of the bill, or
problems might then be resolved without giving better still 'shipped in apparent good order
rise to delay or a dispute about clausing the bill of and condition'. The master is not expected
lading. to see inside a crate but he is expected to react
Both when receiving and releasing cargo, it is to such obvious signs as stained bags - and
important to know whether the bill of lading is: to be particularly viglant if foodstuffs are
being shipped.
A straight bill, whereby the goods can only
The quality of a cargo - this, reasonably
be released to the named consignee, or enough, is not an area in which the master is
An open bill which may be made out: expected to show a high degree of expertise.
3.2.1 'To bearer' and thus the first person Quality can be high and condition low and
to present an orignal bill of lading vice versa. Technically it is possible to add
3.2.2 'Named consignee or order' in which the wording (if not already in the printed
case the named consignee can receive wording) 'Quality and condition unknown'
the cargo or endorse on the back the and the bill will still be a clean bill of lading.
name of another 'named consignee The leading marks - the cargo should be
or order', or clearly marked with the leading marks
3.2.3 Endorse just the name of a consignee necessary for the identification of the cargo
making it a non-negotiable 'straight' and the master is recommended to ask
bill. himself 'Are the goods marked in such a
O n releasing cargo, endorse the bill manner as should ordinarily remain legble
'Accomplished' and date, stamp and sign this at the end of the voyage?' and 'Are there
endorsement. reasonable grounds for suspecting that the
Establish whether the bill of lading: information is not accurate?' The vessel may
5.1 Is a 'Marine or ocean bill of lading' well be held responsible for delay and
(sometimes called port-to-port) which should expense if, at the discharge port(s),there are
contain no indication that the bill is subject delays because of poorly or improperly
to a charterparty, or marked cargo.
5.2 Whether the bill specifies that it is subject to 11. If the cargo does not fit with the shipper's
a charterparty, in which case the description on the bill of lading, then the overall
Incorporation Clause in the bill of lading guiding principle is:
should be analysed to identify what terms and Inform the shipper that if the matter is not
conditions from the charterparty are being resolved, then it will be necessary to clause
incorporated. the bill of lading, advising the shipper of the
Remember that a bill of lading is prima facie reasons.
evidence that the goods are loaded as described If the shipper refuses to address the problem
therein and can be absolute proof when the bill is and refuses the master's right to clause the
endorsed to a third party. bill, he should be advised that sailing may be
Be careful that the date on a bill of lading records delayed until the matter is resolved, and the
the date on which the goods are actually shipped. shipper held responsible for the cost of any
Never sign a blank bill of lading. delay;
Never accept a letter of indemnity (unless clearly Ensure that this stance on behalf of the
instructed and authorised by the owner - not the owner's interests is backed up by firm and
charterer - and even then preferably in comprehensive evidence recorded at the
conjunction with the advice of the P&I Club and time.
backed by a bank guarantee). 12. Remember the shipper is the customer - early
Signing the bill of lading as a receipt for cargo, action by a vigilant ship's staff can frequently
the master addresses: enable a solution to be found which is acceptable
to both shipper and carrier (charterer as well as
The weight and quantity - here the addition owner) without the need to delay the vessel.
of the word 'unknown' shifts the burden of
proof on to the shipper but the master will Managing charter parties
have to provide a compelling reason why he For many masters, much of his or her working life
was not able to conduct a tally or assess the may be directed by one or more charter parties and
weight through a draft survey or similar their management approach can either be reactive or
means. positive and pro-active.

The contractual web a time charter, from owners, highlighting the main
The first and critical point always to bear in mind points of the charterparty. These vary enormously in
is that the charterparty expresses the requirements of quality and are frequently written from the point of
that essential component of every business, the view of a charterer wanting a job done rather than the
customer and the matrix of customers to whom the master addressing his complex matrix of
master may be responsible can be complex. Bearing responsibilities. Sadly, too, charter parties often arrive
in mind that a time charter is a contract for the use of late, if at all. A first task, therefore, is to build up a
a particular ship while a voyage charter is a contract library of frequently used charter parties and to ensure
for the hire of cargo space or capacity within the vessel, that the officers forming the management team are
it is important to understand how: aware of their major requirements, their special
peculiarities, and the obligations which they place on
Both charter parties can coexist (and the chain can the vessel.
be lengthened if sub-charters exist), and why.
Both charter parties impose different requirements Charter parties can make dry reading so a little
and duties upon the vessel and her master. inventiveness is required. One approach is to make a
chronological list of those aspects of a charterparty
For the master and his team, the management that affect the conduct of the vessel as she executes
responsibilities can be con~plexand multilayered in the charter voyage and correlate this with the relevant
that he may well have responsibilities to, and to a charterparty clauses, scattered as they will be in
greater or lesser extent, be under the direction of: different places in different charter parties.
A time-charterer, who will issue sailing orders, is Voyage charters
interested in such matters as speed and For a voyage charter, some of the headings may
consumption and can instruct the master as to the be:
signing of bills of lading,
A voyage charterer, who is primarily concerned Charterer, shqper and freight
about a vessel's timely arrival at load or discharge This identifies the customer and, crucially, how
ports with holds or tanks in an appropriate freight is paid. Charterparty and bill of lading fraud is
condition and cargo gear in good working order, not unknown - if a strange and new name appears as
The holder of a bill of lading, that evidence of a charterer or shipper, it might, especially in new trading
contract to carriage and who, when risk and title areas, be sensible to make discreet enquiries as to the
pass, to the receiver may be a third party to whom shipper's reputation.
the vessel and the owner assume responsibilities
and duties, while at the same time Arrival
Managng the vessel on behalf of the owner with This establishes the immediate navigational
regard to such critical matters as personnel, the requirement and, together with the discharge port, the
safe prosecution of the voyage and the routine bunker requirement (bearing in mind that to deviate
maintenance of the vessel; and to bunker once cargo is on board should have the
= Ensuring that the business and customers receive ag~eementof the shipper or, perhaps more accurately,
a satisfactory service without exposing the owner the person who has (insurance) risk in the cargo at the
or vessel to avoidable contractual liabilities. time of deviation.
Seaworthiness Cargo to be loaded

Throughout all of this contractual web, one This will establish, together with the required time
common obligation can be identified, and one which to arrival, any cleaning required which might be
also relates to the vessel's insurance. The master has a needed for holds or tanks. If there is doubt about the
prime, and in some cases absolute responsibility that exact level of cleanliness or preparation, the
the vessel should be seaworthy. The requirements of appropriate time to ask is when there is time left to
the obligations of seaworthiness and for a voyage take action.
charter, cargoworthiness, can be found in 'Commercial Laycan and NOR
Managementfor Sh$master3 and other Nautical Institute The method and time of tendering notice of
publications. Suffice it to say that the legal obligation readiness is an area where a pro-active approach can
is greatest at the commencement of each voyage or sometimes be advantageous for vessel and owner.
stage of a voyage - and that a disgruntled cargo owner There is, for example, little to be gained by burning
or voyage charterer will endeavour to remove the bunkers to arrive just too late to tender NOR before a
owner's ability to limit his liability (as under the Hague weekend or local holiday and when (according to a
Rules etc.) by challenging the seaworthiness of the careful reading of the charterparty) it might not be
vessel. possible to tender NOR.
Planning and preparation Conversely, it may well be worth burning extra
Masters should receive voyage orders from bunkers in order to tender NORjust before a weekend
charterers and, hopefully and especially in the case of of no cargo work, giving the vessel a maintenance
COMMAND 111
weekend in port 'on demurrage'. The requirements Additional clauses
for a valid tender of NOR warrant careful reading, Careful attention should be gven to any additional,
especially with regard to the place and method of typed clauses which may extend the obligations and
tendering as well as the vessel's preparedness to accept responsibilities of vessel and master.
cargo and ballast condition.
Time charters
Bear in mind that the shipper must make a number Time charters, as already mentioned, perform a
of important decisions based on the ETA given by the different task and generate different requirements and
master, decisions relating to moving the cargo into responsibilities such as:
the port, ordering berths, labour and equipment which, Description of vessel
if badly timed can waste money. Bear in mind too It is important that this is correct, for if not, the
that if a vessel misses her Cancelling Date, the charter charterer is sure to discover the discrepancy and, if
can be terminated and the owner find himself with an possible, turn it to his commercial advantage. It is
unemployed vessel and probably a very weak surprising how many discrepancies there can be
negotiating position. between two descriptions of the same vessel.
Safe port, safe berth Delive y , redelive y , hire payment and cancellation
An important and sometimes complex Diverse but related clauses all with a common
consideration, especially when trading to new areas. thread. It is not unknown for certain time charterers
In assessing whether a port is safe or unsafe, the master to load a vessel, pay the first time charter payment,
needs to consider three factors: sell the cargo and then to disappear with the proceeds.
This leaves the owner and the vessel with a direct
Is the port physically safe? E.g., is there sufficient
obligation to the 'innocent' holder of the bill of lading
water depth? What are the anticipated (seasonal /
to deliver the cargo to the named port of discharge,
unseasonable) weather conditions? Has war or
without any further payment.
other internal hostilities broken out? etc.
Is the basic port infrastructure safe? In other words On and OH-hiresurveys
are the systems such as pilotage, aids to navigation, Be aware that the off hire survey may be conducted
tugs, etc., adequate? by different people at some future time, but it will be
Can the event or occurrence which makes him compared against the description of the vessel
consider that the port might not be safe, be contained in on-hire survey (and charterparty).A wise
described as abnormal or could it reasonably be master approaching the end of a charter, reads the
foreseen? original off-hire survey with care.
Laytime and demurrage Owners/charterersto provide

Although 'once o n demurrage, always on An obvious clause for careful reading, but it is
demurrage' slips easily off the tongue, before a vessel particularly important as it helps to define the
can earn demurrage, NOR must be correctly tendered responsibility and authority interface between
and accepted. The owner needs careful and timely charterer and master.
information to support his demurrage claim which, Safe berths, trading limits, sailing orders and liberty
all too often, has to be negotiated and chased after the clauses
cargo is discharged and the voyage is ostensibly All fairly straightforward clauses but once again
complete. they define the master's responsibilities and his
Cargo and bills of lading particular responsibility for the safety of the vessel and
The core reason for the charter and linked closely her navigation.
to the notes on bills of lading. The master should Cargo and cargo work
ensure as early as possible that he is satisfied with the This helps to define the vessel's responsibilities and
obligations placed on him with respect to receiving the charterer's responsibilities in respect of all cargo
cargo and signing for it and the liabilities to which he related aspects. It is important to establish a good line
can expose the owner, especially with regard to third of communication with the time charterer's manager
party receivers holding an endorsed bill of lading. or representative responsible for the operation of the
charter. This is an area where the need to protect the
It is important to note if a Clause Paramount
owner's interests can conflict with what is operationally
stipulates the inclusion of clauses relating to the Hague
the most expedient solution - it is an area where the
(or other) Rules into the bills of lading thus enabling
master's experience and forethought can be
the owner the ability to limit his liability. Consultation invaluable.
with a (husbanding) agent or the local P & 1 Club
Correspondent may be advisable and the master Speed and consumption and bunkers
should be ever watchful for attempts at the fraudulent An area ripe for dispute which requires a sensible
use of bills of lading. and pragmatic approach, especially if the chartering

department have been over enthusiastic about the Deliue y
vessel's performance. Masters - and the chartering The master has two overriding objectives at the
department should be aware that it is becoming discharge port(s).
increasingly easy to retrospectively check satellite
records of meteorolo~calcondition. To ensure that the cargo is delivered to the rightful
receiver, and
OH-hire To protect the owner's position if necessary with
Another area where careful planning and regard to the payment of freight and demurrage.
forethought can help to avoid or minimise loss of hire.
This accomplished it is time to plan and prepare
Passage and deviation for the next voyage.
The cargo owner has the right to expect that the
laden voyage is undertaken with due dispatch and, in Summary
general terms, without deviation. Unwarranted or Charter parties, whether voyage or time - or a
unagreed deviation can prejudice the owner's right to combination of both, play a vital and central role for
limit his liability (with respect to claims from the a large sector of the shipping industry. Professionally,
charterer or cargo owner) under such conventions as a master needs to approach the challenges they pose
the Hague or Hague-Visby Rules. in a knowledgeable and pro-active manner and ensure
Cargo claims for damage or deterioration of goods that his or her management team grows in their
on passage are often made and as well as attending to understanding of their commercial as well as their
such matters as ventilation (if required) a careful record technical responsibilities.
of the actions taken to care for the cargo during the
passage is important. Sea water damage due to References
exceptional weather - or due to ill fitting hatch seals R L Tallack Commercial Management for Sh$masters
or the vessel being driven too hard? Retrospective The Nautical Institute 1996.
satellite imagery can often establish how exceptional Managing Risk in Shiir,ping The Nautical Institute
the weather was! 1999
COMMAND 113
Chapter 15
MANAGING SAFETY ON BOARD

by Captain C.M. Mahidhara FNI
Captain Mahidhara trained on the T S . Dufferin and T S . Rajendra from 1971 to 72. He joined the Shipping Corporation ofIndia
(SCI) as a n apprentice i n 7973 and served i n various capacities, obtaining comma7zd in 1981 and leaning S C I i n 1982. In S C I he
served on a variety of vessels - cargo ships, tankers, bulk carriers, product carriers and OBOs.
He joined Farsund Slz$ping A/S (part ofMosvold Farsund) as a chiefoficer and obtained co7nmand again in 7985. H e has been
with Farsund Shipping since then, serving ~nostlyon Suezmax and Afiamax tankers, and Capesize bulk carriers. For the last two years
he has served on a 72000 ton multipurpose ship carryingproject cnrgoes and operating containerfeeder services. Captain Mahidl~arais
due to join the tanker fleet again soon.
Introduction
Safety is an important and integral part of every aspect operations should be able to immediately sense it. This
of running a ship. For managmg safety on board the sort of a safety culture has to be steeped on board by
mastel- must coordinate all activities contributing to constant attention to detail, by training and repetition.
safety. The key to this is providing good leadership, Personal safety
through personal commitment, personal example and
A very good starting point for safety on board is
a positive attitude to safety so that he can motivate
personal safety. It must be realised that without all on
and stimulate people. Unlike any other environment
board having an awareness of their own personal safety
the shipmaster's example and attitude make a great
and that of their mates, no vessel can be operated
impression on the ship's crew. Nearly every ship safely. Safe operating practices cannot be divorced
reflects the capability and personality of the master.
from safe working practices. When a person joins a
The master must use this power of persuasion
ship, he should be familiarised with the con~pany's
effectively and to advantage, to convince everybody
safety policies and indoctrinated on personal safety
of the value of safety through good communication, through a personal safety handbook. He should also
training and leadership.
be taken on a familiarisation tour of the vessel by one
The checks and balances provided with the of the officers so that he can be brought into tune very
implementation of the ISM code makes the task of quickly with the ship's operations and any potential
managing safety on board all the more effective. The hazards.
highest standards of safety can be achieved by instilling The master should, at the earliest opportunity,
a sense of personal responsibility for the safety of both make personal acquaintance and appraise him of the
themselves and others into all persons on board. The
company's safety policy, their drug and alcohol policy,
shipmaster should approach the management of safety, his own commitment to it and his receptiveness to
so that it is introduced into every aspect of running suggestions and discussions. He should try to inculcate
and operating a ship. Personal safety is a very good a sense of responsibility for their personal safety, the
starting point, and it should pervade the daily routines safety of the fellow men and the ship. He must
of the ship, maintenance, operations at sea in port,
convince them that it is important to work safely rather
navigation, manoeuvring, safety of shore personnel,
than control their every move. They must also be made
training, delegation, the formation of safety
to feel that they are free to put forward their own points
committees, good communication with the company
on any aspect of safety in the ship's running.
and other shore establishments.
A lot of the safety training and indoctrination of
Master must set an example
-
and lead company policies is usually done ashore today but it
Firstly the crew must be convinced of the master's is always good to reinforce your own personal
sincerity regarding safety on board. The shipmaster commitment to all these policies. While on the subject
must be at the forefront in setting examples and must of personal safety it would be wise to guard against
observe all the safety routines he and the company carelessness and complacency and regular checks and
have established for the ship. The safety standards on re-checks should be made of personal safe working
board should not appear to be overly cosmetic and practices. One should go back to the absolute basics
should pervade all aspects of running the ship. often and reinforce the importance of safe habits and
Applying safety only to specific areas serves no practices to minimise errors.
purpose and is not effective in achieving overall safety
on the ship. The safety standards and atmosphere All safe working practices have evolved through
should be such that anyone observing the ship's experience, so it would be unwise to bypass them "just

one time" because you are in a hurry. There is confidence can take the system of double checks
absolutely no reason that the unsafe practice will riot further. The master and senior officers should be
harm you "just that once". It must be ingrained in approachable, so that no one hesitates to report any
everyone that they must think very hard before they damage or untoward incident or potential hazard he
try to overrule a safe working habit. may have observed, or to point out an inadvertent
error by any person on board which could jeopardise
Delegation any aspect of safety on the ship.
Without the right amount of delegation, the master
will be bogged down and fatigued by too many details People should be made to understand that no one
and will not be able to function effectively and safely. is infallible and that mistakes can be made by anyone.
He should be aware of the potential and shortcomings When they feel a mistaken order has been given or
of his officers and crew and delegate responsibilities an erroneous operation is being conducted they should
accordingly. Wherever there are shortcomings an not hesitate to point it out. They may be mistaken at
attempt should be made to train and remedy the times; they should not be ridiculed, but given an
shortcomings, or g v e staff responsibility where they explanation and praised for their diligence.
are capable.
Navigational safety
Too much or too little delegation is unsafe and There have been numerous instances of minor
dangerous. Delegation of responsibility is good for the navigational errors leading to major causalities like
persons on board. It builds up their confidence and stranding, collisions, etc., leading in turn to loss of life,
skills, they feel involved and needed on the ship and property and environmental damage. The shipmaster
the feeling that they matter in the ship. It also assists must lay down guidelines for safe navigational
in their training for taking on more responsibilities as practices which are in con~pliancewith various
they progress in their career. For the master it releases international, national and local laws. The Bridge
his time for further training and being available Procedures Guide provides a good guideline and the
reasonably refreshed to tackle an emergency. It helps watchkeepers should be made familiar with its
the master to monitor, oversee and analyse the safety contents. The master should discuss it with them so
of various operations and activities on board with a that they understand it fully. Standing orders should
clear mind. also be promulgated taking into account company
policies, the experience and capability of the
An important aspect of delegation is that, when watchkeepers and the limitations of the equipment and
the need arises, it is much easier for the master to the ship. Night orders should also be issued every night
advise and help in the work delegated, whereas when with pertinent instructions for the night watch and
the master himself does the work, it is less likely to be should indicate more specifically when definitely to
inspected critically for any errors. For instance, if the call the master and any other specific instructions
shipmaster were to do the passage planning himself, regarding position fixing, traffic, weather and so on.
then an error would be less likely to be detected by
the navigating officer, or he may not have the temerity Guidelines should be laid down for passage
to point it out. However when it is delegated you can planning from berth to berth in accordance with
check and monitor the work and point out errors, established procedures. They should be detailed, easy
inaccuracies or shortcomings. to refer to and should also have contingency plans in
the event of aborting the plan especially in congested
Confidence in the master waters, pilotage waters, heavy weather, etc. Weather
The shipmaster should have an open management routeing is very good today, however it would be
style and communicate well with all on board and be prudent to check regularly local or heavy weather
accessible. A good personal acquaintance with the sea reports so as to take corrective and early action to
staff and a good professional and personal relationship avoid storms and disturbances. All phases of the
with senior staff are essential. There must b e passage plan should b e discussed with the
confidence on board that the master has an open mind watchkeepers and the relevant details with the chief
to suggestions for inlprovement of safety or any other engineer and the pilots.
aspect of the ship's running. Everyone should always
feel free to put forward their suggestions and these Just as the watchkeepers are taught the importance
should be considered carefully and implemented if of not relying on only one method of position fixing,
practical and feasible. If the suggestions require the master should also double check o n his
assistance and concurrence of the company they watchkeepers. Navigational safety also involves chart
should be presented to the company as required. The corrections. This is an important area and random
confidence and accessibility that a shipmaster exudes checks on the corrections should be made so that they
is important in reducing the possibility of a one-man are not missed out inadvertently. Ultimately it is wise
error. The ISM code will already have a system of to remember that no single cause of ship collisions
checklists and double checks to avoid a one man error, and grounding exceeds in frequency that of failing to
however the master communicating well and creating maintain a proper all round lookout.
COMMAND 115
The limitation of navigational aids should be fully Good communication
understood and exclusive reliance on any one aid Good communication with all on board and
should be avoided. In recent years there have been likewise with the shore management is essential. The
instances of radar-assisted collisions and GPS assisted better the communication, the better is the
grounding. understanding of safety objectives on board. Similarly,
Watchkeepers and engineers must be encouraged good understanding and communication with the
to familiarise themselves with the emergency steering c o m p a n y is i m p o r t a n t . However good the
gear, and procedures for auto/hand changeover should communication and training on board, the ship does
be ensured. not have adequate resources to rectify and remedy
every defect. It requires the advice, resources and
Maintenance and proper use of authority of the company. Effective communication
equipment and understanding will always bring an early and
Regular and good maintenance procedures are an appropriate response from the company. The care and
integral part of safety management on board. Without consideration given to suggestions from the ship will
this, equipment may not be reliable or perform within definitely motivate the staff on board to more effectual
its specifications. Today there a r e very good safety management.
maintenance programs which, if followed sincerely, Safety committees, safety meetings,
should minimise the possibility of breakdown or
malfunction.
training
Safety committees and safety meetings are an
Equipment should be used according to the effective forum for discussing and communicating.
maker's instructions and its operation should be within They can be used to investigate and report accidents
the parameters it was designed for. Abuse of and incidents, with the objective of determining cause
equipment will only lead to breakdowns and could (not blame) and preventing re-occurrence. It must be
possibly put the vessel in an unsafe position. Misuse emphasised that discussions regarding accidents or
and abuse could also cause personal injuries. Training hazardous situations on the ship should not be used
is very important for the proper use and maintenance to find fault with an individual. The lessons learnt
of equipment and it should be repeated and reinforced should be used to improve safety conditions on board,
regularly. tighten loose maintenance and operational procedures
and implement new safety procedures as required. It
Inspections is not enough simply to discuss accidents and incidents.
The master should, along with his senior officers,
regularly inspect the vessel and should discuss with Near misses should also be investigated and
them any shortcomings, defects and deficiencies which appropriate precautions taken so they do not become
could lead to operational problems and hazardous and an accident at a later date. Minutes of safety committee
unsafe conditions. The inspections should not just be meetings should be communicated to the company
for the machinery and equipment but for the ship as a so that they can provide their own input. There will
whole - the hull, cargo tanks and other structures - be several instances when remedies may not be found
as they become available for inspection. T h e on the ship and the company should be asked to
inspections should review operating procedures and provide the expertise or new equipment.
modify them as experience dictates. A good inspection
of various logs and routines will be very beneficial in The meetings provide a good forum for discussing
getting a good picture of the effectiveness of all casualty reports received from the company. Similar
procedures and routines on board so that corrective situations can be recognised on board, parallels can
measures can be taken if necessary. In accordance with be drawn and lessons learnt. The meetings will also
the ISM code a lot of auditing tools have been schedule training and safety drills and discuss drills
provided to the ship which regularly highlight problem already concluded. Safety drills should be well thought
areas and allows for reporting procedures so that out and imaginative. Drills are basically rehearsals for
effective measures can be taken on board or ashore. disasters and the object is readiness. The vessel's
Inspections fi-om shore especially in the form of ISM readiness to deal with an emergency depends on the
audits, port state inspections, oil company inspections, level of training imparted. Drills should be well
etc. have provided a good tool for safety management planned and varied to keep interest alive. It is a good
in that the regular interaction brings about more idea to involve everyone on board in turn to plan the
awareness of faults and defects before they can become drills. Some very sound and innovative ideas are
a liability. They provide more inputs than the ship bound to surface and it keeps everyone involved.
alone can provide. The master should always take the
suggestions given in the right spirit and should Discussion, planning and implementation of
similarly motivate the crew. A positive assessment various emergencies and contingency plans help bring
indicates that all on board have managed safety on about knowledge of the reliability and efficiency of
board effectively and should greatly increase their equipment and plans. It also brings home the
confidence. realisation of the difficulties faced in emergencies and

more than anything else convinces people that Unfortunately lot of injuries to ship's personnel take
prevention is better than the cure. place when they are embarking or disembarking from
the ship. People boarding the vessel in an inebriated
Safety involves a lot of repetition and back to basics
condition probably suffer the worst injuries. Special
most of the time. To keep people interested one has to
attention should be paid to the safety of gangways and
find different ways of saying the same things. drunken persons should be prohibited from using
Discussing snippets from The Nautical Institute's them.
SEA WAYS, MARS reports, casualty reports, etc. would
go a long way in alleviating this problem. Videos and Drug and alcohol abuse
several good computer training programs are available Drug and alcohol abuse poses a severe safety
to the ship and should be used for training and problem and has a potential for jeopardising
reinforcing safety habits. To keep things interesting, operations and safety of life. A drunken person must
watchkeepers should be trained by their seniors, not be allowed on duty, even though there may be a
discussing various situations they may encounter and shortage of people. It is far safer to do a job more
their response to it. slowly with less people.
Planning Drug and alcohol abuse warrants swift action and
Planning of all operations on the ship is essential. one must not hesitate, however unpleasant it may be.
A lot of accidents occur due to poor planning, where The crew must be made aware of the company's drug
people are not clear about their part in an operation. and alcohol policy and the severe penalties that go
This creates unsafe conditions and a breakdown of with their abuse. Usually, in a well run company with
operations. With good planning, and discussion, regular screening prior to recruitment and a policy of
potential hazards of a situation can be envisaged and unannounced screening, this problem is not common.
guarded against. The company promulgates guidelines However, one should be aware of the problem, be on
and procedures for routines and operations and these guard and educate and re-educate people as often as
should be supplemented and modified for each ship required.
and monitored regularly. As far as possible, operations
should be planned afresh each time rather than Conclusion
modifying an old one, so that new inputs learnt from Ultimately, the management of safety on board is
experience can be incorporated. Once a plan or a lot of little things. Is the watchkeeper sufficiently
procedure has been agreed, individuals must not try rested, are we sailing out with sufficient bunkers, are
to take short-cuts, because it appears to be the easy we proceeding at a safe speed and so on. We should
thing at that time. Planning is done after a lot of thought take care and manage the little things like good
and care and it coordinates various activities, so an housekeeping, good seamanship, common sense, good
impromptu short-cut could very well create more communication and a fair degree of planning.
hazards. Cleanliness and tidiness reduces fire hazards, slips and
falls and equipment is found quickly when it matters.
Safety in port Good seamanship makes for safe working practices.
When the ship is coming into port, the agents, C o m m o ~ lsense is comn~unicationand leadership
pilots, surveyors, etc. will be able to provide local where the crew develops trust and confidence and it
information, any special precautions to be taken and helps individuals develop to their full potential.
details of any dangers and the various facilities Planning and discussion is essential, especially in
available in the port. Safety of shore personnel on recognising potential hazards.
board is the ship's responsibility. Proper warnings and
Major accidents and causalities will always get
notices should be posted, so that the crew are aware
of unsafe areas. Gangways should be made safe and publicity. However, it is important to remember that
should always be manned so that unauthorised people it is the little things, the safe management of daily work
do not enter the ship. Untrained persons on the ship and practices, that go a long way in avoiding major
pose a safety hazard to themselves and the ship. accidents.
COMMAND 117
Chapter 16
MEASURES OF ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY IN SHIPPING

by Professor RO. Goss MA PhD FNI, Department of Maritime Studies, Cardiff University
Richard Goss went to sea 7947- 1955. After taking an economics degree at Cambridge hc joined the head ofJice of NZS. He spent 7963- I
1980 as an economist specialising in maritime matters for the UK government, rising to Under-Secretary. Since 1980 he has been
Professor ofMaritime Economics and Administration at UWIST
EVERY SHIP'S CAPTAIN should be concerned with the greatest variety is likely to be found in the extent to
e$ciency with which his ship operates. It is his duty to which shipping companies seek to involve masters in
his employer - whether owner or charterer; it is his economic matters, e.g. by delegation: but there are
duty to the shippers who use his ship's services; it is few today who do not welcome their masters taking
his duty to his crew, who may well wish to be an interest. Even, therefore, where company practice
employed there again and, for the same reason, it is involves the master having a minimum of financial
his duty to himself. Because a shipping industry may responsibility it is helpful for him to know how
also be of national value, it is also his duty to his economic efficiency is likely to be measured.
country. Most shipping operates in competition; with
This chapter is laid out in four sections. The second
this safeguard, the greatest profit is likely to be a
measure of the greatest economic success in operating (next)concerns the development of cost centres, the third
a ship; though of course no one would deny that there outlines budgetary control and the fourth concerns the
economic or financial measures which may be derived
are some bad ways of making profits.
from these - i.e. -profits. The chapter as a whole thus
Much shipboard efficiency consists of maintaining concentrates on the economics of operating an existing
well-established and effective routines like checking ship: not on those of designing, choosing or buying a
moorings in port, using parallel indexing in coastal new one. Whilst there is nothing essentially new in
navigation and keeping a good lookout. With safety much of this, it is believed to be the first time that
there are absolute professional standards which should such material has been addressed specifically to the
be maintained. Elsewhere, however, and particularly potential shipmaster.
with economic or financial ~nattersthere are no such
Accounts, like any other written record, have two
absolute standards: you have to do the best you can
with what you have and in conditions some parts of purposes: to render an accurate account of what
happened; and to enable better decisions to be made
which may be outside your control. But
it is easy to exaggerate this and, as always, a systematic in the future. Whilst much the same accounts may be
approach to measurement is helpful. Given a used for each purpose this chapter is concerned only
with the second of these.
microcomputer (or even a simple hand calculator) the
calculations are not tiresome. Indeed the arrival of Cost centres
these has made it possible to perform many kinds of A cost centre is a specific area, output or activity,
calculation rapidly and with ease. whose costs can be identified, and thus measured, with
These measurements, often in the form of ratios, reasonable case. It is not necessarily an input, such as
generally appear in two ways: the physical and the crew wages, since these will contribute to a number
financial. Examples of the first might be the fuel of activities. Cost centres can be divided or combined
consumption in tonnes per day at sea or of the amount as required. Modern calculation facilities make this
of cargo worked per day in port. Examples of the very easy.
second might be the fuel cost per day (or shp/hour), Thus, it is common for each ship to be regarded as
the daily cost of feeding the crew (per madday),or of a 'cost centre in itself' and, within it, to have such
the stevedoring cost per tonne of cargo handled. As activities as cargo-handling and fuel consumption
will be shown below, these two are at their most helpful separately identified. When listed these are usually
when they are linked. arranged in order of escapability. Thus, at the simplest
All trades - and all shipping companies - have level, if the ship sailed without cargo there would be
their own characteristics. In this, as in so many other no costs of loading and discharging it, but the other
aspects of command, the shipmaster must adapt his costs would be much the same. At the next level, if
training and ideas to circumstances. The object of this the ship stayed 'In port the port charges would
chapter, therefore, is to provide a general account, with continue but the main engine would use no fuel or
practical examples, of what a master may do, or be lubricating oil and need less maintenance, though most
expected to do, in a variety of circumstances. The other costs (crew wages, for example) would continue.

Ultimately, however, the crew could be paid off and will often be possible to improve the forecasting.
the ship laid up. Then only the capital charges of Without such a systematic approach it is likely that
depreciation and any relevant loan payments would good ideas will be missed, bad ones continued and, in
continue. any case, that the uncertainty of ship finances will be
greater.
Individual cost centres may thus cover one or a
variety of activities, provided these are related in Obviously, many variances will be found to be
practical terms. Thus, it may be useful, for some beyond the control or responsibility of the ship or
purposes, to consider the whole of the costs associated those aboard. They are not, for example, responsible
with maintenance, or with the operation of the engine for negotiating the price paid for the bunkers: usually
room, or with catering. They may be divided, so that that rests with the operator's head office and sometimes
electricity generation is separated for examination: there are general price changes they are unable to
they may be combined - e.g. the crew costs for a whole affect. When these outside effects have been identified,
fleet of ships. In constructing such a system of cost therefore, attention can be concentrated on the others.
centres for the first time the emphasis should be on By identifying what the results were, how they differed
activities or out@ts rather than on inputs. Thus, for from what was expected and where the responsibility
example, 'crew wages' is an input: it is what they do lies, the ship's overall efficiency can be improved.
that constitutes an activity or output, and that will
usually involve other costs like paint or other stores. An earlier method of financial control consisted
of preparing 'voyage estimates' before a voyage took
Within each cost centre there will therefore be a place and a 'voyage account' afterwards. Comparisons
number of items which, though possibly different in then concentrated on the final outcome or profit. This
nature, are linked by being parts of the same activity. method is useful for chartering and some other
Catering crew costs, food and fuel for cooking it are management decisions - and therefore still used for
examples. These will generally have both physical some purposes. But the variances were not usually
units, (numbers of people, Kwh of energy, say) and, shown as such and the (usual)omission of the physical
for each of these, a unit price, cost or value paid. The units and prices from the presentations made an item-
sum for that item in that cost centre is the physical by-item examination difficult.
quantity multiplied by the price per unit.
Thus attention was inevitably concentrated on
The control of efficiency through the control of comparing the two figures for profit rather than on
costs lies in appreciating that both of these can be the details of how and why they differed. When all
identified and measured. One or the other - frequently this was fed back to the people responsible for the
both - can then be controlled. estimates, they might well have had the chance to
improve their forecasting methods: but the
Wherever the master is given the necessary data
opportunity for a systematic, detailed and continuous
and control (but in some shipping companies this is
examination of the financial results of the ship's
not done) a system of cost centres should b e
operation was missed. Moreover, those responsible
constructed. Usually, they will be specified in some
for the operation of particular areas of the ship had
detail by the head office; the task is then to measure
no chance of assessing their own performance in
the physical inputs (per cargo, or per day as
managing their cost centres.
appropriate) and the unit values, to multiply one by
the other and then to add up the results. Profit and economic efficiency
So far this chapter has concentrated on costs,
Budgetary control largely because they represent those aspects of his
A system of budgetary control uses the cost centres ship's operations over which the master may expect
so as to cornflare the expected results with the actual ones.
to have most influence. Nevertheless, most ships exist
Thus, budgetary control involvesforecastingfor each to earn money and thus profits for their owners. (There
cost centre the physical units (e.g. tonnes of oil, tonnes is little sense in simply trying to minimise total costs:
of cargo loaded), the unit costs, the result of multiplying to do that you would send the ship to lay-up).
the two together and then comparing this expected
Profits, of which there are several definitions, are
result with the actual one. The object is to show just
where and how the differences arose. obtained by earning revenues and then deducting the
relevant costs. In some industries, where many
These differences are often termed variances. All revenue-earning activities can go on together but with
of them should be examined, whether they showed separately identifiable costs (a hotel, say, with
results that were better or worse. It may then be restaurant, bars and bedrooms) there can be a number
possible to identify practices that save money (and of separate projit centres. This is rare in shipping, since
should be extended or adopted more widely); or those the whole ship may reasonably be said to earn the
which turned out to be unfortunate and should be whole of the revenue and to incur the whole of the
avoided. Even if no practical lesso~lscan be learnt it costs in doing so. (You could calculate a container
ship's freight earnings for each hold, but it would not there are various methods. The simplest, often used
be useful since it would not be independent of the in shipping, is to divide the capital cost of the ship by
others; and it would be difficult to identify the related its estimated life and then by 365 to obtain a daily
costs.) rate; this is then multiplied by the number of days on
the voyage or charter and deducted. Thus, if a ship
Generally, therefore, the ship forms a profit centre on
costing 10 million is supposed to have a 15 year life
its own and is not subdivided as such. Indeed, in some
the daily depreciation rate will be 1,826. There are
trades where there is a high service frequency (e.g.
a number of other depreciation methods (reducing
ferries or container ships) it is further added with other
balance, sum of the years digits) but this, the straight
ships to form a monthly revenue centre for each trade
line depreciationmethod, is the commonest in shipping.
covered (e.g. southbound and northbound).
Were any allowance to be made for the increased cost
Just as with cost centres, so profit centres should of replacing the ship - i.e. for inflation - then the figure
show, in as much detail as is appropriate for the case would be greater. Such adjustments are, however,
in question, the physical units and the unit price. For controversial in all industries.. They are rare in
a container ship the former is probably boxes (though shipping if only because of the sharp fluctuations which
possibly tonnes of cargo may be better for some often take place in shipping markets and, therefore,
trades). For a ship on voyage charter it is again tonnes in ship values.
of cargo. For a ship on time charter it is the number of
It is also common for a large part of a ship's capital
days or months on charter.
cost to be financed by borrowing. Again, there is much
Correspondingly, the unit prices are the box rates, variation, but shipbuilding loans commonly extend
freight rates or time-charter rates and so on. (On a over 8 years, cover 80 per cent of the ship's capital
voyage charter it may be necessary to allow for cost and carry an interest rate of 8 per cent per year.
demurrage and despatch money). Multiplying the (Their cheapness comes largely from the desire of
physical units by the unit prices provides the gross government to assist their shipbuilding industries.) As
revenue. Deducting the cost centres in turn (in order the loan is gradually repaid the outstanding balance
of escapability, as noted previously, leaves the gross falls and so, therefore, does the size of the interest
profit for the voyage, voyage leg, charter or period in payment.
question. The gross profits of several ships may be
As with depreciation, however, this is a cost which
added to see the overall results for a company's fleet
the ship's master cannot control 01-affect. If it appears
or for any particular service. Where ships are switched
at all in the structure of profit centres available to him,
between one service and another it may be necessary
therefore, it will be because the same forms and figures
to divide and recombine the profits accordingly.
are being- used at the head office, or to show the master
The results of the profit centres described so far just how expensive his ship really is.
represent the financial surplus earned: no allowance
has been made either for the head office costs or for Further reading
the capital cost of the ship. For the first of these,
company practices vary, with some 'allocating' such Downard, J.M., Running Costs, Fairplay
shore costs to the ship by some method as pence per Publications, 1981. (A comprehensive and practical
deadweight tonne per voyage day. All such methods account, though addressed prinlarily to the shore-
are, however, arbitrary and a more realistic approach based manager.)
is to treat the shore costs as a cost centre of their own, Managing Ships, Fairplay Publications, 1984. (A
financed wholly out of the profits of the ships. more advanced text, covering largely non-financial
This, however, is not necessarily appropriate when management topics.)
it comes to dealing with the capital costs of the ships. Laurence, C.A., Essel OperatingEconomics,Fairplay
Obviously, these occur at the start of their lives; Publications, 1981. (Despite its general sounding
moreover, once incurred, they are outside title this book largely concerns ways of
management controls - save by the drastic step of economising on fuel - e.g., by optimising routeing,
selling the ship secondhand. Some firms will thus speed, hull and engine maintenance)
ignore the capital cost for these purposes and leave
matters as described above. Chrzanowski, I., An Introduction to Shipping
Economics, Fairplay Publications 1985. (A more
Others, however, will consider it reasonable to go academic and advanced text than those
a stage further and to deduct depreciation from the gross recommended above, it provides an insight into
profit to obtain the net profit. Depreciation is a method much of the underlying economic theory and many
of allocating the ship's capital cost over its life and of the controversies involved in shipping today.)
120 THE NAUTICAL IlVSTlTUTE

Chapter 17
RUNNING COSTS *
by Mr. John M. Downard
The author began his career with P@O in 1944. His sea service was spent in tramp ships and bulk carriers and included a period as a
hull inspector and eight years in command. He came ashore in 1968 and held positions as assistant marine superintendent, jleet
personnel manager and assistant jleet manager. After service at director level with ship management, broking and agency companies, in
1981 he was appointed a regional director for Reefer Express Lines Pty. Ltd.
Budgets Figure 17.1 shows how the cost centres of one

Whereas a time scale puts substance to a plan, money department relate to the unit or ship and the
gives it uniformity, bringing all the parts to a common corporation as a whole, in a fairly typical shipping
denominator. There are very few plans which do not group. These terms will be used throughout, but it is
involve money and plans in money terms are known important to note that the arrangements of particular
in organisations as Budgets. cost centres into departments is not rigd and in some
shipping companies they are arranged differently to
Business budgets are based upon the plans and suit new ship management concepts. Nevertheless, the
policy's of the company and, when completed, should cost centre components themselves are still required
b e the best possible estimates of the costs of if the budget is to be constructed properly on the
implementing those plans. As with all estimates, their foundations of management knowledge a n d
accuracy depends upon the quality of the information experience.
and other factors used in their preparation. Poor
information will result in poor budgets and vice versa. The diagram shows how the cost centre of 'crew
Budgets usually fall into two broad time categories, wages' forms part of the crew 'department' budget
short-term and long-term, in the same way as long- which in turn forms part of the unit or ship budget
and short term plans. The short-term budget usually and so on, eventually forming part of the large
covers a year while long-term budgets can be anything corporate budget.
up to ten or more years.
Budget Organisation
The budgets are also named to indicate the area XYZ CORPORATION
they cover such as unit or ship budgets, departmental * Z Shipping Co. Ltd.
budgets, divisional and corporate budgets. Thus one Corporate Y Z Freight Forwarders Ltd.
can have a long- or short-term corporate budget or Budget ADE Tankers Ltd.
ship budget. Each unit budget is made up of many WEP Haulage Ltd.
parts like the bricks of a house and these 'bricks' are
known as cost centres. To follow this analogy for a Z SHIPPING CO. LTD
moment; the bricks are brought together to form walls, M. V. Red Line
or departments and these in turn form the house, unit Divisional * M. V. Blue Line
or ship budget. The bricks can be large or small as or Company M. V. Green Line
required but ideally they should all be the same size Budget M. V. Yellow Line
in financial terms. M. V. Brown Line
In shipping, as in a number of other industries, the M. V. BLUE LINE

size of the cost centre 'bricks' can vary due to three Technical Department
factors. Unit or Sh$ * Crew Department
Budget Supplies Department
(a) Convention: the traditional way of grouping
certain items together. Insurance Department
Administration Department
(b) Convenience: certain items fall naturally into
groups. CREW DEPARTMENT
(c) High cost items: some items are of such high cost Dqartment * Crew Wages
they can only be considered separately. Budget Crew Travel
Crew Training
-
" These extracts are reproduced by permission of Fairplay
PublicationsLtdfiom the book of the same name in their Ship Thus it can be seen that in the Z Shipping
Management Series. Con~pany,for example, there will be many cost centres
COMMAND 121
and a number of 'crew wages', each identified by the Procedure and timetables
particular ship name. As this section is about the costs The annual budget usually aligns itself with the
of a ship, the factors concerned in producing a short- financial year. Budget preparation at the cost centre
term budget for such a unit will now be considered. level usually commences about five months before the
However, it should not be forgotten that the unit plan commencement of the new financial year. This allows
is in itself dependent upon the corporation short- and consideration of the actual running costs of the first
long-term plans. half of the current year and gives sufficient time for
completion and presentation of the draft budget for
Budget responsibility approval. Provided all goes according to schedule, the
Because managers have to work within budgets
approved budget should be ready for presentation to
they are more likely to achieve their objectives if they
the corporate planners three months before the new
produce the budget themselves or are involved in its year commences, so allowing them time to include
production. Modern management follows this the data in their budgets.
philosophy and in most companies it is the managers
who make the plans, estimate the costs of such The timetable should be agreed as company policy
planning and who carry the responsibilities for well in advance so that all involved can be properly
implementing and achieving the plans within the prepared and can plan their work accordingly. An
budgets. The number and levels of managers involved example of a typical timetable for work prior to a
will vary considerably with the size of the organisation. budget year commencing on 1 January, follows.
A one ship company may only have one manager, The XYZ Shipping Company budget timetable:
whereas a ten-ship company may have an overall
15th July Department managers receive first half
manager for a number of ships and managers for each year results - coillmence preparatory
department. Regardless of numbers involved, work on cost centre estimates.
responsibility should lie with the person who produces 15th August Department managers coordinate cost
the budget or portion of a budget - i.e. the manager. centre estimates and present draft budgets
Of course, he must obtain approval before he can to ship manager for consideration.
proceed with the implementation of his budget, but 1st September Ship manager discusses budgets with
once this is received he should be allowed to carry it department managers and on agreement
out with minimum interference. coordinates into ship budgets.
15th September Draft ship budgets presented to divisional
Budget approval manager for approval.
1st October Approved/amended budgets finalised and
Great care needs to be taken in approving or
passed to budgetary controller.
amending budgets. If the guidelines given are
followed, i.e. that the budget should be realistic, As one would expect, the more complex the budget
capable of fulfilment but challengng; and providing the more time will b e required to gather the
it conforms to the overall plan, there should be little information, calculate and estimate, particularly in the
to amend. It is the manager's own plan and because first stages of preparation - i.e. the cost centre level.
he and his team have constructed it, within the
parameters laid down, they will do their best to see it Budget preparation
through. Accuracy, attention to detail and method are
essential factors in the preparation of a budget. The
Unfortunately, there is a tendency for top manager himself should decide the degree of detail
management to insist on a reduction in the budget as required. It should be sufficient to give him the answers
a matter of form, often in the belief that the manager he requires, but no more, as too much information
has probably set his figure too high and will spend to can create unnecessary work and confuse matters.
the limit. This can have a detrimental effect upon the Essentially budget preparation depends upon:
relationship between top management and the assumptions, past records, current information, and
manager concerned as, having carefully prepared the detail.
budget in the first place, he will know it is impossible
to achieve at the reduced level without some Assumptions: Many of these should be provided
amendments to the plan itself. by top management in order to ensure consistency
with other budgets, particularly in such matters as
Thus top managel-s should take care in pressing a currency exchange and inflation rates. O t h e r
manager to reduce his budget. Of course they should assumptions should relate to corporate plans and
challenge the budget and satisfy themselves that the
policies e.g. that the ship will remain in service, but
-
manager is not 'playing safe' by overestimating. But

will be sold for scrapping in two years' time and thus
providing they are satisfied on these points, they
will not be dry-docked during the budget year being
should leave it alone and if it is too high for the overall
planned. Whatever the assumptions and plans, they
plan, seek a solution elsewhere.
must be known before budget preparation can begn.
122 THE IVAU1-ICAL IIVSTITUTE

Past Records: Examination and consideration of O n examining the cost centres of each department
the previous years' costs and those of the first half of it will be found that some departments e.g. Supplies,
the current year can be of great assistance in some have many while others e.g. Insurance, have few. In
areas particularly of consumable commodities where order to be able to summarise the costs easily on the
it may be sufficient to apply an inflation factor, or form, they are grouped together as follows:
currency factor, to obtain an estimate for the next year.
Cost centres are designated 3rd category costs.
Past records are also helpful in checking against
Groups of 3rd category costs are designated 2nd category
estimates to ensure that the new calculations are
costs.
reasonably accurate compared with past results. The sum of all the 2nd category costs is the 1st category or
Current information: The quality of estimating department cost.
depends very much on the information available to As stated earlier, if the cost centres, or 3rd category
the manager. If a manager knows that crew wage costs, are composed of a number of items, these are
negotiations take place each June, with any increases not shown on the budget setting form but are listed in
to commence the following July, he can allow for an a manual. In departments where there are very few
increase but can only guess the amount. However, if cost centres, they will be designated 2nd categoiy costs.
the previous year's negotiations allowed for wage
changes in two stages over a two-year period he will It should be noted that in addition to the need to
know exactly the amount of increase and his budget group large numbers of cost items, there are
will be that much more accurate. This applies to many requirements for different levels of information.
areas in budget preparation and even the knowledge Whereas top management may only want to know
that a strategcally-placed dry-dock may be closed may the total ship costs, or the ship costs broken down
have an effect on repair costs. into departmental totals, the ship manager will want
more detail and the departmental manager will want
Detail: When preparing a budget every item which even more, to be able to highlight fluctuations in the
will have a significant effect must be considered. In cost centres. The significance of this will be seen when
some departments the number of items may be so the aspects of control are considered.
numerous that they have to be grouped under one
One cost centre which should be carefully avoided
cost centre; nevertheless, the manager must know
is that of miscellaneous, a convenient dustbin into
within which centre items are grouped. Fortunately,
which staff can place costs rather than take the trouble
in many cases the association of items is so close that
to seek the appropriate allocation. There should never
grouping is almost automatic.
be a miscellaneous section in any budget as every item
Budget setting forms and their of any significance should be accounted for.
arrangement Each cost centre is usually given a code number
There is a good maxim that every form should be which forms part of the overall coded company
as much use to the person completing it as the person accounting system and these are printed on the budget
who gets it. Good forms are the keystone of any system setting form. Codes simplify the allocation of costs,
and one can never spend too much time on their and adapt well to computer and other accounting
design in order to get the most effective result. equipment. It is usual to arrange the codes into
numbered groups and sub groups for easy
The form used to set the budget is called a 'budget identification of departments and categories; for
setting form'. It should be arranged so that it helps example, crew costs may be arranged into a 3000
the manager to prepare the budget and be useful for series, technical costs into a 4000 series and supplies
reference later. Although he can group items into cost costs into a 5000 series. Taking this one step further,
centres as he wishes, in most industries there are some 2nd category 'crew wages' may be arranged in the
fairly conventional ways of grouping costs and it is 100 group of the 3000 series (3100),'crew travel' may
perhaps best to adhere to these conventions whenever be arranged in the 200 group (3200) and 'crew other
possible. It is particularly important to try to be costs' into the 300 group (3300). 'Ten' groups are
consistent and keep the same groups and cost centres arranged for 3rd category costs. These groups are
from year to year in order that useful comparisons usually preceded by a code to identify the ship and
can be made. With this in mind, budget setting forms followed by other code groups used by the accounts
should be pre-printed to ensure standardisation, not department to identify suppliers, items to be recharged,
only of groups and cost centres but also of layout. etc.
To avoid excessive detail on the budget setting Although the budget is for a whole year, it is usual
forms it is preferable if small items grouped into cost to show costs for each quarter year on the budget
centres are listed in a separate manual for easy setting form, in order to highlight exceptional changes
reference. Thus the form should be as uncluttered as compared with other quarters. To provide for this the
possible and only contain relevant detail. budget setting form is usually arranged with columns
COMMAND 123
Z SHIPPING COMPANY business system and thus it does not matter whether
MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING MANUAL they are typed or handwritten. In other words, the
M.A.S. Codes - Department: Supplies
less the figures are copied the better.
Ship Code: Refer to Ship Code List
Head Code: 5. Series 5000 To summarise
A budget is a plan in financial terms.
2nd Category 3rd Category Items
Item Codr
It is based on the plans and policies of the
Item Codc IJncoded items lncludcd
Safety .ill0 Safety rqulpment, company or organisation and on good
Lifeboat stores.
Lifesavmg equipment.
information.
Illeilghhng equ~pment Its creation and implementation is the
py~otechnlrs
Paints 5120 Drydocking paints, other responsibility of management with the approval
palnts, pnrnerr, pahnt
solvents.
of senior or top management.
Cargo equipmenl 5130 Blocks, shackle>, pulleys, It must be both realistic and challenging.
Maline Stores 5100 chmns
Ropes and wires 5110 Ropes, coidages, wires, It must be meticulously prepared and produced
moorlng ropes, mourlng
\riles, canvas.
in accordance with an agreed time table.
Deck storrr 5150 Tools, painting It should consider every factor and each factor or
equipment, flags.
F>esh watcr 5160 Dry dock rcqulrcmcnts group of factors should be given a cost centre label.
Chemicals 5210 Refrigeration, tank It should never have a miscellaneous cost centre.
cleaning, degreasing.
Cares 5220 C02, Frecon, Acetylene. It should be prepared on a standard form which
Electrical ,5230 Bulbs, tubes, shades,
fittmgs, wlre.
should aid managers before and after the budget
is approved.
Figure 122 There should only be one budget.
for costs for the four quarters and a total column for Accounting practices
the year. Finally, each budget form should have space O n e of the difficulties experienced by ship
to show in writing all assumptions used and estimates managers when dealing with accounts and accountants
of out-of-service time for dry-docking, crew changes lies in reconciling the financial data presented to them
and any other items of importance. to events which they know have occurred. This is
largely because accountancy is based on a number of
During the preparation of the budget a number of
philosophies regarding the arrangement of business
notes and calculations will be made in order to arrive
accounts which appear strange to those not initiated
at the figures and data entered on the budget setting
into the mysteries of their conventions and practices.
forms. These should be kept carefully on file for
reference and future use. The importance of these Fortunately the development of management
notes should not be underestimated. accounting has resulted in data which is much easier
There should be only one budget. The draft or for non-accountants to comprehend, but there is, like
proposed budget being only a draft is not a budget many professions, a certain amount of professional
until properly approved. Once approved it should jargon which needs to be understood. For example
remain unchanged. If this rule is ignored, terms such certain computer output sheets may be referred to as
as revised budget, first budget and second budget arise 'journals' or 'ledgers' which they are not, in the sense
and staff become confused as to which budget people of bound books, but are so called because they contain
are actually referring. This causes considerable the information which used to be contained in ledgers
difficulties when explanations of differences between and journals when information was recorded by hand.
the budget and actual figures are required. Adherence Accounts are prepared for three reasons: to show
to the 'one budget' rule will ensure that the yardstick the financial position of the business; to allow tax
against which results are measured remains the same. calculations to be made; and to provide management
Budgets have an additional use in that the with the information it needs to exercise proper
information contained in them can be of considerable control.
use in research and development projects. The data Accounting is the method of recording the money
can save considerable time when a quick idea of costs value of business transactions, sales, purchases, receipts
is required and can be adapted to suit a particular and payments.
project.
Financial accounting or reporting analyses the
Once the background notes and calculations are income and expenses (costs),by the type of transaction
finished the next step is to transfer the data and fill in - e.g. cash, stock, creditors, debtors, assets, liabilities
the budget setting forms. Providing one's writing and etc.
figures are reasonably neat and legible it is preferable
for the forms to be handwritten for the following Cost accounting provides analyses of the costs of
reasons: if copied by a typist errors may occur; and a business by function or activity. It is most effective
the figures will be transferred to a computer or other in manufacturing and similar industries.

Management accounting or reporting presents expected to be incurred but which may not in fact be
relevant, up to date and accurate information to paid in the period, while the cash flow statement shows
management to assist in the operation and control of the actual movement of cash. For example, the cash
the business. Like cost accounting the information flow statement would show the cost of an insurance
provided is based on functioils and activities - e.g. premium when it is paid, whereas the budget would
crew, technical supplies, etc. just as a manager's plans show the cost to the ship per month or quarter - i.e.
form part of the larger unit or corporate plan, so the spread over the period of the insurance cover. Because
budget he prepares and the costs he incurs form part budgets form part of the total accounting system it is
of the overall corporate accounts and management important that their format aligns itself with the format
information data of the business. These are recorded of other accounts.
and presented in a number of different ways in the
following accounts, statements and plans: Treatment of costs: It is most important that the
accounting treatment of costs referred to earlier is
Balance sheet: Is a statement of the assets, share consistent. Ship managers must have an understanding
holders equity and liabilities of a company at a given of the way the costs are 'treated' or dealt with, if they
moment in time. They are defined as long and short are to relate the facts presented in management
term as appropriate. For the purpose of these extracts accounts to what they know has actually happened
it is sufficient to say that the effects of costs eventually The treatment with which ship managers are most
find their way through to the balance sheet, shown likely to be associated are as follows:
under the heading of the 'profit and loss account'.
The prudence concept: This is an accepted
Profit and loss account or revenue account: Is accountancy practice which indicates how a prudent
a financial accounting statement which shows the businessman would 'treat' earnings and expenditure.
earnings and expenses (costs) of the company for a In essence the philosophy is that exceptional or
gven period. Running costs are seen more clearly in uncertain earnings should not be accounted for - i.e.
this account although the amounts need not relate considered as being earned - until they have actually
directly to money spent during the period due to the been received, but once defined costs are incurred
accounting 'treatment' of certain expenses - i.e. when they should be accounted for even though not actually
the money is considered to have been spent. paid. It is important to note that although the emphasis
is on 'prudence', much depends upon the type of
Management accounts or reports: Show the transaction or business and the policy of the company.
manager the detail h e requires to control the
department for which he is responsible. They show Accrued and prepaid. expenses: While the
the total costs of each cost centre for the period and prudence concept endeavours to ensure that once costs
the year to date although, as in other accounts, the are incurred they are included in the accounts, even if
amounts accounted for will not necessarily relate to not paid, another concept ensures that only those costs
money actually spent. For comparison purposes the which refer to the accounting period are included in
management accounts or reports will also show the the accounts. T h e resultant allocations a n d
budget for the period and year to date and any apportionments are known as accrued and prepaid
variances between the two sets of figures. The costs expenses.
thenlselves can also be broken down into various
Accrued expenses: These are costs which have
components showing sums actually paid, assumed to
been incurred in the period but for which payment
have been paid or apportioned as will be described has not been made. Although there may be some
later. flexibility, in the main any such sums 'accrued' would
Cash flow statement: Is a month by month be known fairly accurately, such as a bill agreed with
statement of anticipated actual earnings a n d a repair yard but only part paid, the balance being
expenditure over a given period, summarised each due after the end of the accounting period. As the
month to show the high and low points of the actual outstanding amount is known accurately it would be
cash situation. It highlights irregularities in the flow accrued accordingly.
of cash and pves warnings of when there may be a Example: Ship repaired during the 4th quarter of the year.
shortage of cash, despite the fact that over the total $
period earnings may exceed expenditure. Managers O n completion of repair costs agreed as 520,000
Agreed sum paid on leaving repair yard 120.000
may be required to supply data for these statements Balance due in 3 months i.e. in next
and in such cases the budget notes will be of financial year 400,000
considerable value. But 4th quarter accounts show total repair costs 520,000
Budgets:These have been described in some detail Prepayments: These are items such as rentals,
earlier. However, it is important to draw a distinction property taxes and insurance premiums which are paid
between the estimated expenditure shown on a budget in advance for a period which does not align itself
setting form and the cash flow statement, with which with the current accounting period. The total sum has
it is sometimes mistaken. The budget shows costs been paid but only part applies to the accounting
COMMAND 125
period; therefore only the appropriate proportion is The uncertainty of shipping has resulted in a practice of
shown in the accounts and the balance is carried letting costs lie where they fall - i.e. to face each year as it
forward to other accounting periods. comes and budget and pay for costs for that particular year.
It is argued that it is pointless to put money into reserve for
Example: Insurance premiums paid on 1st April for one year a survey, or other purpose, in four years' time when the
$ ship may have been sold by then.
Actual Cost 10.000
2nd Qtr accounts show 2,.500 cost Stock concept: Is similar to that used for accrued
3rd Qtr accounts show 2,500 cost
4th Qtr accounts show 2.,500 cost and prepaid expenses in that unused stock in hand is
Total for year 7,.500 like a prepaid expense. Whereas once the costs of crew
Balance of the premium of $2,500 is carried forward and shown and repairs are incurred, money is spent in the sense
in 1st Qttr of next year's accounts. that it has or must be paid out and cannot be retrieved,
stocks of unused consumable stores can be considered
Provisions: are sums of money accounted for as as a credit - i.e. they are in place and unused at the
costs in two principal categories. end of the accounting period and, therefore, ready
Depreciation: this is a charge to the accounts to reflect for use at the beginning of the next. To include them
the use of an asset and its reduction in value over its useful in the current accounting period may give the
life. As the depreciation period is usually longer than the appearance of very high consumption and cost,
accounting period a charge is made in each accounting particularly if the ship has only just taken on supplies
period equal to the proportionate reduction in value of an before the accounting period ends.
asset. The treatment of this is very much a bookkeeping
exercise as the depreciation will, in time, reduce the value In theory the detail of all the unused stocks in ships
to nil although the asset will still have a real value which in should be reported regularly and the value carried
the case of a ship is its scrap value. Depreciation is a forward to the next period. In practice this may create
solnewhat complex subject entering into the area of financial work which is disproportionate to the sums involved
accounting and is often associated with tax allowances. From
and thus there should be a policy decision on stock to
the point of view of the ship manager it is sufficient to have
a general idea of what it means when seen on a management be treated in this way. This should reflect the
accounting report. The major asset treated in this way is magnitude of the costs.
the ship.
In businesses which have large stocks of materials,
Amortisation:is similar to depreciation and is applied stock accounting can be very complex due to the
in the same way. It only applies to a loss of value of an asset change in value of the stock which can occur while
through time, as distinct from use, as in depreciation. It is the materials lie in storage. Applied to a ship this means
used in accounting for leasehold improvement charges in that a large quantity of lubricating oil bought near the
administration costs. Allowance for a liability, the cost of
end of one year and carried forward to the next could
which cannot be determined with any accuracy is thus a
sum which cannot be treated as an accrual.
increase in value due to a worldwide increase in oil
prices.
Reserve: Is a charge which cannot be classed as a
provision. It is a sum of money put aside for an Shipping companies with a number of sister ships
anticipated purpose in the future. The action of putting often keep stocks of common items, particularly spare
the sum aside in the financial accounts prevents its gear, in storage ashore and such stock should also be
allocation for other purposes (such as tax, profits, etc.) treated in this way. Victualling stocks should always
and ensures its availability in the future. However, it be reported regularly as, apart from their value, the
should be noted that shipping accountancy practice information is required in order to calculate the daily
today does not make so much use of reserves as in the costs of feeding the crew.
past. Capitalisation a n d capital costs: The ship and
To give an example: ships used to be taken out of items bought for its future operations are generally
service for a special hull and engine survey every four 'capitalised' i.e. they are considered to be a long-term
to five years. The cost of the work was high compared acquisition and therefore not something consumable.
with the other years and the time out of service long. The initial outfit of a new ship may include some items
Because of the high cost of the survey a sum of money which are normally considered to be consumables but
was placed in 'reserve' each year in readiness for the are, by convention, included initially as capital costs.
next special survey. Two things have changed this: These are such items as the chart outfit, the original
lubricating oil 'charge' and items of spare gear not
The time out of service necessary to carry out special included in the price of the ship. Modifications to the
surveys has been reduced considerably by the introduction
ship and its equipment at a later date are also
of staged or continuous running surveys to spread the survey
of individual items of hull and machinery over the period capitalised.
between the special surveys. Today, when a special survey
takes place, it is only necessary to complete outstanding
Capital items are shown as assets in the balance
items which, for various reasons, have not been surveyed sheet; they are reduced by the 'cost' of depreciation
earlier. 'This has resulted in spreading the costs over the at each accounting period until 'paid for' and
period and reducing the time out of service. considered fully used, but will still be shown as an

asset at a nominal or resale value. Most capital cost during the accounting period. They can only be as
items are easily identifiable and their treatment follows good as the people who put the information into the
the general accountancy conventions. However some system - i.e. the managers and their staff. To ensure
items, such as training and management development, this yet another system is required. In essence this
may or may not be treated as a capital 'investment' demands that every time anyone orders anything e.g.
by companies arguing that such expenditure has long- spare gear, paint, a surveyor, or a repair - it should
term value. It is not usual to capitalise the cost of sea be recorded on a sequentially numbered form in
staff training. quadruplicate, preferably in different colours.
Here are a few more terms, and their alternatives, The top copy should go to the supplier as a request
which the ship manager may encounter: for the service. The next copy should go to the
accounts department to indicate that a cost is being
Bought ledger: - alternatively accounts payable
incurred. The next two copies should be retained by
ledger, a record of all items and services purchased by the
the person ordering the service, one of which he should
company.
send to the accounts department, preferably with the
Sales ledger: - alternatively accounts receivable invoice or bill, once the service or supply has been
ledger, a record of all 'sales' by the company. received. He should retain one copy for his records.
Nominal or private ledger: - alternatively general This can b e made more sophisticated with an
ledger, (there are other terms), a record of all assets, additional copy to the supplier, and so forth. However,
liabilities, shareholders (or stockholders),equity accounts. the principal objective is that the accounts department
should know as soon as a cost has been, or is about to
General: It must be stressed again that the be incurred. There are difficulties in that sometimes,
foregoing are only very broad descriptions of in emergency, a request for services such as a survey
accountancy practices and terms with which the ship or a repair are made by telephone, telex or cable, but
manager will come into contact. Those seeking further this can be covered by attaching a note or copy of the
information should read the many books on the telex to an order form and distributing it in the usual
subject. Accountancy is a very complex subject and way.
oversimplification can be misleading.
The importance of sequential numbering lies in
Anything as complex as accounts needs systems, ensuring that no order and expense is missed and that
and management accounting is n o exception. everything is put into the accounts system. If an order
Reference was made earlier to lists of cost centres and is cancelled for some reason it should still be put into
codes being kept in a manual. Similar lists and codes the system but as a cancellation. All this may seem a
for all management transactions - accruals, provisions, lot of paper work, but if managers and accountants
supplies, etc. are also kept in a manual and it is usual are to know everything that is happening, (as they
for the budget data, being part of the system, to be should), such procedures must be established and
kept in the same manual, usually known as the adhered to.
management accounting system manual (MAS).
The prime purpose of a ship manager is to manage
In general, management accounts cover and are and the prime purpose of the accountant is to provide
contained in a financial year, even though costs him with a service to assist him in his management.
incurred may not be paid for until the next year and, However, it must be remembered that the accountant
in the case of insurance claims, even later. This is dealt provides a similar service to all managers and to the
with by the use of accruals and provisions - i.e. the company as a whole. He also provides an advisory
costs having been incurred they are accounted for in and counsellii~gservice and because of his training
the books. When the accounts are finally settled any ensures that all the financial transactions are dealt with
differences between the actual cost and the accrued correctly.
or provided amount is borne by the current year. If
T h e manager should b e given the financial
the accounts department has been told of all costs
information he needs to control the department for
incurred by means of invoices, order forms, etc., then
which he is responsible, but his requirements must
the amount of any adjustments should be small in most
relate to the constraints of financial conventions placed
cases. Sums reclaimable from insurance can usually
upon the accountant and the requirements of the
be estimated with some accuracy, particularly if
company as a whole. There is no reason why these
specific sums have been spent, but in some cases, such
requirements cannot be reconciled providing a spirit
as crew and supplies costs reclaimable as a result of a
of mutual understanding, respect and cooperation
deviation, the amounts are often the subject of
exists between managers and accountants. Each should
negotiations and thus cannot be estimated with any
have a broad understanding of the others job. A point
accuracy.
often forgotten is that the accountant with a staff is
The accounts should provide a complete record also a manager with managerial responsibilities like
of all financial transactions which have taken place other managers.
COMMAND 127
To summarise T h e 'treatment' of costs through accruals,
The accounts with which ship managers are most prepayments, provisions and reserves can cause
closely associated are management accounts statements of accounts or reports to appear to be
embodied in a management accounting system different to the payments that have actually been
(MAS). made.
Budgets form part of the MAS as a base against Cooperation between managers and accountants
which actual costs are compared and these are is essential and to this end ship managers should
shown in management reports. have an understanding of the conventions and
Once a cost is incurred it enters the system, jargon of accountancy.
whether paid for or not, and eventually finds its The accounts of a business should be a colnplete
way through to the balance sheet via the profit record of all financial transactions. For this
and loss account. objective to be fulfilled meticulous record keeping
is required by all involved in costs.

Chapter 18
MANAGING PEOPLE O N BOARD

Martin Scott has had a long and varied career at sea spanning sonze 38 years, the last 23 years i n command of a variety of sh$s
includingpassenger roro ferries, a n Arctic researclz vessel, container ships and cruise liners.
He presently commands within the Holland-America Line/Windstar cruise fleet and retired as a captain in the Royal Naval
u e ye&, having served i n a variety of naval units includingfiigates, minelayers and three of the UKS aircraft carriers. For the
~ ~ s e rlast
last 15 years of his career he was involved i n Amphibious Operations, latterly as the Staff Oficer, S T U F T to the Commodore,
Amphibious Warfare.
Introduction It is not unusual on any ship that you require that

Managing people on board any ship requires some extra bit of effort, those extra hours of overtime, the
very special skills and strengths to be successful. quick response to an emergency and one cannot
However, there are a number of areas in this complex reasonably expect this to happen unquestionably
subject that really are common to any management without some sort of "reward".
situation. The best sort of reward is one that you already
In the style of management required for the have in the bank. For instance, during a quiet period
merchant navies of the world, some leanings towards of a voyage, you have been able to give some extra
the military were required. This leant towards the time off for shore leave - or maybe allow a special
theory that "leadership" was a better title. Nowadays party or anniversary celebration on board.
even I have to agree that the overall picture of the The other must is that the crew are fairly treated
captain or senior officer's position on board is better regarding their living accomnlodation and personal
described as management. This is really due to much entitlements. Make sure their cabins are properly
greater involvement in the complex technical, appointed - clean, usable mattresses, light fittings and
budgeting and planning requirements, mostly brought furnishings in good order, the bathroom properly
about by computer generated communication with maintained and a clean water supply.
one's principals.
To be seen to be fair is also a good morale booster.
However, leadership remains one of the most Any disciplinary action, decision or style must be seen
significant skills that can affect the efficiency of any both by officers and by crew members to be evenly
ship. applied - for example, should a senior officer miss
Managing, especially for the captain, means being the ship's sailing time his investigation should be as
seen to involve all concerned in any decision-making thorough as that applied to the most junior rating.
process. This not only allows you to use your senior There has, of course, to be some reward for senior
officers' or crew members' knowledge or ideas to staff on board in recognition of their status and
enable you to reach the best decision, but also makes additional responsibilities. However, these privileges
them feel their professionalism is respected, their must be clearly seen to be appropriate and not against
knowledge is useful and they are in your confidence. the code of conduct applied to all on board.
For a captain or senior officer it is sometimes quite Most people at sea of any rank or discipline are
a how much Your crew "look UP" to usually decent hllman beings, willing to
you for guidance, advice and decision making. do an acceptable job if asked to. You should approach
Whether are looking Or down''.
them with this as your main feeling When a problem,
'Ome On lhe Y o u set, both privately requirement or disciplinary action has been explained
and professionally, in your life on board. This, quite to a crew even when he has been involved
often, can be the hardest part of a successful senior in the most basic tasks on board, you will receive an
officer's job as you are really on duty 24 hours a day, intelligent response almost without fail.
seven days a week while you are on board or in the
vicinity of your ship and your actions and personal The few individuals who cannot respond to normal
habits can be noted by members of the ship's company. social or professional requirements are quickly
identified within the majority and "moved on".
It is crucial that the captain is always in a position
to be able to expect obedience to his orders and More than in any other industry does the variety
instructions. This requires motivation and, to some of nationalities employed become evident. Shipping
degree, agreement with the order or instruction gven. companies are able to take advantage of world
COMMAND 129
conditions to employ the most suitable personnel in requirements. This is best achieved by discussion and
any position on board ship. More often than not this encouragement from yourself. In addition to the
is based on cost effectiveness and invariably leans number of formal meetings invariably necessary for
toward the cheaper end of the market. the efficient running of such a large undertaking, it is
a good idea to meet with your senior officers on a
You must not make the mistake of concluding that daily basis semi-informally in your cabin or office.
cheap automatically means poor quality and badly
educated. It is in the captain's best interest, if he is to have a
real grasp of his command, to get around all areas
A significant number of people from the so called informally, talking to passengers and crew on a regular
'Third World' countries are intelligent, well educated basis, monitoring people's attitudes and listening to
and have been required by markecforces in their own their praise or complaints. Always involve the head
countries to seek acceptably paid jobs elsewhere. It is of the appropriate department in any area you may
very much to your advantage to treat such people be concerned with or requiring further investigation.
accordingly. Give them respect in your dealings with You should, however, endeavour to obtain the facts
them and you will be repaid many times over. You from as many sources as possible before making your
will find that they are quite able to learn their jobs best judgement or decision - the facts are not always
and skills quickly, which is especially valued on as first presented!
passenger vessels.
It is inevitable that some tasks on board have to be
Each nationality on board, although they may work completed by reaction to circumstances and events
well together, usually enjoy having their own space as they occur. However, with advance planning and
and will congregate together for eating and socialising. anticipation of tasks, the resulting organisation can
Where possible, cabins should be shared by the same improve results considerably. All concerned then have
nationality. It is very much to your advantage as a at least a general idea of how the task is to be
captain or senior officer to study the customs and performed and who is responsible for what. You have
personal habits of the nationalities you are responsible also had the opportunity to clear up any
for - respect for those is, on occasion, vital to good misconceptions early, preventing unnecessary
relations. "Culturegrams" are available from discussion or confusion during the event.
consulates for most nationalities and are an excellent
resume of personal customs in their respective A pre-docking or undocking discussion with your
countries. officers is a good example of short term planning. Long
term would be preparing the ship for a scheduled dry-
There is, of course, a world of difference in the dock.
make-up of the officers and ship's company of, say,
an 80,000 ton passenger ship and a similar sized OBO It is impossible for the captain of a ship physically
or container ship. Whilst the cargo related unit has a to activate every manoeuvre and make every decision,
much smaller crew, individually they are equally if oversee every action by every person on board. He
not more responsible for the safe and efficient is, however, responsible and accountable for every
operation of the ship and her cargo. action of any significance on board his ship.
The captain needs successfully to encourage each There has to be delegation. O n e of the most
member of his small group, getting to know their important that comes to mind is the navigational
individual characters and monitoring their watch. During the night hours especially, your ship's
performance to ensure each continue their varied tasks immediate safety is in the hands of someone else. You
in a responsible manner as each crew member is have to judge, in advance, that person's ability to
especially valuable on such a large unit. discharge this task competently. It is easier to make
that decision if your watchkeepers are in possession
Due to the increasing popularity of cruising, the of certificates of competency issued by a well
world's passenger cruise fleet continues to grow. We established, acceptable body. After that it is your call
now have ships of over 100,000 tons capable of and must be based on your own observations. Your
carrying up to 3,000 passengers with a crew size to own experience usually helps you decide to what level
match. each officer can be left without your supervision or
control. You should also make your wishes or
To be the captain of any significant sized passenger
intentions clear, allowing for the individual ability of
vessel requires particularly well developed
your officers.
management skills and personal ability. Here the
captain must rely on his heads of department, the chief I have generally observed that your senior staff
e n p e e r , the hotel manager and the chief officer or will tend to emulate your style when delegating to their
staff captain, to run their departments effectively. It is staff. When appropriate, it is better to offer clear
obviously to your advantage that each of your heads suggestions rather than give direct orders. As
of department understand your style and mentioned before - we are generally dealing with

sensible people. Having delegated, always ensure your responsibility. At sea this trust is absolute. Whilst with
officers are comfortable in approaching you at any modern communication you are able to seek and use
time should they be unsure in the responsibilities you advice and assistance more easily, inevitably there are
have given them. still many occasions where your immediate and
ongoing judgement is required in areas which have a
The ISM Code requires the master to motivate his direct effect on the personnel on board your ship.
crew. Be seen to be interested in their welfare. Talk to
them - ask about their families - learn their names - It is a significant compliment that the majority of
there is nothing like addressing a crew member by good shipowners respect your unique position and
name to make him feel wanted and noticed. Praise bow to your judgement on shipboard matters.
and thanks for a job well done, or a task completed.
Encouragement to learn through on board training This is, to a large degree, due to the many
generations of captains, stretching back hundreds of
for those wishing to understand the job better and for
those preparing themselves for promotion, is vital - years, who spent their careers at sea, many gving their
where else will the future staff come from? A great lives to maintain a high standard of management and
motivator is to assist someone who wants to improve. good judgement.
This is unique in industry management and we
I cannot overemphasise how much the whole ship's
company can react to your style and example - if you present captains must always acknowledge the
are seen to encourage and take an interest - follow tremendous debt we owe to our forefathers and be
aware that the authority and respect we enjoy are
through problems - use your influence as captain to
assist others in achieving their goals, you will have based on the high standards of those who went before.
done much to keep your crew focused on their work Managing people on board ship is a very special
and motivated towards the ship's best interests, both trust. Those of us who have the privilege of such trust
environmentally and towards safe working practices. must view themselves most fortunate in their task. I
suggest they enjoy the opportunity a n d - if
To be responsible, ultimately, for the welfare, safety
circumstances allow - keep a sense of humour!
a n d lives of any number of people is a great
COMMAND 131
Chapter 19
MANAGING SHIPBOARD MAINTENANCE

by Captain U. Zuber, ~sterreichischerLloyd Shipmanagement, Austria
Captain Ulrich Zuber is the Q~ualityManager and Designated Person in Osterreichischer Lloyd Ship Management, a company managing
50 sh@s in the dry cargo sector. Captain Zuber conzmenced sailing as a deck boy 36years ago, successfilly aiming at getting to know a
wide variety of vessels and trades. After obtaining his mate's license he experienced several of his companies shutting down. He gained
hisjirst command as a master at the age of 32, which was early enough to be satishing but also late eno~rghto have collected a lot of
experience.
Seven years later Captain Zuber took over a superintendent'sposition in his company which he maintainedfor six years. He then
worked independently as a nautical surzreyor which finally led him to the area of Quality Assurance which he has found most satisfactory
to work in until the present.
Introduction minimum and money is spent alternating between

Ships are not forever. Each part of them is subjected sometimes being too generous and then being too tight
to continuous wear and tear by adverse elements and fisted. The latter usually causes further and greater
working people. Deterioration can occur quickly if expenditures than originally necessary.
countermeasures are not practised in time, i.e. from
the new building date. Therefore maintenance is, T h e cost-benefit relationship of each major
besides the mere running of a ship, the second largest maintenance action must be justifiable. Often decisions
task of shipboard personnel. Neglected maintenance must be made between renewal and repair. There must
accounts for many lost lives and billions of dollars be a healthy relationship between the value of
worth of damage annually, worldwide. Wasted equipment and the costs for its maintenance. However,
maintenance work and material also adds up to at least no universal advice can be given to determine an
millions. Limited resources need careful management optimum. Too many parameters are involved and must
in order to obtain the most benefit from the costs be perused for each single case. For example, the
incurred. commercial benefits of a well maintained ship on the
freight market have to be weighed against higher
Defining standards ashore maintenance costs. Such considerations are neglected
The basic steps of optimising all efforts must be in many companies (possibly as a result of separating
taken ashore. the technical from the commercial management).
1 The owners have to be sure about their strategy On board planning and documentation
("own & sell" or "own till scrapyard") and decide
accordingly on the desired remaining lifetime/ Just do what comes to mind?
operation time of the vessel as the basis for all Better plan first!
planning. Furthermore, they have to decide on Just plan what comes to mind?
the standard of maintenance which they wish to Better use a system for planning!
be kept. I n commercial shipping these two Just any planned maintenance system?
parameters are never infinite, so they should better Better subject your system to Quality Assurance!
b e defined a n d the managers (in-house
management or foreign) instructed accordingly. In a small ship you may well be able to execute all
2 Then the technical department has to draw up maintenance works completely without making big
reasonable budgets which permit keeping to the plans; still, the few works which are not obvious should
desired standard, in close cooperation with the be documented for your relief. However, where
shore-based organisation which has to support the complex maintenance works have to be planned and
ship's management.
coordinated, you cannot keep all facts in mind and
Only under these prerequisites can shipboard you cannot turn over all data to your successor if you
personnel be expected to maintain the ship safely and haven't documented it all in a systematic way.
economically in accordance with the owner's
Why a system?
instructions.
A system is a defined structure of regulations.
In lots of companies chaotic endless discussions 'Defined' means that the rules are written down,
are programmed by not defining any standards as compliance is verified a n d the procedures are
outlined above, in that the budgets have to be at monitored for effectiveness.The employees concerned

need not continuously think about or negotiate with Provides for continuous improvement.
each other as to what to do next. The system tells them During the practical work zclith any sjstetrr you willfin,cl
the next steps. Instruments are provided to ease the pos.sibilities of improvement every day e.g. a
flow of work. Formerly this planning work was done mis7trlderstood .cenlence, a n incomplete drscrifition or
on paper forms, on card-indexes or on big tables on a regular work missing. T h e systen~must allow
the wall. In modern environments a good computer continuozts improvement of ils structure and its
program will guide the user along the right steps. de,scriptivedata.
However, this is a question of convenience. The Provides for completeness of maintenance job
principles of systematic planning can be realised by descriptions.
any of these means. M'here enough, @forts have been made in building u p
and impro-r~ingthe stock of data the systenz Juirly
What makes a good system? warrants for con~pleteness. T h e user m u s t not
A good maintenance (planning and follow-up) permar~entlyjkctr to have forgotten any important
system: tn,attel:
* Is consistent with the Safety Management System Allows planning and documenting any
of the company. extraordinary work.
The Isn/r Code requires .systematic maintenance of all Most OJ the maintenance works on board have to be
safeety-rekvant equipment. Howmrr it would be narroni- carried out reg-ularly, but thr lesser part of occasionally
minded to restrict a mailztrnance system lo only these appearing work mu.st br coz~eredas well.
subjects. It should be capable to be applied to any kind Shows always the latest state of affairs.
of artual work, control job or tmining. Important for relieving perso)lnel to get quickly an.
Is thoroughly designed and well structured. overview of all due works as well us the execuled oner,
Anothet- (lay of sy.stem design can easily save many days be it by a n assorted card index or by cornpuler listings.
of work. Thr more ships the company is ~nanaging,the Shows the history of each item.
more cvforts nus st be made to peqect the system. Intere.sting to sre where the problrnzs have been i n the
Is easy to understand because of its logical past. The system must prozlide for sufficient space for
arrangement. documentation of all fol.merly dor~eregular and
It t0ke.s rtlore time to desiip a seq-explaining .system irregular rnaintenanm works includitig those done by
because the possibilities of rurong u n d ~ r s t a n d n gare shipyards and sr?-vicecom$anies. Whmthe irformation
enormoz~s.However the additional 7001-12 pays for itselJ bec0me.s too plentiful a n d difficull to overlook,
Is known to all persons concerned. authorized persons must have the oplion to delele part
of it.
Persons assigned to work with the systrm have to get n
Makes its documentation traceable.
thorough illtroduction,. I n a QA system procedure.s will
Whether the syste~~z is on paper or on a hard disk, it
be proz~iderito snfeguald that n / / necessary trainin,g is
.should prozlide spuce for do~:ummtinglime and persoil
carried ozcl.
with each im,portant ~ 1 z t ~ y .
Provides for equal handling throughout the
Provides its own procedures of control.
company.
The procedures of regular as wrll as ~rnannounced
Allowing personnel having chan.ged shif) to t a k ~,up
controls haue to br laid down i n roritinngnaming the
their work instantb. intervals and the rrsponsibkpe?sons.Fu,rtherruore, lhere
Makes the planning and documentation work should be u .speczfied pm-son to safeptard that these
easier. conlrols are carried out. .Such co~ltrolsare not popz~lar
Under the hotton? lirze the system must constitzcte a artlong the exec7rtives but the risk of havingcc neglected
c;onsiderable he&. If it doesn't, then redesign it or go system, which can be .cc~or.sethan no .yy.stem, makes then/.
back to fwmer methods! necessary.
Is based on solid information about machinery, Ideally would be manipulation-proof.
materials, etc. It is natural that peopke zuho have to doc.ument their
The person desiguing the system must be experienced i n own werk are inclined to brighte7z the results. Specially
lhe .subject and must thoroughly re,senrch the available w h ~ nthey are burdened with more t h a n cnn bp
sources like shipyard's and manufacturer's ~ d u i c e , thoro,ughly done they are serking for shorr cut
former work reports and repair protocoO. It is a good possibilities. Partly the system can have firocedures
of~portunityto think about and note dozim where the preventing this, but the sjlstem can 'tipzler 'sre' whether
data (works and their intervals) come from (maker's a work was really executed a.c desoibed. There is no
instructions ? Oth,et.tutorial material? S~~pm'ntendent 's otho. way to a.rloid such wrong docume?ltation except
decision? Own estimate? Source unknown?) frequent follow-up from the top.
Is continuously updated Provides for identical information on board and
The best system becomes useless if it is neglected. It needs ashore.
a good discipline to enter pt-omptly all job executiorzs, This means that comp~-ehensiveinforrtration mzcst be
sufficiently compreher~sivedesciiptions and sprz).e part transferred from the ship to the technical nlanage~rzent
rcshore at defined intervals, which the shorter lhe better:
COMMAND 133
Here uguzn rrn EI>Y $?stern zs ~urpnsszngu i ~ yfinper possibly only become detected when bad execution
systcvn. becomes obvious. This gap may be bridged by briefing
the staff and by close supervision and communication
Please note that a structured maintenance system
during the work and, of course, by improving the
is not restricted to be used for maintenance works only.
descriptions.
Once it is in place it can be used for any other work
which must be planned and monitored e.g. any kind Job descriptions not fitting exactly to the ship
of controls or the regular on-board safety training This may occur particularly if the descriptions are
which comprises many subjects to keep track of. copied from an external source. At least on starting
work, the job description should be rewritten in
The benefits of a planned maintenance system can
accordance with the fresh experiences.
easily turn into chaotic conditions if it is not
continuously taken care of. Sufficient working time System not accepted by the executing staff
must be available for training, for data maintenance If a system is too far away from being practical, if
and for controls. it does not meet the expectations of the concerned, if
they cannot recognize any advantage, it will be a dead-
What can go wrong in a planned born child. Reluctant users have no interest in updating
maintenance system? or improving such a system. However, the cause of
Works not existing in the system such attitude will not necessarily be found in the quality
Especially at the beginning it may easily happen of the given system or program. The cause can be
that a few jobs are just forgotten and not entered. poor motivation generally, due to other circumstances
Experienced officers can find these and complete the in the company. For example, job seekers will hardly
system by and by. For each irregular job which they be inclined to do something for a long-term matter on
enter additionally they sl~ouldthink whether this one board.
could be necessary regularly. For example, the repair
of a damaged item may be a singular event, but Missing backup - data lost
possibly checking this item at regular intervals could A 'grown up' maintenance planning system
have avoided the damage. So, you should add a contains a large amount of data which constitutes a
periodical control job to the system. Works which valuable asset (possibly in the range of some hundreds
cannot be assigned a certain interval because their of thousands of Euros) and must be protected
necessity depends too much on external appropriately. If you work on paper or with a card
circumstances, can be entered as a 'reminder' which index, you should at least have photocopied the job
appears at regular intervals on the work list in order descriptions and keep them apart from the working
to ensure regular attention. material. For users of computer programs there should
be a strict procedure, ensuring that the data are
Another cause of a missing maintenance job can regularly saved and kept away from the computer.
be that somebody has deleted it, either by ignorance Preferably the program should keep control and
or negligence or with ill will. A good system will be demand the production of external backups at regular
manipulation-proof in such a way, for example, that intervals.
the persons concerned with the execution of the works
have limited access rights in as much as they cannot Data which are regularly sent to the shore-based
delete a job. It would mean that the concerned crew technical department, can also be regarded as an
members have to wait for the authorisation of a emergency backup.
superintendent if they want to have a useless job Defining standards of methods and materials
description deleted. Alternatively, the system could ashore
provide for deactivating a job which, however, has to So far the system provides for timely execution
be logged in order to maintain traceability. but not necessarily for good quality maintenance. In
Job descriptions too complex this respect the shore-based organisation is required
The maintenance staff spend more time on reading to act again. While the executing persons on board
instructions than on actual work. Those involved feel have more or less random experiences with a number
treated in a patronising manner and missing the of methods and materials, the technical department
opportunity for making their own decisions. All job ashore should be able to scan the market for the most
descriptions, therefore, must be consistent with the suitable (and economic) products, tools and methods,
level of understanding that can be expected from the provided they are granted the time and the means for
persons carrying out the work. appropriate research.
Job descriptions too short Examples:

If there is a gap between the job description and Determine the best kind of underwater coating
the knowledge of the executing staff the latter will according to guarantees of the producer.
seldom claim or ask because they fear they might be Find out the most effective and economic kind of
regarded as under-qualified. The deficiency will inscriptions for the wet and salty areas on deck or

for the sometimes oily environment in the enplne your department. For example, when you send
department. someone to grease the hinges of hatch covers you must
Find the best temporary repair material for cracks at least spot check that the man knows what he is doing,
in fuel tanks or for other special tasks. in other words that grease really has passed through
the hinges. When you send your crew to clean a tank
Whenever such investigations have a clear result, bottom you may have to do at least the final check
then these best materials and methods should be used before the manholes are closed again. Remember, it
on all ships of the company. This again necessitates is you who signs for the proper execution. It is not the
making such decision known to all persons concerned, poor execution of maintenance work but the negligent
which can be done by circular letters or in briefing supervision that is the primary cause of damage.
sessions, by providing tutorial material or even by
sending some of the personnel to attend special While your long term planning is done by means
courses. When this is done properly it would mean of your system, you still have to decide daily which of
the work due is to be done. Regular maintenance work
that a new company standard is set; but note well that
such standards have a limited lifetime. They must be has to fit between cleaning work and watch duties and
have to be consistent with-the weather expected. Some
checked at regular intervals.
work needs a particular time span guaranteed available
On board: execution of maintenance work in order to get them completed. For example, if you
If you have well qualified personnel familiar with intend to overhaul the tackle of a crane, you should
work throughout the ship, there will hardly be any be very sure to have it reassembled before it is needed
problems in the proper execution of the work ordered. in port or before bad weather makes further work
However the reality usually differs considerably from impossible.
this ideal. You may have to cope with poorly trained
personnel, lacking knowledge of the designated In your daily planning you must always have a
common working language or just having poor number of alternatives available in order to cope with
motivation; and possibly you have no effective way any changes of the prevailing circumstances. If the
of changing this situation. weather changes or if your stay in port is shorter than
anticipated, if you have to use your crew for
As an officer you should first of all think about unexpected works or work that takes longer than
measures to improve the climate on board. The more expected, you should always be able to react and get
attention you pay to each single man and to particular things in line again. Therefore do not make your
jobs, the more you raise the attention of your crew. planning too tight. Leave yourself enough reserve of
The more your crew is willing (motivated) to do their resources.
work satisfactorily the more they will listen to your
Hopefully you know your crew well enough to
explanations. You can only be a good leader if your
assign the jobs to the right persons. Especially at the
commitments are continuous and not just single
beginning of the relationship you have to keep close
actions.
contact during the works until you are sure about the
Even if you have a good crew, you have to execute abilities and skills of your men. Then you will know
control to a certain extent in order to be sure about how much supervision is needed.
COMMAND 135
Chapter 20
MANAGING INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AT SEA

Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats
DavidJ. Patraiko graduated from the Massachusetts Maritime Academy (US) and sailed on a variety of international vessels in his
twelve years in the Merchant Navy. He holds a Unlimited Master Marzner j. licence and was awarded an MBA degree fiom Henley
Management College (UK). Afer a briefjeriod as an independent conszrltant.
Introduction
maintainability. Conversely, some shipping companies
The use of Information Technology (IT) at sea, on
have shot well ahead of competition by developing
board ships, is a very wide and complex topic. To begn
successful systems that offer real commercial
with you might ask which infornlation with what
advantage.
technology and for that matter, which ships. In the
shipping industry today the full spectrum of IT usage To gain further insight into the use of IT at sea, the
can be found. If we take the world merchant fleet as a Institute has embarked on a project (aptly named
parameter, we can find very low-tech cargo ships with IT@Sea) to investigate how IT is being used in the
no computers or electronics what so ever. We can also industry and how it can be used to best advantage.
find vessels with multiple computer networks, The project has included a survey of members, an
hundreds of micro-chips, and full 24 hour a day international conference and a lot of research. So, how
satellite communication links to wide area networks. can computers best be used to advance the business
In fact, in a recent survey conducted by The Nautical of managing ships? As you can guess, there are no
Institute on the use of IT at sea, one of the most simple answers, but in order to look at the situation in
sophisticated vessels was a small fisheries protection a logical manner, I will use the familiar model of
craft. Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats
(SWOT) analysis.
Scope
In order to limit the range of this topic, for the Strengths
purpose of this chapter I will define the scope of my Before one can think about computerising one has
comments to the use of PC type computers aboard to identify what a computer is going to do. 111the 1980s
merchant vessels. In a wider context however, most when personal computers started to become
on board computers are not placed on merchant ships increasingly cheaper, more powerful and more user
in isolation, either in physical or management terms. friendly, the mantra was raised to 'computerise'.
Computers on board, are usually able to share files Businesses rushed to take advantage of word
with other computers, either by disk, over networks processors and countless hours were needlessly wasted
(physical or virtual), but most often placed on board as untrained (or ill-trained) staff tried to use computers
as the result of a management decision for a specific as fancy electric typewriters, without realising their
task or tasks. Therefore, the term I T at Sea real potential (and some still do).
encompasses IT for ship management.
So, what's so good about computers? Where do
Background their strengths lie? Principally, computers are great at
In 1988 The Nautical Institute first published processing repetitive tasks and when linked to a
'Computers at Sea". This monograph dealt with such memory device, they can store vast amounts of
cutting edge technology as word processors, and the information. And if, a big if, things have been properly
ability to program an IBM for stability calculations. thought out, computers can retrieve this information
No mention though of e-mails or gigabytes! How and communicate it efficiently. In all seriousness, one
things change in ten short years. of the great strengths of computers is that they are too
dumb to make a mistake - they do exactly what you
As technology has developed (exploded?)over the tell them to (their language, of course).
years the Institute has tried to keep abreast of both
the levels of technology and their strategic use for the Processing
industry. Our members keep us informed of certain It is not surprising that some of the first ship
developments. Some are exciting and, frankly, some management applications were for accountancy and
are pretty frightening. In many cases computer systems stability and cargo calculations. In fact, according to
have been placed on board in very ad-hoc fashion, the recent Institute survey2, the areas of management
with little or no thought to usability, training or even and stability calculations are still the only two

categories of software used by over ,50010 of Shared through communication, however, they
respondents. become a phenomenal management tool.
Some of the most impressive computer applications Shared databases allow a wide group (as wide as a
available today, that fully utilise the computer's ability network enables) to access the same information.
to carry out sophisticated calculations, are 3D ship Following on from the examples g v e above, a single
models that are used in live damage stability personnel database can be shared by the personnel
information. These programs calculate, in real time, department as well as a ship captain. Thus as training
with input from sensors, any ingress from water, takes place aboard ship, a seaman's record is updated
whether from flooding or fire fighting (or even ice once for the entire fleet. A superintendent in Singapore
accumulation) the stability of a vessel. They can take as well as a purchasing agent in Piraeus can view
into account effects from variable seas and wind, equipment and spare parts for an entire fleet in real
predict rates of lost stability, can develop scenarios time. Given that personnel are disciplined in the
and even transmit this same information via satellite maintenance of such systems, the potential for cost
to other computers. Other examples include the ability savings is tremendous.
to calculate specific vessel trim to maximise fuel
efficiency for any given sea condition, a n d Communication
extrapolating differentials in engne performance to The ability for computers to share information via
give early indications of developing problems. High communication may be the greatest strength of IT yet.
At a basic level computer files can be transferred
processing capacity in affordable PC's has also
spawned an emerging market in the use of complex between one computer and another by using floppy
disks or CDs. Gains in efficiency can be had by linking
graphics for simulation programs.
individual con~putersby wire (or fibre optics) into a
Task repetition Local Area Network (LAN). Many ships now have
The ability of computers to complete sequential LANs aboard that enable, for example, the sharing of
tasks, precisely, efficiently and indefinitely is peripherals such as printers, drives and modems as
highlighted by tasks such as producing form letters, well as files. For example, a chief engneer can monitor
forms, payroll and communication functions. These engne performance from his office, a third mate can
advantages are also used to best effect through the update the ship's medical inventory, or a navigation
use of monitoring, such as monitoring engine officer can e-mail a noon report to the company
functions, cargo conditions, navigation and even hull through the master's computer
stresses.
Further communication can see the development
Record keeping and audit trail of a Wide Area Network (WAN), where the
The facilities for storing and retrieving large shipboard's LAN is linked via satellite, cellular or land
amounts of information for the purpose of record line to the office LAN. This permits shared databases
keeping and creating audit trails has really come into and direct e-mail communication at a fraction of the
its own recently for the shipping industry. The reasons: cost of voice communication. Communication
ISM, STCW and even I S 0 and TQM for those that technology is advancing by leaps and bounds. Costs
follow that route. If designed and operated properly, are plummeting, bandwidth is increasing and
the average PC can store an amount of records, data, compression technology is enabling larger and larger
and information that would clog any chief engneer file sizes to be transferred economically. The growth
or master's office (even an entire cargo ship) beyond in communications will fuel future opportunities more
belief. Superintendents who could only look after a than any other aspect of IT for the ship manager.
few ships a decade ago, can now (at least technically)
maintain records of repairs, certificates status, and Costs and experience
performance data for a much larger fleet. When looking at information technology for
today's ship managers, it must be noted that, in contrast
In addition to satisfying the occasional auditors, with past years, hardware and software solutions have
benefits from this facet of technology include the never been as inexpensive. Modern computers with
ability to access historical records of maintenance, more speed and capacity than could have been
equipment inventories, reference manuals and vast imagned just a few years ago can be bought for less
amounts of operational data for managing a vessel. than $1000 (USD),and come equipped with CD drives
and multimedia facilities. Off the shelf software for
One of the most powerful computer applications
basic applications are powerful and reasonably
to be designed and used by ship managers is, of course,
intuitive and, again affordable. Customised ship
the database. Databases by definition are software
management software that has been developed and
applications designed to save information as structured improved over the years is also showing the benefits
sets of data that are accessible in various ways. As a of economies of scale.
stand-alone feature, databases are an extremely
efficient method of saving information such as crew Experience is far easier to come by than ever
records, inventoried equipment, or even procedures. before. For routine general and ship management
COMMAND 137
applications, experienced technicians abound. Have all key users test the system.
Advances and developments in other areas of business Properly plan and manage the data conversion
are offering cross fertilisation for the ship management and loading process.
industry as well. Document the system.
Weaknesses During the planning stage, ship managers should

With all the strengths outlined, one could be also take advantage of the excellent guidance offered
forgiven for thinking that computers on board must by the IMO" (MSC/Circ.891) 'Guidelines for the On-
be a panacea. They're not. For many, IT at sea is a board use and Application of Computers' with an
nightmare. Worse, for a few, it can lead to financial annex for 'Guidelines for Shipboard Loading and
ruin. Stability Computer Programs'.
As mentioned earlier, computers are too dumb to Once in use

make a mistake. When things go wrong management Once a computer system has been properly
is usually to blame. designed and implemented, continued success relies
on the monitoring of its use and efficiency, feedback
Strategic planning from the users, the training of subsequent users (i.e.
Successful computer systems don't just happen. relief crews) and well managed upgrades as are
They are planned, and planned from the top. The most appropriate for the commercial and regulatory
common factor for failed or ineffective IT systems is environment. Many companies who have been
reported to be lack of management support. Placing a praised for their design and implementation of IT
single stand-alone PC aboard a ship to run a simple systems, later suffer because the system they developed
payroll programme might have succeeded in the past no longer meets the operational needs, or cannot
without much intervention from senior management, function efficiently with hardware and operating
but networks and shared systems throughout a fleet systems not even imagined at the time of development.
will never work properly if not aligned with a IT is changing rapidly and life cycles need to be
company's business strategy and supported from
addressed as part of strategic development.
board level.
Successful IT strategies are developed in harmony Opportunities
with a general business strategy. T h e most Opportunities for improving ship management
sophisticated inventory database will not succeed if ope ations through the use of computers are limited only
the company is not committed to managing its by the capacity of the computer and communication
inventory. If the employees do not recognise its value, systems and human ingenuity. Some of the computer
if the superintendents and purchasing people do not based ship management tools existing today could hardly
embrace the philosophy, the hardware and software have been imagined ten years ago. I will look briefly at
will be wasted. For an IT system to operate efficiently what is available today, and then extrapolate as to what
the senior management must incorporate it into their some future opportunities might be.
business plan, appoint properly skilled and educated
Here and now
people to implement it and be willing to commit the
Entire books have been published", and magazines'
necessary resources. Advice from a prominent ship
are dedicated to examining the vast range of maritime
managei-%also states that if a system that has been
related software. In this chapter I will only just touch
committed to looks like it will fail, it is far better to cut
on some of the broad categories. The use of computers
the project and lose the investment than to be
for payroll and accounting is well established and at a
lumbered with a poor system for years and lose
mature stage in its development. However, the use of
continually.
computers for fleet and vessel management is a
Implementation booming trade.
Implementation, if not properly managed, can be
Opportunities for improving fleet and vessel
the next greatest weakness in developing an IT system.
management abound. Systems can range from simple
After a strategic decision has been made, resources
single user programs on stand alone PCs that assist
budgeted for, and a project manager selected. A typical
the master or operations manager to keep track of
implementation plan might include4:
certificate status and maintenance logs, to large
Carry out detailed project planning; too many networked systems that link a whole fleet to head
projects fail because of poor, or non-existent, office, class society and suppliers and even agents.
planning. Such systems take advantage of the most modern
Involve key users throughout the project. communication systems and cover almost all aspects
Expend sufficient effort in identifying training of fleet management including personnel, purchasing,
needs; this includes sea staff, shore staff and those maintenance, performance monitoring, messagng. Of
driving the project. particular interest in today's environment, they can
Complete all preparatory work before document operational procedures, maintain records
commissioning the software. and create an audit trail as required for STCW and
138 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE r

ISM. These systems can be created as custom Now, admittedly, this assumes increased quality
applications specifically designed for an operator, or rather than just quantity of communication, but none
can be purchased 'off the shelf' and adapted for use the less by having the option for low cost
as required. There are a number of suppliers of such communication, the potential for improvement is vast.
systems that cater for the ship management market Already the use of e-mail has improved inter-fleet
and, increasingly, classification societies are offering communication over the use of telex or fax and the
ship management software. Fleet management ability of fleet management software to auto-generate
software now makes it possible for fewer and fewer messages from operational procedures such as position
staff to manage greater and greater fleets, complying reports, maintenance scheduling, training and stores,
with ever more regulatory documentation. just to name a few, saves time and improves
communication flow.
Opportunities for streamlining stores and
purchasing operations are also being created by the The future
use of IT. This has always been a capital intensive area Unfortunately my laptop is not programmed with
of ship management. Excessive stores and spare parts a virtual crystal ball, but I can predict that
carried aboard vessels tie up valuable capital, but opportunities for the future will follow on from the
penalties for lack of spares can be prohibitive. As fleet themes discussed by taking advantage of greater
sizes grow, savings of even a few per cent are worth computing and communication power.
pursuing. Purchasing and inventory software can
As communication becomes less expensive, its use
improve efficiency by streamlining the purchasing of
will expand. It is interesting to note that as the cost of
consuillables and by coordinating stocks of valuable communication has come down over the past decades,
spare parts within a fleet. The advent of online many operators report that their communication bill
ordering is also coming into it's own. At the most has remained steady, but the volume has increased
sophisticated level, stores can be barcoded and after many times over. This trend will likely advance to the
reference to a stores database can automatically point where vessels are on-line at all times, and ship
generate purchase orders. As suppliers are now managers will just pay a fixed fee. This will allow shore
establishing an Electronic Trading Standard Format staff to monitor ship functions in real time and the
(ETSF)8,the process of submitting orders for tender vessel staff will be as incorporated in the operations
electronically will save additional time and personnel of the company as any shore-side department might
intervention. be. This facility will also permit unrestricted use of
The use of computers for training is yet another video conferencing for routine management as well
area where opportunities are proving beneficial. as for diagnostics and maintenance purposes.
Seafarer training is essential on ships growing in Fixed communication costs will also herald the use
sophistication and is required by STCW95. A well of the Internet. Use of the Internet will permit vessels
balanced training programme using a variety of to access wide ranges of current information and
methods for different tasks and environments is always services. For example, maintenance and trouble
best, but the use of Computer Based Training (CBT) shooting databases for engineering equipment might
and even Internet Based Training (IBT) have valuable be available from manufactures, weather observation
roles to play. Two of the major benefits of CBT are and forecasting will be a mouse click away and the
that modern processing power has enabled the cook might even find a new recipe - the mind boggles.
development of very realistic simulation programs and
Ramifications for the quality of life on board also
properly designed CBT programs provide a unique
exist. Diminishing quality of life on board is often cited
environment for one-to-one interactive training that
by seafarers as the primary reason for leaving the sea.
can concentrate on a student's areas of weakness and
As the industry changes the traditional rewards of a
document successful (or unsuccessful) results. career at sea are disappearing. Poor retention of sea
Communication staff is an expensive problem. The ability to talk, or
Communications may be the fastest developing even video conference with family members, maintain
sector of the whole marine IT spectrum. Satellite hobbies, or even plan a holiday could make all the
systems, including Medium Earth Orbit (MEO),Low difference to the young engineer who can't even get
Earth Orbit (LEO) and even cellular are improving ashore (further information on the uses and application
their range and fidelity, reducing the cost of air time of the Internet for seafarers can be found in The
Nautical Institute's briefing paper on the subject)".
and increasing their bandwidth. This in conjunction
with compression technology, packet switching Opportunities for future benefits from Infornlation
technology and scheduled data-bursts for off peak Technology at sea are endless. The use of voice
times is continually driving down the cost of ship-to- recognition and virtual reality will be affordable soon,
shore communication. Communication is a big deal! and the use of Knowledge Based Decision Support
Businesses thrive, safety is increased and people exist Systems (KBDSS) are also available and increasing in
through the use of communication. popularity. One area of opportunity not yet discussed,
however, is that of using IT to enhance the potential board. Threats to data security can come from
of on board skills. Skills of on board personnel are accidental loss, malicious destruction or violation of
often not fully utilised for the benefit of the company. privacy. Companies should have a security procedure
In most cases this is due to lack of communication or that incorporates the use of backups, virus protection,
lack of realisation. Shipboard officers trained in the security devices (hardware and software) and the use
use of IT, whether word processors and spreadsheets, of passwords.
or more specialised programs like CAD or engmeering
programs and benefiting from good fleet Opportunities for improving commercial
communications can be a valuable company asset. As performance include the ability to increase the number
competition gets fiercer, such assets should not be of management tasks that could be handled by a
ignored. For example, deck officers trained in limited number of staff. Whereas this is truly an
specialised cargo operations could become a readily opportunity of which to take advantage, a company
available fleet-wide consultant, as could engineers with must always be aware of how dependent they are on
IT systems and assess the risk accordingly. Alternative
specialist knowledge or experience. Other advantages
can b e had by masters a n d chief engineers systems for important functions can come from manual
participating in such things as shipyard preparation paper based systems, or from other IT systems. In
that takes advantage of their skills while some of their either case ship managers need to examine their use
more mundane tasks are outsourced to others over of, and reliance on computer systems.
the same network. This not only takes best advantage The seafarer's role
of fleet resources, but provides often needed career Most IT systems for on board use are conceived,
expansion opportunities for seafarers. at least strategically, by the managers ashore. Seafarers,
however, have a crucial role to play in insuring the
Threats maximum efficiency and effectiveness of any on board
The primary threat to most businesses in terms of IT system.
Information Technology is that of being lumbered with
a poor system. There are a number of causes for poor Implementation
operating systems, most of which are mentioned in The most important contribution seafarers can
the weaknesses section, most due to poor management make is by providing user feedback. User feedback is
at some point and most should have at least been most helpful at the implementation stage when the
caught in the testing phase of implementation. At best, involvement of key users is sought. Any opportunity
a poor system reduces commercial efficiency, and at to work with shoreside management should be taken.
worst can cause the financial collapse of a company. All on board users of the system, senior and junior
Good systems that have been well conceived, officers and crew if applicable, should take every
managed, tested and installed, can still suffer from opportunity to inform the project leader of their
inefficiency if staff are not properly trained and requirements and carefully to test all trial or beta
confident in their use. This is an important step and versions sent to the vessel, fully and for all conceivable
will be expanded upon later. circumstances or scenarios. Lists of testing procedures
might be drawn up to ensure a thorough and
Communication between computers over a methodical examination and documentation of the
network and between programs operating on a single results, both positive and negative, is a necessity. Ship's
P C is entirely reliant on compatibility. Compatibility staff are the only people who can truly represent their
is a major threat to Information Technology. A well own best interests. The testing stage is the final stage
designed system should not suffer incompatibility before committing to a system and most ship managers
problems and any new applications for that system will be eager to hear of any anomalies at this stage of
should be checked for compatibility, but compatibility design, where the cost of change is relatively
needs to be thought - of at the strategic- level if inexpensive and consultants would not have been fully
communication with outside sources is going to be paid.
achieved. This includes links made to other businesses,
financial institutions, common networks, suppliers or Security
customers. Shipboard personnel have a responsibility, as
operators and local administrators, to take all
Security is another major threat, not just physical reasonable precautions to ensure the security of on
security, but security of data as well. The loss of a board IT systems. This includes the proper securing
physical unit can be accidental or malicious, but must of all hardware and adhering to company procedures
be anticipated. The I M O (MSC Circ.891) offers good for data protection, including the use of security
advice for planning redundancy for critical systems, passwords, virus protection and backups.
but it cannot be stressed enough how awkward a
computer crash can be to a crew, possibly on the verge Data within an IT system is highly valuable, both
of fatigue. Spare units with the ability to load from in terms of cost to replace the information and the
backups (especially servers) should be carried on costs associated with any misinformation due to

corrupted data, such as errors in financial data. Data Learn what the inherent limitations of the program
corruption can be caused by many means. Power loss are, with particular respect to inputs, calculations,
due to blackouts and greyouts (if the system is not and critical indicators such as in stability and stress
connected through a proper uninterrupted power programs.
supply (UPS)),system failures, viruses and malicious Enhance any existing documentation, such as
damage are some of the most common. It has also manuals with marked tabs and clearly written
been reported that crew and/or visiting personnel have notes that will assist any on board users to make
attempted to obtain confidential documents held on better use of such reference material.
shipboard computers.
Conclusion
Training The use of computers and computer systems for
Competent operation of on board computer improving operational performance in the shipping
systems is absolutely necessary to ensure that they industry has been tried, tested and proved effective as
perform to maximum efficiency. Unfortunately, as well as ineffective. Computerisation is no panacea, yet
revealed by The Nautical Institute, as well as other few modern fleets can compete and survive without
industry sources, training for seafarers in the use of it. The difference is in their strategc use, the allocation
computer systems is a great weakness. The root cause of p r o p e r resources, a n d the m a n a g e m e n t of
for this is that while I T solution providers are implementation and training. Information Technology
constantly driving the state of the art in computer is a sophisticated tool, and as is true of any tool it has
programs, the associated training is less well thought strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats.
out and often suffers from lack of budget when IT Understanding these parameters and the relationship
projects reach their final stages. Training needs must they have on shipboard management is the key to
be examined early in the implementation stage and successful exploitation of this exciting and dynamic
adhered to strictly. One of the most serious faults in technology.
training programmes for seafarers is that they only
address the current staff on board at the time of 1 Cole, Captain J.W., Contpr~/c.r:c ul .%a, The Nautical
installation, with little or no thought to training the Institute, 1988, ISBN 0 906835 26 7.
relief crews. It is often assumed that the current staff 2 [email protected][I Data, The Nautical Institute, 1998.
-S u ~ . v q
will carry out the training of relief staff in the use of IT 3 Slesinger, P., IS Manager, Wallem Group, Managing a
at the time of relief. This is a poor assumption due to Lurge Fleel, Lloyd's Ship Manager IT Strategies in
Shipping Conference, 1988
the possibility that the current staff don't fully
4 Jones, G.. Managing Consultant, Horwath Consulting
understand the system themselves, that they may not
Ltd.
be qualified to train, and that in today's climate of 5 International Maritime Organization (IMO), 4 Albert
shipboard operations in port, there is not time to give Embankment, London, UK, www.i~no.org.
IT training as well as all other duties involved in the 6 Marine Computiizg LY Iizternet Guide, Fairplay
relief process. Some advice to seafarers in this Publications Ltd., ISBN 1 901290 0 9 3,
predicament is as follows: www.fairplay.co.uk.
7 Compuship Magazine, TLA Publishing Ltd., London,
Take advantage of any less demanding time, such UK.
as during ocean voyages, to study the operation 8 International Marine Purchasing Association (IMPA).
of computer programs, with the emphasis on 9 Nautical Briefing, The Internet for Seafarers, The
infrequently used aspects that could cause a Nautical Institute, 1999.
problem at more critical times.
COMMAND 141
Chapter 21
MANAGING RISK ON BOARD

by Captain T.J. Bailey FNI
Captain Bailey started his career at sea with BP Tanker Co. Ltd. in September 1971 and stayed with them until gaining his Mate's
Certz9cate. During this time he served on all classes of vessel within the BPJleet, rangingfrom oil tankers of 16,000 dwt to VLCCs of
215,000 dwt. In the heady days of the late 1970s, when jobs were easier to find, hejoined Sea Containers on theirfleet of innovative self-
sustaining ro-ro/container ships. This represented a uery signzjicant change from oil tankers. With all shqs chartered to a variety of
operators, he found it most interesting to work in a very dzfferent commercial environment. He studied for his Master's CertzFcate at
Plymouth in 7982 and gained his first command in 1983.
After a period with the National Shipping Company of Saudi Arabia as chief oficer on their ro-ro/container vessels and a period
ashore as a marine and cargo surveyor covering South Walesports he joined Sealink British Ferries in 1988. Since then he has worked
at every Stena Line UKport -probably the only person in their currentfleet to have done so. In 1990 the company introduced their own
guidelines on working hours and fatigue and, as one of the first mate/masters appointed in the company, he took command of the shq
while the day master took his eight hour break. Captain Bailey was promoted to full master in 1992.
He gained fast craft experience with Hoverspeed on the introduction of the Hoverspeed Great Britain at Portsmouth in 1990 and
with Stena Line when the Sea Lynx was introduced to Holyhead in the summer of 1993. Before transferring to the HSS he was senior
master on the Stena Cambria - one of the multi-purposeferries operatingfiom Holyhead to Dun Laoghaire.
Captain Bailey is chairman of The Nautical Institute Command Working Group and now works ashore independently as a consultant,
specialising mostly in training.
Introduction If we take adequate steps to eliminate or minimise

T HE S HIPPI N G INDUSTRY, by its very nature, is a highly any risks that may be involved, the objective will
risky business and is not 100/o accident or incident effectively be achieved.
free. To reduce accidents, incidents and claims, the Risk assessment is defined as "the process used to
shipping industry needs to move forward utilising risk- determine risk management priorities by evaluating
based management techniques. and comparing the level of risk against predetermined
The majority of prudent and 'professional' seafarers standards, target risk levels or other criteria".
seem to have an inherent, innate ability to understand Our primary aim is to avoid risk: where this cannot
and assess the risks that the job places before them. be avoided, we must evaluate the unavoidable risks
The fact that they undertake this 'intuitive risk analysis' and take action to reduce their effect. It is desirable
without formal guidance or training is a credit to these to develop a strategy whereby day-to-day operations
seafarers and to their professionalism. They are highly are considered from a 'risk' point of view - if they can
competent personnel who take their ships to sea and go wrong, what effect will this have? If an operation
deliver their cargoes without accident or incident. or procedure has the potential for significant
There is a need for improvement in day-to-day consequences, it must be given a higher level of
operational techniques on board ship. In the extremely priority than one that is unlikely to happen and, even
efficiency-conscious and cost-conscious commercial if and when it does, it will not have an adverse impact
climate of the late 1990s there is a need to reduce on the voyage.
accidents, incidents and claims, both by their number A risk assessment is intended to be a simple but
and by their monetary value. meaningful exercise to determine, after careful
It is the aim of this chapter to look at how risk examination of an operation, what processes may
management techniques can best be implemented cause harm, what precautions can be taken and
aboard the ship. In doing so, consideration will be whether more could be done to prevent harm. The
gven to all aspects of day-to-day shipboard operations. process need not be over-complicated and it may be
appropriate to use a simple proforma to record the
Risk, risk management and risk findings of the assessment.
assessment The assessment of risks must be 'suitable and
What, then, is risk management? It has been sufficient'. The degree of effort required by the risk
defined as "the systematic application of management assessment should depend on the degree of harm that
policies, procedures and practices to the tasks of may occur and whether there are current control
identifying, analysing, assessing, treating and procedures to ensure that the risk is as low as
monitoring risk" where risk has been defined as "the reasonably practicable.
chance of something happening that will have an
impact upon objectives". It is measured in terms of In carrying out a risk assessment it is necessary to
consequence and likelihood. identify whether a hazard exists in the first place. The

hazard then needs to be categorised according to its Cargo operations need to be considered in the light
potential consequence and according to its likelihood of the 'risk'. The prudent risk manager should be aware
of occurrence. Is it already covered by procedures and of the intended procedures. He should discuss these
satisfactory precautions to control the risk? If so, what with the terminal superintendent/stevedore and the
are those procedures? If it is not, what procedures ship's staff in order to minimise the risk to the overall
and precautions need to be put into place? operation. In the meantime, what else is happening
on board the ship?
There are no fixed rules about who should carry
out the risk assessment but it is recommended that The navigating officer will prepare the passage plan
suitably experienced personnel, using specialist advice for the intended voyage. If properly carried out, this
if appropriate, should carry it out. passage plan is a formal risk assessment procedure. It
should allow the vessel to be safely navigated at all
Once a risk assessment has been carried out, it times throughout the voyage, highlighting areas where
should be monitored when the work is taking place.
there are levels of greater risks. The prudent master
Have the procedures and precautions put into place will ensure that his intentions and requirements have
been adequate? If not, a further risk assessment should been followed through before committing his vessel
be carried out to review the original assessment and to the voyage.
to make further recommendations.
While preparing the passage plan, has the
All risk assessments should be held on file. When navigating officer ensured that the charts and
the task has been completed it may be possible to 'close publications to be used are fully up-to-date? There is
out' the risk assessment but, if the task is regular or still an unacceptably high incidence of reports of ships
routine, the risk assessment should be kept 'live'. It with out of date nautical charts and publications. This
should be reviewed at periodic intervals to ensure that
may lead, in many ports, to detention of the vessel or
it remains relevant and that the recommended
heavy financial penalties until the matter is rectified.
procedures continue to apply.
During the port stay the ship will require to take
To be effective, risk management must combine bunkers. Accidents occur during bunkering operations
knowledge, experience and lateral thinking. One man and the obvious consequence of these accidents is
alone cannot achieve all this and it is desirable that pollution. Any pollution incident will attract a financial
there is a workable framework in place that encourages consequence. The prudent risk manager will ensure
teamwork and interaction between the members of that procedures for bunkering operations are in place
the team and the ship's managers. and that they are strictly followed. He will also ensure
that personnel designated to carry out this task have a
On board risk management complete understanding of the procedures and of their
In port responsibilities.
Where, then, does the management of risk begin?
It is difficult to appreciate a finite starting point but, Maintenance of key plant and machinery may also
for the purpose of this chapter, we shall assume that it take place while the ship is in port. Do the port
starts when the Notice of Readiness (NOR)is tendered. regulations allow for the ship to be immobilised? Will
T h e N O R may b e considered to reflect the the work be completed in time for the ship to sail when
commitment of the ship to the 'risk' of the voyage. expected? If it cannot, can the ship stay at the current
berth or will it be necessary to be towed to another
The N O R may be tendered at the same time that berth or to an anchorage? Will there be a long-term
the pilot boards on arrival in the loading port or when effect on the ability of the ship to complete the
the first rope is landed ashore. These times are as good intended voyage?
as any but there may be a number of procedures that
still have to be completed before the vessel can load This evaluation should not be done only by the
chief engneer but he must consult with the master,
cargo. In other words, the vessel may not be 'ready in
the ship's agent in the port and, probably, with his
all respects': if the NOR has been tendered and the
principals. This consultation must be open, honest and
vessel is not ready, there may be financial penalties.
realistic in its assessment if it is to have the desired
Whether these penalties will have a significant effect of minimising the impact of any failures to
outcome on the success of the voyage can only be complete the work.
realised at the end of the voyage.
Preparations for departure
The Charter Party ( U P ) will specify criteria that The prudent master will have a good appreciation
will determine the commercial success of the voyage. of the risks associated with port departure and he will
To ensure the best possible management of the risk of have taken the opportunity to check with his heads of
the voyage, the master must be given adequate departments that they, too, are ready for sea. As we
information regarding the terms of the C/P. He cannot have already seen, risk management is a team effort
be expected to fulfil his obligations in ignorance of and this concept should be brought into use at every
the terms and conditions of the C/P. possible opportunity.
COMMAND 143
Preparations for taking the ship to sea should follow by 'debriefing'. This will provide the opportunity to
a structured procedure. In many ships, check lists are discuss any mistakes that may have been made and
used extensively for many operations and the checklist how to learn from those mistakes or to improve the
can play a significant part. When the checks provide management of an emergency.
an answer that is not expected, there must be the
opportunity to report the 'wrong answer' to an Personal safety on board the ship is an individual
appropriate person who can take responsibility for as well as a collective responsibility. Every person on
correcting the fault. board the ship has a responsibility to ensure that they
carry out their duties safely. They must not knowingly
Much has been written in recent times of the put themselves or anybody else into an unsafe
importance of the master/pilot relationship - it is situation. Although this responsibility may be
equally important when considering the management considered to be common sense, it can be reinforced
of risk on board a ship. Shiphandling in confined by good shipboard practices and training.
waters with the assistance of tugs is a time of high risk
It can also be reinforced through consultation. The
and the operation must be carefully thought out and
discussed by the master and the pilot. The risk of the shipboard safety committee provides a forum where
operation cannot be minimised without the fullest safety-related issues are raised for discussion by all
exchange of information and ideas from both the departments. This frequently provides an element of
master and the pilot. This exchange must clarify lateral thinking that may not otherwise have occurred.
exactly where responsibility lies at every stage. Careful management of safety related issues will reap
significant benefits. An increase in personal safety
Before leaving port, the master must be aware of awareness should lead to a reduction in on board
the hours that have been worked by his watchkeeping accidents and injuries. This in turn will lead to
officers and ratings immediately prior to taking the improved efficiency on board.
ship to sea. This does not only apply to the navigation
watch - it has equal relevance to the engineering It is probably fair to say that the majority of ships
department and the master should ensure that all will record, in some form or another, major incidents
watchkeepers are suitably rested. that occur on board the ship - for example, heavy
weather damage to the ship or cargo or serious
The effects of fatigue have the potential to create personal accident. Within the requirements of the ISM
significant effects on the overall success of the voyage. Code we also have the duty to ellsure that appropriate
It is particularly so at the beginning of the voyage and, corrective action is taken. This should also be viewed
in many instances, it is not unknown that the master as a requirement to take preventative action to reduce
will take the first sea watch to allow the appropriate the likelihood that the nonconformity will recur.
O O W to gain sufficient rest after particularly long
It is probable that the reporting of lesser incidents
hours during a port stay.
and, almost certainly, 'near misses' does not occur. A
And so to sea. . . 'near miss' (in 'risk management speak') is defined as
It may be considered that the safe navigation of 'an unplanned event which does not cause injury or
the ship has the highest risk potential in terms of its damage but could do SO.' Examples of near misses
effect on the outcome of the voyage. Collisions g v e include items falling from a height near to a worker
rise to 17% of P&I claims. The old adage that 'a or a short circuit in a piece of electrical equipment.
collision at sea can ruin your whole day' is undeniably
true and a collision will certainly have an impact upon In an analysis of reported incidents carried out in
our objective of completing the voyage safely and the United States, the following were recorded. In the
right hand column, they have been assessed on their
satisfactorily.
approximate probability on an annual basis:
In the event of a collision, there are many
procedures that will come into play, not least of which Serious injury 1 Once
will be the ship's emergency procedures. These are Minor injury 10 Monthly
intended to provide an effective method of minimising
loss or damage to the ship and the cargo, to the persons Property damage 30 Weekly
on board and to the environment in the event of an -
'Near misses' 600 Twice daily

emergency.
Figure 27.7 Analysis of reported incidents
The SOLAS requirement for regular exercises and
drills is a risk management process. The prudent risk We are probably all well aware of the first three
manager will ensure that the nature and content of groups of incidents and we can readily appreciate their
these exercises and drills is varied so that he will have significance and occurrence. The 'near miss' is a
the opportunity to assess the capabilities of his crew, concept that is much harder to appreciate. It may also
as well as the procedures. He will also ensure that there come as something of a shock to realise the frequency
is a formal review process for each drill and exercise with which they are considered to occur. For effective

risk (and safety) management we must attempt to To defend the claim, or to minimise his liability, the
identify the near misses, record them and analyse shipowner relies on the ship's staff to provide him with
them. We can then take positive steps to reducing or the evidence surrounding the incident. It is essential
removing them from day-to-day shipboard operations. that witness statements are taken, photographs (or
In doing so we make a positive contribution to video film) are taken where appropriate and a
reducing risk and improving safety on board the ship. thorough investigation by the safety officer is carried
out as early as possible after the incident. The ensuing
Before we arrive at the port of discharge, let us report should be as thorough as possible and, if any
return briefly to the people on board. How have they doubts exist, these should be carefully investigated
spent their off-duty time while the ship has been at until the report reflects the fullest possible picture of
sea. What provisions have been made for them to be the incident.
able to relax and to 'switch off'? Good welfare
management is an integral part of good safety and risk In all ships, injuries to 'our own people' can be
management. A common feature in all aspects of the upsetting and disruptive. It is important to remember,
risks of day-to-day shipboard operations is the 'human however, that the truth must prevail. We must not be
factor'. We are all human and all prone to the frailties tempted to 'cover up' any relevant information - e.g.
that go with it! 64010 of claims can be attributed to the injured man was only wearing flip flops when he
'human factors'. slipped and broke his arm is as relevant as the fact
that the deck was greasy and that no warning signs
Personal injury were posted.
It is perhaps worth considering, at this point, the
effects of personal injury on the overall operation of It would be possible to expand on this subject at
the vessel, as well as its implication on the effectiveness great length but it is perhaps better to refer you to
of our risk management. other publications. In particular, I would recommend
'The Mariner's Role in Collecting Evidencd published by
From my own experience, I know that the The Nautical Institute.
immediate costs can be significant but there are other
effects on the ship's operation that may not be Personal safety and accident prevention are very
immediately apparent. O n passage from Fremantle important to the P&I Clubs - almost all of them will
to Singapore, the chief officer was washed overboard. publish guidance notes, videos, posters and the like
In the successful recovery of the chief officer, I was to assist this process. If they are not on board your
severely injured and it was necessary to divert the ship ship, you can always ask for them.
to land me ashore for hospital treatment. After several
days in hospital, I was then repatriated to the UK - Welfare issues
First Class (thank you, P&I Club!) - and was off work STCWY5 provides guidance on prevention of drug
for a further three months. and alcohol abuse. This is not a requirement but it
may assist companies in the development of their own
The ship had to sail short handed for a further four policies. There are no easy answers and the prudent
days, someone had to be called back off leave early to risk manager must ensure that he is aware of what is
take my place, additional air fares and hotel bills were happening on board his own ship. He should be aware
incurred, damages had to be made good, the ship's of the symptoms to be recognised in cases of both
schedule was interrupted, cargo was delayed, . . . and alcohol and drug abuse. He should also be aware of
so it goes on. At the time, we might have considered any national administration policies which may affect
that this was an unfortunate incident - with a good his ship and its crew when entering port or in territorial
outcome - but I do not suppose that we thought of it waters.
as a major incident.
It is an essential part of prudent risk management
No doubt, we can all relate to some incident that that the manager is well acquainted with his staff. By
has led to personal injury of some form or another. taking an interest in people, the manager can
How could we have avoided those situations? What significantly increase his response from those people.
did we learn from those situations? What did we do The prudent risk manager will encourage his staff to
afterwards? I suggest that better risk management may gain a better understanding of the day-to-day
have minimised the chance of the incident in the first shipboard operations. By providing the team with the
place. If we accept that, are we now assessing working knowledge and skills required, the individual load
practices more effectively? Have we ensured that there becomes-lighter but the group result should become
is a good 'safety culture' in place on board our own greater.
ship? If not, we should do so very quickly.
Well trained and recently trained staff are a great
Our experiences should be utilised as learning tools asset and they should be valued and treated as such.
and we should react accordingly to prevent a When capable and competent staff are employed, the
recurrence of that situation. In many cases, personal potential for good risk management of the ship and
injury will lead to claims against the owner or operator. its cargo is high: when standards start to fall, there is
the potential for the quality of risk management to "Where choices have to be made about protecting
fall also. the ship, cargo, property and the marine environment,
the preservation of human life must take precedence."
Port of discharge
Our time at sea should have been relatively routine We have already considered the difference between
but now, approaching the port of discharge, that hazard and risk. A further example is a smooth deck
routine is about to be broken. Shipping traffic may plate outside the galley door. In dry weather it is not
well increase as we approach the coast, our navigation slippery, in rough weather everybody knows it is
skills must become better and more frequently applied. necessary to take precautions but, on a damp morning
The regularity of watchkeeping is about to change - with a gentle swell, the cook slips and falls. The
for some, it will mean 'go on, stop on' with the inherent problem can easily be overcome by painting the deck
dangers of fatigue. with non slip paint, but other problems caused by basic
design faults like untrue fairleads present a danger
It may also be that a number of the ship's company throughout the life of the ship.
are about to leave the ship and to go home - their
concentration and attention to their duties may not Experience is not always a good enough guide to
be at the high levels required. The prudent risk risk. People easily forget the slips and lapses that are
manager will be aware of these constraints and he corrected without further thought - the so-called 'near
should be able to recognise these 'symptoms' in his misses' - so that the objective assessment of frequency
crew. is lost and the hazard may be missed. It pays to be
attentive to comments like "I nearly fell down the
Have all the necessary preparations for arrival been stairs". It could mean that there was only one handrail
made? Have all the conditions of the C / P been or that it was broken. It will also pay to warn new
fulfilled? How good have we been at the management crew members joining the ship that the fairlead is
of the cargo on passage? Cargo records will need to untrue and mooring ropes can get snagged.
be kept and may need to be inspected at a later date.
Similarly, with passage planning for example, it
And finally ... helps to realise that risk of collision increases with the
number of encounters and that extra watchkeeping
We have already considered that 'jolly jack' has an
intuitive approach to risk management. This is assistance may be necessary in certain areas. Not only
compounded in many cases by experience - it plays is the risk of collision higher but the workload in
a major part in producing his 'feel' for the situations assessing risk and taking avoiding action is also higher.
where hazardous occurrences might take place, e.g. So to the foundation of risk management. It
the Malacca Strait for navigation and collision depends upon an accurate assessment of the frequency
avoidance problems, the Bay of Riscay for rough and severity of events. O n the ship it is useful to discuss
weather and so on. with as many of the crew as possible the number of
As every seafarer knows, before going to sea all loose occasions when things nearly went wrong. That then
items must be fastened down and the cargo properly becomes the ship's database for assessing risk on
secured for the voyage. Inexperienced mariners do not board. Good risk management implies that the master
always appreciate the effect of the ship's movement and will encourage crew members to be aware of potential
there are few old hands who have not suffered a loss of hazards and to make sure that they are brought up
deck containers or drums or heavy items of cargo and recorded at meetings. Good risk management
breaking free in a storm. In this context, no amount of techniques help us to assess the risks more objectively.
risk management theory will convince the uninitiated
about the perils of the sea. As mariners we may choose to ignore the outcome.
O n the other hand, if we have planned carefully,
As mariners we take pride in our seamanship - it considered the risks involved and thought about
is the slull applied to keep the ship safe in all the various contingencies, then it should be possible to operate
conditions of the voyage. It is important to recognise the ship within a reasonable envelope of safety to
that risk management as a technique cannot replace ensure that limits are not exceeded except in extreme
that feel for the sea that seamen acquire, but it can conditions. In doing so the master discharges his
enhance our sensitivity to potential problems and assist primary obligation which is "to take all reasonable
us with assigning priorities. steps to ensure the cargo is loaded, transported and
delivered in good condition".
Frequently, the master will face conflicting
demands and difficult decisions in which the It is well known and even more readily appreciated
application of risk management alone will not provide that paperwork is a time consuming task that seems
all the answers. In this respect the advice given in The to bear no relationship to the real job of the seafarer.
Nautical Institute's 'Code of Conduct' is much more For the prudent risk manager, paperwork becomes a
valuable: necessity: he must consider the need to be able to

prove that what he has done was done with the best When starting our 'voyage', the tendering of the
intentions and within the letter of appropriate Notice of Readiness was taken as the reference point.
legislation. To be able to justify his decision at a later There is, of course, no finite begnning to the voyage
date may have profound repercussions in the event of and there is no finite end: shipping is a 24 hours a
a claim. day, seven days a week, 365 days a year operation
that demands the highest skills and competencies of
In his foreword to 'The Shipmaster's Business its operators.
Companion', Captain Eric Beetham, a Past President
of The Nautical Institute, wrote the following: 'Prudence' may be considered an old fashioned
word but it should be the watchword of every
'Compared with many other occupations, the level professional seafarer - it is inherent in effective risk
of knowledge and expertise required of a shipmaster management.
is unique, extensive and at the highest level of
professional competence. When the chief officer brings It was not the intention to say 'you should do the
the supercargo and stevedore to the master's cabin, a job this way'.
decision is invariably required before they leave and
there may be expensive implications in that almost We have asked many questions but not provided
instant decision. Two years later after many hours of all the answers. . . the prudent risk manager must
work by lawyers, three arbitrators may take two weeks provide them for himself!
to consider whether that decision was right or wrong.'
Note: This chapter is condensed from a chapter of the

same title in the book Managing Risk in Sh$ping,
also published by The Nautical Institute.
COMMAND 147
Chapter 22
PLANNING A DRY-DOCK
by Mr. J.L. Hutchinson CEng MIMarE
The author of the original complete paper thanked Exxon International Company and Esso P~troleumCompany Ltd. for permission to
use the information and also thanked his colleaguesfor their advice and comments during the preparation of this paper. These extracts
are reproduced with kind permission of The Institute ofMarine Engineers.
Introduction standard specification which is intended to represent

THE AUTHOR'S COMPANY, in line with most of the major the approximate volume of work which the yard will
tanker operators, plan vessel shipyard repair periods eventually execute, although in practice the standard
around the 15 year dry-dock cycle which results in a specification items will normally cover only 70-80 per
substantial number of scheduled repairs having to take cent of items actually carried out. The missing 20-30
place each year. For tankers voyaging worldwide, a per cent is made up by new items in the final working
ship manager has a wide selection of shipyards from specification which compensates for items deleted
which to choose. Various methods of selection can be from the standard specification.
used, but usually it is a relatively simple choice based The standard specification approach permits each
on an economic assessment of total repair costs, repair yard to be cost evaluated on an equal basis,
summating the best estimates for: permitting a ship to be allocated to the successful yard
Overall cost of repairs (yard quote against well in advance of the actual docking date, which
specification). enables the yard to plan its base load programme, takes
Forecast of exchange rate. the element of yard selection out of the communication
Owner supply items: cost of parts and spares, and allows time for better preparation of the working
including freight costs. specification. Where a number of ships of the different
Diversion costs, including bunker costs. classes are to be dry docked, shipyards are screened
Agency and port costs, including tugs and shipyard so that only the bid invitations are sent to yards
services. equipped with facilities appropriate to the vessel size.
Specialist expertise to be paid by shipowner, The standard specification for each class of tanker
including coating and supervision. will contain a detailed description of each item of the
Tank cleaning and gas freeing costs. work which is normally carried out in dry dock - for
In addition to the above costs, the cost of out-of- example, normal survey work such as checking sea
service repair time has to be included in the calculation valves, and hull inspection, cleaning and painting. The
covering the estimated calendar repair days (at vessel's specification also includes details of special projects
daily rate at forecast Worldscale) plus days spent gas planned for many or all vessels in a particular class -
freeing and diverting to the repair port. for example, crude oil wash (COW) modifications and
inert gas installations. Yards are also asked to provide
Most of the above information can be estimated prices for certain unit items, such as cost of erected
by the tanker operator for budgetary purposes. steel per kilogram, or cost of hull blasting and painting
However, the two most important pieces of data, the per square metre.
cost, and duration of repairs, have to be obtained from
the shipyards. To do this one of the following three Since it is important that a competitive bidding
ways is used: analysis treats each yard on an equivalent basis, where
a yard has not costed a particular item an appropriate
(i) Competitive bidding, based on a standard figure has to be applied. A relatively simple way of
specification. dealing with 'excluded' items is to apply the highest
(ii) Competitive tenders based on actual ship's bids received from yards in the same geographical
specification. area for the same items. This will penalise those yards
(iii) Cost-plus arrangements taking into consideration with the highest number of excluded items.
the owner's past experiences with the yard and
the confidence the owner has in the ability of his Before the ship arrives at the repair yard, the yard
repair superintendent to monitor and control the should receive the working specification similar to that
costs. described in competitive tender, which will include
items directly transferred from the standard
Competitive bidding specification plus a number of newly- identified items
In an effort to overcome the sources of error in for which the yard will be asked to quote. The
yard selection, the author's company has evolved a superintendent will compare the quotations against

unit prices from the standard specification to check readily controlled and reviewed by in-house
that they a r e consistent a n d any unexpected auditors.
divergence should be resolved before the ship docks.
The advantages of the standard specification method The disadvantages of the standard specification
for selecting a repair yard are: are:
(i) Each repair yard receives the same specification (i) When the standard specification does not
well in advance of the docking. represent a major part of the value of the final
working specification the yard's expectation of
(ii) The successful repair yard establishes a better
comprehension of the repair work before the ship work and advance planning will suffer.
arrives, by communicating and planning with the (ii) If the ship repair yard employees do not appreciate
owner's representatives. For example, the method the relationship between the standard specification
of dealing with any outstanding 'unbid' items can and the working specification confusion will occur.
(iii) If the final invoice contains a small number of
be resolved in advance.
(iii) An owner operating a large fleet can select a yard items of significant value which are not common
on a fair and equitable basis, so providing a further to all vessels - e.g. installing an inert gas system,
fitting a crude oil washing installation, installing
incentive for yards to prepare competitive bids.
(iv) Both the shipowner and the selected shipyard gain bilge separators and sewage plants. In this case
through the learning curve of their employees each item should be considered as a special project
at the time of the bid inquiry with a separate
when a number of similar ships with almost the
same repair specification are overhauled in the specification. The quotation would then be
same yard. considered at the bid analysis stage since these
costs might have influenced the allocation of ships
(v) Due to the 'standard' nature of most of the
information required, after the first pass, very little to repair yards.
effort is required by the repair facility to update Competitive tenders
the bid information each year. With this system of yard selection the quality of
(vi) Due to the 'standard' nature of most of the the actual specification is all important. This is the
information supplied, comparisons on the most common method of yard selection, particularly
competitiveness of the bid and settlements on
with operators of smaller ships, such as coasters and
completion of repairs are greatly simplified.
the like where the opportunity for worldwide tenders
(vii) Where an owner has a large number of vessels,
does not exist, since the cost of diverting the ship
the system lends itself to improved
outweighs the differential i n yard costs. T h e
competitiveness by the repair facilities offering
specification in this case serves two purposes:
additional incentives in the form of volume
discounts, either for a number of vessels, or on (i) to enable the shipyard estimator and buyer to
the volume of cash flow, or both. It should be assess time and material costs;
noted that this volume discount is discretionary: (ii) to inform the shipyard and the shipping company
in the author's company it is not negotiated or staff of the work required to be done.
used in order to give one facility an unfair
advantage over another, nor is it used to induce The specification should describe and define the
shipyards into making non-commercially viable work so accurately that it can b e costed
bids. The competitive bid in formation is strictly and executed without the need to refer back to the
controlled to ensure that all of the bids received ship, or to the superintendent and incurring additional
are held and opened at the same time, before being expense and delay.
registered as official bids.
To meet this objective, the information required
(viii)Thesystem updates the information the shipowner
will vary according into which category it falls:
has of the worldwide repair facility trends in prices,
standard item, repair item or modification.
which can be used for unscheduled repair reviews.
(ix) Due to awards taking place well ahead of time of Standard items
repair it enables a planned approach to These items from the normal routine dry dock work
'positioning' the vessels in order to minimise any are usually similar in content every docking, including
deviation debits. for example:
(x) Lead time assists repair facilities in their future
planning. Anchors and chain; inspection and overhauls.
(xi) The lead time between the awards being made Sea valves and sea chests; inspection and overhaul.
and the start of the vessel repair period also allows Propeller and rudder; inspection and overhaul.
planned manpower deployment. Lifting equipment; inspection, overhaul and load
(xii) Information on repair costs is available in time to test.
be included in the next year's budget forecasting. Anodes; list of numbers, location and weights.
(xiii)Thesingle effort awards lends itself to being more Hull painting; description of surface preparation,
areas and film thickness required, including special mandatory equipment, and new automation and
hull markings. control equipment.
Any special requirements known beforehand In these cases the specifications may include the
should be described and included in the appropriate equipment manufacturer's general arrangement
specification item, especially with respect to the drawings, but the ship repair yard is faced with siting
surface preparation for hull painting. and connecting up services. The shipowner may need
to consider sending the superintendent with the ship
Repair items repair yard's own drawing office people to visit both
Problems with extras usually occur with these the ship and the manufacturer to ensure that all the
items, which include: hull structure repairs, pipe relevant detail will be included in the drawings
renewals, machinery overhaul/reconditioning, boiler attached to the specification.
repairs, instrumentation and control refurbishing, and
electrical repairs. The advantages of using the actual specification
are:
The repair specification of items in this category
often fall short of the above objective and sometimes (i) The time scale for yard selection can be much
even seem to be an obstacle to good communication. shorter.
A common example is an item such as 'open up for (ii) By working from the actual specification the yard
survey 2 in no. bilge pumps', to which the yard may can review the specification with departmental
respond 'to open up bilge pump for inspection ot'x managers and plan the workload ahead in more
(overhaul, reconditioning, replacing piston rings, detail.
grinding in valves, etc., extra). In such a case the The disadvantages are:
shipyard may be faced at short notice with the need
to supply new shaft sleeves, replacement impeller and (i) If the specification is inaccurate, or lacks detail,
casing rings, rebuild eroded casings or division plates, the opportunity for excessive extra charges exist.
make and supply new couplings and coupling bolts. (ii) Yard selection is carried out ship by ship during
the year and ties up shipowner's manpower
Whereas, if this amount of work is expected the analysing each bid.
working specification for this item should list any
(iii) The large shipowner does not have the same
owner's spares available, with sketches and opportunity to use his purchasing power to obtain
descriptions of any new parts known to be needed, so volume discounts.
that they can be made, rough machined, or obtained (iv) The yard is prevented from planning its 'bread
prior to the ship's arrival. In the case of piping
and butter' base workload throughout the yard.
renewals, a simple dimensioned sketch incorporated
(v) The yard cannot benefit from its employees'
in the working specification aids identification and
learning curve since it may only receive one ship
costing. The specification should also identify any and not a series of similar ships.
equipment renewals in the way of the overhaul and
the approximate dimensions of any access staging Cost plus
required. The 'cost plus' approach has often to be adopted
The author has yet to know of a shipyard which with damage repairs or when the condition of the ship
issues guidelines on the preparation of specifications is more or less unknown. The relationship between
setting out how the specification is to be presented. the owner's representative and the repair yard
management can be fraught with problems, since the
In some shipping companies the repair items are approach enjoins the owner's representative to
extracted from a defect list sent into head office by monitor, to the best of his ability, the manhours and
the ship's chief enpneer. This defect list is seldom materials used by the yard.
adequately dimensioned, may lack important
The yard has to plan the work and allocate its
descriptive detail and is usually assumed to be a
resources so that minimum time and material are
communication between one expert and another. If
wasted by its employees. This responsibility also
such items are transferred directly to a dry-dock
extends to each supervisor, which includes
specification against which an estimator is expected
chargehands and the willingness of employees on the
to quote, it is no wonder that such important details job. To be successful it requires good relationships and
as removals for access, staging and specific repair communication throughout the yard.
requirements are omitted. But the owner still insists
on a firm price for the job. Services by all repair yards
Any repair yard should be capable of supplying
Modification items the following services:
These items embody changes to the ship such as Liability insurance.
installation of: inert gas systems, major engine room Fire watchmen, normally two watchmen 24 hours
or cargo system conversions, sewage plants and other a day, including connection and disconnection of

fire hoses from dock to ship's fire main. delegated to the ship's officers and crew cover qualih
Electricity for power and lighting. assurance, monitoring time and cost control. and
Tugs for shifting vessel. ensuring the safety and security of the x-essel. her
Daily garbage removal. people and equipment.
Shore steam, including connecting and
disconnecting steam hoses. The ship's officers should clear1~-idenriti
repair item with the item number from the \Lorkin,
Supplying circulating water to the vessel's specification and should also familiarise themsel\-es
refrigerating plant, including connecting and with the specified work to be done in each case. It
disconnecting hoses. might also help if the appropriate ship's officers were
Supply of compressed air and/or steam or also identified to the yard's supervisory personnel.
electrical power as required for docking and Where necessary the owner will supply additional
undocking the vessel and to weigh anchor. expertise for supervision of steelwork repairs.
Supplying riggers and mooring men to assist corrosion surveys, application of special coatings, and
vessel's crew in handling lines when shifting and for repair and servicing of specific items of equipment.
securing vessel. such as electronic navigation equipment. The repair
Installation of telephone on board and removal superintendent will normally delegate the
after repairs. responsibility for quality assurance and monitoring
time and cost control to the chief engineer, nhose
Wharfage.
department traditionally reports item by item on job
Slulled support for sea trials; say, five fitters and progress, materials consumed and even approximate
two riggers. manhours observed (by trade).
Protective covering for accommodation alleyway
floors. Other tasks include witnessing tests and keeping
Facilities for slop disposal. track of spares and special ship's tools used bj- the
yard. The deck department generally monitor paint
- yard skills
Repair and special coating applications, paying particular
attention to surface preparation condition, material
Fuel costs forced ship operators to consider means
of improving overall fuel consun~ption.Such means preparation and consumption, spraying pattern.
include improving hull performance by surface degree of overspray and film thickness. In addition.
treatment by grit blasting to remove accumulated paint the owner will require the repair manager to maintain
and rust to restore so far as possible the original surface a running check of additional expenditure incurred.
smoothness of the hull; by applying sophisticated anti-
While the repair superintendent retains the
fouling paint systems which also polish the hull surface
ultimate responsibility to the owner for security and
through the action of the sea water; and by improving
safety in dock, the ship's master is responsible for
propeller performance by polishing/refinishing.
ensuring that the ship is safely moored when afloat.
These items are labour intensive, requiring and that safety and fire precautions are maintained.
responsible supervision and carefully conducted work
The master is advised to prepare a safety check
to ensure good long-term performance from the
list in accordance with the Health & Safety Acts.
expensive surface coatings. For this reason specialist
subcontractors are often employed. Role of the repair superintendent
Investing in new equipment such as improved The role of the owner's representative (re p air
steering gear control systems, heat exchanger anti- superintendent) is to coordinate these activities and
fouling systems, conversions to enable cheaper fuels closely to monitor costs and time out of service. For
and fuel blending to be used, new automation systems, this purpose he will generally use a daily report
ship conversions to permit more cargo carried per meeting of the ship's staff to monitor progress and
tonne of fuel consumed, require drawing office staff quality of the specified work, to identify where
and skilled craftsmen which are more likely to be additional work has to be specified by a field work
found in a shipbuilding rather than a conventional order (FWO) or where work is deviating from the
ship repair yard. Also the coming into force of SOLAS original specification and why. He will normally arri\.e
and MARPOL conventions requires repair yards to at the yard a day or two prior to the ship's arrival to
be familiar with the installation of inert gas systems, get to know the yard's organisation and to review the
crude oil washing systems, oily water separators, and work schedule.
steering gear modifications.
In the author's company the repair superintendent
Shipboard planning for dry dock is the only person authorised to issue field work orders.
Prior to arrival at the yard, the responsibilities and and before committing the additional work to the yard
tasks of the ship's officers and crew should be discussed he must obtain and accept or negotiate a price for the
and agreed with the repair superintendent, ship's work. Unfortunately this requirement can result in
master a n d chief engineer, including any delays if the yard cannot or will not respond quickl!-
administrative details for travel, accommodation, with prices which are consistent with those quoted at
feeding, etc. The main supervisory objectives the block bid or contract negotiation stage.
COMMAND 151
Normally the owner will have established in response to environmental changes is limited.
budgeting cash limits for the repair superintendent's Therefore the repair yard must anticipate the mooring
authority and will require frequent financial reports requirements and the limitations of the vessel's
to ensure no surprises. Generally, owners require equipment and when necessary augment the ship's
managers to control the additional expenditure by facilities with shore-based mooring equipment.
having the repair superintendent sail with the vessel
during the preparation of the final working Tank cleaning, gas freeing and ventilation of
specification, so that the repair superintendent can: compartments in preparation for hot work is a major
problem for shipowners and repair yards. Almost one
Decide whether the work can best be done in third of all tanker fires and explosions involving the
service as voyage repairs, or in dock. cargo areas and pump rooms are attributed to welding
Compile an accurate working specification for repairs and about 70 per cent happen during repair
each item of work which is either not covered by periods. T h e author's company has laid down
the standard specification or inadequately procedures for issuing permits for entry into enclosed
described in the defect list. spaces and for carrying out hot work.
Brief the master and ship's officers o n the
Nowadays, the tanker operator will endeavour to
preparation of the ship's organisation.
carry out a full crude oil wash at the last discharge
Get to know who will be on board during the
port before the dry dock which will considerably
docking, and to delegate their responsibilities and
reduce the oil soluble sediments in the cargo tanks.
tasks. The cargo tanks are then water washed, gas freed and
Once the ship is in dock the shipboard organisation demucked as far as possible. It is the repair yard's
will be centred upon the daily meeting at which the responsibility to maintain the gas free certificate. The
information needed by the repair superintendent will certificate is only a piece of paper and the delivery
and posting of it in a prominent place is no guarantee
be exchanged and the ship's crew work progress
that the ship will be safe without further effort. In this
objectives set. Properly organised, the repair
respect chapter 10 of the International Safety Guidefor
superintendent should be at least as well informed as Oil Tankers and Terminals specifies the requirements. It
the yard management. After the ship arrives at the is necessary to make periodic gas tests while hot work
repair yard the owner's other priorities are: safety of is in progress and before restarting after work has been
the ship and her personnel, health and welfare of his stopped. The yard fire watchers should be trained in
employees, and avoidance of incidents. the use of combustible gas indicators, and in rescue
from enclosed spaces.
Safety of the ship
The aim must be to make shipyards a safer place I n addition to the comprehensive safety
in which to work and increased attention must be paid requirements touched upon above, the shipowner has
to safety precautions and practices by increased a responsibility for the welfare of his employees, who
cooperation between ship and repair yard personnel. these days often live on board during the repair period.
For repairs undertaken in port the matter of safety is This calls for the repair yard to coordinate with the
the responsibility of the shipyard. Safety regulations owner's representative to arrange either for the ship's
exist and equipment for tank cleaning, fire-fighting, sewage facilities to be retained in service or for suitable
rescue, first aid and monitoring tank atmosphere is provision to be made adjacent to the ship. In addition,
supplied by the shipyard. heating, lighting, cleaning and feeding services should
be maintained so far as is practicable to a similar
Failure to observe safety regulations, or inadequate standard to those maintained when the ship is at sea.
safety practices have contributed to fires occurring on
board ships resulting in loss of life, personal injury O n completion of the actual repairs, the ship's
and damage to the ship's structure. Subsequent equipment has to be re-commissioned and tested, and
investigations showed that the safety aspects and the it is during the closing stages when accidents often
working conditions could have been improved. Two happen. The repair superintendent should coordinate
important requirements are to have the ship moored and plan the closing stages of a repair period with the
safely and to avoid fire. owner's representative and ship's officers so that
equipment and systems become available for testing
The safe mooring of the vessel at the repair yard is in the correct sequence and so that non-essential yard
a cooperative arrangement between ship's and yard's labour can be withdrawn during high risk periods -
staff involving designers of ships and berths. for example, when boilers are being flashed or safety
valves tested. Adequate time must be provided to
When a ship is in commission alongside an oil permit the ship to be prepared for departure in good
terminal pier or sea island, the responsibilities and order. More often than not the job seems to be dragged
capabilities of ship and shore staff and mooring out to fill the time available and this has to be resisted,
equipment are well known, but once the ship is shut so that the ship is handed back to the owner and master
down and immobilised at a repair yard the capacity in good order, tested and ready in all respects for sea.
of the ship's crew and equipment to adjust the mooring

Chapter 23
MANAGING DRY DOCK MAINTENANCE

by Captain S. Chandorkar MNI
Captain Chandorkar received his formal sea training at the training sh$ T S . Rajendra, Bombay in 7987/82 and completed the
training with the then Scindia Steam Navigation Company, Bombay. Since then he has served in varying ascending capacities on general
cargo vessels, container vessels, bulk carriers, product tankers, crude oil tankers, chemical tankers and VLCCs.
He passed his Class 7 (Deck) certificate course at the Southampton Institute of Higher Education, College of Maritime Studies,
Warsash. Later he completed a two year fill time course, acquiring a Master's Degree in Business Administration (MBA) ?om the
Institute of Management Education, Pune (India), specialising in 'Froduction and Operations Management". %re he got an insight
into some valuable management tools and tecf~niquesand the wish to apply those to shipboard operations.
Captain Chandorkarjoinedhispresent company - Bergshav A/SNorway - in 7988 (it was then the UglandsRederi A/S). He took
hisJirst command inJanuary 7995 and has been commanding their large crude oil tankers since, presently being in command of a
276,000 dwt VLCC.
He has been a member of The Nautical Institute since 7990 and had a paper on "The practice of Ice Management"pub1ished in
October 7994.
Introduction 1. The vessel's principal dimensions.

PREP.~MTION FOR DRY- DOCK, ironically, starts at the end 2. Condition of tenders - owner's requirements
of the previous dry dock itself. By regulation every regarding the quality of material, quality of
ship is required to dry dock twice every five years workmanship desired, staging, lighting,
with an interval of not more than three years between ventilation, tugs, pilotage, craneage, etc. Time
subsequent dry docks. Dry docking of an oil tanker frame allotted to the yard including penalty for
poses peculiar problems. It involves 'planned delayed delivery. Details of bidding, detailed
execution' of a series of interrelated activities involving formats for billing and accounting. Sometimes, the
complete washing, purging, gas freeing and de- applicable arbitration act to be referred to in case
mucking of cargo systems to be safe for man entry of disputes may be included.
and hot work. 3. General service specifications - the dry docking,
number, location and spacing of keel blocks
Although preparation for tanker dry dock may be including the material of the top of the blocks
considered a routine operation it assumes critical (e.g. blocks with soft wood caps).
proportions when operating against strict time 4. Wharfage.
benchmarks. This may be due to economic constraints 5. Pilotage, tugs, line handling.
imposed to reduce idle or off-hire time for the vessel. 6. Gangways and safe access arrangements.
Planning and control are the essential infrastructure 7. Draining and filling of ballast water.
of any project. Planning is a centralised activity and 8. Bottom drain plugs.
includes such functions as materials control, tools 9. Disposal of water and oily water in bilges and
control, process planning and scheduling. Control is tanks.
a diffused activity (in the field) and includes activities 10. Electric power afloat and in dry dock.
11. Heating lamps and temporary lighting.
such as dispatching, progressing and expediting. A
number of operational management tools are 12. Telephone and other services.
available, like Critical Path Analysis (CPA),Resource 13. Fire and security watch service.
Smoothing, Resource Levelling, Job Scheduling and
14. Fire line.
so on. However, there is little evidence of these being 15. Air conditioning plant and provision refrigeration
utilised on board ships, which by any stretch of plant.
imagination are a major production unit - the
16. Fresh water supply.
production of services. In this chapter I highlight one 17. Compressed air.
of the above techniques, namely CPA, as applied to 18. Craneage for ship's provisions and owner's spares.
19. Garbage removal.
tanker dry dock preparation. The g v e n scenario is
not just empirical but is actually used, with remarkable 20. General cleaning.
results. 21. Assistance for dock and sea trials, if any, including
crew and launch service.
Dry dock specifications 22. Ventilation, gas freeing and certification.
One of the major planning jobs is to draw up the 23. General steel renewal and quotes per unit.
dry dock specification. A typical dry dock specification 24. Miscellaneous - working hours, meal hours,
file should, ideally, contain the following subsections: overtime and double overtime hours. The labour
cost/man/hour, both skilled and unskilled.
COMMAND 153
25. Hull cleaning, blasting and painting - general amalgamate the operational plans of all departments
specifications and specific requirements. within the overall organisational plan so that they work
in tandem with each other.
Jobs
Each job should have a unique identity code. For Project planning
example H xx (hull jobs), D xx (deck jobs) and E xx This involves the planning of a clearly identifiable
(engine jobs). All possible jobs should be identified progTamme of work within the set time (dry dock time)
by the ship's staff through their running defect lists and resource constraints (manpower and
and Planned Maintenance System (PMS) routines. materials).
Jobs may be segregated into two basic categories -
Management by objectives (MBO)
dry dock and ship's staff. Each job must have essential
The main dry dock objectives (jobs) are divided
specifications like dimensions, material, pressure into divisional or departmental objectives, further
ratings, current ratings, initial preparation and
subdivided into individual objectives. The master must
disassembly and assembly procedures and be then monitor the activities of this interlocking system
supported by drawings, plans and sketches. Each job to serve as the basis for managing, evaluation and
must have an appraisal of spares/stores requirements control of performance.
that should be checked against the current inventories
and orders (allowing for the 'lead time' for delivery Contingency planning
prior to arrival at dry dock). An assessment of man Contingency planning rests on the premise that
hour requirements for each job should be made (see there is no one best way to do ajob. The right approach
figure 23.4 for a useful format). Each job detail is kept depends on the situation. Moreover, one has very little
in a separate soft folder along with the necessary control on the 'external-environment' (areas beyond
supporting documents. A master index is then direct control). Conditions in the external environment
prepared, complete with job identification numbers change so rapidly that often there are
and job titles. Responsible officers are then assigned constraints in making tenable assumptions regarding
to supervision, progress monitoring and reporting of further developments. A realistic approach to
specific jobs. A simple format could be: containing these problems is to adopt contingency
planning. This involves taking incremental steps,
Job number. reassessing strategies at each stage (dail y ) and
* Job title. reformulating plans in order to fulfil the dry dock
Officer-in-charge.
objectives.
Report to:
- Master / Chief Engneer / Chief Officer. Feedback and control
A daily meeting is more than a necessity. The
The responsibilities and jobs of the ship's officers master can be instrumental in motivating the yard
should be discussed and agreed with the repair manager, superintendent, chief engneer, chief officer,
superintendent, master and chief engmeer. The main paint supervisor and class surveyor. This closes the
supervisory objectives delegated to the ship's officers loop for operational control, status monitoring,
and crew cover quality assurance, monitoring time and variance evaluation, problem solving and decision
cost control and ensuring the safety and security of making. Armed with his 'sixth-sense' the master must
the vessel, her crew and equipment (see figure 23.2 coordinate the activities of all these heads,
for a list of major dry dock jobs). supplementing resources where necessary and
applying leverage where required. This daily meeting
The master's role in dry docking imparts that essential operational control. The author's
A sea-change in the traditional role of a shipmaster company, in fact, once arranged for the
is evident. He is now seen as the 'central hub' of most superintendent, the class surveyor and two yard
activities. Rather than being merely a liaison man he managers to board the vessel two days prior to dry
is now seen as a manager. The management process dock, whilst the vessel was en route to the dry dock
is replete with references to planning and the port. The advantages of daily meetings were being
shipmaster is the distinctive key in the planning of felt even before the vessel entered the dry dock.
dry dockings. He can contribute by applying the
following principles: Job decisions
Essential factors that contribute to assigning jobs
Operational planning as 'dry dock' items include:
Guided by a set of policies, procedures, rules,
forecasts and budgets, the shipmaster is responsible i) Jobs that cannot be done whilst afloat.
ii) Jobs that require shutdown.
for the formulation of management strategies for day-
iii) Jobs that require external assistance by way of
to-day affairs. With particular reference to dry manpower or specialised equipment.
dockings, he must bear in mind the time schedule and
iv) Special survey items and steel renewals.
the need for compliance with local rules, international v) Major structural modifications.
rules and company policies. His role, therefore, is to vi) Loolung to continuous improvement in performance

Company: ...................................................................................................... ........... ........ ..... Page S o :
SPECIFICATION OF REPAIRS -Job No: D ............

SHIP: DATE: TO BE INCLUDED
JOB DESCRIPTION: Gas free certificate

Light
ACCOUNT NO: Ventilation
Make, type, rating, weight, volume, RPM, voltage. etc. Cleaning before
Cleaning after
Stagng
LOCATION: Crane
Detailed specification, inc. size, amount, dimensions, materials, etc. Internal transportation
Transportation
outside yard
Access work
Corrosion protection
Manufacturers
I
Sample
Figure 23.7 Spec$cation of repairs

MAJOR DRY DOCK JOBS
HULL
Ship side and bottom cleaning and painting.
Painting of vessel's topsides.
Maintenance of sea chests.
Renewal of external anodes.
Ship side valves.
Impressed current (ICCP) system.
Draft gauges.
Steel renewal, buckling, panting / grounding damage (if any).
DECK
Deck equipment and machinery - repairs / overhauls / tests.
Anchors and cables - rangng, blasting, painting, marking.
Chain lockers - cleaning, coating.
Load tests of lifting gear, including elevator and engine room gantries
Steel renewals.
Pipelines / valves - renewal / (rotate through 180").
Inert gas system - deck seal (inspection and coating), I G lines on deck.
Deck fittings - rollers, fairleads, pipe supports, manifold drip trays.
Cargo / ballast tanks - steel renewal / control of coating.
Heating coils pressure test.
In tank jobs - steel renewal - hydrostatic pressure test of cargo tanks.
Deck winches - brake tests.
= Survey items.
NAVI GAT10N
Radar scanners overhaul.
Gyro servicing.
Echo sounder and log servicing.
ENGINE
Propellor - measure drop, nut to be retightened, travel to be measured, blades examined, polished and
coated with approved protective coating.
Stern tube - measure wear down, change seals.
Rudder - remove plug, air test for leakages, change neoprene packing at plugs, hammer test palm bolts,
measure clearances at upper pintle, lower pintle, rudder carrier, jump clearances.
Ship side valves - all ship side valves opened, overhauled / changed and surveyed by classification.
Steering gear - classification survey. Reliefs set, pumps, pipes, controls test.
Main engme and auxiliaries - air coolers, turbochargers, main bearings, etc.
Shutdown jobs - main switchboard - clean breakers, busbar and terminals. Record insulation readings,
test on load. Surveys. Reverse power and overload trips.
Fire and emergency fire pumps.
Fuel oil transfer pumps.
Cargo oil and ballast pump turbines.
Sea water cooling pipes.
I G system - scrubber cooling water overboard discharge pipes.
Soil overboard pipes and storm valves.
Boiler blowdown overboard pipe.
Automation.
Various motors - insulation and overhaul.
Pump room fans, IG blowers, exhaust blowers - electrical overhaul and balancing.
Control air and service air compressors.
CLASSIFICATION SURVEYS
Docking survey.
Special survey / intermediate survey.
Load line / safety construction / IOPP surveys.
Annual class survey.
Continuous survey of machinery (CSM) items.
PENDING MAJOR PMS ROUTINES
Figure 23.2 Major dry dock jobs

and/or containing the rate of overall degradation. For independent techniques - Project E\-aluation Review
example, cargo pipelines internal inspection and Technique (PERT) and Critical Path Method :CP,M).
rotation by 180". The jobs, once presented, must then PERT was developed by engineers of the US Sa\? in
be evaluated and ironed out by: charge of the Polaris Submarine Missile Project in
The yard for feasibility. 1958. CPM was developed by Morgan T.I7alkerof Du
The class for acceptability. Pont and James Kelly of Remington Rand <USLA' in
The owner's representative for financial viability. 1957. Although both techniques were developed
The ship for essential spares / stores availability. independently they are only superficially different. A
brief theoretical background follows.
Need for a systematic approach
A number of scientific tools are available for An entire project is broken down into activities. A
planning, but planning of projects such as 'tanker dry practical assessment of the time required for each
dock preparation' is best performed through a well activity is made. The technological correlation of
known technique called Critical Path Analysis (CPA). activities is established and identified by a precedence
In the light of tight time constraints, improper table, highlighting the sequence of activities and
scheduling of activities would lead to delays, increased whether or not more than one activity can run
expenses, inability to meet delivery commitment and concurrently. The CPA diagram is then drawn up as a
attract unwelcome penalties. CPA, as a planning tool, master plan of all activities in their correct order.
offers several advantages in that it: Dummy activities may be incorporated, either to
signify a constraint or to avoid ambiguities or
a) Forces thorough pre-planning. illogicalities. The completion of an activity is called
b) Increases coordination by establishing an event. The flow chart is then annotated with activity
technologcal relationships between activities. times. The next step is to identify activity chains from
c) Helps computation of total duration and indicates the chart. The total time for each activity chain is then
the start and finish times of each activity. calculated and the maximum time chain becomes the
d) Defines areas of responsibility of different 'critical path', with the total project duration being the
department heads. time required for the completion of the critical path.
e) Facilitates progress monitoring. The critical path is so named because a delay in any
f) Identifies trouble spots. activity along this path will lead to an increase in total
g) Helps to exercise 'control by exception' and project duration. Should such a condition be
prevent cost over-runs. foreseeable it may be possible to divert resources from
The test here is to fit all activities into a tight time a non-critical path and still be able to complete the
frame, with adequate leverage available on operational project within the stipulated duration. Consider a
controls. Most tankermen feel they are blessed with simple illustration (see figure 23.3). Activities a, b, c,
the art of "savoir-faire", relying primarily on their d, e, f and g are drawn up in the order of their
memory, but will find the usefulness of this technique interdependence, with activity times written below
combats mayhem, by proper forward planning and each. Three activity chains are established.
the efficient use of time, manpower and resources. Actiuity chain Duration
What is CPA? a-b-e-g 17 *
CPA is an important aid to planning, scheduling a-d-g 11
and coordinating activities. It is a synthesis of two a-c-f-g 14
Critical path: a-b-e-g
Figure 23.3 Example of a criticalpath
COMMAND 157
The activity chain a-b-e-g has a total duration of for dry dock and the application of CPA techniques.
17 hours and is obviously the 'critical path'. The project In most cases, especially when a vessel on time charter
duration, therefore, is 17 hours. The earliest and latest off-hires herself for a routine dry dock, every moment
event occurrence times are then calculated for each off-hire is probably seen as a colossal loss by the owner.
event.
The scenario: M T analysis - dry dock
Te, = earliest time for event 2 = Te, (earliest time preparation
for event 1) + duration of activity 'a'. T.12 = latest time In any project one must first identify the project
for an event = TI, - a. objectives and constraints.
For a 'burst event' (event 2 in figure 23.3) the latest Project objectives
time is the minimum (Tj-a)of all activities diverging 1. M T analysis preparing for dry dock and special
from it and for a 'merge event' (event Fi in figure 23.3) survey.
it is the maxima of (Ti+ a) of all activities convergng 2. Dry dock readiness time 6 days.
on it. A useful concept now evolves which is called 3. Vessel to pick up class surveyor at intermediate
activity float analysis. The float of an activity is the point (IP) 4.5 days from start for close up survey
excess of available time over its duration. It is the of one pair of cargo tanks and thickness
leeway available to the project planner for scheduling measurements. This involves ballasting- No. 4
of the activity. It allows the planner to decide priorities wings for close up survey and de-ballasting prior
in the allocation of resources, to transfer resources from to arrival at dry dock.
less pressing areas to more demanding areas and to 4. Vessel to revert to estimated fuel oil consumption
prevent peaks and valleys in the requirements of a for the entire operation and stem bunker
resource. requirements for bunkering at last departure port
Total float (of an activity) = latest occurrence prior to dry dock. Bunkering en route or at dry
time of the succeeding event dock is not possible.
minus 5. For safety reasons, de-mucking of cargo tanks is
earliest occurrence time of the preceding event to be done during daytime only.
nzinus Project available resources
duration of the activity 1. A conventional 150,000 dwt crude oil tanker, SBT,
In effect, therefore, the following procedural steps double skiddouble hull. Three line arrangement,
are required for a CPA: 12 cargo tanks, two slop tanks and 12 SBTs.
2. Three cargo pumps, one stripper pump, one cargo
1. Break down the project into a set of identifiable eductor and two ballast pumps for SBT.
activities (activity identifiation). 3. Slop (P)is the primary slop tank with a balancing
2. Establish technological relationships between line from Slop (P) to Slop (S).
activities (activity relationsh$s). 4. Four in number hydro blowers and the ability to
3. Construct the network diagram (network gas free using inert gas blowers.
construction). 5. Maximum manpower available is 20. Optimum
4. Number the events (node labelling). manpower for the bulk of the washing operation
5. Estimate the time duration of each activity (activity is four.
time estimation).
6. Identify the critical path, critical activities and slack Activity time analysis
of non-critical activities (network time analysis and An evaluation of specific activity times based on
activityfloat analysis). past experience:
7. Establish the probability aspects of each activity 1. Washing time six hours per tank. A pair of tanks
(probability determination). can effectively be washed and stripped
8. If possible, crash the project to its minimum concurrently.
duration (project crashing). 2. Purgng time to reduce hydrocarbon below 1.5Vo
9. Allocate resources and ensure that resource is eight hours. Two tanks can be purged
requirements d o not exceed the resource concurrently.
allocation (resource allocation a n d resource 3. Gas freeing time - eight hours per tank. Can only
levelling). use two hydro-blowers per tank.
10. Prepare a time schedule for the activities of the 4. De-sludgng time is not included in the orignal
project (project scheduling, e.g. gantt charts). calculations, as it depends primarily on post
11. Review progress periodically and expedite if inspection findings and it is otherwise very difficult
required (project monitoring). to estimate the quantity of sludge.
Armed with this valuable knowledge let us now Activity appraisal
formulate a strategy for 'tanker dry dock preparation'. Based on the primary data above, a sequential
I quote in this chapter a scenario of preparing a tanker order is formulated (see figure 23.4). At this stage it

M.T. ANALYSIS - DRYDOCK - DETAILED ACTIVITY APPRAISAL
Activity Details Pumfs Manpower Time
A FLUSHING SEQUENCE
a) 591-592-594-595-COP1-570-549-517-585-slop(p) COP 1 4 20 mins
(open no. 1 manifold drain valves to 4ws)
b) COP1-,570-549-523-530-518-586-slop(p) COP1 4 20 mins
c) COP1-570-549-523-537-519-587-slop(p) COP1 4 20 mins
d) COP1-570-549-523-537-519-(3-lXO)-585-slop(p) COP1 4 20 mins
e) COP1-570-549-~517-(1-2XO)-(2-3X0)-587-slop(p) COP 1 4 20 mins
f) 591-592-.594-596-COP'L-571-550-518-586;-slop(p) COP 2 4 20 mins
(open no.2 manifold drains valves to 4ws)
g) 591-592 594-5!)7-COP3-572-551-519-,587-~lop(~) COP 3 4 20 mins
(open no.3 manifold drain valves to 4ws)
h) sslop-600-567-541/542-no.3 manifold drain valves to 4ws STRIPPER 4 20 mins
(flushing marpol line)
B P SLOP-EDUCTOR-P SLOP/STRIPPING 4WS INTERNALLY COP 1 2 6 hours
C PURGING 4WS 2 8 hours
D 2 DASIC BLOWERS EACH ON 4 P N S 4 12 hours
E P-SLOP-EDUCTOR-PSLOP/STRIPPINGlWSINTERNALLY COP1 2 6 hours
F PURGING IWS. 2 8 hours
G 2 DASIC BLOWERS EACH ON 1P N S 4 12 hours
H P SLOP-EDUCTOR-P SLOP/STRIPPING 2WS INTERNALLY COP 1 2 6 hours
I PURGING 2WS. 2 8 hours
J 2 DASIC BLOWERS EACH O N 2P N S 4 12 hours
K P-SLOP-EDUCTOR-PSLOP/STRIPPING 5WS INTERNALLY COP1 2 6 hours
L PURGING 5WS. 2 8 hours
M 2 DASIC BLOWERS EACH ON 5P N S 4 12 hours
N P SLOP-EDUCTOR-P SLOP/STRIPPING 3WS INTERNALLY COP1 2 6 hours
0 PURGING 3WS 2 8 hours
P 2 DASIC BLOWERS EACH O N 3P N S 4 12 hours
Q P SLOP-EDUCTOR-P SLOP/STRIPPING 6WS INTERNALLY COP1 2 6 hours
R PURGING 6WS 2 8 hours
S 2 DASIC BLOWERS EACH O N 6P N S 4 12 hours
T TRANSFER SLOP S TO SLOP P COP1 4 1 hour
U P SLOP-EDUCTOR-P SLOP/STRIPPING SLOP S COP1 2 4 hours
V PURGING SLOP S (SLOP P-SLOP P FOR BLR LOAD) COP1 2 4 hours
W 2 DASIC BLOWERS ON SLOP S 2 8 hours
X DECANT SLOP P TO SEA (24 hours settling, ODM RUNNING) COP1 4 2 hours
Y FLUSH BOTTOM LINES AND PUMPROOM COP1 4 1 hour
SEA TO SLOP PORT COP2 4 1 hour
COP3 4 1 hour
SECOND STAGE (Prep for close-up survey)
11-1 BALLASTING 4WS C.O.TS COP1 4 8 hours
11-2 DEBALLASTING 4WS SBT(SIMULTANE0USOPERATION) BALL P/P 1
THIRD STAGE (intermediate point to dry dock)
111-1 DEBALLASTING LWS COT WITH SURVEY COP1 4 8 hours
111-2 TRANSFER STRIPPINGS O F COT N LINES TO SLOPS STRIPPER 4 3 hours
111-3 DEBALLASTING lWS,3WS,5WS SBT FOR INTERNAL INSP BALL P/PS 4 16 hours
(Staggered operation)
FOURTH STAGE (arrival dry dock preparation)
IV ARR DRAFTS FOR DOCK- POSSIBLY ALL BY GRAVITY BALL, P/PS 6 hours
(Only SBTS 2WS,4WS,6WS need to be dropped) (MAY AVOID)
FIFTH STAGE (washing & discharge)
V-1 WASHING SLOP PORT AT SLOP BERTH TC P/P 4 4 hours
V-2 DISCHARGE ASHORE STRIPPER 4 6 hours
.............................................................................................................................
SIXTH STAGE (arr loading prep inerting all cots)
VI ARR LOADING PREP INERTING ALL COTS COP1 2 60 hours
EXPECTED BOILER OPERATION TIMES 200 hours
PLUS 10% CONTINGENCY OPERATION 20 hours
Figure 23.4 M T analysis - d?y dock
COMMAND 159
may b e prudent to highlight the manpower simply, as in this illustration, it is a logcal flow of
requirements for each activity, in order to facilitate operations, i.e. tank cleaning, followed by purging,
manpower planning and to modify work schedules to followed by gas freeing.
suit activity requirements. The times quoted in the
table have a safety buffer and are reasonably evaluated The CPA diagram (figure 23.6)
maxima. The line flushing sequence is elaborated with Using the precedence table, a CPA flow diagram
valve numbers specific to this ship. We are all aware is drawn. A 'mega' event represents the end of a chain
that the most important activity in preparing a tanker of activities, in this case a tank being ready for
is, in fact, line flushing. This can be done quite simply inspection. While drawing up a CPA diagram take
by tracing the path on a mimic or a lines plan and care to maintain flow in the forward direction. You
drawing up an elaborate flow sequence in order to may need to insert dummy activities (with zero activity
avoid oversight and overlap of flushing lines. It is times) to maintain a logcal flow. The dummy activities
prudent to bear in mind the actual layout of lines in are used to simplify understanding and, since they
order to identify standing sections. have no activity times, have little or no implications
for the total duration. It is assumed that the project
A *
Precedence table has been crashed to its minimum duration.

The next step is to draw a precedence table (see
figure 23.5). This is where the interdependence of Activity chains
activities is established and care is taken to maintain As shown in the CPA diagram, four activity chains
ease of flow without time lost in changeovers. Quite can be identified, namely a washing chain, a purging
M.T. ANALYSIS
ACTIVITY PRECENDENCE TABLE
ACTIVITY DETAILS PRECEEDING ACTIVITIES
FLUSHING SEQLTENCE NONE
WASHING/STRIPPING 4WS A
PURGING 4WS B
GAS FREEING 4WS B, C
WASHING/STRIPPING 1WS B
PURGING E
GAS FREEING E, F
WASHING/STRIPPING 2WS E
PURGING 2WS H
GASFREEING 2WS H, 1
WASHING/STRIPPING 5WS H
PURGING 5WS K
GASFREEING 5WS K, L
WASHING/STRIPPING 3WS K
PURGING 3WS N
GASFREEING 3WS N, 0
WASHING/STRIPPING 6WS N
PURGING 6WS Q
GASFREEING 6WS Q,R
TRANSFER SLOPS TO SLOP P Q
WASHING/STRIPPING SLOP S T
PURGING SLOP S U
GASFREEING SLOP S u,v
DECANT SLOP P u
FLUSHING LINES AND PUMPROOM X
Notes: a) Washing is carried out internally, drive water from slop starboard and tank educted back to slop
port.
b) Slop port and starboard balancing line left open.
c) Purging - reducing hydrocarbon content of the tank to less than 1.5O10by volume, by the introduction
of inert gas. The tank atmosphere should be below the critical dilution line.
Figure 23.5 Activity precedence table

Figure 23.6 Critical path analysk /$oat analy!ikfor tank zla~lzingandgmfieczingprior to d~ docking
COMMAND 161
chain, and two gas freeing chains. Adding up the Safety of the ship
activity times along each chain we get the following Dry dock safety is a collective effort by both yard
results: and ship personnel. On a 'partly' immobilised ship
with 'disabled' safety systems it is absolutely essential
Washing chain 52 hours that backup systems are readily available and
Purging chain 52 hours understood and that the capabilities of both the yard's
Gas freeing chain 1 60 hours and the ship's systems are clearly defined and
Gas freeing chain 2 62 hours understood. Man entry and hot work are of primary
concern. Guidelines given in The International Safety
Gas freeing chain 2, therefore, becomes the critical
Guidefor Oil Tankers and Ternzinals (ISGOTT) and the
path with each activity along this chain being a critical
company's standing instructions should be strictly
activity. It should be re-emphasised at this stage that
followed, with a 'permit to work' system enforced.
any delay along the critical path will lead to an increase Safety and management committee meetings prior to
in the overall project duration. The project duration dry dock should include the ship's safety organisation
for this example, being the duration along the critical during the repair period. Positive reporting to a central
path, is 62 hours. authority (master, chief officer or chief engineer)
should be established, with clearly defined channels
Time and float analysis of upward and downward communication.
A simple earliest and latest event time chart is then
drawn up. Technically of course, as noted above, a Re-commissioning after repairs is another crucial
float analysis involves working both forward and stage. A plan should be formulated to include:
backwards between the first and the last events.
Testing of machinery, equipment, systems and
However, in this case, a simple slack time assessment appliances.
would suffice. For example, event 7 can be reached Re-floating trim and stability requirements.
via activities a-b-c-f or via a-b-e-h. The times along Bottom plugs, manholes and restoration and
each path, being 22 and 24 hours respectively, give checking of the watertight integrity.
two hours slack time for event 7. Removal of staging and temporary structures.
Confirmation of restoration of vessel's safety and
Project monitoring fire protection systems.
Monitor activities and event occurrence times as Sufficient time must be allowed for the vessel to
actually observed during project execution. Should a confirm all above and to prepare for departure.
predictable delay be identified it may be possible to
divert resources from another non-critical concurrent Footnote
activity so as not to affect the critical activities. More often than not, seafarers like to 'play it by
ear'. It would greatly help to know how to play, how
Results much to play, when to play and when to allow the
Having applied the above principles and with brain, rather than the ear, to take operational
careful monitoring, the M T Analysis completed all management decisions.
operations in 56 hours. The valuable use of CPA
The order of the day, then, is immense forethought,
techniques was obvious during its actual use. It should
careful strategic planning, watchful progress
be noted that although the illustration g v e n here is
monitoring and effective coordination and controls.
for a typical tank washing prior to dry docking, the
author has successfully applied CPA to projects like The result - apart from the project conlmitment -
voyage maintenance a n d monthly planned is a complete sense of command throughout the
maintenance for routine ship operations. project, with the ability to cope with contingencies.

Chapter 24
A GUIDE TO THE 'CREWMAN' STANDARD

SHIP MANAGEMENT AGREEMENT
by Photis M. Panayides BSc, University of Plymouth
reproducedfrom SEA WAYS, the journal of The Nautical Institute
Introduction
W IT H T HE I N C RE A S I N G N U M E E R of the world's fleet required has to be sufficient only for the performance
placed under third party ship management, the of the crew members' duties is important because it
maritime world has seen the need for standard raises the question of what will happen in emergency
agreements which aim to regulate the manager-owner situations where the crew have to act in ways other
relationship. One such agreement is the Crewman, than those of their customary duties.
drafted by the Documentary Committee of BIMCO,
All members of the crew must have undergone
and dealing specifically with the employment of crew
certain training relating to emergency situations before
o n board vessels placed under independent
they go on board, but the dangers arising on board
management responsible solely for crewing purposes.
may not always be the same. Many dangerous
It is important for the seafarer to be aware of the situations may arise, especially where foreign crew
provisions of such an agreement, especially the members have just joined the vessel, and are faced
provisions which relate to employment on a vessel, with an emergency before even adapting to their new
safety, health, rights, liabilities and responsibilities. environment. A lack of communication is critical and
all seafarers must become aware of it because the
Who is the employer? adverse situation may affect all of them, not just those
First, it must be pointed out that, unlike the 'sister- incapable of communicating in English.
agreement' Sh$bman, which deals with the provision
of a number of ship management services, the Connected persons
Crewman agreement provides that the manager and All crew members have a right, under the
not the owner is the legal and sole employer of the agreement, to invite on board any person or persons
crew. This means that in case of dispute due to, for connected with them. Connected persons would
example, non-payment of wages or their late payment, reasonably include relatives of crew members. These
the responsibility will lie solely with the third party persons may even stay on board during the voyage,
managing the ship and not the owner. as long as there are reasonable circumstances requiring
their presence there. In some instances there is an
The seafarers must check that their individual express provision to this in the individual contract of
contracts clearly specify who their employers are. employment. The prior consent of the owners of the
Despite this, crew members are obliged to obey all vessel is required, but the owners are obliged not to
reasonable instructions given by the legal owners of unreasonably withhold such permission.
the vessels. These instructions include orders relating
to safety, navigation, pollution prevention and Crew managers are obliged to provide adequate
protection of the environment. insurance cover for connected persons. If they refrain
from doing so the owners will be liable if anything
Further, the owners of the vessel have the right to happens to any connected person during their visit or
demand the replacement of any crew member found stay on board.
on reasonable grounds to be unsuitable for service.
Unsuitability for service must be deemed to include Insurance
not 'qualified' or 'competent' for the standard of work It is the obligation of the crew managers adequately
required of him. It may also extend to cases where to insure the crew members (as well as any connected
continuous misbehaviour of an otherwise qualified persons sailing with them) with a first class insurance
crew member has prompted the owners to order his company, underwriter or protection and indemnity
replacement at the next reasonable opportunity. association (P&IClub). The agreement mentions the
risks for which the crew must be fully covered. These
Safety and communications include:
It is worth noting that all crew members must have
sufficient knowledge of the English language in order Death
to be capable of performing their duties in a safe Sickness
manner. It is the responsibility of the crew managers Repatriation
to oversee this. The fact that the standard of English Injury
COMMAND 163
Shipwreck unemployment indemnity, and in the Crewman contract. If it is exceeded, it is the
Loss of personal effects owners' responsibility to oversee that the excess is
promptly despatched to the crew members concerned.
The agreement does not limit the risks for which
the crew must be insured only to those mentioned The seafarers will have no financial obligation as
above. It is up to the managers to insure the crew for regards the costs of obtaining documentation
other risks as well. necessary for their employment. Crewman refers to
documentation such as medical and vaccination
War risks trading limits certificates, passports and visas and licenses; however,
It is at the owner's discretion to decide whether or any costs incurred in relation to obtaining
not to send the vessel to any area excluded by war documentation with respect to the crew's employment
risks underwriters by virtue of the current London is covered by the provision.
market war risks trading warranties. The owners must,
however, inform the crew managers prior to gving The costs of transportation of the crew to and from
such orders; and crew managers must themselves in the vessel will be borne by the managers, but of course
turn inform the crew. The crew members are not it will be charged to the owners. However, the owners
obliged to accept such orders and may demand extra are themselves responsible for the initial cost of
war risks bonuses, or even refuse to embark on such transportation from the seafarer's country of domicile
voyage and demand repatriation. Crew managers are to the ship.
obliged to replace those crew members and pay all Costs for hotel accommodation, food, all types of
expenses in connection with their replacement which crew communications from the vessel, working clothes
will ulti~natelybe covered by the owners. and port disbursements and fees in respect of crew
Provisions matters are for the managers' account, initially.
The owners of the vessel are required under the Indemnity
agreement to provide all normal provisions and The agreement contains an indemnity clause which
facilities for maintaining the standard of living of the defines the responsibility of the owner of the vessel in
crew on board and pay all the costs thereof.
case of legal proceedings or claims against the vessel,
The provisions and facilities include not only affecting the crew members or their employment
victuals, fresh water, linen, blankets, towels, soap, agreement.
washing powder, laundry facilities, adequate
In the event of any legal proceedings, legal actions,
accommodation and storage facilities but also claims and demands against the crew members arising
entertainment and recreational facilities. out of, or in connection with the terms of the
It seems that the people responsible for drafting agreement, the crew members will incur no liability
the Crewman agreement recognised the need for whatsoever. In the event that the crew member incurs
avoiding boredom and fatigue on board and loss or damage or expenses due to such actions, it is
specifically introduced the requirement for leisure the responsibility of the shipowner to render the crew
facilities. member fully indemnified.
The extent of the indemnity set out by the relevant
Financial obligations clause does not include claims for which the crew
Normally, the contract of employment of the crew managers themselves would be liable to the owners.
members will state that costs incurred in relation to It follows that the owners will be obliged to indemnify
obtaining various certificates with respect to the crew's the crew members unless they can prove that the loss,
service, transportation and accommodation costs as damage or expense the crew members incurred
well as a series of related costs will not be borne by resulted from their own negligence, gross negligence,
the crew members. wilful default or an act or omission done with the intent
However, it is beneficial to seafarers to review the to cause the damage or recklessly and with knowledge
costs for which, under the Crewman agreement, they that damage or loss would probably result.
will not be responsible. These costs can be derived Liability to owners
from the clause dealing with the fee of the crew In order to protect the interests of crew members,
managers and listing the various costs for which the a so called Himalaya Clause has been incorporated in
managers will be entitled to charge on the lump sum the agreement.
fee due to them.
Under this, crew members will incur no liability
The crew is to be compensated for working whatsoever to the owners of the vessel, for any loss,
overtime hours. The sum due in respect of overtime damage or delay of whatsoever kind arising or
is payable by the managers to the crew, unless it resulting directly or indirectly from any act, omission
exceeds a specific amount agreed by the owner and or default of the crew member while acting in the
manager and which sum is expressly stated in a box course of or in connection with his employment duties.

The latter expression is important, as it limits the It must be noted that crew members employed by
exclusion of liability to the owners only to those cases crew managers who are responsible for crewing a large
where the problems occurred while the crew member fleet of vessels will normally face no problem in finding
was carrying out his duties as specified in the contract alternative employment as it will be within the interests
of employment. It follows that where such loss, damage of the crew managers themselves to redeploy them.
or delay arose by the act, neglect or default of the
crew member who was acting outside the scope of his Conclusion
employment, then that crew member will be liable to The Crewman is a contract between the owner and
the owners. the manager of the vessel and, therefore, the crew
members will not have a say in the drafting of its terms
In short this is usually expressed by the phrase: under any circumstances whatsoever. From a practical
'the employee embarked on a frolic of his own'. point of view, however, it is important for the seafarers
It is, therefore, very important for the members of to know about its provisions which do affect indirectly
the crew not to engage in any duties which are outside their own contracts of employment.
those legally delegated to them. They must be well My view is that the contract contains fair and
aware that the duties they perform are within the reasonable terms as far as the crew members are
course of or in connection with their employment concerned. The fact that the contract excludes the
duties. liability of the crew (unless they act outside the scope
of their em p lo y ment) and provides an indemnity
Termination of the contract clause protecting the crew members, is of immense
As has been stated, the employer of the crew is the importance in the crucial issue of liabilities.
manager and not the owner of the ship. The manager Furthermore, even if the agreement terminates, a
agrees with the owner merely to supply the crew for special clause provides that the crew will b e
the particular ship. Sometimes, however, the compensated for any consequential losses they might
agreement may come to an end, i.e. terminated prior incur.
to the date that has been specified and agreed under
the terms of the contract. Hence, it is important for It must be noted however that this standard form
seafarers to know and understand their rights since is susceptible to alterations in accordance with the wills
their legal employer will no longer be able to keep of the contractors who may wish to log in their own
them employed on board the particular vessel. terms and conditions. Despite this, it is common
practice for the parties to retain most, if not all, of the
The Crewman contract specifies three types of original clauses.
termination that may arise during the period of the
agreement. These include termination because of the Knowledge of Crezerman's basic terms will prompt
owners 'default', termination because of the crew crew members to stand up for their rights in case there
managers' default; and extraordinary termination is a need. I hope I have contributed towards the
through n o default of either party but due to achievement of the former through this article.
unexpected and unforeseen circumstances.
Acknowledgments
In case of termination of the agreement due to any The author wishes to express his gratitude to Dr.
of the above reasons, the crew managers are obliged Richard Gray - Head of the Centre for International
to pay the crew what they are legally entitled to under Shipping and Transport - and Messrs. Sydney T.
their individual contracts of employment. These costs Harley and Paul G. Wright - lecturers - for their
are termed in the agreement as 'severance costs' and valuable suggestions in the writing of this article.
the owners themselves are obliged to contribute up to
a limit agreed by the parties and as long as the
managers can prove that those costs were incurred
because of the early termination.
COMMAND 165
Chapter 25
W A G I N G SOCIAL RELAmONSHIPS WITH MULTI-CULTURAL CREWS

by Captain A. Achuthan ExC MICS MNI
Captain Achuthan completed his pre-sea training fiom the T S . Rajendra in 1976 and joined the Shipibing Corporation of India,
obtaining command in December 1986. From 7989-1997 he commanded various foreign flag vessels, aJter which he joined the LBS
Nautical College (now named LBS College ofAdvanced Maritime Studies and Research).
He obtained his Extra Masters in 1993 and has taught variousgradesfrom 2ndMates to Extra Masters. He has also been external
faculty at T S . Chanakya (a BSc nautical science course), TS.Jawhar (3 monthpre sea training), MTIPomaii (chemical tanker and
LPG familiarisation), College of Insurance (marine pollution regulations), and at the Master Revalidation Course (oil major vetting
and modern meteorology). He was also involved with the design stage of the liquid cargo handling simulator at LBS CAMSAR and was
given the honour of starting thejrst course in July 1995.
He sailed for a short stint with Dynacom tankers in 1994- 1995 and this enabled him to complete and present his dissertation on
"Oil Major Inspections and Ktting - a study of non conformance's" and twopapers: I. Grey areas in operationalpollution(understanding
and rectzhing oil content meters) and 2. Loss prevention through training on the liquid cargo handling simulator. Besides this he has
presented various technical and non technical papers at seminars. Captain Achuthan is a lead auditor of I S 0 9000 systems and
strongly believes that quality, safety and loss prevention begins through education.
He was, for a briefperiod, Fleet Manager with IMS Sh$ Management, manningfor FSh$s, a$er which he returned to hisjrst
love - empowering the mariner, with relevant maritime and se2fdevelopment studies. He is now theproprietor of the School of Synergic
Studies, which conducts various coursesfor sh$board and shore personnel on human potential development, safety culture andpollution
prevention.
Besides being the joint secretary of The Nautical Institute, Bombay branch, he is also a Member of the Loss Prevention Association,
the Meteorological Society of India and Marine Technologists.
Preface
GLOBALISATION IS T HE O RDE R OF THE DAY. It is here to 1. Clarifying the topic.
stay. It's not something we can wish away. In the 2. Concepts of management, functions and
present scenario of globalisation it means that the organisation.
shipping industry needs personnel from all over the 3. Genesis of personnel management on board.
globe to work as a team on board ships and ashore, 4. Social responsibilities of the seafarer.
towards achieving organisational goals and meeting 5. National differences.
the challenges of the profession. Those challenges 6. Problems in multi-cult~lre- myth or reality (a case
revolve around optimum profitability (i.e.safety of life, study).
property, environment and material values). The meaning of the term exposed.
Thus the multi-cultural dimension of shipping is H u m a n behaviour traits for social
brought to the forefront. Culture influences all aspects relationships.
of management. With respect to shipboard How competence affects social relationships.
management, managing social relationships has been Relations between technical, managerial and
the prime requirement on board for maintaining safety social skills (T:M:S).
of the vessel's trade in all respects. Solution.
7. Shipboard culture.
Human beings are diverse in nature and behaviour. 8. Communications within a shipboard culture.
One of the intellectual blunders we may make is to 9. Paving the path towards managing social
maximise differences between members of a diverse relationships.
multi-cultural crew. It is imperative that we consider 10. Conclusion.
their strengths and value differences, for after all "the 11. Acknowledgements.
functions of shipboard management supersede the
person who performs them - this forms the foundation Clarifying the topic
of shipboard culture". To establish a common understanding of terms
used in this paper it is prudent to define managing
In this chapter an attempt has been made to dispel and management. From many definitions available the
apprehensions towards working in a multi-cultural author has:
environment, clarifying social responsibilities and
concepts of competence. This is an egalitarian The art of "Knowing what you want to do and
approach - a way through which we can manage social then seeing that it is done in the best and cheapest
relationships efficiently within a multi-cultural crew. way". - F.W. Taylor.
The theme of this chapter will be discussed under the * "Management is work and as such it has its own
following headings: skills, its own tools, its own techniques.

Management is practice. Its essence is not knowing discovery. Thus starts creation by mankind. Until this
but doing", - Peter Drucker. stage all we have done is to imitate and borrow from
one form or the other. Thus we have a conglomeration
As the name sounds, manage-men-t, could be
of "memes" (spokedshared ideas/concepts/jingles),
expanded to
through which we perceive the world.
manage men tactfully.
This is the way we may have generated different
It is the art of managing an organisation or an styles of management.
individual, or even a country, towards a vision, goal
or objective, with the efficient and effective use of
resources to achieve objectives.
f--- 7' -
1Vould it he "wornanagcwoment" if women had set

the social rules and authorcd the English dictir~nar)
Figure 25.2
Figure 25.1
Functions a n d organisation
It is my belief that the concept of management of
an organisation has also been borrowed. If we do
Social: The word social here implies "pertaining to life determine where it is borrowed from, will we then
in an organised community; pertaining to welfare come to an ideal form of management? My answer is
as such and generally dealing with shipboard YES.
matters outside the technical al-eas of work".
The ideal form of organisation is within the human
Relationship: State or mode of being related. body. It is with this organisation that the body manages
Multi-cultural, multi-culture: Differing cultures formed to perform the functions of command and control,
by the distinction of religon, locality, past history, respiration, circulation, digestion, locomotion,
educational system, country's administration, excretion and so on.
language, etc. Man has aped organisation from the way the
Crew: for this chapter includes all personnel on board. human body has organised itself. At the embryonic
It refers to a number or set of personnel who have stage the functions required to run the human body
been brought together to manage and achieve the have been decided. The organs then followed to take
vision/ common goal/ objectives. It includes all responsibility for carrying out the functions and we
ship staff at the management, operator or support call this organ-i-sation.
level (as defined under STCW'YS amendments). Thus functions of the body takes precedence over
As the title implies, the subject deals with the the organs. These organs are designed to function in
management of personnel on board ship. It should be synergy. It is my conviction - that, in a nutshell, forms
mentioned here that the selection and recruitment of the ideal management, bereft of any "perceptions".
crew by personnel ashore does affect management on
board, but this falls outside the purview of this
We ma) have read about the case of the
discussion. b r a ~ n h, ~ a r tstomach
, and othrr parts of the
body having a fight for supremac>-.
Concepts of management, functions and Ultll~~ately who is it that turns out to be Lhe
boss?
organisation
Management has existed ever since man came on
to this earth. In fact it starts from the day we are born. Figure 25.3
Seldom do we realise that most of our learning is
borrowed. We have always been aping our
predecessors, nature and experiences. We put two and None can be called the boss. The way these
two together and form a slightly different version of functions are carried out by our very own body's
what we have experienced and then start claiming organisation is the ideal scale of management
ownership. With good listening abilities, we add efficiency. Thus we also restrict ourselves to a
intuition or sixth sense to this and claim invention over supposedly hierarchical style with one person on top,
COMMAND 167
I ORGANS
Command and Brain and the

Control nervous system
Communication
internal
Respiration Nose. lungs
,Water absorption and Mouth, Stomach,

digestion Intestines
Blood Circulation Heart, arteries

and veins
Excretion Rectum and

accessories
Locomotion Hands and legs
Communication Vocal chords,

external mouth, body
Procreation Reproductory
organs
as derived with the brain o n top. T h e brain compatibility with different levels of knowledge and
representing the top does not consider itself the boss. intelligence, different social and religious beliefs,
This responsibility is the function of "command and different eating habits, discipline and loyalty are
control" and considers itself equal to all other organs, brought together as a team on board.
as between the organs; there is supposedly no ego.
This is where ego came in the way and got added to These individuals, sometimes of widely different
our borrowing from the human body. ethnic backgrounds, have varying values of
community habits, probably as the result of limited
Genesis of personnel management on civil liberties and class barriers which existed in the
board countries of their origin. At times it impacted their
In earlier times a ship belonged to one nation, was ability to take orders and restricted participation in
technically and commercially managed by the owner informal social dialogue or expressions of conjecture
and was manned by one nationality, with one agenda. and jest. Language barriers restricted the transfer of
Communication was much easier, as the interaction thoughts, exchange of knowledge, quality work and
was between people with similar perceptio~ls. ability to learn. Differing body language complicated
issues even further. A complex alliance sprouted as a
These days shipping companies operate under result of essentially an economic wedlock.
diverse circumstances. Vessels may be financed by
Japanese banks, built in Korea, for a company In their flight to the developing countries for crew
registered in Malta with the principals living in Italy. to manage and operate vessels, more traditional
Ships may have commercial management from shipowners proceeded cautiously. Not surprisingly, in
London, technical management from Singapore and many cases, ties with former colonies were preferred
personnel with Indians as management staff, over others of unknown and untried origin or
Ukrainians at operator level and Filipinos as support familiarity.
staff, thus involving three or more crewing agencies.
All this may have eroded the shipboard culture. It
The different entities involved in operating the is very important, under these circumstances, to have
vessel may never even know each other, let alone well defined personnel management, which must
speak the same language. They may have different adapt to the cosmopolitan nature of the vessel's
values and no common loyalty. Persons of unknown operation.

/ Navigation
Propulsion and power
Con~mercial/Cargooperations
Command and Control Systems
Planned Maintenance
Care of Persons on board
Mooring and Unmooring
Emergency preparedness
Figure 25.5
The functions of shipboard management need to These are inherent for right functioning - the
be defined at this stage. functioil of care of persons on board.
Functions of shipboard operations Seafarers' responsibilities towards the vessel and
As can be seen in the diagram above, these shipmates fall in the domain of social relationships
functions precede the persons responsible for carrying with multi-cultural crews and thus the central domain
them out. Thus if a master is incapacitated, the chief of this paper.
officer, with the help of the chief engineer and the
rest of the staff, would carry out the responsibilities of National differences
the master, thus completing the command and control National differences amongst a ship's staff have a
and other associated functions. direct bearing on social relationships on board. Doctor
D.H. Moreby, in his p a p e r presented to the
An understanding of this is required to manage international manning and training conference at
social relationships on board. Before that let us Singapore in November 1!189, has explained that:
examine the seafarer's social responsibilities.
"A significant difference between people from
Social responsibilities of seafarers different countries is their attitude towards authority
Seafarer's social responsibilities can be classified and rules. By investigating managers and workers in
as internal and external. Internally seafarers have 40 different countries, Hofstede developed a Power
responsibilities towards: Differential Index ( P D I ) which measures the
hierarchical distance managers maintain from their
Own vessel.
subordinates and the distance workers perceive their
Own shipmates.
managers to be removed. A high PDI shows that
Safety of shore labour, officials, visitors and
managers have a g-reatdeal of power over the workers
passengers.
and maintain a distance from them".
The flag they fly.
The company. Another interesting turn to this came when
Hofstede investigated the attitudes people held
Externally, seafarers have responsibilities towards:
towards company rules. A high score on the Rule
A cleaner environment. Orientation Index (ROI)is when people abide by the
Other ships and seafarers outside their own ship. letter of the rules even when, under the circumstances,
Ports and shipping facilities. this is against the best interests of the company. A low
ROI shows that workers use company rules as nothing
The avoidance of accidents, lower repair costs, more than general guidelines.
reduced operational losses, lower insurance costs,
improved company image and reputation are the Thus emerged a matrix (see figure 25.6) of these
benefits of keeping up to such social responsibilities. combinations based on the works of Moreby and
These can be achieved through: Hofstede. This matrix has critical implications for
manning and ship management. A shipowner, ship
1. Competent managers and operators manager or ship master employing crews from the
2. Professional cooperation and social attitudes such same cluster (high PDI, high R O I , say), finds it
as: relatively easy. However, one could well imagine the
Respect for other religions, languages, predicament if the master and management came from
cultures, and races. the high PDI, high R O I cluster and those at the
Interesting social and sports a tivities on support level were from the low PDI, low ROI cluster.
board.
Help to the sick, depressed & distressed It should be appreciated that the above is based
shipmates. on a study of sections of populations at various points
COMMAND 169
High PDI Low PDI
High ROI France, Italy, Greece, West Germany

Spain, South America, India, Figure 25.6
Malaysia, Singapore
Low ROI Japan, Phillippines, USA, N.W. Europe,
West Africa, East Africa Scandinavia,
Australia.
of time and may not hold true in all cases, all the time. the vessel was behaving arrogailtly with the chief
Whilst agreeing with the works of Moreby and officer. On enquiring with the chief officer it was found
Hofstede a question has emerged: that the pumpman had apparently written excessive
hours in his overtime sheet and that this was a reaction
"Isn't it possible to convert people from one cluster based 011 the chief officer ticking him off.
(high PDI, high ROI) to another cluster (low PDI,
low ROI)"?The answer is Yes. The master called for the pumpman, whose version
of the story was that he felt the chief officer
Problems in multi-culture - myth or incompetent as a tankerman and that there were quite
reality - a case study a few times that clear instructions were not being
"rescription without diagnosis is ma&ractice, whether handed over. He had therefore requested that his daily
it be in medicine or management" - Karl Albrecht, jobs to be carried out be given in writing. As about
Organisation Development. the overtime, he said, he followed the same norms as
on his last vessel and if a different approach were to
The author wishes to share the observations made be taken he would abide by it. However, "I have come
through a 'case study' used as a learning aid to to work here and make money", he said.
appreciate various factors contributing to human
relationships on board. Each participant was gven the task of analysing
the problem and stating it specifically to thus arrive at
The author acknowledges the 275 participants of a possible solution. Their views are tabulated in figure
the Vessel Resource Management course conducted 25.7 below:
by the School of Synergic Studies and 165 participants
of the Master Revalidation/Upgradaing course, held As can be seen, the diagnoses are many. If each of
between August and December 1998, at La1 Bahadur them were a judge in the situation above, their
Shastri College of Advanced Maritime Studies and diagnosis would have led them to prescribe
Research (LBSCAMSAR). T h e views of these accordingly. That is to say, if they considered the
participants are listed below.
A case study on personnel management with Diagnosis/ problem as % representation of
multi-cultural crews expressed by participants participants views
MT YWCA was manned by Indian senior officers
(master, chief engneer, chief officer, second engineer Pumpman aggressive, arrogant 2 fi
and radio officer) with the rest of the crew Filipino, Pumpman wanted more money 7
except for a Polish fitter. The master joined with the Chief officer inefficient and
bosun, pumpman, seven other crew members (all incompetent 18
Filipinos) and a Polish fitter. The 11 other staff had Overtime related problem 4
already been on board for a month. The relieved Pumpman taking advantage 6
rnaster had not mentioned any untoward incident on Communication problem 6
board in his handover. Due to multi-cultural crew 14
Master's ineffective handling
Within a fortnight the master realised that the chief of the situation 8
officer, with a superior certificate, on a first promotion, Lack of command/control/monitor 2
was found wanting in many basics and required a lot Superior unwilling to learn
of guidance. The master, who recognised that training from subordinate 1
of subordinates was a function required for the Company selection procedure 5
effective running of a vessel, decided to extend the Lack of procedures on board 3
guidance. There was also a tremendous shortage of Chief officer not giving written
chief officers. instructions 1
One month later it was noticed by the master that
the Filipino pumpman (a key post on oil tankers) on

pumpman arrogant they would have disciplined him people -pass or fail students, pass or fail subordinates
and expected the problem to be solved. If they and pass or fail people in general. For example, 40 010
considered that inadequate procedures were the cause and above is a pass, whereas below 40 OIo is declared
they would have construed that additional procedures 'fail'. The problem of failure arises only when the
would have solved the problem and so on. What is individual involved accepts failure.
alarming from the above is that each diagnosis has a
different prescription. In reality, people fail within themselves before they
fail in the outside world. T h e positive way of
If the root cause is restricted to on board the vessel encouraging a person who considers himself weak is
then, of course, the chief officer's ineffectiveness or to grade him.
lack of competency is the problem. This can be
ascertained by the fact that if the competency situation Grade A = Excellent; B = Very good; C = Good;
was corrected the possibility of such a situation arising D = Fair and E = Exposed.
is reduced to minimal. Moreover, this ineffectiveness Grades A to D will be considered competent or
was in spite of the fact that he was holding a superior passed, whilst grade E means exposed, or failed. Thus
certificate. Professionally he should have chosen to out of a group of 10 appearing for an examination, let
make himself competent at the time he got his mates us assume that two are with Grade E, i.e., Exposed.
certificate. It is this lacuna in the system that STCW'95 This means that when they are in the company of the
amendments to STCW'78 attempt to rectify. The others who have got Grade D and above, they would
problems, as we can see, are not multi-cultural in any stand exposed to the latter's whims and fancies. Thus,
way. This could have happened on ships with the same in the case study discussed earlier, the chief officer
or differing nationalities and culture. has definitely been exposed due to lack of competence.
Looking beyond the scene on board we should Human behavioural traits to understand multi-
review the procedures and role played by the culture
employer during the selection process. Does the shore This section deals with the relationship between
office have a responsibility for selection? Should we aggression, assertiveness and passivity. The table in
compromise on quality if there is a shortage? Should figure 25.8 is the author's concept of what leads to
the ship's staff sympathise with the shore selection if different behavioural tendencies and corresponding
there is no system for company training? effectiveness. This should be considered when
It is said that sympathy never corrects a situation. manapng social relationships.
It is empathy that is required. That is seeking to Assertiveness comes with having clear directions,
understand before wanting to be understood. What is understanding management and especially stress
alarming is the small percentage of ship and shore management.
personnel who accept this point of view! If the superior
(in this case the chief officer) were inefficient, the How competence affects social relationships
subordinates would take advantage. This is a natural We are a combination of mind, body and soul. This
law. Through a further review the general consensus is why every habit or competence of ours is a
agreed was as follows: combination of attitude (soul), skill (bod y ) and
knowledge (mind). Through various such imitations,
In the final diagnosis, the chief officer had been acquirements and internalisation's, the present self is
exposed due to lack of competency, forcing him to a permutation and combination of place of birth,
oscillate between an aggressive and passive role. The parental influence, age, sex, language, religion,
aggression shown by the pumpman and his taking education, skills, environment, past experiences, etc.,
advantage of the situation is but a part of the natural all of which reflect in our perception. Thus inequalities
law we live in. are caused. This inequality manifests itself as
The meaning of the term exposed differences in culture, caste, religion,
- competence,
In a power hungry, hierarchical system it is most language and nationalism.
appropriate to empower authorities to pass and fail
Competence of Degree of Effectiveness

Technical Management/ Understanding Long Short
Human relationships self term term
AGGRESSIVE High Low Low Low High
ASSERTIVE High/medium High/medium High/medium High High
Figure 25.8
COMMAND 171
Such differences can affect social relationships. Multi-culture should not to be propagated as a
Many a time the competence of a person nullifies such problem, but as a strength. Shipboard personnel
differences. As we know, competence is subjective and need to be aware and learn the ways different
as such affects social relationships. cultures manage their lives and organisation.
Senior management both on board and ashore
Ratio of technical to managerial to social should be conversant with the peculiarities of
(T:M:S) skills various nationalities and learn to gain from their
This calls for introspection into our educational strengths. It is basically the responsibility of the
system. As has been agreed by most of the person performing the superior functions to learn
professionals who attempted the case study, the ratio and understand the needs and peculiarities of the
of competence required to perform fiinctions on board person performing the lesser functions.
vis-a-vis T:M:S should be 4:4:2 for the management
It would help if operator and support level
level, whilst our formal system is designed for the ratio personnel were aware of the multi-cultural
8: 1:1. This is a large mismatch and leaves most of our differences of senior management.
learning of managerial and social aspects to mimicking Awareness programmes in place about these
and borrowing from our superiors. This was our differences, if any, should take a back seat, keeping
informal education. Anything informal, not
the goals of the organisation in focus. It can be
documented, goes through a declining phase and that proved that these differences are internal barriers
is what could have happened to shipboard/shore within the self.
management. This is also due to the fact that of the
Flag states should make clear that they issue a
three domains of our competence - attitude, skill and certificate of qualification and not a certificate of
knowledge - attitude is the most difficult to document competency. This would lead to people taking
and hence the learning process of subordinates more interest in their own competency, rather than
remains too subjective. unknowingly submitting to believing that the
Standardised management cannot be passed down certificate makes them competent.
an informal system. Documentation is a necessity for Promotion of a shipboard culture at a n
standardisation. We can see that STCW778issued a international level.
certificate primarily on a knowledge based syllabus.
STCW'95 looks at competence through knowledge
Shipboard culture
and skills. However, it is the attitude which will The points listed above would form the base for a
determine whether the acquired knowledge and skill shipboard culture. For safer ships, cleaner seas and
is put to good use. Welcome to STCW 2002 !!!, or profitability there is only one culture and that is
should it be earlier? shipboard culture. In this culture the functions of the
vessel take precedence over the persons performing
Solutions the functions.
Until then the solution suggested to the above case
study and, subsequently, to managing this so called The role of a master vis-a-vis shipboard culture
"multi-cultural problem" is: Ship masters used to be all in one, i.e., owner of
the vessel, commercial manager, operations manager,
Superiors should realise that the function of personnel manager, insurance manager and average
shipboard management is more important than adjuster. They were responsible for various functions
the person. required to operate a vessel and, in fact, responsible
Superiors should self motivate, learn as a for matters of safety and pollution prevention. Of
professional would and take a more assertive role. course, pollution prevention may not have been a
The chief officer should mend his relationship with priority item in those days.
the pumpman in the best interest of vessel and
respect and utilise the pumpman's technical With the changng scenario the functions of owning
expertise. When we examine the T:M:S required and operating a vessel have shifted to shore based
on board for the pumpman, it would be in the personnel, except for the master, who still has the
ratio of 7:2:1. Hence a certain amount of overriding responsibility for matters of safety and
aggression in a subordinate is to be expected, as pollution prevention. The ISM code recognises this
he is not given formal management training. As and has made it mandatory to clarify the same under
we go higher in position, the requirement for our the Safety Management System.
technical skills takes a secondary role compared
to management skills. The master and his team on board have the
T h e company should review its selection ultimate say in matters of safety and pollution
procedures. prevention keeping in mind, of course, optimum
Training institutions should review course profitability and that they have to exist in a safety
syllabuses, based on a training need analysis, culture. This aspect of shipboard social responsibility
carried out with shipping company inputs and should be borne in mind at all times, to assist in proper
make effective changes. decision making.

As commitment starts at the top, this is the first prepares to make an entry, carrying out the enclosed
part of a shipboard culture required for bringing multi- space entry procedures. Immediately on entry the chief
cultural crew together. The message here should be officer suspects gas and comes out of the tank. He re-
made clear. Ships crew and superintendents have to checks the gas content and finds 40Olo on the
leave aside their multi-cultural differences, if any, explosimeter.
ashore before stepping on board.
The reaction, under pressure of work, could be an
Shipboard culture is presently influenced by the angry chief officer spilling his wrath on the second
shore culture and, as per ISF, can be classed under officer. Technically speaking, the wrong reading could
three broad headings: be caused by the second officer using the explosimeter
Evasion culture caused by blame and punishment. first in 2C tank, which had a very high content of
Compliance culture caused by high rule hydrocarbons and where a tankscope should have
orientation and power differential index. been used. This would make the needle go to
Safety culture brought about by self-introspection, maximum and then come down to zero. If not noticed
understanding the self and by looking at the and the equipment was then used for the 3C tank, the
environment through a holistic approach. needle would not indicate any gas content, leading to
such errors in reading.
Shipboard culture encompasses the safety culture
and promotes assertiveness. We should remind Training needs analysis, carried out by the chief
ourselves here that the ideal form of organisation is officer on the second officer in the above case, would
within the human body. It is with this organisation have revealed inadequacy in differentiating between
that the body manages itself. However, the functions a n explosimeter and a tankscope. It was the
of the human body take precedence over the organs. responsibility of the chief officer to ensure that the
subordinate knew the right use of equipment before
This is true of shipboard culture too. The functions instructing him to use it. A certificate of competence,
of the vessel are supreme and of greater importance under STCW '78, may not ensure full understanding
than the people (organs) carrying out the roles. If some of equipment.
specific function is not being carried out by one of the
responsible persons, it is imperative that the others Whenever we communicate with another if we first,
on board share the function, until that person redeems to ourselves, define the purpose of our communication
himself or is replaced. and that purpose has not been achieved, it is always
prudent to self-introspect and find out where we could
Communications under shipboard have done better. Some Filipinos are by nature
culture submissive to authority and will not necessarily
It would be most appropriate here to discuss respond appropriately when being asked or told to
effective communication under a shipboard culture. do something they do not understand. Proper feedback
Let us do this with the help of a typical shipboard and evaluation is a must when we communicate in a
scenario. cross-cultural environment. In fact this is an intricate
part of shipboard culture and applies to even single
MT MCCS is a crude oil tanker with a mixed crew national crew and single cultures. Feedback is the
consisting of Italian senior officers and Filipino junior breakfast of champions. To sum it up "effective
officers and crew. The vessel has 15 cargo oil tanks communication is the responsibility of the sender".
(five across) and is preparing for dry docking. The
tank cleaning operations are over and gas freeing is in Paving the path towards managing
progress. Regular gas readings of tanks are being taken. social responsibilities
The two tanks being attended to are 2 centre (2C) and Have well defined aims and objectives.
3 centre (3C). The previous evening the gas reading Remove internal communication barriers within
showed 2C -12 per cent on the tankscope and 3C -60 ones self.
per cent on the explosimeter. Accordingly, 2C was Improve knowledge about representative cultures,
being purged with inert gas and 3C gas freed with including history and current economic
fresh air blowers. environment, work ethic, relipon, etc.
Understand that differing economic conditions in
"Noel, take the gas readings of 2C and 3C before each other's country creates differing priorities in
6 a.m. and let me know", calls out the chief officer to individuals.
the Filipino second officer. The second officer nods Remove language barriers - by learning the other
his head. The a.m. readings of the tanks being gas language or using one of the staff as interpreter.
freed are nil, indicating that the tanks are gas free. Use democratic leadership leading to participative
The oxygen analyser reading shows 20 per cent management.
oxygen. Based on this information the chief officer Standardise work ethics.
decides to make a man entry into 3C to verify its Improve listening slulls. Understand the difference
cleanliness. He, along with two crew members, between listening and hearing.
COMMAND 173
Keep an open mind. Most importantly, only independent people can
Use empathy instead of sympathy. effectively choose interdependence. Feeling the
Identify and discuss possibilities for inter-cultural necessity of interdependence is the key. Make
adjustment. interdependence the key to teamwork and multi-
Know personnel by name. cultural problems will vanish from the ship. The
Be consistent, whoever the person in front of you. question is "Why only from ships"?
Most importantly - carry out a shipboard
familiarisation for new joiners with respect to Many shipboard multi-cultural problems usually
personnel interaction. In simple words, have an sprout from the shore organisation, especially when
introduction to the rest of the ship's staff, maybe there are different manning agencies with their own
by having a get-together. Only the cynic would private agendas. This also has to be tackled prudently
say - no time. by management.
Well! Where there is a will, there is a way. It's easier said than done and the question is "is it
necessary"? My answer is that if "survival is
Conclusion compulsory" then:
We all go through various stages of dependence, Banishing the myth called 'multi-cultural problem'
independence and interdependence. For any is a necessity.
organisation, interdependence is the key to success. Understanding social responsibilities should not
An effective shipboard organisation is a near absolute to be left to subjective feelings.
example of interdependence. Inter-development is the key.
Many serious accidents and losses have been Inter-development is superior to interdependence
attributed to a sense of self centred, restrictive, and is the key to synergetic management. With a
independent thinking. At top management level it is feeling of necessity, positive solutions to any problems
possible that many of us think we can manage are just around the corner.
independently and we have been proved wrong
repeatedly. The Titanic, ?brrq Canyon and Exxon Vuldez Necessity is the mother of discovery. Ego converts
incidents are adequate proof of this. discovery to invention.

Chapter 26
ON YOUR OWN
by Mr. C.J. Parker BSc FNI, Secretary, The Nautical Institute
Julian Parker obtained his Master's Foreign-Going Certzjicate in 7967, having served in cargo sh$s and tankers in various ranks. He
then obtained a BSc in nautical science at Liverpool Polytechnic studying naval architecture, marine engineering and control systems.
In 1970 he was appointed Administrative Staff Oficer of the Ocean Group, Britain 's second largest shipping company. During this
appointment, Mr. Parker studied to become a qualzj?ed industrial training oficer at theJohn Dalton College at Manclzester Polytechnic.
In 1972 he was appointed the first full time Secretary of the newly constituted Nautical Institute. In 1982 he was elected a Fellow.
Since then the membersh$ has expandedfiom 7,500 to over 7,000 and continues to grow internationally. The Institute's primary
aim is to promote high standards of knowledge, competence and qualzjication amongst those in control of seagoing craft. The Institute's
journal SEAWAYS is recognised as the authoritative voice of the qualzjied mariner.
Introduction
Shipping is unusual when compared with other they can give you information from previous
industries because masters are almost always promoted experience, make a sensible decision and explain to
from experienced chief officers who have been at sea heads of department and leading hands briefly why.
more than ten years and have had the opportunity to Just as you would have supported the master when
see and understudy a number of different masters. It you were chief officer you will get their support too.
is well known that managers ashore may be appointed The master is expected to be the authority on
from one division to another or even from outside the board, it goes with the job and is woven into the fabric
company and they clearly have to rely primarily on of maritime law. As such there is a particular interest
their management skills to be effective. in the new old man'. The importance of setting a good
These are a few notes which have been found example cannot be emphasised too strongly.
useful, they become obvious when you think about Power and influence are difficult for the new
them but can make that initial transition less stressful. shipmaster. O n the one hand he has to demonstrate a
The role of master carries expectations and with presence and an authority, on the other hand he has
these expectations come the need for decisions. It is to manage and to do this he must not be seen to be
not a sign of weakness to ask advice from colleagues aloof so that nobody wants to speak to him. Different
and agents. After all only the chief can tell you when ships and different crews mean that the master should
the main engines will be available after an overhaul, aim for a reasonable balance. Every manager in every
but it is a weakness if having taken the advice a sensible enterprise lives with doubt about the right balance.
time of sailing is not gven. Bear in mind that being The feed back comes from the company and from the
too rigid in situations where you effectively have no crew if one is open to it.
control is unwise. Be o p e n to change if the An area where there can be no doubt is when
circumstances demand it. controlling the ship from the bridge. It is essential to
As master you are likely to have a bigger picture make sure that there is a proper procedure for taking
than the others on board. The agent may well say that and handing over the con. It is useful to remember
a berth has been booked at the next port for a given that only one person can control a moving vehicle.
time but points out that if it is not taken there could
be a delay of two days. The mate wants more time to
Communications
press up tanks or trim a stow, lash the containers before If ever there was a subject to turn off a class of
masters' students communications did it. The subject
sailing and there is a classic dilemma.
demands quite a lot of concentration and of course
First good masters learn to anticipate and plan was quite irrelevant! Looked at from a selfish point of
ahead so that such a time constraint would have been view that is quite right. However, the whole purpose
established in advance and the cargo work planned of communication is to inform somebody else of your
accordingly - end of problem. intentions and it is worth spending a little time on this
subject.
When there is a critical situation like crew who are
still ashore, the aim should be to optimise the Compared to 'being there' communications is a
commercial viability of the voyage in accordance with pain. O n the face of it, it is absurd that something we
adequate safety and practicality. Weigh up the can see wholly before us has to be transmitted by a
implications, work out and roughly cost alternatives, string of words which then have to be laboriously
establish limits e.g. tide. Discuss with others to see if unravelled at the other end. The purpose of business
COMMAND 175
communications is to make this process as quick, Captain Eric Beetham writing about "sub-standard
accurate and short as possible. ships - the master's dilemma" observed that no relief
master can assimilate everything that is important in
When writing a report, start off with the summary a short handover. However, there is no substitute for
which provides the overview to the content. This will carrying out a detailed inspection of the ship shortly
enable the receiver to know what it is about and after sailing, if possible with the mate and chief
thereby be able to read the report much more quickly engineer to establish its order and condition and from
or re-route it without reading it if it is not relevant. which to develop the basis for work planning, cargo
Secondly, always aim to provide numerical and when management and communications with the company.
appropriate measured data. Think carefully what the
report is going to be used for and check it out with the The commercial business of the ship will be of
chief engineer or mate to see if it meets the special importance. You will need to see the charter
requirements. Thirdly, keep reports and letters as short party, where appropriate, know where the bills of
as possible. Generally they have to be read by several lading are filed and certainly know about any clauses
people in head office and it takes valuable time for which have been inserted and for what reason. Notes
them to do so. A shipmaster who cannot type should of protest, the P&I Club handbook, the list of P&I
go home. Finally, it is always helpful to indicate what correspondents and any other matter relevant to the
sort of response you are looking for and by what date. cargo.
Avoid being rude, always justify your concern.
Planning
Whether Satcom, e-mail, fax and even telex you The Institute runs a management self-development
will be judged by the quality of your communications. programme to provide insight into useful management
The great opportunity for satellite links is that it can techniques. The books can be read or used as part of
allow completely new management systems to evolve a study programme. For those not used to planning
with the aid of computers. This is the subject of other and setting objectives, which is not easy, there is useful
chapters. Suffice it to say that computers make new advice.
demands which cannot be met entirely by traditional
communications. A few notes on conducting Define what needs to be done in action terms.
interviews, ruilning and chairing meetings are Establish what resources are available.
provided in the annex. These interpersonal skills are Estimate the time needed allowing for disruption
not always taught but guidance can be useful the first e.g. port arrival.
time a situation develops. Decide if extra help is needed e.g. riding gang.
Establish the results required.
Taking over from a previous master Monitor progress.
There is never enough time to take over as relieving
master. To make the most of valuable handover time Involving the appropriate crew members in this
keep a note book and record all the items you would process will achieve two major benefits.
like to know about. These include ship condition, and (i) Clarity of purpose.
defects, difficult operational limitations e.g. windlass (ii) Improved motivation.
efficiency, machinery, reliability and so on. Particular
requirements concerning the cargo must be passed Contingencies
on, temperatures, ventilation, samples, dangerous More than anybody else the master has to be ready
goods etc. Surveys occupy a lot of time and the survey for contingencies and increasingly emergency
schedule and past survey results need to be well response is seen as an essential part of safety
understood as you will have to manage the ship's time management.
to fit them in.
Some useful advice can be derived from naval
The ISM has become a new master's responsibility, practices as naval officers have to be prepared for
here it is important to sight the audit trail and establish warfare. Firstly they recognise the value of training so
how manuals, notices, circulars and technical and legal drills, familiarisation and safety equipment use is
information is kept up-to-date. It is necessary to have essential including drills for man overboard.
an up-to-date crew list with crew changes,
qualifications, passports and other documentation Secondly it is recognised that small teams using
properly recorded. The company circular file should equipment efficiently are the answer to most
be sited and any cash items counted and the out going emergencies. To be effective the rapid response group
master should always insist on a signed statement of need to know roles and relationships, how to respond
cash by you before leaving. Information about special in an emergency e.g. an injury, fire, asphyxiation,
features must be made known. Pilots find that some machinery breakdown or pollution. A junior officer
masters do not even know that their ships have may need to relieve the mate on the bridge or a junior
shrouded propellers, others that the chart folio is engmeer the second in the control room. This needs
hopelessly out of date. to be practised too. Why do navies adopt these

strategies? The answer is because small teams acting the crew of one ship complaining of the awful food.
quickly reduce the probability of a minor incident They were not complaining specifically about the
escalating into a major one in the most effective way cook, who worked hard. He just produced food which
with limited resources. nobody liked.
Problem solving
- The master asked everybody to produce their own
O n every voyage there is usually something which menu for lunch and evening meal (even the cook
happens which cannot easily be explained. Typically couldn't spoil breakfast apparently). The master also
this happens when there is an engine failure, but it gave anybody with an unusual recipe an hour of
can equally well happen when the crew run a ships working time to help the cook prepare the meal. The
line to the tug when the intention was to take the tugs result - of course - was satisfaction, more variety, less
line and the tow line parts during a critical manoeuvre, waste and a happy cook who could see a reward for
or as Captain Jack Isbester observed in the previous his efforts.
edition when it became impossible to maintain a chill
room at the desired temperature when all the cooling
Discipline
system was fully operational. It turned out after As authoritarian attitudes are changing and the
painstaking analysis of the problem that the extractor industry embraces the principles of management and
fan had been mounted back to front. Not untypically motivation, the need for old fashioned discipline and
the ship had done several voyages in this connotation logging evaporates. Discipline is necessary in all
and no doubt the cargo temperature book had been enterprises, but it starts by those in authority informing
flogged! the others about what is expected of them and why.
There are two guiding principles for the safe operation
This advice comes from the Institute's book Solving of a moving ship.
Problems and Making Decisions:
(i) The ship must never be put into danger by the
Kecognise there is a problem. error or omission of one person. For this, every
Find out relevant information facts, times, forces opportunity must be taken to check oneself and
etc. check others.
Analyse the facts. (ii) The ship and activities carried out on board must
Test for reasonableness. be conducted within controllable limits.
Problem solving generally works by asking what, This does not mean to say that ships should not
why, when, where? It generally fails when human proceed into a tidal zone past a point of no return. It
nature intervenes and tries to put the facts to does mean that the ship can be navigated safely during
preconceived ideas - be warned! the critical phase.
Motivation Of less consequence are crew who are late back

Section 5 of the ISM Code requires the master "to after sailing, drunkenness and other self-inflicted
motivate the crew in the observation of the safety behaviour. This has to be dealt with firmly and fairly.
policy". Whoever drafted this section really had the Loss of pay for loss of work is not unreasonable.
wrong idea as it implies that the master can control Prohibiting shore leave is hardly a sanction today when
motivation like the handling of the ship. It does not shore leave is so difficult to achieve.
work that way. Motivation comes from within. Nearly Mostly, with small crews, when one member does
everybody wants to do well and the trick is to provide not pull his weight the others have to work harder.
the conditions and the encouragement. A moments Inducing a sense of shame in the culprit is a very
reflection from ones own experience reveals that being effective deterrent. In fishing vessels operating in the
given responsibility with helpful support is much more USA it is customary for all the crew to rattle their
rewarding than being told what to do and being spoons at meal time if they disapprove of the conduct
criticised if it goes wrong. Again, from the Institute's of one of their colleagues.
book Leading and Motivating the emphasis is not on
the leader but on the individual. Crime
"People need to achieve something worthwhile for Crime is more serious. Violence, theft and drugs
their efforts to be motivated. They need to know how are perhaps the most usual but they are not common.
their effort fits into the overall scheme and how In the Institute's book Crime at Sea the following advice
successful they have been. They need to feel a sense is given:
of responsibility for themselves and others, their work "The Master himself is in a difficult position when
and their area of influence. They need people to talk a crime (if it can be defined) is committed on board.
to, to encourage them and value them". He has to be aware of the commercial consequences
of delaying his ship against the social duty to maintain
An interesting psychological example of this good law and order, a constraint which law
occurred when one wise master was confronted by enforcement agencies do not have.
COMMAND 177
The shipmaster has a number of options which are can give the impression that the cause is being
available when dealing with threats, violence, theft, concealed.
drugs, sexual offences and unsociable behaviour. He
can: Should you find that you cannot escape being
interviewed, do some planning beforehand. First
(i) Tell the individual or group to stop. decide what you are not going to discuss. Because of
(ii) Formalise a caution with somebody else present liability issues it is acceptable to say what happened
as a witness. i.e. we were involved in a collision at 0620 this
(iii) Issue a formal warning which will be recorded. morning. It is not wise to try and explain what
(iv) Berate the individual or group and demonstrate happened and why, however aggrieved you might feel.
authority supported by at least one person more The answer to such questions is "This is a matter for
than the people involved. the authorities who will examine all aspects of the
(v) Apply company disciplinary procedures if they incident."
exist.
(vi) Apply national disciplinary procedures if they The press needs information and if the incident is
exist (in most national fleets items v and vi will be serious the public are entitled to know what is going
similar). on. The task of good media relations is to assure the
(vii) Intervene physically (with care) to prevent further public that everything possible is being done to
deterioration. mitigate the affects of the incident. In this context it is
(viii)Discipline and/or fine the individuals concerned. possible to turn a negative situation into a positive
(ix) Seek advice from the company's P&I one.
representative (this is advisable if there are "We immediately shut off the power" - "The bosun
commercial or liability issues involved). courageously took the line from the tug" - "We
(x) Consult with other senior crew members. managed to disembark all the passengers without any
(xi) Record the facts -where possible these should be accidents" - "The ship was listing and the crew did a
supported by witnesses. magnificent job."
(xii) Photographs and diagrams.
(xiii)Lock up and/or detain. To end, either tip off an officer to say you are
(xiv)Have the offender put ashore. wanted after say five minutes or excuse yourself saying
there is still much work to be done. Crew members
How then is the master to decide which course of are often interviewed without the master knowing.
action to take and why? There are five underlying Like a company it is a good idea to carry out sensible
guiding principles: public relations to ensure that the crew have the right
Firstly there is a moral duty to take all reasonable facts.
precautions to ensure the safety of the ship, including The problem with the press is that they like a story
the safety of individuals and that the public is not and it is a better story if they can find a bogey to blame.
exposed to danger. A few good words "My ship was in excellent condition
Secondly there is an obligation to prevent the theft and we have an experienced crew" takes away the
of property - cargo, ship fixtures and fittings, stores innuendo of rust buckets and flags of convenience.
Make sure you get these comments in. Act with dignity,
and personal effects.
d o not appear scruffy and remember you are
Thirdly there is an obligation to maintain good law representing your company in public.
and order on board and to prevent occurrences such
Tanker companies, in particular, take press
as violent drunken behaviour or at a different level
relations very seriously and if you have the opportunity
the prevention of noisy radios disturbing the sleep of
to attend a course on presentation to the press and
watchkeepers.
media my advice is to take it.
Fourthly the master has an obligation to comply
with the law of the flag state and the law of the Conclusion
countries the ship visits. This has particular relevance This contribution has been designed to
for smuggling and stowaways. demonstrate that there is frequently more than one
way of looking at problems and that being 'absolutely
Fifthly the master should be guided by a sense of right' gives way to the more mature 'exercise of
fairness." judgement'.
Media management There is no absolute security in the business world,
Should you be unfortunate enough to be involved only commitment to new enterprise. Now this is well
in a major maritime incident it is likely that the media, appreciated with the bust up, flagging out or
press and television, will want to inform the public liquidation of traditional shipping companies and it is
about what happened. Most companies prevent their worth emphasising the quality of self-reliance which
employees from talking to the media, but this strategy has to come more to the fore.

Management on board Solving Problems and Making Decisions - The
Of course, a ship is an economic unit and the Nautical Institute open learning module
principles of using resources effectively apply equally Leading and Motivating - The Nautical Institute
to a ship as they do to a hospital or factory. A ship, open learning module
though, is a self-contained unit and it is perhaps more Crime at Sea - A Practical Guide - B.A.H. Parritt,
helpful if those on board think in terms of optimising The Nautical Institute 1996
the use of resources. E'ze Practice ofManagement - P. Drucker, William
Heinemann 1996
It is often difficult to imagine from a ship the The Nautical Institute Command Self-Development
problems of running a shipping company in head Pragramme 2000
office. There can be financial worries, problems in
finding cargoes, personnel problems, claims, and a Annex I - Interviews
host of husbandry issues which need attention from a Just about every officer at sea has experienced an
diminishing shore establishment. It is therefore interview, whether it was recruitment, voyage out-turn
worthwhile to reflect on your value to the company. or an oral examination. In each situation the personnel
Here are some questions: manager, superintendent or examiner had particular
The present points they wished to establish. Their skill in asking
Have I got m y job in hand with the right questions and controlling the dialogue determined
information coming forward so that I can plan ahead their effectiveness.
and harmonise activities on board? One thing is quite certain, that experience of being
interviewed is not a very good guide when it comes to
The future
Have I anticipated and planned for the future so interviewing yourself. For a start the emotional balance
that I can optimise the resources at my disposal? feels wrong. Asking questions is different to answering
them and responding is different to leading the
Relationships with the company discussion from a position of authority. The following,
Are my actions fully supporting the company's then, are some notes on techniques which can be useful
objectives? Do I need clarification on specific issues? when interviewing subordinates, discussing business
Can I explain my value to the company? affairs in head office and controlling the many face-
to-face contacts with customs, agents and surveyors.
Relationship with the crew
Do all on board know what is expected of them? 1. Establishing your authority
Have I helped to create a good social atmosphere? To control a situation somebody has to be in charge
Will officers and crew leave being able to make a more and it is important to establish in your own mind first,
effective contribution to the ship both at work and why the interview is being held, for what purpose,
socially than when they arrived? Do I avoid careless and what outcome is needed. In spite of 'modernism'
gossip, keep confidences, conduct myself communication is made more efficient by convention
professionally, keeping up to date and thereby and it will help if you 'the captain' state your position
contribute as a leader? and why the interviewee is brought before you.
Finally For this reason, never undermine the company's

By its nature a new command brings forward a authority with a statement like 'head office has asked
host of new ideas and possibly disturbing thoughts. me to interview you about this, but I do not really
"How can I possibly cope with all these?" The answer think it is a good idea'. If you do not think it is a good
is methodically and in a relaxed frame of mind. idea your discussion is with the company and not the
subordinate. Unexpected visitors can be held in check
Humour is a great social lubricant - ultimately, by being told to wait a short time outside your cabin.
self reliance is the name of the game for which there When they enter you can adopt a formal position
is no substitute for character. behind your desk. Invite them to sit down and then
Another way of preparing for command is to do tell them that in 10 minutes or so you have another
The Nautical Institute's Command Partnership Scheme. appointment. If you want to keep your independence
This has been designed to help chief officers maintain a distance. When the time is reached stand
experience the tasks and responsibilities associated up shake their hand and ask them to leave.
with Command. If you can encourage your chief mate 2. When to formalise a meeting
to work through the programme which has been It is useful to be clear in your own mind what you
designed by those in command they will thank you are trying to achieve:
when their time comes. To improve performance of the ship or an individual.
To test and/or improve morale.
References To obtain information or to impart information.
Setting Objectives and Planning - The Nautical To hear a grievance and enable a subordinate to let off
Institute open learning module steam.
COMMAND 179
To analyse a situation, solve a problem or to make 7. The emotional tangle of taking on somebody
recommendations. else's problems
To implement new policies and practices. It is possible to share problems a n d put forward
To provide a formal method of feedback and helpful ideas. It is undesirable in the interests of the
accountability. ship as a whole to become involved personally. Indeed,
To provide counsel. once you become emotionally involved you lose the
objectivity to make original suggestions and a balanced
3. Planning for an interview
sense of purpose. Concern yes; involvement no. T h e
Like navigation, effective communication needs to
way to stay detached is to stick to the purpose of the
b e planned for:
meeting. If it is a compassionate case the objective of
Think through the interview, have a strategy to deal
h o m e leave or the consequences of n o t being able
with possible snags.
(physically o r in monetary terms) to provide it should
Have all the necessary information available. Be
b e thought through a n d dealt with sympathetically.
prepared to postpone or adjouln an interview until more
data can be provided. Remember the Missions to Seafarers will usually b e
Consider the probable length and plan the discussion. able to send a welfare officer to the home.
Make notes of the plan and refer to them. Fuller notes are provided b y Fletcher', o n selection
interviewing, interviews within work like grievances,
4. Conducting the interview r e p r i m a n d s a n d counselling a n d a v e r y valuable
To control a n interview it is necessary to hold the
chapter o n progress a n d appraisal interviewing. H e r e
initiative:
is how Mr. Fletcher sets out to conduct counselling
Introduce the purpose and scope of the interview. a n d progl-ess interviews.
Prepare questions to keep within the framework.
Guide the discussion, confirming progress at intervals. Counselling interview
Summarise and conclude the interview, making sure Aims
the interviewee fully understands the end result. 1 To help employees solve their problems concerning
Where there are irreconcilable differences, pick on some work or their private life.
small point where agreement is common and plan 2 To improve performance and working relationships by
another meeting after a cooling-off period. helping solve their problems.
5. Techniques and integrity Preparation

I n any community those in authority must be seen 1 If possible, set aside so much time that the interview
to b e fair, truthful a n d constructive. This engenders does not have to be cut short.
2 Ensure privacy.
r e s p e c t w h i c h is t h e b e s t asset t o a p r o d u c t i v e
3 Consider the person's background (education, home,
discussion. Interviews are controlled through questions
work) and what problems he might have.
a n d personal influence. 4 Consider what other persons or agencies (medical,
Questions can b e posed: social, legal, etc.) might help.
To relax or stiffen the interviewee. 5 Consider how the person's work would be done if he
To draw out information and amplify points. or she had to have leave of absence.
To keep the discussion from rambling.
Structure
To bring out distinctions and similarities. 1 Welcome and put at ease.
To encourage judgement. 2 Let the person state his or her problem.
To exercise discipline. 3 Redefine the problem, analysing it into different
To bring the interviewee into line by asking limiting problems where necessary.
questions which have only one answer - i.e. Who? 4 Take each problem separately. Use short questions to
Where? When? get him to expand.
To open up a discussion ask broadening questions like, 5 Listen sympathetically.
Why? How? or What? 6 Contribute your knowledge of the persons or agencies
to whom he or she could turn for help.
6. Personal influence 7 Help the person to formulate a plan of action.
It is n o t often considered in conversation but there
The interview at work
is considerable scope t o relieve anxiety which is Assure the person of your help, and that his or her affairs
8
particularly important with ratings and junior officers; will be kept secret.
a n d scope to put across the seriousness of a n incident 9 Arrange a follow-up interview.
to somebody who is irresponsible. Relaxers include:
Being comfortable, relaxed approach, signs of Check results
understanding. 1 Hold the follow-up interview. This time five minutes
Questions about family, other activities on board. may be enough.
Stiffeners include: Progress interview

Seriousness of subject, formal colder relationship. Preparation
Unpleasant consequences. 1 Study the job objectives.

2 Analyse the achievement of each objective. Duties of the chairman
3 Consider the person's potential; whether he or she is 1. He or she shouid make sure that the meeting over which
being fiilly 'stretched'; what changes could be made so he is about to preside has been properly convened.
that the job would use the person's full capacity. 2. He should be fully conversant with the statutory rules,
4 Consider the forms of recognition and reward open to standing orders, or regulations of the organisation and
the person, apart from private congratulation at the that they are properly observed.
interview: (a) financial; (b) promotion; (c) privileges; 3. When conducting the meeting he should keep to the
(d) extra responsibility or (e) training. order of items set out in the agenda.
,5 Plan the progress interview in relation to the person's 4. During a discussion he should ensure that sufficient
long term development, and the development of the opportunity is given to all present who wish to take
organisation. part in the discussion. He should call upon each speaker
6 Avoid holding the interview at a time of crisis. by name when that individual indicates he wishes to
7 Give the person at least a week's notice of the speak. This procedure is essential in the early days of a
forthcoming interview, and invite him or her to prepare new committee and enables members to get to know
for it. each other more quickly. It also assists the committee
secretary in taking notes of the meeting which are then
Structure produced as 'minutes' at the succeeding meeting.
1 Put at ease. 5. He should not allow discussion of an issue unless there
2 State the nature of the interview. is a motion or proposition before the meeting on it.
3 Give an overall impression of the person's work and However, the chairman usually exercises some latitude,
progress. permitting discussion to take place if he thinks the issue
4 Outline the structure of the interview. is important.
5 Get understanding of the purpose of the interview. 6. He must ensure that the discussior~of any issue is kept
6 Get agreement on the main job objectives, and the within reasonable bounds and prevent the introduction
achievement of each objective. of irrelevant matters.
7 Discuss where improvement is possible and how -
training? Powers of the chairman
8 Discuss strengths and points for congratulations. The ultimate power of control over a meeting and
9 Discuss the person's ambitions and enthusiasms. the maintenance of order is in the hands of the
10 Any questions? chairman.
11 Sum up (in a job-centred and impersonal way). 1. He has the power to adjourn a meeting when he
12 Get agreement on job objectives for the next six to considers that its business has been properly completed.
twelve months.
2. He has the power to adjourn a meeting when a majority
13 Arrange the date of the next progress interview.
of members present decide that the remaining agenda
14 End on a note of confidence, trust, and satisfaction.
items should be dealt with at another meeting.
Check results 3. He has the power to adjourn a meeting when he finds it
1 Watch the points raised for improvement, and impossible to maintain reasonable order in the meeting.
congratulate if appropriate. (This position would not often arise in a committee
2 Check performance in the job generally. meeting but is more likely to happen at a general
3 Check relations and attitude. meeting of irate company shareholders.)
4 Prepare for the next progress interview.
Running a discussion meeting
I
For further reading consult The Interview at Work, by
J . Fletcher, published by Duckworth, ISBN 07156 07278.
I. Outline subject clearly
The style is clear, simple and uses good practical State topic, problem or difficulty with which the
examples of difficult situations and how to avoid them. meeting is to deal. Outline situation gving rise to topic,
problem or difficulty. State purpose of the meeting,
Annex I1 - Running a meeting so that everyone knows what is appropriate for
discussion and what is not. Define technical terms used.
A witty answer turneth away wrath Outline the procedure to be followed (suggest a logical
The role of the committee chairman 'pathway' for the discussion and outline the time scale).
The role of the chairman will depend largely upon 2. Guide the discussion
the type of committee, its function and purpose. If a Assemble all necessary facts beforehand. Draw out
committee has a clearly set function with a precise information, viewpoints, experiences. Make sure that
agenda for discussion, the chairman's role must be a all contributions are understood. Keep discussion on
dominant one, otherwise the business will not be the subject. Avoid purely personal arguments. Develop
settled according to schedule. Many committees, group participation.
because of bad chairmanship, spend too much time
on the earlier part of the agenda and not enough time 3. Cystalise the discussion
is left to examine the other agenda topics in depth. If, Summarise the development of the discussion.
on the other hand, there is no rigd agenda or timetable Refer to any changes of opinion. State points of
for a meeting, the chairman's role can be less agreement and disagreement. State intermediate
dominant, the main function being that of keeping conclusions as reached. Make sure of understanding
order and developing discussion. and acceptance of summaries.
COMMAND 181
4. EstablishJinal conclusions reached teamwork. The secretary enables the group to be
Give final summary of course of discussion. State effective by recording the outcome and making sure
conclusion(s)clearly. State the main points contributed that any action necessary is taken. 'The individual
at the meeting. State minor disagreement (if any) and committee members contribute the substance of the
the reasons for it. Check to be sure of a fair summary, meeting. However, in any group, certain guidelines
and that members understand it. are desirable: H. H. Taylor and A. G. Mears in 'On the
Right Way to Conduct Meetings, Conferences and Discussions'
5. Secure agreement on action give the following:
(where meeting warrants it)
Show that decisions are group decisions arising out Chairman
of discussion. Show that decision is based on 1. A calm and friendly disposition.
conviction, assent or reconciliation of views. Formulate 2. The ability to think clearly and objectively.
the action. 3. A sound knowledge of procedure.
4. A sense of humour and absolute control of temper
Choice of committee officers
Secretary
2 group is an enterprise in being' 1. Good organisational ability.
2. Tidy and methodical.
It would be wrong to assume that the chairman 3. Calin and clear-headed.
runs a committee alone. Good committee work is 4. Tactful and friendly.

Chapter 27
PORT PROCEDURES
by Captain C.M.R. Lloyd FNI
Captain Lloyd attended H M S C O N W A Y as a cadet before joining PMO. He was c h i ~ f o f i c e rand master with Offshore Marine and
joined Arya National Line as masterfiom 7973 to 797%He then joined Worldwide Shipping where he has served as master on Very
Large Bulk Carriers. He is a commissioned ofJicer i n the R N R , a Yozrngrr Brother of Trinity House and a Frllow of The Nautical
Institute. Captain Lloyd has co~ztributedmany features to improve safety at sea, but above all he has campaigned to ensure that sh$s
and seafarers are treated properly when they come to port.
Introduction Having recognised these contrasts, the safest path

IT that the port bureaucracy in
CO U LD W EL L B E SAID to follow is to presume the worst-case scenario, that
many countries exists to engage ships' staff in hours of the large tanker or bulk carrier, which spends long
of pointless paperwork, employing the maximum periods of time between ports, with the ports often
number of officials who have little else to do. All ports diverse and with the time in those ports measured in
are not, of course, like that, but having recently visited hours rather than days.
Morocco and had the pleasure of 23 officials in my
I have commented before, in other publications,
cabin, disposed of 40 crew lists, anything not tied down
on the problem of perception between the ship and
and all the cobwebs from the bond, I feel justified in
port. To a ship such as described above, the port arrival
making such statement. Those who have the added
is a major management event: to the port just another
pleasures of transiting the Suez Canal might wish to
ship in a long line of ships. In other words, the port is
add their own observations.
not too interested in your problems. The terminal is
The reason that I opened the chapter with this only interested in getting the cargo in and out as
comment is that the frustrations you will most certainly quickly as possible and any other problem is a
feel in dealing with ports and their officials during your nuisance. The agency is such a variable factor in
time in command have been felt by us all. today's maritime industry that the reliance on it of
yesteryear can no longer be guaranteed.
There are two ways of viewing this. In the first,
you allow your intelligence to use logic and fight the To achieve even orderly chaos, pre-planning is
system. This leads to stress, even further frustration - essential. Let us assume that you have a 'managed' ship.
because you will not win - and eventually alienation By that, I mean a ship where the master does not try to
of the ship and port. You and the ship suffer, not the do everything, because he cannot, but where the officers
port. If you bear in mind that owners or managers all have some degrees of responsibilities. These officers
pay you to get the ship through the port as quickly all must be consulted as to their requirements and
and smoothly as possible rather than engage in priorities established. If the port stay is short and the
demonstrating your ability to run the port, you will world and his dog are waiting for you, some form of
see that they will not be amused. port planning meeting is essential. From this meeting,
The second is to accept that each country has not only will you develop a list of events but y o u h e r s
differing ways and customs and that a port has the will also know what is happening and that just might\
right
- to determine how it is managed, regardless of
be a new development for some ships.
your opinions, and use your intelligence to prepare
Let us presume that such meeting has been held
the ship for that port, to avoid, as much as possible,
and you now have a list to make up. A hypothetical
any problems. This way leads to long life, a prolonged
list of requirements and officers responsibilities based
career, and getting ashore far quicker than you would
on modern manning with no chief steward or radio
by following the first route.
officer could be as follows:
Port planning f i e Master
How you prepare your ship is entirely dependent Port fornlalities and paperwork.
on the trade, type of ship and staff you have available Agent.
and port you are visiting. A ferry trading between two Mail in and out.
ports on a daily basis will be treated entirely differently Cash payments to various suppliers.
by the ports from a foreign ship which has never visited Port victualling arrangements.
the ports before. Regular visits to ports allow a
relationship to develop with the port personnel and Chief Officer
this, coupled with a familiarity with the port Cargo. Tonnage to load. Loading sequence.
procedures, hopefully leads to trouble free visits. Deballasting time.
COMMAND 183
Fresh water requirements. Cargo documents
Essential safety programme to complete; for It is essential that the cargo stowage or discharge
example, lowering lifeboats. plan together with the ballasting arrangements are sent
Stores to load. to the port as soon as possible. Then, should there be
Deck surveys. any dispute, the issues can be clarified prior to the
Essential work programme in port. ship arriving.
Chief Engineer If any changes are requested and made, again send
Bunkers to load. your changed plan. O n your final plan you might
Essential maintenance work. consider stating that there will be no changes made to
CSM or engne surveys. this final plan as they will inevitably be requested
Spares to load or land. within hours of arrival.
Shore technicians as required.
The worst case will be when, having sent your
2nd Ofleer plans, there is no reply from the terminal and, when
Port navigational requirements. you arrive, it then requires the whole plan to be
Medical or dental treatments. changed. At least when this happens, and it will, the
ship cannot be blamed for any delays incur ed.
To the above list must now be added any special
port requirements such as rat guards, brows, The agents
communications, signals, and port regulations, if they A word regarding agencies. The days when the
are known. agent visited the ship are gone, unless you are a cruise
ship with a nice restaurant and female company. Now
It is not suggested that only those officers listed the ship will be visited by a boarding clerk whose
deal with all the specified items above. O n a well experience will be variable.
managed ship, with a modern company approach, all
officers should have their individual responsibilities The agency itself may not feel it is representing
delegated and cross-departmental management should you anyway, as it could be the charterer's agent that
be in place. However, as we all know, we do not always your owner or management is using. It might be
sail with officers of management abilities or in worthwhile to find out if your company is paying a
companies that recognise shipboard management; and proportion of the agency's costs as this will then allow
it is not unusual for the whole list to devolve to the you to refute this argument - which you will certainly
master and chief engineer. Having established our list hear some time in your career in command.
of requirements for the port, the next phase is forward
Next, the agency might be a division of the terminal
preparation.
which you are using and no other agency is allowed
Forward preparation to compete.
In this phase we are trying to pave the way, as far The worst case scenario is that the agency
r is a
as possible, for the ship and those who we will be division of the charterers and the charterers own the
dealing with in the port. The more work put in before terminal. Here they can often behave as t & y ' ~ a s e
you arrive, the less there will be to do on arrival. and there is not a lot that can be done about it.
Port papers The agency today, therefore, can be of such
The crew list should always be sent ahead. In the variable quantity that nothing can be taken for granted.
case of the US a 'visa-ed' crew list is required to be It must not be assumed that they have all the
sent ahead and this causes considerable problems, with information, either. Communications within the port
these lists often arriving after the ship. organisation can vary greatly with the terminal often
not advising the agency of changes or matters that
Some ports will accept computerised customs may effect your ship. Equally, the fact that you have
forms and crew lists in lieu of their own: unfortunately requested your company to arrange a surveyor or
these are few and far between. Perhaps in some far- technician to attend on arrival is no guarantee that
sighted time countries will issue their forms on disk. this has been done. In other words, regardless of what
Or, even better, we will be able to 'sign on' at the first you may think has been arranged, presume the agency
port with our own disk, which holds all the information has no information
required, and this will automatically eass with only
the updated changes required. For the moment, You should advise the agent as follows:
though, the port papers must be prepared by hand in Your requirements regarding presentation of
advance. In many cases, when you are going to a port manifests etc prior to discharge.
for which you do not have the forms, these can be Normally all dealings with the portlterminal are
requested in advance or even possibly faxed to you if through the agent. However, if this is not the case,
this is acceptable. If the port will accept any other the agent should also be sent a copy of the crew
forms being faxed, this will all help on the day. list and cargo.

Personnel leaving or joining, as well as any berth. Even his estimate of when you are sailing will
requiring medical or dental treatment. often be more accurate than the agent's. Properly used,
Fresh water requirements. the chandler can be invaluable.
Any technical assistance required or technicians
that have been requested to attend. With this it is This is not a comprehensive list but I hope it will
essential that the equipment is detailed together provide the student with an insight into the possible
with the suspected problem or area of concern. normal requirements of a ship arriving at a port.
Surveyors requested and what the surveys are. In the port
What cash is required, together with the Without doubt, how the ship is treated depends
denomination of the notes and exchange rates. considerably on first impressions. Clean, well prepared
Any stores or spares that have been sent to the gangways, clean accommodation and uniformed
port, preferably with the shipment number. officers show a well-ordered and disciplined ship. The
Charts. Notice is required for the delivery of charts. port likes this. The fact that all the documentation is
If you do not have an appropriate chart for prepared further enhances the ship. In many countries
entering the port arrange, through the agent, for the officials are in uniform and if you are as well you
the pilot to bring such chart to the ship. The same have an equal presence of authority.
applies to courtesy ensigns.
Bunkers. Advise the agents what bunkers have With the reduced personnel of the modern manned
been ordered. Remember that you are the ship, many of the niceties of old can no longer be
customer. If time allows, specify when you want offered. However, there is always room for courtesy
the bunkers to be delivered, otherwise you will and it is essential that politeness be maintained,
get them whenever the bunkering company sees
fit. If the ship arrives early in the morning and is
especially with those who can assist the smooth passage
of the ship through the port formalities.
,
sailing early morning the next day, you want the /
bunkers on arrival not during the night before It is important that all the required documents a d
sailing. correctly filled in and ready for the officials' arrival;
For your port emergency listings, you will require also that personnel are standing by to assist with the
the names and phone numbers of the pollution port entry formalities. You know that customs will
agencies. At the same time, find out what pollution require to inspect the bond therefore someone is ready
protection, if any, the port provides. for this. Port health may wish to see the galley and
The disposal of waste continues to be a growing store-rooms. Again, the cook should be ready.
problem for the ships with many ports not able or Immigration may want the passports or seamen's
unwilling to cope with this problem. Again, documentation. If these are ready, the faster the port
advance notice is suggested. procedures will be over and you can begin the ship's
Ask if the port regulations allow overside painting,
business.
lifeboats to be lowered and, most important, any
port regulations regarding work on the main All too often, advice as to what documentation is
engne involving immobilisation. required by the port is wrong or out of date. In general
it is wise to have most forms ready and I follow with
Ship regulations
a typical list of port documentation required.
Most ports or terminals have regulations that you
are often asked to sign when your ship arrives. These Port documentation
generally refer to safety matters and that particular Last port clearance. If any certificate is going to
terminal's requirements. Normally the master signs be mislaid, it is this one, mostly because it is
these as 'sighted' only. brought by the agent at the last minute and left
around in the ship's or master's office for days, or
There is no reason why the ship should not produce
because it is often difficult to determine what it is,
its own regulations for the terminal. Outline the
especially when written in a foreign language. It
requirements for protective equipment needed in the
can easily get thrown away. If you do mislay this
working areas of the ship, prohibited areas to shore
form, have a copy faxed from the agent of the
personnel, accident reporting etc. This list should be
previous port.
sent ahead of the ship via the agent. Not only will this
Crew lists. Whatever the number of crew lists you
assist with the general safety and efficiency of the
think is required, double it. Also remember that
combined operations but it will help remind the
if there is any change of crew, this list will have to
terminal that the ship is also a factory, with its own
be changed for departure.
particular problems, as well.
Passenger lists are often a problem because of the
In many cases you will find the chandler the most definition of what is a passenger. Some ports want
useful man in the port and often the only man working the supernumeraries listed as crew, while others
for you. He will know what technical assistance is will want them on a separate passenger list. Check
available and whether your crane is suitable for the ahead with the agent.
COMMAND 185
Customs forms. Read the requirements with care. anyone who appears. Thus port state, customs,
Most ports find the entry 'personal effects' quite coastguard, and any other inspectorate body tend to
acceptable but there are those that require every appear out of the woodwork, usually at the worst times.
single item belongng to the crew to be listed. They do not contact the agents or even the terminal.
Health forms. Few ports have their own form and It does no harm to ask the agent if any of these
any health form is generally acceptable. organisations intend to visit the ship, to request that
Vaccination lists. Very few ports still insist on this: their visit be planned for a convenient time. It is, after
generally you should make your own. all, your ship - another novel concept for many in
Arms or ammunition. List or state none. Make the port organisation.
your own list.
General stores declaration. This is a peculiar form If there really is no one readily available to assist
which seems - in some cases - to go back a couple whoever has appeared, then explain the problem and
of centuries, when you still required to list the ask for their patience. O n the grounds of safety alone,
visitors should not be allowed to wander around the
cordage and tar carried on board When this is
required, each country will have its' own list for ship alone.
completion. Visitors to the ship should be 'signed in' in a
List of previous ports. Make your own list, which visitors' book and they should sign an indemnity form,
can be required to show ports visited up to three especially if they are spending some time in the
months previously. working areas of the ship.
Drug list. Make your own and state where they
are held. Conclusion
Stores or spares to be landed. List them ready for There is much wrong with the present relationship
the agent and customs. between ship and port, but it is not the aim of this
Ship's certificates. These are the statutory trading chapter to debate this issue. The aim is to highlight
certificates such as the safety certificate. In some the problem areas and guide the potential new master
ports they will be inspected 'in situ' by a number through these. T h i n k of the three Cs -
of agencies. In others the agent will take the Communication, Calmness and Courtesy - as a
certificates required ashore. Ensure a receipt for guiding theme.
these is obtained.
No port is the same; equally each country has
I am sure that this list is not comprehensive, but it regulations pertinent to it and its government. In some
should cope with the majority of forms required by you are treated correctly and with courtesy, in others
most ports. you are an upmarket able seaman.
Official visitors Either way, your job is the same, to have the ship
Ashore, by which I mean in the normal world of entered in and cargo work commenced as soon as
business, it is customary to make appointments before possible, to respect that country's laws and comply
visiting. Not so with a ship. The presumption is that with the port regulations during your ship's stay. If
everyone on board is instantly ready to deal with you can do this, then you have done your job as master.

Chapter 28
PICKING UP THE PILOT

by Captain R.M. Thorn FNI FRGS
Captain Thorn served his apprenticeshi;b with the Anglo Saxon Petroleum Co. (Shell Tankers)from 7950 to 7954. He was third oficer
with the Rex Steamship Co. (tramp shi;bs)from 7954 to 7955 and since 7956 has been in the Royal Fleet Auxiliary Service. He was
selectedfor conzmand in 7968 and has since con~manded70 RFAs of all classes as well as spending three years as an RFA marine
superintendent (7977-7980). He has held exen~ptions for, and carried out pilotage in, several UK areas.
Introduction Slziphandling: How does the ship lie when stopped,

ALTHOUGH T HE HE A DIN G of this chapter is 'Picking up should this be necessary? What is the stopping
the pilot', the term 'pilot transfer' will be used in distance? What rate of drift should one expect in any
context as dropping the pilot is a similar evolution. given wind condition? At what speed does the ship
After the outgoing captain has left, the ship sailed and cease to steer effectively? (Shiphandling is dealt with
reached the end of pilotage waters, shiphandling to in another chapter; however, the above points
drop the pilot provides that first moment when the provide the essence to carry out a safe pilot transfer.)
captain is on his own! It may be a simple procedure Positioning: The lee side for the transfer will be
in daylight, calm weather, and open clear sea; determined by the prevailing wind, weather and
however, the bizarre can also become a reality. Your geographical location. Allow sufficient room within
pilot may depart by skidoo on to the icepack, a sailing the transfer area to manoeuvre clear of any traffic, and
boat or canoe rather than the traditional modern pilot at the pick up speed. Do allow sufficient time for the
boat. Sometimes helicopters are used, and, in at least pilot to reach the bridge and have a verbal brief before
one port, the pilot may opt to dive from the lower his advice is required.
rungs of the ladder and swim ashore! In bad weather
conditions, there may have to be a command decision Publications: Check if possible, from the relevant
to carry the pilot on to the next port of call. pilot book and port guide, details of the pilotage service
that you are about to use. Are there any special
Picking up the pilot is probably the most important requirements from them?
seamanship task carried out by the captain for at least
the three following reasons: It should now be possible to plan your track to the
transfer position on the chart.
(i) The ship has to be manoeuvred to a safe transfer
position, course and speed without external Contingency plan: Finally, do have a contingency
assistance. plan. Traffic, weather, engine problems or just the
(ii) By virtue of the need to pick up a pilot, the ship idiosyncrasies of the pilot boat may dictate the
will be in, or approaching, an area of geographical requirements either to anchor or overshoot and put
difficulty and possible traffic density. out into clear water - this could be difficult if your
(iii) The act of picking up a pilot from a pilot boat planning puts you within two cables of an obstruction
may well be the only practical training available and your ship has a five-cable turning circle.
to a captain for that most difficult problem of
rescue at sea - either launching a boat, or Preparation
recovering people from a boat. The briej Those directly involved in all aspects of
the transfer need to know what both the plan and
Sensibly, time must be allowed prior to sailing (and contingency plan is. It should be possible to give exact
subsequent arrival) for planning, preparation, and timings so that any calls can be made in good time,
checks and the captain can expect those involved to be at
their posts and ready with the appropriate equipment
Planning in good working order and condition.
Area: Consider the area, possible traffic density,
weather conditions and whether the transfer is to take Standby: A pilot transfer is a standby situation.
place in daylight or not. Do remember that from Communication: The essence of all preparation is
heights to 50 St and above from the water line, communication. Communication with the port of call
conditions alongside may seem much calmer than gving the ship's ETA (or ETD) should include the
when viewed by the coxswain of a small boat trying pilot station and elicit any special requirements and
to come alongside. details of local conditions; these are to be passed on at
COMMAND 187
the brief. Internal communications from the command When a pilot is on board, the general rule is that it
to each of the involved positions are vital for a safe is the responsibility of the master, officers and other
operation (helmsman, engine control room, pilot members of the crew to pass on all relevant
ladder station and anchor party). information, including defects and peculiarities, to the
pilot and to keep a proper lookout. Such a duty has
Checks been interpreted by the courts to include the duty to
If at all possible it is no bad thing, on approaching report all material circumstances and facts which might
the transfer area, to stop the main engnes and check influence the pilot's actions, even if the pilot is in a
the astern movement. From this moment on, check position where he ought to be able to see things clearly
the following: for himself.
Engnes are on standby, anchors cleared away and,
if appropriate, stabilisers housed and bow thrust Where, in the master's opinion, the situation
operational. developing is obviously dangerous, it is his duty to
Manpower is available, on duty and in draw the pilot's attention to the risk and, if necessary
communication. in his judgement, take over the conduct of the vessel.
Pilot ladder checked. The master is not justified in doing nothing.
Access for transfer is equipped, lit, manned and
provided with safety equipment. Duty of the pilot
Communication with the pilot is established; The duty of a pilot is to direct the navigation of
position and time of transfer both clear and the ship and to conduct it so far as the course of the
confirmed, including which side the transfer is to ship is concerned. He has no other power on board.
take place. The common law relationship between master and
Having planned the transfer consulting charts and pilot is such that, when the master hands over the
publications; prepared to carry out the plan with brief conduct of the vessel to the pilot, the latter is legally
and communication; and checked the manning and responsible for his own actions and the master's right
operability of on-board systems, the safe conclusion to interfere, without incurring his own liability, is
of the transfer is governed by the ability to command restricted to circumstances where there is clear
and handle the ship and her systems to greatest effect evidence of the pilot's inability or incompetence.
in the prevailing co.11d itions. The legal position of the pilot on board a vessel is
Duty of the master and crew during aptly summarised by the Canadian Royal Commission
on Pilotage, Ottawa 1969, as follows:
pilotage
The master of a ship must, among other h n g s , ensure . . . 'To conduct a shq' must not be confused with being
the safety of the ship, of all on board and of all who are 'in command of a sh$: The first expression refers to action,
threatened in any way by the proximity or operations of to a personal service beingperformed; the second to apower.
other ships. In the execution of his duties, he is entitled The question whether a pilot has control of navigation is a
to the full cooperation and assistance from his officers question offact and not of law. The fact that apilot has been
and other members of his crew. All on board must go
given control of the sh$for navigationalpurposes does not
about their tasks in accordance with those ordinary
mean that the pilot has superseded the master. The master
practices of seamen that have been tried and tested over
a very long period of time - i.e. the well understood is, and remains, in command; he is the authority aboard.
standards of seamanship that safeguard against accident He may, and does, delegate part of his authority to
or error. It is the master's responsibility to ensure that subordinates and to outside assistants who he employs to
the crew support the pilot in his duties and the master navigate his s h q - i.e. pilots. A delegation ofpower is not
may delegate the authority for this to the officer of the an abandonment of authority, but one way of exercising
watch or other appropriate officers. .authority.
188 THE NAUTICAL INS-TITUTE

Chapter 29
NAVIGATION IN PILOTAGE WATERS

by Captain F. Baillod FNI, Shipmaster
Captain Baillod started his seagoing career in 1963. Aficr an early time with Scandinavian companies he joined Suisse Atlantique
where he was promoted master in 7980. Captain Baillod is still serving as master and regularly contributes to industry forums. He is a
member of The Nautical Institute Bulk Carrier Working Group and a Fellow and Council Member.
Introduction In many cases the pilotage standard is directly linked

CLOSE COOPERATION IS ESSENTIAL between master and to the quality of the port organisation, the pilot's
pilot. By showing the shipmaster's view, I hope to working scheme and personal backgrounds.
highlight some problems and bring about better The master usually has a pilot with local expertise
communications in this delicate and important handling his ship. There are, however, cases when the
relationship. The master and the pilot have a common master has to handle the ship by himself, often in
goal - bringing the ship safely to her berth - but extreme weather conditions, when the pilot has to
different priorities and viewpoints. The master is leave early or joins late. In other cases, the master
essentially protective about his ship. He is also under may have to leave a port or a quay which is becoming
pressure, from both owners and charterers, to unsafe, without being able to get a pilot and/or tug.
minimise delay and cut costs if possible. For the pilot, There are occasions when particular features of a ship
commercial pressures may differ a very great deal from mean that the master has to have special knowledge
one harbour/country to another. Some ports have a to handle his own vessel, even in the presence of a
heavy schedule and they have to compete with others; pilot. It is, therefore, my opinion that it is important
some ports are short of tugs and others impose for the master to take a keen interest in shiphandling.
unnecessary tug services to increase their revenues.
There are ports where pilots are well assisted in sound Communication between tug master and the ship
management, while in others there is hardly any should be standardised so as to allow a master to
organisation. Language is very often a barrier. communicate efficiently in any country on leaving or
entering a port in an emergency, without a pilot but
Many large ships are employed on tramp trade with the help of a tug. Such a standardised vocabulary
and it is very common nowadays for the master to would also help the master, under normal
call at a port for the first time. It is also common to circumstances, to understand the orders g v e n by the
call at a port built before the advent of large ships. pilot to the tugs during manoeuvring.
Consequently, berths are too small, or the harbour
has expanded offshore before extension of the Standards of pilotage
breakwater, or the approach channel may not be Standards of pilotage can differ widely from
properly dredged. In South America, the phrase 'safely country to country. To mention only a few examples,
aground' is used in many charter parties and its original I have known river pilots in South America who knew
context is often knowingly misinterpreted. Some pilots nothing but sign language, with vague explanations
are reluctant to tell the master of the possible problems in their native tongue. Once I had to berth a ship
that he may encounter during his stay in port, for fear myself at a west African port I had never called at
of prejudicing his employers, namely the harbour before because the pilot was intoxicated; and I realised
board. Others may exaggerate the hazards of a berth, it only when the ship was beyond the point of no
so as to induce masters into lodging protests in order, return. I had to have a pilot escorted off the bridge in
indirectly, to achieve improvements they were unable the Bosphorus for the same reason. In a middle east
to get by themselves. port a pilot feigned a heart attack after realising that
During the past ten years I formed the impression the Mediterranean mooring operation was
that standards between various pilots have widened unsuccessful and, on entering a major Chinese port, a
more than ever. We see very professional pilots 22 year old pilot tried to cover up his mistake by
dedicated to their jobs and keen on communicating misleading me into believing that an area had recently
with the master and the bridge team. At the other end been dredged. I avoided grounding only by taking
of the scale we see those whose only preoccupation is emergency action. In quite a few cases, I myself or
the mate have observed pilots dozing.
to hurry through the operation of bringmg the ship in
or out, no matter how. The latter may be the result of O n the other hand, pilots in most developed
undue pressure or fatigue, which is forgivable, but in countries are very professional and dedicated. They
other cases is simply a lack of care and professionalism. honour their profession and I am sure they could g v e
COMMAND 189
even more accounts of sub-standard crews and officers upon both master and pilot. Mutual exchange of
who are a disgrace to their profession. As much as we information prior to arrival can greatly help to reach
need to set crew standards, pilots' standards should a solution satisfying all parties. Ports are sometimes
be maintained on a world wide basis. Similarly, port being built without enough consideration towards
facilities and safety margins should be recognised and shiphandling. I have, as an example, seen a brand new
reasonably standardised. car carrier terminal being built in northeast Asia, with
all berths fully exposed and leading 90" to the
The pilot should advise the master of the possible
prevalent winter monsoon winds.
risks of the berth. Of course, because the pilot is usually
employed by the port, he may not be keen to suggest Safe embarkation and disembarkation
that a berth may not be safe. It should, however, be Many masters such as myself feel concern about
done honestly and without prejudice by the pilot and embarking or disembarking a pilot in rough seas. It is
the port should take the view that the master should usually preferable to drop or pick up the pilot in
be warned in writing of any possible risks of the berth sheltered waters. In some areas, distant pilotage takes
(eg in bad weather). With the growing number of place quite successfully. The means of disembarkation
inexperienced pilots appearing on the international should be appropriate. The landing of a helicopter on
scene, communication, mutual understanding and
the slippery hatch cover of a rolling bulk carrier can
respect is more essential than ever. The pilot should
be very hazardous and options such as winching or
brief the master of his intentions, calling his attention
simply over-carrying the pilot to a safer dropping area
to any special characteristics of the port or berth.
should be considered. In this case the master's opinion
Likewise, the master should brief the pilot about his
should be respected.
ship's expected characteristics. If the master knows
the pilot's intentions well, he is far less likely to Passage planning in pilotage waters
interfere. The writer is aware that short manning and fatigue,
The pilot expects the master to be able to comment in ever more demanding trades, regrettably often
on the ship's behaviour in various situations. Certainly prevent master and officers preparing a ell found
this should include any peculiarity of which the pilot passage plan in pilotage waters. Nevertheless, on a
may be unaware and which may affect the ship's well manned ship, the master will probably have
responses, such as critical speeds, engine notice, prepared a form of passage plan through an area of
thrusters, special rudders propellers, engne type, etc. pilotage water with his officers. Such a plan would,
Comments should also include such information as however, be limited to the information available from
reserved or forbidden areas for tugs to push and the various publications and the master's own particular
type and number of mooring lines, which should be experience in the area together with general
displayed next to the pilot card, speed table and experience to complement it. It may further be limited
manoeuvring board. Some pilots carry out a set of by a lack of up to date information. In many cases the
simple tests before commencing pilotage, to assess berth may not be allocated until the last nloment and
engine/rudder response, testing whistles, checking in many areas of the world charts do not show the
compass errors, the status of radars, echo sounders, latest developments which may have taken place. The
speed logs and the VHF. Some may also watch the master has, at times, to rely only on information given
master and his officers carefully, in order to judge the by the charterers or his agents.
amount of assistance they may get from them, whether
bridge team management and procedures exist and The following are some of the points which could
whether the officers and crew are proficient. be included in the ship's passage plan:
Safely to proceed Landmark identification.

Certain decisions ought to be taken together, such Margins of safety.
as crossing a bar in heavy weather. The underkeel Safe water.
clearance may not, for example, be sufficient to allow No-go areas.
for the vessel's rolling and pitching motion. The Points of no return.
master's own special knowledge of his ship should Contingency anchorage.
complement that of the pilot's local expertise. High Tidal window.
sided ships, particularly at light draft, may encounter Stream allowance.
specific problems when manoeuvring within restricted Wheel over points.
waters in windy conditions. The amount of power and Leading marks.
response, the availability of thrusters, variable pitch, Parallel indexing.
propeller immersion and trim are among the factors Distance 'off.
that will be taken into consideration when deciding Reporting points.
whether it is safe to proceed or not. TI-affic considerations.
Many ports may have specific restrictions for such The pilot's passage plan should, if possible, be
classes of ship. The final decision will, however, rest faxed to the ship prior to her arrival and be updated,
190 THE IVAUTICAL INS-TITUTE

if need be, by the pilot on boarding (ie berth master at the con, after a short mutual briefing of the
reallocation, possible delays, impediments etc.). It revised docking/passage plan and familiarisation with
would complement the ship's passage plan and contain the location of bridge equipment, controls and status.
particular information which may not be available to An exchange of information would already have taken
the crew prior to arrival. A number of ships may not place well in advance via fax, so that both master and
have a prepared passage plan so it should, therefore, pilots are fairly briefed upon their initial meeting. The
also be self contained and include the above in a exchange of a few words, both technical and informal,
proper concise form, easy to absorb and giving the should help them to reach the necessary human
crew the necessary elements to update and correct contact which I deem essential to achieve a degree of
their plan easily and rapidly. It would particularly human relationship, and consequent mutual trust.
mention such variables as dredged depths, tidal
streams, the position of dredgers or other An important role is the ability of the master and
impediments, moving banks, navaids off station, the officer to assist the pilot, particularly in the case of
availability of tugs and local conditions such as wind, any abnormality such as the break-up of
currents, ice, seasonal condition or any other communication with tugs, VTS, meeting traffic, or
anomalies. machinery, gear failure (own or that of another
meeting ship). There is a global need to improve the
It should complement the chart and especially crucial efficiency of communication between the
inform the ship about any latest developments which master/officers/crew and pilot. The master should be
may not figure on the charts or other publications able to understand orders given to the tugs or dock
commonly available on board. master by the pilot. An improved standard marine
vocabulary covering modern pilotage practices should
Some of the available pilotage techniques may not be used. I have now, over the years, gained enough
be evident in the documentation available on board,
knowledge to understand commands in a variety of
and such should be included in the pilot's plan.
language. This is, however, not a solution and cannot
Schematic diagrams of approaches to berths should
be expected from all masters - it is sometimes safer to
include the disposition of tugs, sending of lines,
have n o knowledge of a language than a little
mooring arrangements, planned swinging area with
knowledge with chances of misunderstandings or
depth and available space, signals to tugs and possible
confusion.
delays, i.e. waiting for traffic clearance. It should also
contain a preamble describing the general location, Some form of error control should be possible
the general current and tidal stream circulation and without offending the pilot. A master's interference
strength and warn the mariner of any special hazards during pilotage may, under certain circumstances, be
such as: premature and do more harm than good. In other
cases, however, a lack of communication or action by
Isolated dangers or shoals.
the master can be a major factor leading towards an
Charts limitation and update.
Surveys - quality and reliability. accident. The master must, therefore, balance very
carefully between error control/ supervision on the
Strong currents.
one hand and avoidance of causing undue interference
Unusual conditions.
on the other. The application of good human relations
Prohibited areas.
and an open association with the pilot helps very much
Emergency anchorage.
in this respect. Neither the pilot nor the master should
It would also include: become too self-imposed, and mutual consideration
should prevail between the two.
Pilot's boarding arrangements and any special
requirements or common underkeel allowance. As a master, I have observed pilots handling ships
Instructions with regard to his safe embarkation. in a multitude of different styles. As such I have forged
Tidal and weather restrictions. my own opinions and use every opportunity to do
Tug pick up points. my own shiphandling. In many cases I try to use such
Communication via VHF channels for: experience to discuss matters with the pilot at the onset
Passing agreements. of the passage and we often gain mutual benefit in
Tugs. this way. The shiphandler must be patient and alert to
Pilot boat. noises and vibrations. Some of them prefer the old
Helicopter. gyro repeaters clicking at every half degree to g v e
VTS harbour control. them an idea of the rate of turn (the need to turn on to
Emergencies. an analogue rate of turn indicator may distract his
senses). Watching the ship's wake may also be the best
Bridge organisation indicator of the proximity to the bottom. In shallow
The bridge organisation should be such that on and narrow canals, I have sometimes encountered
the pilot's arrival no break-up of procedures or pilots insisting on maintaining full rpm, resulting in
communication occurs. The pilot should relieve the heavy vibrations and poor steering, mainly due to
COMMAND 191
increased interaction and substantial speed loss. After V H F - which could be invaluable in such situations
insisting on a reduction of engine speed, a striking - is often misused. In fact, misunderstandings using
improvement in ship handling characteristics and a this equipment have contributed to many mishaps or
damping of the vibrations could often be observed. casualties. VTS systems are still non existent or not
adequate in many parts of the world and the
A master may view squat with a somewhat different introduction of radar transponders would offer
eye from a pilot. Unlike a pilot, a master sees a variety
valuable help in this field.
of canals, rivers and bars where vessels behave very
differently and the handling method may vary greatly. Arrivals at busy pilot stations should b e
The master also concerns himself particularly about programmed in such a way that ships pick up their
the resulting damage from any form of grounding. pilots in a given order. Although it is often more
Even paint damage can bring serious consequences convenient for a group of pilots to board arriving
to the owners and this is often not fully appreciated vessels within quick succession, collision hazards
by pilots. Underkeel clearance may become a rather should be taken into consideration. To avoid such
superfluous word in areas such as the Orinoco, R v e r problems, groups of arriving ships should be g v e n
Plate, Surinam River or the Amazon Northern Bar to sequence numbers to govern their arrival order. An
name but a few areas where deep draft vessels feel experienced pilot or VTS controller should assign such
strong vibrations, at times undergoing an alarming loss numbers taking into account the position of various
of speed and difficulty in steering, because of the approaching and departing ships, possible tidal
extremely dense water layer on the bottom (floc), the windows, their types and size, bearing in mind that a
echo sounder indicating zero underkeel clearance. larger, deeper vessel will approach more slowly and
will need additional sea-room. Such advice should be
Such loss of speed may well not indicate grounding. gven sufficiently ahead of time and the VTS should
It indicates that the vessel is navigating in denser help the masters of the ships concerned to identify
muddy waters, the echo sounder being unable to detect each other by giving them their relative position. Such
the bottom. A heavy sounding rod would probably systems are customarily implemented very well in
dig deeper than a lighter one. A reduction of engine certain areas of the world. There are, however, still
speed by a few revolutions may often have the effect many regions where no such plans exist.
of reducing vibrations and improving steering.
Manoeuvres to pick up or drop off a pilot are often
When crossing a bar at the peak of the tide, the cause of misunderstandings and confusion to other
planning and maintaining a safe speed is essential in ships. Unless efficient means of communication and
order to cross it before the ebb catches up, thus identification exist, it is good practice to g v e a security
avoiding becoming 'planted o n a falling tide'. call on the appropriate VHF channel, identifying the
Charterers often seek protection under C/P terms as vessel and gving broad indications of intentions. For
'safely aground' to detach themselves from example - 'this is tanker 'Nonesuch' dropping off the
responsibility for the consequences of 'sailing in pilot at 'Wherever', proceeding up channel and
navigable mud or customary g-roundings'. standing by on channels 16 and 13'. Some pilots are
constrained by regulations to leave or join a ship at a
Master-pilot and VTS relationship designated station without allowance for weather
conditions. When seas are heavy at the station, the
Basically, a VTS functions as an aid and assistance
pilot's life may be endangered and the master is
to the on board decision making process, monitoring
sometimes obliged to make a wide turn to give a
progress and giving advance warning of potential
maximum lee when approaching shallow waters, or
danger. As such, a VTS operated by qualified and
confusing other ships, thus jeopardising both pilot and
experienced mariners with the necessary tools at their
ship, rather than dropping off the pilot earlier or
disposal can greatly improve the efficiency of traffic picking him up (under circumstances) further inshore.
flow, by keeping track of other ships and advising those
ships under jurisdiction of local conditions, about Passage planning with limited
hazards of various sorts and as an aid for confirmation information
of passing agreements. There are a great many VTS
A practical example to highlight the need for local
systems in operation. Their control of ships ranges
knowledge in certain areas, particularly rivers where huge
from a purely informative overview of traffic with
changes can be expected:
interference in emergencies or contravention of
Collision Regulations only (such as Dover Strait), to Rivers, in particular their approaches, should be
almost full control of the ships (such as navigation in considered as 'living things', with a character and
fog or remote pilotage in certain rivers and estuaries). behaviour of their own, particularly such as the huge
Amazon delta. The following account highlights the
Accident prevention need f ~local
r knowledge and shows a particular side
Accidents in congested waters, particularly port of a master's profession, where intuition a n d
approaches, are numerous. Very often they are caused observation has to make good for a lack of local
by failure to understand another vessel's intentions. information.

In certain areas of the world the master may be levels, currents, meteorological conditions, squat and
left on his own, without the help of local pilots, when the usual response and behaviour of such ships,
transiting an area where local knowledge is most evaluating the optimum speed engine setting to avoid
needed, such as a river bar. This would not really be a the risk of becoming planted on a falling tide or, on
problem for a master who has had previous experience the other hand, damagng the bottom due to squat
in the area. But with the trend, nowadays, towards caused by excessive speed.
large numbers of tramp ships, increasing ports and
frequent reliefs, it is quite common for a master to sail Critical spots and timing ought also to be properly
for the first time in a gven area. As an example, deep established, taking into consideration seasonal and
draft vessels are often bound for upriver ports and meteorologcal effects. The limiting draft may also
have to negotiate the Amazon estuary where huge need to be reviewed. Competent pilots ought to be
seasonal changes take place. There are normally no made easily available, without unreasonable deviation.
local pilots available and even the latest updated charts The Admiralty has suggested that pilots should board
may not show the current channel. The agent sends at Salinopolis (this - at the time of writing - is not
the master a presuillably updated position of various normally done, as it involves a long additional passage
buoys marking the canal of Curua. A part of this area through a poorly surveyed area at very high cost,
- a 22 miles stretch leading to the open sea - has to
which charterers are not willing to bear). Similar
be negotiated. Tidal information may be scarce and problems occur in other areas, particularly in South
sometimes appears contradictory to observations, as America: the Orinoco, Surinam River and Parana are
ships with 11.28m draft are required to pass through other such examples.
a 22 miles bar with charted depths rangng from about Where information is insufficient it is prudent to
8.9m to Y.6m at chart datum. Information regarding leave an extra margin of safety. When proceeding it is
seasonal and meteorologcal interactions with the tidal advisable to maintain accurate depth records and
level and streams is almost non-existent. The shifting positions on the chart. In the event of a dispute it is
of banks is so poorly documented that for a particular essential that the master can produce evidence of
passage through the canal of Curua, the agent reported prudent navigation.
new buoyage positions passing over what appeared
on up to date British charts to be drying banks. The Conclusion
latest Brazilian charts are impossible to get at short Good master-pilot relations are based upon a
notice and many deep draft tramp ships going to the shared sense of purpose and this is best achieved
Amazon receive no prior notice of the intended through practical passage planning. Contingencies
voyage. should be considered and my advice to masters is to
have a competent feel for shiphandling so that you
Corrected tidal levels based upon Brazilian can take over the handling of the ship if the need arises.
publications, which relate only to a single point on
the bar are, in my opinion, not accurate enough to References
cover seasonal and meteorologcal interaction. Gauges Rowe, R.W., The Shz$handler's Guide, The Nautical
ought to be sited at strategic places and their level Institute, second edition 1999.
gven by radio, to allow the master to time his transit The Bridge Procedures Guide 7998, International
through the bar. Local knowledge is essential in such Chamber of Shipping.
an area and a well defined tidal window ought to be Passage Planning - a nautical brie$ng, The Nautical
established using experience of the behaviour of such Institute, 1993.
deep draft ships. This should take into account tidal
COMMAND 193
Chapter 30
WHAT THE SALVAGE TUG WILL WANT TO KNOW

I N THE EVENT OF DAMAGE
by Captain D. Hancox FNI, Consultant Salvage Master
David Hancox obtained his foreign-going master's certz~catein 7969, taking command of a coastal tug immediately thereafter. Between
1977 and 1979 he was employed by Selco Saloage, becoming senior salvage master in 197%He returned to Selco in 1981 as salvage a17d
international touage manager and since mid- 1984 has worked as a consultant salvage master, based in Australia. Captain Hancox is
the author of Reed's Commercial Salvage Practice.
Introduction
VESSELS WHICH SUSTAIN a marine casualty of sufficient The salvors themselves will have a number of other
magnitude to require external aid usually find that sub categories for types of marine casualties, including
such assistance is provided by professional marine such activities as refloating of sunken vessels, cargo
salvage contractors. T h e salvor's principal salvage/recovery operations, special object recoveries,
representatives are either a senior salvage operations pollution control and abatement, wreck removal
supervisor (known as a salvage master/salvage operations, offshore clearance and/or demolition.
inspector or salvage superintendent) or the master of However, in the context of a vessel requiring
the salvage tug deployed to assist the casualty. The immediate professional salvage assistance, only those
shipmaster unfortunate enough to require external categories listed under the three principal sub-headings
salvage assistance should remember that three points need be considered.
are at the forefront of the salvors' minds:
In the paragraphs which follow, it has been
1. To prevent the casualty and/or her cargo assumed by the writer that all prospective ship masters,
sustaining any further damage. and indeed all practising masters, are familiar with
2. To prevent or reduce pollution of the sea and/or ICS/OCIMF7s publication, Peril at Sea and Salvage -
environment by either bunkers or cargo from the A Guide for Masters. This was compiled with technical
casualty. assistance from the International Salvage Union - the
3. To ensure that consequential damage to third body which represents most professional salvage
parties or injuries to either crew or other persons contractors. This publication contains much excellent
are minimised. practical advice to all ship masters who have the
misfortune to require salvage assistance.
Types of marine casualty
Prior to considering the information which the Casualty salvage afloat
salvage master or the tugmaster may require, it may Breakdown/loss of propulsive power
be useful to list briefly the principal types of marine Assuming that the accident is a 'simple' case of
casualties which usually require external assistance. 'engine failure', the casualty will require towage to a
port or place of refuge and the tugmaster will normally
Casualty salvage afloak Assisting vessels to stay afloat
require the following information:
or to control a casualty arising from darnage/leakage
caused by stress of weather, collision, leakage, fire (a) Time, date and geographical position of accident.
and/or explosion, breakdowns, navigational errors, (b) Present position, weather, and drift rate.
hostile military action, or pollution control and (c) Heading of casualty and relative aspect to weather.
abatement. (d) Draft forward, aft and mean before accident.
Stranded casualty salvage: T h e refloatation of
(e) Present best estimated/calculated drafts and trim.
stranded vessels which have driven ashore as a result (f) Present displacement and list (if any).
of navigational error, enemy action, force of weather, (g) Whether deck/auxiliary power is available for
heaving on board towing gear.
intentional beaching, machinery breakdown,
pollution control/abatement. (h) Number of crew on board casualty.
(i) Type/nature and tonnage of cargo and/or quantity
OilJield salvage operations: Providing services to of ballast on board.
prevent the loss of, or reduce damage to, offshore (j) Whether there is any loss of cargo/pollution.
drilling and/or oil production facilities arising from (k) Is the casualty making any water/leaking.
any of the following causes: fire-fighting, emergency (1) What radio (WT, SSB, and VHF) frequencies/
stabilising services required as a result of fires, channels will be guarded by casualty.
blowouts, collisions or weather incidents. (m) Radio contact schedules.

From the answers provided in 'a' to 'm', the (t) Are all crew members accounted for, or are any
tugmaster will establish a mental picture of the crew known to be trapped or missing?
casualty, and how he believes the vessel can best be (u) Can the casualty remain afloat, or must she be
towed. Where a point is unclear, the tugmaster will beached?
ask for clarification or further explanation as he
Again, immediately after arrival of the rescue tug,
develops the towage plan. Do not waste your own
a boarding party will be despatched and a detailed
crew's time and energy by dragging out 'insurance
examination of the casualty made to assess the
wires' and devising elaborate towing methods without
situation in conjunction with the shipmaster and his
the full agreement of the tugmaster.
staff. Where practical, the salvage tug will come
The professionally operated salvage tug requires alongside the casualty and transfer damage control/
no towing gear from the casualty, although the casualty salvage equipment to stabilise the situation prior to
master should advise the tugmaster if the vessel (being taking the casualty under tow.
a tanker) is fitted with a special emergency pennant/ Fire/explosion and/or hostile military action
chafe chain system as specified under I M O Assembly In many cases, particularly on tankers and gas
Resolution A535 (13) or M. Notice 1147 promulgated carriers, the situation rapidly develops to the point
1984. (It should, however, be noted that even where a where partial or full temporary evacuation (or
vessel complies with I M O A535 (13) - Emergency complete abandonment) of the casualty appears to be
Towing Requirementsfor Tankers - the decision whether the most sensible course of action for the stricken ship's
to use such equipment will rest with the chief mate/ crew to adopt. Where communications with the
master of the rescue tug,- one of whom will normally approaching salvage tug are maintained by personnel
board the casualty when towing gear is being remaining on board the casualty, the questions asked
connected.) by the tugmaster will tend to follow those enumerated
Finally, it is recommended that very regular radio already, with the following more relevant points being
contact is maintained with the approaching rescue tug, queried:
and preparations are made to rig a pilot ladder on the (v) What tanks/spaces/bunkers are on fire?
lee side, a long boat rope on lee side and have heaving (w) What is the cargo which is on fire?
lines and gantlines ready beside the pilot ladder to (x) Is the emergency fire pump in operation?
enable personnel from the tug to board the casualty (y) Is the fire encroaching into the cargo area?
safely and expeditiously. In benign weather conditions, (z) Is any of the cargo firing on the sea surface?
the tugmaster himself may board by rubber boat for a
brief inspection, but normally the boarding party Under most circumstances of an engine room/
comprises a deck officer, an engineer officer and one pump-room cargo fire on tankers and gas carriers, the
or two salvage hands. first salvage tug attending the casualty will make a
towing connection either forward or aft in such a
Collision/leakage/stressof weather position as will allow the tug to control the wind
In each of the above cases, it is assumed that the direction (relative to the fire front) across the front of
casualty has either sustained machinery damage, or the casualty. With the towing connection prepared,
has taken in water, rendering it impractical for her to the tug will usually land firefighters and salvage/fire
proceed 'under command' by means of her own pumps on board the casualty to enable fire boundary
power. A collision in the engne room would generally controls to be established.
presuppose the loss of main propulsion plant.
Unless the blaze is small, it is unlikely that the tug
In addition to some or all of the questions asked itself will make an all-out foam attack on the fire.
by the tugmaster (breakdowns) earlier, the following Initially, a salvage crew aim to confine the blaze whilst
questions will also probably be put to the shipmaster: additional salvage personnel a n d specialised
equipment are transported to the casualty. It should
(n) Where does the leakage orignate and how many be appreciated by shipmasters that, although salvage
spaces are flooded? personnel do not necessarily look like professional
(0) Has any cargo shifted, or been lost overboard?
shore-side firemen, the present generation of
(p) Have any dangerous free-surface effects been international salvage crews have extensive fire-fighting
produced by flooding of compartments? experience on ULCCs.
(q) Has any distortion/damage to hatches, tank-lids,
bulkheads and/or piping been observed? It should be noted that, on arrival off a casualty,
(r) Is inter-compartment leakage/transfer of flood particularly where towage services are required, the
water taking place, and can it be controlled/ rescue tug will heave to, enabling the tugmaster to:
reduced? 1. Observe and estimate for himself the drift of the
(s) Has an estimate of the casualty's stability and hull casualty and relate drift and casualty behaviour to his
shearing moments been made for the damaged previous ideas.
condition? 2. Determine the most effective position and heading
COMMAND 195
of the tug off the bow or stern of the casualty, consistent (iv) Not to jettison any cargo, bunkers or stores before
with where the towing gear will be connected. being fully in possession of all material facts.
3. Assess the total scope of the assignment and obtain (vii) Not to attempt any refloating by his vessel's own
any last minute information from the casualty's master. means until all data in (i) through (vi) have been
properly evaluated and tested.
Stranding salvage
In general terms, the information requested from Many shipmasters are suspicious of such advice,
a shipmaster whose vessel has stranded will be as but it should be realised that the eventual fate of many
follows: casualties has often been determined by the actions
of the master and his officers. The steps enumerated
(a) Time, date and geographical position of stranding. are some of those which can be taken to secure the
(b) Has the casualty sustained any damage and/or are casualty and prevent it from either sustaining further
any tanks, holds or spaces leaking? damage or being placed in greater danger.
(c) How much of the vessel's length is in contact with
the sea-bed? Generally, only a few shipmasters' commands have
(d) Is the casualty uniformly aground, or is it impaled the misfortune to require salvage assistance, thus,
on a single point and free to pivot? questions (often asked at long range) by the assisting
(e) Drafts forward, aft and mean @ore stranding. tugmaster or a salvage master despatched by
(f) Drafts actually observed, whilst aground - professional salvors are frequently irritating to the
forward, amidships (port and starboard) and aft unfortunate master. However, difficult as it may
and time of observation. sometimes be, these questions should be thoughtfully
(g) Quantity of cargo, fuel and ballast on board before and comprehensively answered. What is hopefully a
stranding. once-in-a-lifetime personal and professional
(h) Pre-stranding displacement, TCM/TPI, stability misfortune for the shipmaster concerned is a relatively
- GM and GZ. commonplace occurrence to the salvors contracted by
(i) Whether any pollution has occurred. either the shipmaster himself or by the owners/
(j) Is the casualty lying quietly and firmly aground managers of the casualty.
or is the vessel moving on the strand?
The salvors, having agreed to provide the necessary
(k) Are the main engine(s) and auxiliaries fully
operational? services, must perform the salvage operations in the
safest and most efficient manner, and they have legal
(1) What is prevailing wind direction and velocity and
sea/swell height? obligations to use their best endeavours to render
(m) Have detailed soundings been made around the effective salvage assistance. The questions are part of
casualty at high and low water? a planning process which has been developed by
salvage tug masters and salvage masters, due to their
(n) Any heel, excessive trim or shift of cargo as a result
of stranding. background and exposure to marine casualties, of
which they have considerable experience.
On receipt of this information, the tugmaster and/
or salvage master will probably strongly caution/ References
advise the casualty master in the following terms: 1. ICS/OCIMF/Peril at Sea and Saluage - A Guide for
Masters, 5th Edition, obtainable from Witherby & Co.
(i) To make detailed outboard soundings around the Ltd., London. ISBN 0-900886 74 9.
vessel.
2. OCIMFRecommendationson Equiptnentfor the Towing
(ii) To make detailed and comprehensive soundings
of all internal bilges, spaces, tanks and voids. of Disabled Tankers, July 1981, obtainable from
(iii) To check that all watertight closures, stern gland(s) Witherby & Co. Ltd., London. ISBN 0-900886 65 X.
and access doors, etc., remain watertight. 3. Admiralty Manual of Seamanship, Volume 3 -
(iv) To ballast all available tanks to harden the vessel Advanced Seamanship, 3rd Edition, Ministry of
down on her strand to reduce any wave or swell- DefenceIHMSO, London. ISBN 0- 11-771269-8.
induced damage. 4. Shipboard Damage Control, Bissell, Oertel and
Livingstone, United States Naval Institute, Annapolis,
(v) To satisfy himself personally of the stability of the
vessel in conjunction with (ii) and (iv). Md. 1978, ISBN 0-87021-627-9.
196 'THE IVAUTICAL IIVSTITUTE

Chapter 31
TOWING - RECEIVING THE TUG AND MAKING FAST

by Captain W.V. Hopper MNI,
formerly Towing and Operations Superintendent, United Towing Co. Ltd.
Captain Hopper served his time with the Roland and Marwood Steamshif, Company, obtaining his master's certzficate in
sailing as chiefoficer with the same company. He joined United Towing in 7946 and has worldzzlide experience as an ocean tugmaster.
In 79 67 he was appointed assistant superintendent and served as superintendent and operations superintendent before retiring in 7978.
In 7979 he was appointed to the board of Hull Trinity House and was elected Warden 7984- 7985
Introduction To help in settling salvage or assistance claims, the

IF A VESSEI. BE CO ME S DISABLED through main engine master should see that a very precise log of events,
breakdown or loss of rudder or propeller and is in no positions and weather is whenever possible strictly
inlinediate danger, the vessel's owner or underwriters' maintained, together with a log of all radio traffic
agent will put enquiries out to tug owners or tug between himself and the rescue vessels and coast
brokers for a suitable tug within reasonable range. stations. Weather forecasts should also be logged or
Terms of contract will be discussed between the two recorded for his particular area.
parties. Salvage contracts can, of course, be made verbally
The contract could take one of many forms. on the radio-telephone or by wireless telegraphy, and
Examples are: a lump sum to tow the vessel to a these contracts, if made by the master, should be
predetermined port of refuge; a daily rate to tow the passed on to the underwriters as soon as possible.
vessel to a stated destination, with separate daily rates
to cover the mobilisation and demobilisation of the Propeller(s) trailing free
tug; a daily rate with a lump-sum bonus on successful If the casualty's main engines are incapable of being
completion of the contract; or Lloyd's Open Form, used and it is not anticipated that they will be used
where the parties agree to settle the award by before a port of refuge or repair is reached, the towing
submitting to arbitration should they not be able to speed can be greatly aided by the propeller(s),shaft(s)
come to an amicable agreement. The tug owner will being uncoupled forward of the thrust block and the
want to protect himself by contract clauses to cover propeller(s) left to trail free. The friction will be on
weather diversion, threat of pollution etc. the astern thrust and lubrication must be attended to
throughout the shaft bearings and stern gland.
Lloyd's Open Form It is not easy to reconnect shaft couplings once the
Should a vessel be disabled and in immediate peril,
vessel is under tow unless shaft brakes are fitted.
there will not usually be much choice of salvage
Therefore shaft uncoupling should be resorted to only
assistance, and the master will have to take the first
when main engines are to be immobilised.
available rescue vessel offered. In these circumstances,
Lloyd's Open Form would be the safest contract. Connecting the tow
Should the first available vessel be underpowered to Once assistance has been accepted, preparxt'ions
tow the casualty, then the master should not hesitate to connect and secure the tug should be made. As a
to coiltract another vessel, be it of the saiiie company guide, the following gear should be made ready and
as the first or not. It does simplify final settlement and
be to hand on the vessel's foredeck, assuming the vessel
harmonious work if the rescue vessels are of the same
has not been in collisioil and suffered a heavily
company, but at the same time two or more contractors
damaged bow. (In the latter case, if there is a risk of
can each be engaged on separate contracts. It is
pressure on the collision bulkhead, the towing point
possible for the initial contractor to engage other than
would have to be at the stern.)
his own vessels and to be the prime contractor in the
final settlement. Check the line-throwing apparatus and leave on
the bridge and have ready: three good long heaving
Master's decision lines; a handy billy tackle; boat hook; six rope
None of these contractual arguments should stoppers, preferably manila or sisal; rope yarns; bundle
preclude the decision of the master, who must surely of old canvas for parcelling; bucket of grease; deck
be the best judge of the situation in saving his vessel axe; large bow shackle; good mooring wire, about
and engagng on-the-spot assistance. The tug owner three inches circumference and the usual bosun's tools
or tug master should detail the power and capability - spike, knife etc.
of assistance offered, in order to guide the shipowner
or master in engaging further assistance should it be Provided the casualty is not anchored, getting the
deemed necessary. tug's connection on board should not be too difficult.
COMMAND 197
A drifting vessel will invariably lie in the trough and Rope stoppers
beam to the wind, and the usual connecting approach When handling the tug's pennant use manila or
is for the tug- to steam across the bow down wind. If sisal stoppers - never use chain stoppers, for a chain
the weather conditions are very bad - too bad for a stopper jammed would ruin the wire. A rope stopper
heaving line to reach the tug's after deck - the tug can easily be cut away, but a jammed chain stopper
should shoot a rocket line across the foredeck of the can be a danger to life. When messenger contact is
casualty whilst he is still up wind, and once connection made, pull up ally slack rope rapidly by hand to avoid
is established the tug crew should attach a messenger any slack rope bight washing under the tug's stern.
line to the rocket line or heaving line.
Once the connection has been established and the
This will be followed by a heavier rope or wire to tug has stretched his gear, smother the wire or chain
which will be attached the towing wire pennant. These in the lead area with grease. When a chain is used, the
towing wire pennants usually have a heavy thimble first link outboard is continually sawing on the first
eye and the messenger is secured down the pennant link in the lead and these two links require frequent
splice and lashed at the eye. grease application. If a wire is used, a frequent check
As soon as the thimble eye reaches the towing lead on the parcelling in the lead should be made and if
the mooring wire should be shackled into the eye any deterioration in the wire is seen, the tug must be
whilst it is still outboard and the mooring wire then advised. Should the circumstances permit, the tug will
worked as a preventer. This precaution should be taken endeavour to take weight off the wire to allow a
to avoid losing the wire when the critical stage arises messenger to be put on the wire and an attempt made
as the thimble is hove over or through the lead whilst to heave inboard the chafed area till it is clear of the
the weight of a bight is outboard between the lead lead, at the same time taking in the slack on the
and the tug's stern. bollards without risk of the wire slipping.
Making the towing pennant fast While under tow, contact between tug and tow
Some modern tugs are very powerful and heavy must be maintained constantly; usually a VHF watch
units, and their connections consist of a wire pennant is maintained.
attached to a short length of heavy stud link chain. Should the casualty have lost or be unable to use
The wire pennant is hove up until the chain - usually her rudder, but be able to use her main engines, then
about three fathoms long - is laid in the lead or hawse
main engines must be used only at the request of the
pipe to take the chafing area. Due allowance must he
made for the chain pulling out until the connection tug master - if requested, it would be only at dead or
has been towed tight, and the wire pennant is to be slow speed. A violent sheer caused by the vessel using
belayed on bollards as near in line with the lead as her own power could cause the tug to be grted and
possible. Two sets of bollards should be used, and the lose steerage way, even possibly turning the tug
wire pennant can be backed up to the second set by completely round. Tugs have been capsized by the
reeving bights of mooring wire through the eye of the gob rope (sometimes called the bridle rope) parting
pennant back to the bollards. It is important to when the tug is girted. (The term 'girted' is used to
remember that it is a good seamanlike consideration describe the situation where the tug's stern is pulled
to belay the tug in such a manner as to be able to across against the rudder by the towing wire leading
release the connection quickly. too broad across the stern.)
Assuming that the casualty has deck machinery Steering on the tug's stern
power available, then choose a lead or hawse pipe
Use of the rudder is of great assistance. Unless the
where it is possible to use the warping drum of the
tug requires the vessel to hold a sheer, the casualty
windlass. An ideal lead for a tug's connection on a
soft-nosed vessel would be a deep hawse pipe on the should steer directly on the tug's stern as near as
centre line - unfortunately not often fitted - but possible. A following wind and sea often cause
otherwise use a hawse pipe as near the centre line as problems by inducing sheering of the tow and this
possible after first ascertaining that the pipe will accept occurs most if there is a lot of superstructure aft. If a
the pennant thimble. If no hawse pipe is available, following wind and sea is accompanied by a heavy
then the open leads on the bow are all one can use, swell, this can cause a dangerous situation, for the tug
but the danger of an open lead is the possibility of the can run into the gear as the swell throws it forward.
wire or chain jumping out of the lead when pitching Should this occur as the tow drops back off a swell,
deeply. Should an open lead be used, it is a good idea the tow line becomes suddenly taut and may part.
to wrack the wire or chain down inboard of the lead.
In this dangerous situation progress is made by
O n a vessel with a bar stem, an extra precautioil is tacking. The weather is put about four points on the
to parcel the wire pennant well where it will lay across quarter and the engine revolutions are dropped till a
the stem when the vessel is on a sheer. If chain is used, comfortable speed is maintained, allowing the tug to
make sure the chain covers the outboard area to the steer and the tow, to hold a windward sheer - this is
stem as well as the area in the lead. termed sailing. The tug master will decide how long
198 THE IVAUl'ICAL IIVSTITUTE

to maintain one tack before changing on to the other pipe on or near the centre line at the stem, a set of
tack and much, of course, depends on navigational sturdy bollards abaft the hawse pipe and a towing
hazards. clench plate abaft the bollards with the connecting
area to one side of the after bollard post. The deck in
To enable a tow to have steering stability, trim is way of these fittings should be suitably stiffened.
essential. An ideal trim would be at least a metre by
the stern in the average vessel with about three or The hawse pipe and bollards would be in use
four metres as gving the better advantage. Pounding throughout the vessel's life for docking and berthing
is very unlikely at towing speed. and the clench plate would serve as back up to the
bollards: so much time and effort could be saved if
Keeping a good lookout these units were fitted. I would not neglect the stern
While under tow, warnings to other shipping will either: a centre-line sturdy hawse pipe or bull ring
be transmitted by the tug and at night a keen watch with bollards close by would also be useful during the
should be maintained from the tow, with visual signals vessel's working life.
being made to approaching vessels, especially from
abaft the beam. The daylight signal lamp is very useful As a further aid, the shipowner could fit a length
by day or night, to g v e warning to vessels on a closing of chain forward attached to the clench plate, the chain
course. The diamond shape must be hoisted and to be of sufficient length to reach outboard of the pipe
during poor visibility the fog signal is one long blast to take any chafing.
followed by three short blasts (which signal should W h e n the destination or port of refuge is
follow the tug's signal). approached and the casualty is to be handed over to
When under tow in coastal waters, leeway local tugs, I would advise the master not to be too
allowances and tidal allowances may seem severe, but hasty in dismissing the sea tug or bringing the contract
a tug master is used to navigating at very slow speeds to a conclusion, if there still remains a long river or
with cumbersome tows and experience teaches him channel passage to b e made. H e should make
what allowances to make. absolutely certain the local tugs are powerful enough
to be able to deal with a dead ship. If in any doubt, he
The catenary of the towing gear when on sea should have a word with the tug master, suggesting
towing length is considered as important as the draft his tug remain connected or perhaps transfer from a
in order to avoid the wire touching the bottom. In sea towing connection to a harbour connection. The
shallow waters away from the swell it is the practice tug master would advise in this situation.
to shorten in the tow line so long as there is sufficient
catenary to avoid the gear 'snatching'. I n conclusion, when accepting assistance,
cooperation with the tug is essential to bring the tow
Fitting equipment to a successful conclusion of the contract. When taking
I feel the time has come when all the classification the tug's connection on board, remember: many hands
societies should encourage shipowners to fit, as make light and quick work. It is not easy to hold a
standard, towing and mooring equipment - a towing large ocean-going tug in one position, and the quicker
hawse pipe, bollards and towing clench plate. By a the connection is made, the less risk of the tug getting
towing hawse pipe, I mean a deep well-rounded hawse into a difficult position.
COMMAND 199
Chapter 32
SHIPHANDLING AND BERTHING WITH TUGS

by Captain R.W. Rowe FNI
In 7958 the author, like many other young boys of the day, le$ home at the age of 75 to undergo a year of strict discipline and pre-sea
training, before going on to serve four years as an apprentice in the hard school of a Scottish t m n q ship company. Having serued with
several other companies in deep sea trades, up to the rank offirst oficer, he obtained his Masters Certificate (Foreign Going) in 7970
and thereafter continued a career in the demanding coastal waters ofEurope. This was a diverse and intrresting period with service as
skipper on pilot cutters, master on ferries, from the age of 29, thence master of the sail training ships "Sir Winston Churchill" and
"Malcolm Miller" andjnally .service as a sea pilot.
With this background in practical seamanship, he mas employed by The Maritime Centre at Warsash in the south of England,
where he developed a Manned Model Ship Handling facility a72d, in conjzrnction with Ship's Bridge Si~nulatortraining, ran specialised
and unique ship handling cozlrsesfirpilots andship's masters. During this time he developed important skills as an instructor ofsenior
personnel, whilst working closely with an enornzous number ofpilots andshipspersonnel,Ji.om a wide range of shipping companies and
pilotage districts worldwide. This has also enabled him to keep up to date profissionally, to create a more practical relation~h$ betweer1
the Maritime Centre andpersonnel working aJoat and to develop an enormous crossfertilisation in ship handling knowledge. He has
recently used this experience to produce The Nautical Institute's very successful "Ship Handler's Guide'jand was elected a Fellow of The
Nautical Institute for this service to the industry.
Introduction this section is to discuss some of the basic handling

W HEN A CHIEF O FFI C ERis promoted to master a very characteristics of a ship that have been known to be
important stage in the career structure is reached and problematic. It is hoped that this will give masters a
with it comes the unforgettable experience of joining brief insight into how a ship is likely to behave and a
the first ship as master. There will be many things to means of assessing the difficulties and feasibility with
consider, countless decisions to make and a learning respect any intended ship handling situation. The
curve, no matter what an individual's experience, that following will therefore be discussed briefly in this
can be very steep indeed. Of all the important areas section:
and responsibilities of command that are of concern
to the master, it is often the case that ship handling is a) The power to tonnage ratio.
the least likely area to be considered for specialised b) The mismanagement of approaches.
training and yet, of all the things that can swiftly c) The effect of the wind.
guarantee the end of a master's career, nothing is more d) A failure to turn.
certain than failure in some aspect of ship handling. e) The influence of shallow water.
In this respect, with the hindsight of past incidents
The power to tonnage ratio
and casualties, training has a tendency to evolve as a
When considering any manoeuvre at close quarters
corrective measure which attempts to rectify past
with another vessel, or within the confines of a pilotage
misjudgements or misconceptions. This is also
district or harbour area, there is a point at which the
reflected on those specialised training courses which
size of the ship being driven dictates the need for a
are dedicated solely to ship handling where it is noticed
very different strategy, in terms of overall planning
over several years that certain areas of ship handling
and thinking. This is a vague and difficult point to
are persistently problematic.
define but one which is greatly influenced by the
It is not the purpose therefore, nor within the scope power to tonnage ratio of individual ships. This can
of this chapter, to make any attempt at instruction in be illustrated with a few examples of typical new
ship handling, as this would be well beyond the limits buildings (see figure 32.1).
of a single chapter in a large publication with a much
wider over view, but instead to discuss those areas of Ship Type Tonnes (dwt) Draft (m) Power (shp)
ship handling that have habitually created difficulties
in training and were also known to be the primary Break Bulk 20,000 10 17,000
cause of certain incidents in the past involving collision
Bulk Cargo 30,000 13,000
or grounding.
Tanker 80,000 17,000
Ship handling
General Tankel 1'10,000 23,000
It is not the intention to discuss in this chapter how
a ship is berthed, or unberthed, at specific quays, docks Tanker 250,000 21 31,000
and terminals, as this is entirely the concern of the
individual master at the time. The sole objective of Figure 32.1 gpical new buildings

This shows quite clearly that it is possible to go Mismanagement of approaches
from a ship of 20,000 dwt to one of 80,000 dwt where With the exception of unusually difficult
the latter, although it is four times bigger, has only the circumstances, the failure to stop a ship from hitting a
same 17,000 shaft horse power (shp). This is berth, or running past its objective and sometimes even
progressive throughout the tonnage range, so that a grounding, is usually the result of some misconception
250,000 dwt ship, which is over twelve times the size or misjudgement in ship handling. It has been
of the 20,000 tonner, may merely have twice its shp! observed, with consistent regularity, that the problems
This is a very important factor when considering ship at the berth are usually created some considerable
handling techniques across a wide range of tonnages. distance from it, during the approach. They are often
the result of either poor management of the vessel's
Ships < 50,000 dwt attitude of approach or, more frequently, an inability
The ships in this range, because of their smaller to establish and maintain 'slow speed control' of the
tonnage and the lower kinetic energy created when ship during the approach.
they are making headway, tend to run off that headway
fairly quickly when required. Their relatively good Lack of slow speed control
power to tonnage ratio, also means that they tend to When making an approach to any berth a ship will
have adequate stern power and can also be stopped reach a certain position, depending upon its size,
quite smartly, when needed. This has the unfortunate be y ond which the position and speed of the ship are
tendency of encouraging higher speeds than are at all times critical to the ultimate berthing. Thereafter,
perhaps wise and when a ship is approaching its whilst failure to keep the ship in the most suitable
objective, a failure to reduce speed soon enough. It position can sometimes be rectified, this is not true if
can also encourage over-confident attitudes in the master fails to achieve and maintain slow speed
experienced ship handlers, to the extent that they control of the ship throughout the approach. Of all
sometimes adopt an unintentional, but somewhat the areas that can be problematic in ship handling it
'cavalier' attitude towards excessive speed. is in maintaining slow speed control that masters
Ships > 50,000 dwt consistently appear to lack experience and therefore
The massive kinetic energy developed when frequently require guidance.
making way through the water, by ships such as the Misconceptions
Panamax, Cape and VLCC classes, invariably leads In many cases this is may be due to a misguided
to problems with respect to: conception, for example:
a) Slowing and stopping. a) "If I go too slow the ship will lose steerage way".
b) Inadequate anchoring equipment. "I didn't want to slow down because I thought I
b)
Slowing and stopping would lose control in the wind".
When attempting to slow down or stop, the massive These misconceptions generate a reluctance -
amount of kinetic energy created by the larger ship entirely unfounded it should be said - to get the ship's
results in its headway being carried for a considerable way right off and even, if necessary, stopping the
distance, before the propeller speed and ship speed engine or propeller to do so. This fear of losing control
are matched. To compound this situation the poor simply illustrates a lack of experience in the very
power to tonnage ratio will often mean inadequate effective use of short bursts of moderate power, in
stern power a n d their stopping distances are conjunction with full rudder, with what are known as
correspondingly large. For example, an emergency 'kicks ahead.'
stop of 1.2 miles is not uncommon.
Kicks ahead
Anchoring equipment In fact, the kick ahead is actually only effective
Research has shown that the size of windlasses on with the ship at suitably low speeds anyway. Also, if
ships of this tonnage is disproportionate to the size of the combination of rudder and propeller are not used
the ship. In some cases a 100/o increase in tonnage correctly, the kick ahead cannot be utilised to keep
has only been matched with a 10Vo increase in windlass control of the ship's heading nor, more importantly,
size. The kinetic energy generated, even at speed as to keep control of the ship's speed. The following
low as 0.3 knot, is too much for the anchoring errors are common:
equipment to sustain and these ships must be handled
with special considerations for this. a) Not having the rudder hard over during a kick
ahead.
Masters mouing up to larger tonnage ships Using insufficient power for a kick ahead.
b)
It is normal, for masters moving up to larger Keeping the power on for longer than is necessary.
c)
tonnage ships, initially to experience difficulties in Reducing rudder angle with too much power still
d)
establishing a more disciplined control of speed and a on.
need to plan all manoeuvres much further ahead.
The prime cause of many incidents is excessive Checking headway
speed. Having achieved slow speed control of the ship,
COMMAND 201
there is also a common failing to appreciate that the
correct use of kicks ahead, no matter how careful, can
cause the ship's headway to build up again, often in
an insidious manner. It should be possible to check
this headway with short periods of very limited stern
power. If this is not possible then in all probability the
approach speed has been allowed to become too high.
It is usually the case, when long periods of high stern
power are needed, that the master has not achieved
slow speed control and has consequently not been t-tt-1
Turmng Lever
unable to take full advantage of the effective use of
kicks ahead! See figure 32.2.
or less
4 Kick Ahead
,:, , %
\
Period of no
control is small
Shol-t period of Stern Pawel-
Figure 32.3 The effect of wind -

top) with headway; bottom) with sternway
In this example of a ship with the wind on the

Panamax beam, the centre of effort of the wind is relatively static
Dead Slow Ahead or Stop
60.000 dwt
Loaded and remains where it is, but the pivot point moves
forward or aft, according to whether the ship is making
headway or sternway. Therefore, when the ship is
making headway, it can create a strong turning
moment into the wind, but as soon as the ship starts
to make stern way, the bow may fall rapidly off the
wind.
Dead Slow Ahead (Turbine]
1 mile from berth Stop Engine (D~esell This effect of the wind upon the ship should always
Speed 3 knots or lrss
10 cables be taken into account, before committing the ship to
any manoeuvre, in order to ascertain whether it will
Figure 32.2 Maintaining slow speed control
lead to problems, or can be used to advantage. In this
The effect of wind respect it is often referred to as the poor man's tug!
It is an unfortunate fact of life that, at the critical
A failure to turn
moment when a ship is slowing down in the final
Slow speed control is also essential when
approach to a berth, the effect of the wind is at its
positioning a ship for the approach to a difficult turn
worst and can often create major difficulties. The effect
and there are numerous occasions when a ship needs
of the wind therefore needs to be thought out in
to conduct such a turn, for example, at a pilot station,
advance, so that it can either be used to advantage, or
entering a buoyed channel, negotiating a bend in a
the degree of difficulty anticipated. In some instances
channel, turning for a berth, or coming to an
it may mean that tug assistance is required, or even
anchorage. It is absolutely crucial that the ship is set
that the objective is unattainable and should be
up correctly, in the right position and at the correct
aborted. Failure to do this has resulted in ships being
speed, before attempting any turn within limited space.
placed in the most undesirable of situations, to the
It is then important to monitor the turn closely,
embarrassment of the master.
increasing or decreasing the rate of turn as required
There is a strong correlation between the centre of but in exceptional circumstances, aborting the turn if
effort of the wind (W) upon the ship and the under necessary and feasible. It is clear in training and in
water area of the ship, represented by the pivotal point the investigation of many incidents that the failure to
(P) about which the ship turns. See figure 32.3. conduct a turn satisfactorily can lead to collision or

grounding. With the hindsight of monitoring officers relatively unchanged in terms of advance and transfer
negotiating thousands of turns in training, it is evident and the overall area they cover. See figure 32.4.
that the following errors are repetitive:
This is always rather surprising and in many ways
a) Neglecting to slow down prior to a turn. alarming, because it encourages a misguided belief,
b) Not maintaining slow speed control during the with dire consequences in limited sea-room, that
approach to a turn. entering a turn at a high speed will make the turn
c) Failure to place the ship in the correct position smaller. In fact, all it actually achieves is the same turn
before commencing the turn. in a shorter time! To make the standard turning circle
d) Not using full rudder to initiate the turn. tighter, it is absolutely essential to slow the ship right
e) Not using enough power to initiate the turn. down beforehand and then use plenty of power to get
f) Failure to take the power off, before easing the the ship turning. However, this is only an initial effect
helm, thus allowing the speed to build up. and after approximately 90" of turn, with the ship's
speed building up, it should be remembered that the
Spatial awareness
ship will soon revert to its larger, standard turning
Any of the above errors can, individually or
circle again. See figure 32.5.
collectively, conspire towards failure successfully to
negotiate a turn. Also, it has been apparent that some The effects of shallow water
inexperienced masters can lack spatial awareness. In There are various external forces which can have
other words, they have attempted to turn in an area a considerable influence upon ship handling, for
where there is insufficient space. This sometimes example, the effect of wind, tidal streams and shallow
occurs when a master is tempted to bring a ship close water. Of these three, the effect of shallow water is by
inshore or venture into estuarial areas, for example, far the most insidious. It has the ability to take a master
to land an injured crew member, pick up stores, or to completely by surprise with control of the ship lost in
embark a pilot when the pilot boat is off station. In a very short space of time and with devastating
these circumstances the inexperienced master is consequences. It can b e viewed in two broad
entering a high risk regime and should assess carefully categories:
beforehand the risk to the safety of the ship and his
career. a) Inadequate under-keel clearance.
b) Adjacent shallow water.
Turning circles
It has been noted on numerous occasions that Inadequate under-keel clearance
many masters, often those with considerable length If the under-keel clearance of a ship is poor it may
of service, are totally unaware that the turning circles result in a failure of that ship to follow its standard
of a ship, when they are entered at any steady initial turning circle but, instead, to follow a turning circle
speed from Dead Slow Ahead or Full Ahead, remain which is alarmingly large. This can happen if the
(a) Slow Ahead Turn (b) Full Ahead Turn

I
4 -
I Advance
1 in
35 -Rudder
Approach speed 11.6 knots
- Transfer In cables Transfer in cables
- 1 2 3'
166111 Tanker. Loaded ~n deep water Ship Handl~ngGurde
Figure 32.4 liming circles
COMMAND 203
From stopped
180
b] shallow shelving banks
Fipre 32.5 Standing turnfrom stopped Fip-ure32.7 Bank con$guration
available depth of water is less than twice the draft, Squat

but incidents have occurred when the under-keel This is an additional complication which can occur
clearance was much larger due to excessive ship's when a ship senses the close proximity of shallow
speed. Those masters that have experienced the effect water. It can be experienced at any time, regardless of
of shallow water on a turn will testify to watching the whether the ship is turning and even in open water, if
ship seemingly fail to turn, or respond to any power, it is shallow enough. The bow may sink or squat and
and simply plough into another ship alongside or go some masters have reported an increase in the forward
heavily aground! See figure 32.6. draft of over one metre and, in the worst cases, the
forward part of the hull has touched bottom. This can
cause serious damage to the shell plating, even on a
sandy sea bed.
Adjacent shallow water
If a ship is passing close by an adjacent area of
90" \ 20" Rudder
shallow water, the resulting build up of pressure
\
between the ship and the obstruction can unexpectedly
create a violent shear of such force that any attempts
to counteract it are useless. Incidents have occurred
where the master has lost control of the ship, which
Shallow Water has sheared rapidly from one side of the channel to
; 180"
the other, before grounding in a remarkably short
Deep Water
180"
\' space of time. In other incidents the ship has sheared
across the bows of an oncoming ship, in some cases
with appalling results. See figure 32.7.
Transfer in cables
C 1 I ..A
Speed
I 2 3 3 5 6 7
In each of these situations it has often been the
case that the master has passed through the area many
times before without any problems. T h e n ,
unexpectedly, all the necessary components come
together at once - the right trim, draft, under-keel
clearance and speed.
Excessive speed in shallow water can lead to total
Figzlre 32.6 Turning in shallow water loss of control of the ship!

Seeking tug assistance Conventional tugs
It is clear from the foregoing resume that a master The conventional tug usually has a traditional
frequently may experience difficulties in ship handling, single or twin screw propulsion unit ajt and a towing
which in many cases can be anticipated with adequate hook amidsl~ips.Although a powerful and reliable
training and experience. Having assessed the level of workhorse of the industry for many years, this
risk and the perceived threat to the safety of the ship, configuration seriously limits their manoeuvrability by
it may also be prudent, even in some cases mandatory, today's standards in modern tug design.
to seek tug assistance.
Combi-tugs
The use of tugs Generally speaking these are older conventional
General tugs which have been retrofitted with some sort of bow
Whilst tugs should never be perceived as an thruster, or retractable azimuth thruster forward, to
alternative to the correct handling of a ship, it is often supplement their traditional propulsion unit. Their
clear that the degree of difficulty anticipated dictates handling characteristics are improved accordingly, but
they are not commonplace.
the need for tug(s) assistance. This varies from the
routine employment of tugs by large tonnage ships, Limitations of conventional tugs
for the obvious reason of size, to the occasional use The limited manoeuvrability of conventional tugs
by smaller vessels, even ferries, under stress of weather is most evident when they are 'hooked up' to a ship
or in exceptionally difficult circumstances. They are that is making headway and this applies particularly
available for a wide range of tasks: to a conventional tug secured aft. They are also
relatively slow at letting go and repositioning
Assisting with difficult channel turns. elsewhere around the ship. The biggest concern,
Turning a ship off a berth. however, is their vulnerability to the effect of
Breasting and positioning onto a berth. interaction and the risk of prting.
Lifting off a berth.
Dead ship moves. Interaction
Channel escort duties (tankers). In very simple terms, a ship making way creates a
Attending emergencies. zone of differing water pressures around its hull. In
Salvage. the vicinity of the bow there will be a positive pressure
extending out from the ship, whilst along the ship's
Long distance towing.
side and around the area of the stern, there exists a
The operation of tugs is, in itself therefore, a huge suction area.
industry within an industry and the master of a ship The force of these pressure zones is increased
may find himself, in some cases unexpectedly, on the when a ship is in shallow water and if the ship's speed
periphery of this industry dealing with the additional is too high!
dimension of a pilot and one or more tug skippers, all When conventional tugs enter any of these areas
of whom may have their own ideas of how to handle their handling characteristics are seriously affected
the ship! In view of the extent of the industry it is because of their limited manoeuvrability and their
unfair to expect the master of a ship to be an expert in safety is at great risk. In the worst case scenario a tug
the use of tugs. It is, however, very beneficial for the may be turned across the bow and capsized, with
master to have a broad base of knowledge, so that he appalling rapidity and catastrophic consequences. See
can monitor both pilots and tug skippers and figure 32.8.
communicate with them professionally. When
contemplating the employment of a tug, there are Girting a tug
With the towing line secure to a towing hook
several points that the master should determine:
amidships, conventional tugs have always been
a) What type of tug is it? vulnerable to a phenomenon know variously as girting,
b) What is its bollard pull? girthing, or girding, according to various sources
c) Where is it best to position the tug? around the world. It occurs when a tug is trapped with
the tow line leading out on its beam, whilst being
The type of tug pulled bodily sideways by a ship, at a speed which
It is very important to be aware of the types of tug prohibits the tug from doing anything about it. In many
tha~ are now commonly available, so that it is possible cases the tug is capsized with astonishing speed and
to understand their strengths and weaknesses. They quickly sinks. See figure 32.9. The prime cause of
may be grouped according to their working methods girthing may be due to any one of the following:
into the following broad categories:
a) The ship turning away from the tug too quickly.
a) Conventional tugs. b) The ship proceeding at too high a speed.
b) Combi tugs c) Lack of cooperation between the ship's master and
c) Tractor tugs. the tug skipper.
d) Azimuth stern drive tugs (ASD). d) Poor communications with the tug skipper.
COMMAND 205
The sight of a tug being girted is an awesome and
frightening sight. It usually happens too swiftly to
activate quick release of the towline and leaves
absolutely no time to evacuate the crew before the
tug capsizes, often with a tragc loss of life.
Tractor tugs
The tractor tug differs completely in design to the
a) forward conventional tug in that its tow hook is situated af,
whereas the tug's power is forward of the tow hook.
The tug's propulsion comes from two multi-directional
propeller units, sited athwartships, directly under the
bridge. Tractor tugs are common throughout Europe,
the most well known manufacturers being Voith
Schneider and Schottel. They have outstanding
manoeuvrability, can thrust through 360" and are able
... . - to work anywhere around the ship, repositioning
....-._
~
.-.._ .-. quickly when required. They are consequently much

less vulnerable to girthing and interaction.
Azimuth stern driue tugs (ASDs)
Although generally considered a tractor tug, the
ASD is actually more of a compromise between a
conventional tug and a tractor tug. Like the tractor
tugs they also derive their power from twin multi-
directional propulsion units, sited athwartships, but
b) aft -._. on the ASD these units are situated aft, in the same
-.._
position as the propeller of the conventional tug. Also,
again like the conventional tug, they have a tow hook
Figure 32.8 Tug interaction amidships, but are better known for their exceptional
versatility when commonly working a torcl linefrom the
tug's bow W ~ I Lby C ~which
, means they are then
Ty--
a) forward
effectively operating as a tractor tug. They were
fl originally manufactured and widespread inJapan and
-- -._ 3.7( 2
are now, consequently, commonplace throughout the
Mixed tug
Pacific fleets
basin.
In many ports of the world there exist fleets of tugs

- - ~.- ~ . . . ~ ~ ~ ~ '
3
~ ....... /
which are a very mixed lot, in terms of design, type,

I ,
. .
* ,
,,
I ,
,\ '
. .,-
j /
-.:.44'
. - age, horsepower, bollard pull and manoeuvrability.
?*' ; In this respect it is important that the master is able to
, ' , I
, ,
make a modest evaluation of the tugs that are

employed to assist the ship, in order to avoid directing
a tug to a position where it is inadequate for the task
intended. This is not particularly problematic for the
6
:-----.
-...- -.
master of a large vessel, working with several tugs on

a regular basis and with the advice of a pilot. It can be
problematic, however, for the master of a small ship,
employing a single tug on rare occasions, to assist in
b] aft exceptionally difficult circumstances, adverse weather
conditions or emergencies. In these situations the
master may unexpectedly b e called upon to
I/ - - - .....''.
_
--;
,'
communicate coherently with a tug skipper and to
make a value judgement as to where to position the
/ - ;
,,,
,
tug for the particular manoeuvre or task intended.

:,
-
3 \
:
- I ~- ;,~',,,*p
,
,' ,
* ,
%
.:
,I:
-...-... - Positioning a tug
When a tug is secured to a ship either alongside in
,, .,
a push-pull mode, or on a tow line forward or aft, it
will exert a force in tonnes (bollard pull) that is working
Figure 32.8 Girting a conventional tug upon a turning lever within the ship.

It is most important to understand that this a) ship stopped On Even Keel
turning lever will be working upon a pivot point, the
position of which moves according to whether the
ship is either stopped, making headway, or making
sternway. See figure 32.10.
In view of this and in order to make good use of a
tug and achieve the best results, it is crucial to position
it in the right place. It is therefore necessary to ask the 15 tonne 15 tonne
following questions:
b] making headway
a) What type of tug is it?
b) What is the intended manoeuvre?
c) Will the ship be predominately making headway,
backing, or swinging?
d) Where will the ship's pivot point be?
Whilst this may seem a little bewildering at first,
i' 'U
these few basic concepts are simple to work with and 15 tonne 15 lorme
also help to explain some of the important operational
differences between the conventional tug and the
C) making sternway
tractor tug, particularly with regards to:
a) Tugs on long lines.
b) Tugs alongside.
Tugs on long lines
120m 100 80 60 40 20 20
The effectiveness of tugs on long lines can be discussed
with the simple example of a single tug, attending a
ship during a channel or river transit. Also, it is in this 15 tonne 15 tonne
role that the differing capabilities of the conventional
tug and tractor tug are clearly illustrated. See figure Figure 32.70 Turning levers and moments
32.11.
Conventional tugs
In this situation the conventional tug's relatively
poor manoeuvrability usually ensures that it is
traditionally and quite correctly secured on a long line
forward. This unfortunately results in the following:
a) With headway it is too close to the pivot point

and is therefore working on a poor turning lever.
b) As the ship's speed increases it can only work
effectively within a limited arc of operation.
c) It is vulnerable to girthing.
d) It cannot assist the ship to slow down, i.e. braking.
e) If required, it will be slow in repositioning.
In the light of these comments it is evident that the
conventional tug cannot, in this position, effectively ~ ~ - .
employ it's full potential in terms of total bollard pull
and is therefore not particularly efficient. There is,
however, no feasible operational alternative.
Tractor tugs Tractor
O n the other hand a tractor tug, or an ASD tug,

can be employed on a long line aft, with the following
results:
a) It will be working a long way from the pivot point

and creates an excellent turning moment.
b) It can paravane out, using just the weight of the
tug on the tow line to assist the ship.
Figure 32.71 Channel escort
c) With it's manoeuvrability it is safe from girting.
COMMAND 207
d) It can assist the ship in braking and stopping. enables them to reposition quickly and effectively, as
e) It can quickly reposition alongside the ship when required by the master. In comparison to the more
feasible. ponderous conventional tug, the tractor tug is therefore
f) The ASD tug is very effective in this role. well suited to attending a ship in a single tug capacity.
Tugs alongside The use of tugs world wide is a vast and complex
When a tug is positioned alongside it is still subject, that is well beyond the scope of this chapter.
important to assess its position relative to the pivot Consequently it has been necessary to oversimplify
point. If, for example, a tug is made fast in an area the subject. It is hoped, nevertheless, that these basic
roughly adjacent to the pivot point, it will not be examples will serve the ship master with a simple
working upon a turning lever of any consequence, but method of assessing the optimum position for the most
will, instead, have a tendency to push the ship bodily efficient use of a tug(s) and upon which to build
sideways. This is very useful when employing one tug, practical experience, when observing tug operations
because it can be used in much the same way as a in the future.
bow thruster and will facilitate breasting onto a berth,
or lifting off. Training
General
If, however, the tug is required to assist the ship The level of specialised training, dedicated solely
with steering, it is preferable to position the tug as far to ship handling, has come a long way from pushing
aft as possible, so that it is some distance from the small wooden models around on a desk. There is now,
pivot point and working on a good turning lever. See world wide, a bewildering array of computer based
figure 32.12. Alternatively, if the ship is making training facilities, all of which purport to offer some
sternway, the roles are reversed. For example, when sort of ship handling simulation. They range from low
lifting off and backing away from a berth, it would be budget desk top systems to million pound, full mission,
prudent to place the tug aft near the pivot point, to ship's bridge simulators. Although too numerous to
assist with lifting off, but as far forward as possible, to discuss individually in detail, it is important to look
assist with steering when backing. briefly at their broad application in terms of ship
handling and they have be categorised as follows:
With their ability to thrust with full power in any
direction, tractor tugs are particularly useful when a) Desk top computers
working alongside, added to which their versatility b) Radar simulators.
c) Ship's bridge simulators.
d) Manned models.
Caution
It is very important that officers are extremely
cautious of computer programmes purporting to be
a correct representation of ships' manoeuvring
characteristics.
They may only be as accurate as the computer
programmer thought they should be and may not have been
vahdated by an experienced ship handler. It is, therefore,
not unknown for them to contain serious errors! (See
a) with headway reference 3).
Desktop computers
Many manufacturers market desktop computers
with a standard visual display unit (VDU)and a variety
of ship handling programmes installed. They are low
budget systems which are easy to install, both ashore
and on board ship and can be programmed with a
ship's individual manoeuvring data. Although some
do offer excellent, high definition, VDU simulations
of ship handling scenarios, it is difficult to raise the
level of realism and credibility above that of a
computer game. However, if they are viewed as an
information reference source and retrieval system, they
can be a valuable learning aid.
b) with sternway Radar simulators

It is a relatively inexpensive progression from a
Figure 32.12 Tugs alongside basic desk top computer to a computer which simulates

a radar picture and has a passing resemblance, Manned model facilities
frequently poor, of a ship's bridge added to it. In many The manned model is, therefore, an outstanding
examples this will only consist of simple engine tool for training officers in ship handling. 'There are
controls and basic navigational instruments, in a room currently three manned model facilities in the world
that is very unrepresentative of a ship's bridge and that run dedicated ship handling courses.:
with no visual scene! This type of system, therefore,
a) Port Grenoble, Lyon, France.
offers little as a training facility for ship handling, but
b) The Warsash Maritime Centre, England.
is very suitable for training officers in RADAR, ARPA
c) Poland.
and VTS operations, where familiarisation in blind
pilotage is a major factor. The first two, at Grenoble and Warsash, are well
established, well known and highly successful, whilst
Ship's bridge simulators the latter in Poland is relatively new. They each offer
There are now many ship's bridge simulators excellent training facilities and run similar, five day
around the world which are constantly being courses, with lectures and discussions, followed by
upgraded, or replaced, with the very latest technology. practical 'hands on' experience in every important
They usually represent a multi-million pound aspect of ship handling, for example:
investment programme and should offer a full scale
bridge with daylight, night time, or twilight visual Dedicated ship handling courses
scenes, in a wide variety of ports and many differing a) Stopping.
types of ship. The degree of realism and credibility b) Slow speed control.
that they create is excellent and incorporates all of c) Turning.
the inherent levels of psychologcal pressure that will d) Effect of wind.
be experienced on board a real ship. e) Bow thruster work.
f) Channel transits.
Although many of them do specialise in dedicated g) Berthing.
ship handling courses, they are best suited to river h) Interaction.
and channel navigation, so the use of these simulators i) Anchor work (dredgng).
is frequently directed towards training in bridge j) The use of tugs.
resource management and passage planning. There k) Specialised operations i.e. SBM and FSU.
is always, nevertheless, a strong ship handling input
on such courses but, when handling a large ship in These facilities offer quality training in ship
simulated 'real time', the ratio of actual time spent handling for any chief officer about to be promoted
ship handling in comparison to the length of time on to master and also, in many instances, essential
the course is limited. updating experience for serving masters.
Manned models Furthermore, as many pilots and masters will

With experience in ship handling training, using testify, this type of training does not stand alone, but
everything from blackboards to small models on is supportive of ship handling afloat with a real ship.
tables, desk top computers, full mission simulators and Nautical Institute publications
manned models, it is undoubtedly the latter that is It has been the objective of this chapter to offer
the most successful of all. The manned models used only a broad overview of some of those aspects of
are generally quite large, with an average length of ship handling, including the use of tugs, which are of
eight metres. They weigh several tonnes and have issue and importance to the ship master.
sophisticated electronics on board to ensure the correct
scaled times and responses of the anchor windlasses, For more information and a more complete guide
bow thrusters, rudders and propellers. to these and many other aspects of ship handling,
including the use of tugs, that it has not been possible
Operating in open waters, they are influenced by to include in this chapter, the following Nautical
all the same variable, uilpredictable factors that Institute publications should be referred to:
influence a real ship, so that officers are able to develop
that important 'feel' for handling a ship and experience References
the 'seat of the pants' element associated with it. 1 Rowe, R.W., Captain FNI, The Sh$handler's Guide
for Masters and Navigating Oficers, Pilots and Tug
Also, because of their quicker, scaled, operating Masters, The Nautical Institute, 1999.
times, it is possible to practice and re-practice various 2 Hensen, H., Captain FNI, Tug Use in Port (A
aspects of ship handling repeatedly, thus gaining an Practical Guide), The Nautical Institute, 1997.
enormous amount of experience in a short period of 3 Hensen, H., Captain FNI, Shil, Bridge Simulators
time. - aproject handbook, The Nautical Institute, 1999.
COMMAND 209
Chapter 33
ANCHORING SYSTEMS - SOME INSIGHTS FOR MARINERS

by Captain A.O. Ojo and Professor J. King MSc FNI, UWIST Cardiff
Introduction
T HE PRACTICE O F ANCHORI NG ships with a weighted line to cope with the loads placed upon them. The extent
has been followed for centuries. Until recently, there of these failures has been highlighted by several recent
has been little development in anchoring technology. studies ( I , L. :+. ' ) which have shown, not only that the
As ships have become larger, anchors and cables have problem is a serious one, but that it is exacerbated by
become heavier, windlasses stronger. But the standard important technical and operational factors. There
stockless anchor commonly employed in merchant appear to be, for example, widely held misconceptions
ships has been around almost unchanged for 100 years. about the capabilities of anchoring systems and the
In recent years, it has become increasingly clear that operational procedures which should be adopted to
the capacity of conventional anchoring systems to meet them. There is, moreover, ample evidence of
serve large, modern vessels is now seriously in doubt. inadequate maintenance, poor design and perhaps
most significant to us here, inadequate training.
Today, the anchor, cable and windlass of a ULCC
or large bulk carrier must be regarded as an extremely Figure 33.1 summarises the major causes of
fragile arrangement, for all that it may look massive anchoring system failures in VLCCs'. Although these
when one is standing on the forecastle head. As ships categories of failures are very broad, it is clear that
have increased in size, anchors have become inadequacies of design and inadequacies of operation
proportionately lighter, cables proportionately shorter, share almost equal responsibility for system failures.
windlasses more vulnerable to shock loads. In
There are several ways in which the present
consequence, the anchoring process must b e
problem can be approached. We may attempt to
conducted with extreme caution in such vessels lest
design out weaknesses in the conventional system by
the gear be carried away. The anchor, a monstrous
better engineering; we may attempt to circumvent
weight often in excess of 25 tonnes, must be let go
weaknesses by better operational procedures
with the utmost delicacy, with the ship travelling over
(remembering that seamanship has been defined as
the ground at no more than a few centimetres per
the art of overcoming poor design); or we may look
second. There is no margin for error. And in
for alternative ways to secure vessels. The first two of
consequence the notion that the anchors can be
these are likely to be palliatives rather than solutions
deployed in emergency situations is no longer tenable.
since it is becoming clear that for large vessels even
Indeed, even the 35-tonne anchors fitted in very large
the concept of anchoring- in its traditional sense is
vessels are totally inadequate to secure them in
unsound. The last alternative suggested above might
anything but the gentlest conditions. As has been
pointed out (in the discussion to reference l), the be described as flying in the face of experience. Three
anchors of a 542,000 dwt tanker are proportionately thousand years of anchoring history must be telling
only one fifth as heavy as those of an 18,000 dwt vessel, us something.
and the cables proportionately only half as long. However the problem is addressed, its solution will
not be achieved without cost. Whether the failure of
Much experience has, of course, been gained in
the offshore industry in recent years, where the the system leads to the loss of an anchor or the loss of
securing of large fixed structures has presented a ship, the costs involved are significant. There is now
challengng problems. Various new types of anchor available sufficient information on such failures for
have been designed and used with considerable their likelihood in any particular vessel to be assessed.
success. There has, however, been little benefit to This means that cost benefit analysis can be employed
merchant shipping apart from these advances. to help identify measures which might secure
improvements in the operation of ships.
Unfortunately, merchant ships are supposed to be
mobile most of the time. Being anchored is a We are arguing- here that there are grounds for
temporary state. There, ease of deployment and concern that conventional anchoring systems are
retrieval is a crucial design consideration for their inadequate. But we are also conscious that these
anchoring systems, to such an extent that weight and inadequacies only become unacceptable when there
holding power may be sacrificed to achieve it. is sufficient pressure to do something about them. For
individual ship operators, this point is reached when
Given their inadequacy, it is hardly surprising that it appears that there is some net benefit to be gained
anchoring systems should fail frequently. Anchors are from taking action. For the shipping community as a
lost or damaged, cables break, windlasses are unable whole it comes when the rules that they all follow are

BackLqound cmlts~oJJazluv~ Per cent Comnfio~~rl~t
E n p e e r i n g design 38.1 Operatzon motor Genirng Blrtkes Beai-~ngs
Operational practice 33.3
Combination of design and Lettlng go X X
operational practice 14.3
Welghlng X X X
Inadequate maintenance 9.5
Others 4.8 At anchor X X
Figure 33.1 Anchoring system failures Figure 33.2 Anclzoring system failures
changed. This probably means that, notwithstanding performance of windlass brakes is also sensitive to the
all the technical weaknesses of modern systems, content of the lining materials and the considerable
relatively cheap relief such as might be brought about amount of heat generated when they are applied. Some
by better training is likely to be preferred to more attempts have been made recently to monitor heat
radical measures. dissipation in brake drums.
What, then, are the areas to which attention might There is clearly ample scope for improving the
be given? windlass and several new designs have been proposed,
including one hydraulically operated type which is
Improved engineering claimed to be capable of absorbing the loads likely to
Surveys ('. ') published elsewhere have provided be experienced in emergency stopping manoeuvres.
ample, detailed evidence of areas of weakness in the
engineering of conventional anchoring systems. Improving operational procedures
Anchors, cables, hawse pipes and stoppers all g v e Ships are generally not provided with information
cause for concern. But the most vulnerable part of the concerning the operational capabilities of their
system from the purely engineering standpoint is the anchoring systems. This means that anchoring
windlass. Both during the anchoring process and when operations depend for their success very much upon
lying at anchor, the windlass components are subject the experience of the master. There is some data now
to substantial dynamic loads which, in practically every available on such things as brake liner efficiency, cable
case, must be resisted by a windlass brake of startling scope for a gven depth/draught ratio, limiting cable
crudity. Table 2 identifies the principal components tensions, windlass overloads and safe anchoring
at risk. speeds, which could usefully assist masters, but at the
present time these are not usually provided to ships.
Windlasses have always been regarded as major
items of safety equipment. This is reflected in, for In order to improve operational procedures there
example, the prohibition of lap and lead in windlass is a need for both better information on how the
steam chests which goes back to the nineteenth anchoring system actually performs in practice and
century. But at the present time very little is done to for better training. Such monitoring of the system as
measure the performance of a windlass, even though is actually done at the moment is fairly rudimentary.
there is ample evidence to suggest that in many ships At the very least, performance monitoring should
they are often operating very close to their practical include:
limits. This is unfortunate, since the information gained
from better performance monitoring would provide .
7 Measurement of cable length deployed.
evidence not only of the current state of the equipment White paint and seizing wire is the rough and
for assessing maintenance needs, but also for ready system of cable marking which history has
improving overall design. bequeathed to us. It hardly needs further
comment. Very few vessels are fitted with cable
Windlass control is an area of significant concern. meters.
Traditionally the deployment of the anchor and cable 2. Chain speed and acceleration.
is under the control of a manually-operated windlass In both manual and automatic operation this
brake. While this was no doubt acceptable in relatively information is necessary if correct brake
small vessels (and carpenters developed considerable application rates are to be achieved. This is a
'feel' for the task) it is barely so today in large ships. vitally important aspect of anchoring, since correct
T h e anchoring environment is dangerous, the brake application rates can reduce shock loads,
operation extremely sensitive to unskilled hands and and cable run away.
it is probably unrealistic to continue to be satisfied 3. Brake liner temperature gradients.
with manual control in such circumstances, especially It is common practice for the windlass brake to
when braking arrangements are themselves physically be applied frequently at short intervals. This
inadequate. It is remarkable that disc brakes are still practice can lead to serious risk of failure because
rarely employed in windlasses, and automatic control of the high temperatures that it induces in the
of their application is still highly uncommon. The brake liners. Heat fading is a well documented
COMMAND 211
phenomenon. But without either the means to One is to employ the dynamic positioning techniques
detect its onset or even an appreciation of its now well established for vessels in the offshore
effects, operators are unlikely to apply the brake industry. Another is to so manage the operation of
in the most effective way. large vessels that the need to anchor is reduced.
4. Windlass-bearingpressure.
Monitoring windlass-bearing pressure would allow Dynamic positioning is expensive and has been
the operator to assess the level of stresses within installed to date in vessels which are substantially
the anchoring system. smaller than those which we are principally concerned
with here. The technical problems associated with
Many seafarers recognise that anchoring implementing such systems in large tankers are
arrangements are inadequate in large ships, although considerable. But that is not to say that considering
the precise nature of the inadequacies are not always them would not be rewarding.
clearly understood. This, in part, may be due to the
fact that few seafarers have received anything more Alternatively, solving the problem by avoiding it
than the most cursory training in anchoring practice. is a possibly fruitful approach for some trades, although
Many seamanship text books, for example, do no it is not without cost. Since the present anchoring
more than promote traditional practices which are arrangements cannot b e used for emergency
quite inappropriate for larger modern vessels. And operations, we need to be concerned only with
their recommendations on, for example, speed over planned anchoring. Good communications with some
the ground when anchoring, would be suicidal if ingenuity might be exploited to plan voyages so that
followed in today's larger vessels. 'steaming-off' rather than anchoring is the usual way
of waiting. The establishment of fixed, adequately-
Anchoring is a practical operation for which sized moorings at locations commonly used for
practical training is necessary but rarely pven. Clearly anchorages would also help.
this is easier said than done. There is no question of
training on the job (although ad hoc learning by doing, Both of these alternatives are more easily said than
which is not quite the same thing, has been the normal done. But after so many years of using anchors, no
way to acquire most seamanship skills). This applies alternative which may be proposed is going to be
to much maritime training, of course, such as simple - almost by definition. The inadequacy of
watchkeeping and shiphandling, and in recent years anchors and cables for large ships will only become
there has been growing use of simulation techniques unacceptable, however, when there is sufficient
to provide opportunities for practice. Anchoring is discussion of the subject to generate the necessary
ideally suited to simulation training. concern.
Computer-based simulation training" allows the Recommendations and observations

anchoring system behaviour to be demonstrated. It 0 In large ships, soon after brake release the rate of
provides a means for realistic practice to be undertaken unrestricted descent of anchor and cable becomes
in a variety of circumstances, without risk to either excessive. Conventional band brakes operate at,
trainee or vessel, and it also provides a means for or beyond, the limits of their capability in such
examining the skills of trainees. circumstances.
0 Repeated applications of the band brake after short
The value of such training depends very much on lengths of cable have been paid out can keep the
the validity of the mathematical models upon which system under control, but overheating of the brake
it is based. Several such models are available and may still lead to a reduction in braking efficiency
attempts are being made at UWIST to produce the and subsequent loss of anchor and cable.
necessary software to form the basis of an anchoring 0 Walking out the anchor can be recommended as
package. a means of restricting velocities and loads in the
system. Maximum benefit will be obtained if the
An initial survey of seafarers has revealed that the
anchor is walked out to the bottom or within a
essential constituents of any anchor handling training
few fathoms of it. Attention must, however, be
course are:
given to restricting the walkout speed so that
1. Practical anchoring operations. damage to the windlass gearing and motor are
2. Anchoring forces. avoided.
3. Operational planning. 0 Speed-limiting devices operating on the band
4. Cable deployment. brake help to relieve the windlass operator in the
Ti. Communications. difficult task of controlling cable deployment, but
6. Safety. undue reliance should not be placed on such
systems.
Alternatives to conventional anchoring systems 3 Even on windlasses fitted with auxiliary braking
If the inadequacy of conventional anchoring devices, or energy absorbers, it is advisable that
systems is no longer acceptable, then alternatives have the anchor should be walked out as recommended
to be considered. Two alternatives suggest themselves. above.

Once the required scope of cable has been the band brake to reduce efficiency losses caused
deployed, the vessel should be allowed to bring- by corrosion and contamination.
up on the bow stopper. In any manoeuvring on 0 Consideration should be p e n to water-lubricated
the anchor, the stopper should normally be synthetic bearings. These would help to reduce
engaged. the on-board maintenance by sea staff.
The speed of the ship over the ground when the 0 When brake liners are renewed, it is important
anchor is let go, and whilst the cable is being paid that at least the minimum recommended number
out, needs to be minimised. This requirement is of screws securing the liner to the band are fitted.
more critical for larger ships, worsening weather The performance of the brake will be seriously
conditions and decreasing water depth. The use affected if the liner is not properly fitted.
of main engnes may be required to achieve this. 0 The recommended mating surface for the brake
For a VLCC the permissible speed is of the order lining should be maintained. Experience suggests
of 1/4 knot. Accurate determination of such low that overlaid stainless steel will disintegrate after
speeds over the ground is difficult. a few anchoring operations.
The energy absorption ability of a range of anchor 0 The thickness of the brake liner is not a good
cables indicates that increasing scope should be indicator of brake liner effectiveness. New liners
used with decreasing water depth. Higher scopes can be ineffective due to heat level, wetness and
are required in ballast conditions. corrosion.
O n large ships, conventional band brakes 0 New liners should be bedded-in before use.
frequently operate at, or near, thcir limits of Training in the anchoring of large vessels is
0
capability. More frequent failures are probably recommended. This should underline the
avoided by palliative measures taken by sea staff, differences in procedure required on large vessels
for example, walhngout the anchor prior to brake compared to smaller vessels.
release.
0 Such training could b e aided by computer
Designers of deck machinery are already
simulation, but should also include supervised
considering, and in some cases have produced,
anchoring.
alternative or auxiliary braking devices. At
present, none of the devices considered is without References
some shortcomings, although disc brakes of one 1. King, J. and Ojo, A.O., Some Practical Aspects of
type or another appear to be the most promising Anchoring Large Sh$s, Paper No 8, RINA Spring
for routine anchoring. Further development is Meetings 1983.
needed.
2. Ojo A.O., Byrne, D. a n d Brook, A.J., An
At present, most operators have very little
Investigation of Sh$s' Anchoring Systems, General
information as to system performance.
Council of British Shipping, Technical Report TR/
Instrumentation which shows cable speed during
100, October 1982.
free-running and walking-out, length of cable paid
3. Brinkmeyer, H. and Russel, K., Dynamic Behaviour
out and loads in the system would be helpful.
ofAnchor Windlasses, Vol. 1 & 2, Shell International
Limits of windlass speed during walking-out
Marine Ltd., London, 1983.
should be clearly indicated to the operator.
On large ships the bow stopper should preferably 4. Brook, A.J. and Byrne, D., Tlze Dynamic Behaviour
be of the double-shearing type. of Single and Mult$le Moored fissels, Papers No 9,
Liaison between the shipbuilder and the RINA Spring Meetings, 1983.
manufacturer of deck machinery is vital at an early 5. Ojo A.O., Survey ofAnchoring Systems, SEAWAYS,
stage if leads of cable and deck layout are to be The Nautical Institute, Sept. 1983.
acceptable. 6. E n g ,J., Applications ofSnzall Computers to Shqboard
Consideration should b e given to suitable Training, Paper No 7, RINA Spring Meetings,
materials with which to coat the brake drum of 1983.
COMMAND 213
Chapter 34
ANCHORING AND ANCHORAGE IN STRONG TIDES

by Captain S. Chaudhari FNI
Captain Somesh Chaudhari served hzs four years' apprenticesht$ leading to second nzate,followrd by mate and master, while with the
India Steamsht$ Co. from 1949 to 1958. He was assistant harbourmaster Calcutta Port 1958- 1965, chief oficerfollowed by 78 years
as inaster with India Steanlshzp Co. 1965-7984, executed small craft deliveries 7984-1985 and is now master OSV, Bombay Ocean
Marine Agency.
Introduction
THE PORT OF BHAVNAGAR, in the Gulf of Cambay, has
the strongest tidal streams in India. During ]leaps at
Figure 34.1
half tide the tidal stream runs at over four knots. In
springs it averages over seven knots. In equinoctial
Action: Pay out to required length, as the weight
tides it is known to exceed nine knots.
comes along.
The port has been used by power-driven vessels 2. The cable is leading astern and dragging; at the same
over half a century, to whom losing anchors in this
time the stern is swinging round.
area has been a fairly regular feature. 'Anchoring a
(Check the slack water time).
vessel in a tidal way' and 'tending a vessel at anchor' Inference: Headway exists; also the tide is making
appear in the syllabus for 'master's.' But it does not
from the stern. The vessel is snubbing round.
take into consideration the extreme tidal streams of
Bhavnagar. The premises to begin with are:
A cable rarely breaks under even strain, but
invariably breaks when jerked with more than two
to three shackles out.
Anchoring with tide running is inviting trouble.
Await slack water where possible.
Be forearmed with knowledge of the approximate
direction of ebb and flood, respectively.
Action: Give a burst of stern movement while the
Normal anchoring procedure consists of putting cable leads between 4 and 8 o'clock. Stop engines
the engine astern and awaiting the propeller wash to thereafter. Let the vessel come round. When the cable
reach just beyond the half length of the vessel. With starts dragging while leading between 10 and 2 o'clock,
the engines stopped, the anchor is dropped. The vessel keep engines going ahead assisting with appropriate
at this stage is assumed to have no way on her or at helm to swing, till the cable stops dragging. At this
best a feeble sternway. But supposing the vessel arrives stage, the vessel has no way upon her. Stop engines
at a time when the first of the tide has made, yet the and commence 'paying and checking' as the weight
stream is hard to discern in the absence of buoy or comes. In a strong tideway, depending on the strain
another vessel at anchor. Conventional anchoring on the cable, a 'kick on the engnes' of short duration
could lead to burning-off the brake shoe or in the may be necessary before paying out the final length.
extreme, the cable parting.
3. me cable is leading astern: dragging: vessel swinging
Practical anchoring cases but unlikely to turn due to decelerating swing.
Arrive at the anchorage with bare steerage way. (Check time for ascertaining flow.)
Use a short burst of stern movement. When the wash Inference: Headway exists. The vessel is stemming
just begns to catch up with the stern, let go the anchor. the tide.
Hard brake it with one shackle in the w a t y It is
impossible to part the cable or burn the lining at this
stage.
The following possibilities will present themselves
vis-a-vis the cable lead thereafter:
7. The cable lead remains up and down.
Inference: The vessel has no way upon her. Possibly
it is near slack water. Figure 34.3

Action: Come astern on the engnes. The moment A vessel at anchor in a tide way running at over
the cable stops draggng, stop engines. The vessel now four knots behaves exactly in the same fashion except
has no way upon her. Wait for the vessel to drift down, its drift limited by tensioning and easing of the cable
enabling the cable to lead ahead. 'Pay and check' using finds expression in increasing yaw.
engines, and anchor as in figure 34.1.
In figure 34.5, the configuration of '8' is an
4. The cable leading ahead: dragging steady. approximation of the path traced out by a starboard-
Inference: The vessel is stemming the tide and has anchored hawse. This is generated by the variation in
acquired sternway. pressure on the vessel's hull due to yaw: 'C' to 'A'
Action: Go ahead on the engines till the cable stops represents the surge ahead brought about by extreme
dragging. Then anchor as in figure 34.1. cable stretch combined with reduced hull pressure
through reducing sheer; 'A' to 'X' represents increasing
5. This is unlikely to ha#pen but is a possibility. sheer and 'sheering over' stretching the cable. The rest
The cable is leading ahead: dragging: the stern is is repetition of the cycle. If from the 'D' and 'E' position
swingng acceleratedly. the vessel does not start breaking its sheer but
Inference: The tide is from the stern and the vessel continues to swing (increasing sheer), then arriving at
has acquired stern way. 'C' and more likely at 'X', the cable will snap.
The asymmetry of the halves is a result of off-
centring of the hawse pipe. In fact, as the hawse pipes
are moved further aft, nearing the extreme breadth of
a vessel, the asymmetry is extreme.
The 'drift' or fall back of the vessel in its travel
from 'A' to ' X' is represented by the larger arrow '0".
Figure 34.4 The smaller arrow '0" represents the drift as a result
of travel from 'B' to 'C'. It is obvious that the jerk on
Action: Go ahead on the engines till the cable stops the cable at its extreme stretch at 'X' is in excess of
draggng. Then anchor her as in figure 34.2. that at 'C'.
m
To summarise
a) In a tidal way, use an anchor with one shackle, or
at most 'one and a half' in the water for guidance to
vessel's way, vessel's speed, tide direction.
b) Always pay out little at a time (a couple of fathoms)
and check. This may at worst make the anchor drag a
bit. Eventually in Bhavnagar's anchoring ground,
which is mud, the anchor will sink and hold the vessel
with six shackles or more out.
Yawing
As the strength of the tide increases at the
anchorage, the vessel grows listless - i.e. she yaws
about. The cable leads - namely the hawse pipes -
being 'off the centre line' the vessel's natural 'lie'
Figure 34.5
becomes a 'cant' opposite to the anchor. In weak tides,
this results in mild yawing. But when the tide is racing
at four knots or more, the vessel becomes one giant Snapping the cable
pendulum. The inherent danger to such yaws is anchor Cable breakages are sometimes brought about by
draggng and, to a lesser extent, the cable parting. heaving or shortening anchors with a substantial tide
running. The moment the engne is put ahead to assist
The mechanism of this yaw is better undeis<ood if
in heaving, or a powerful windlass manages to heave,
one observes a vessel drifting down 'stemmind the tide' surging the vessel ahead, the scope of the arrows
on the Hooghly. So long as she stems the tide, the marked '0"and '02' thereby increases, increasing the
drift rate is less. The stem slices the tide, and the water
jerk at 'X' and 'C'.
flows benignly past the bows. But let the vessel fall
off, exposing one bow more to the tide than the other. The standard remedy to arrest wild yaws is to drop
The exposed bow becomes a tide catcher. The vessel the second anchor underfoot, with approximately two
swings merrily on till the bow loses its potency due to shackles on deck. This considerably dampens the
change of its angle to the tide. In this process, the drift configuration of '8'. Referring to figure 34.5, the ideal
rate of the vessel progressively increases, indicating position to drop the second anchor would be 'C' and
greater pressure to the hull. I should prefer there to be about three shackles on
deck. The position 'C' ensures maximum distance the vessel is unlikely to part but certainly drag. Now
between the anchors. Thus the vessel in dragging the heave the riding anchor clear.
short anchor about is unlikely to have a foul hawse.
To summarise
When forced to heave-up with considerable tide a) In wild yawing, drop the second anchor with three
running, as earlier stated, the anchor is vulnerable. shackles on deck. Referring to figure 34.5, position
How then should one go about heaving it up? No 'C' is the place to drop the anchor riding to the
guarantees, of course, but ideally one should begin starboard anchor; position 'X', when riding to port
with the short anchor, heaving it short to one-and-a- anchor. This ensures maximum distance between
half in the water. Having put the short anchor out of anchors.
gear, commence heaving the riding anchor. In assisting b) Heaving up assisted by main engnes, endeavour
the windlass with engines, endeavour to steer at all to steer a course reciprocal to the tide direction.
times a course reciprocal to the tide direction. Keep c) Heave short the short anchor to one and a half in
heaving till the cable is shortened to around three in the water leaving it as dampener to yawing while
the water. Now change over and heave the short the riding anchor is hove short to three shackles.
anchor clear while the vessel rides or drags on three d) Heave clear the short anchor followed by the
shackles. Even if the vessel now makes wild sheers, riding anchor.

Chapter 35
A NEW APPROACH TO ANCHORING LARGE VESSELS

by Captain C.A. McDowall MSc CEng MIMechE MRINA FNI
Captain Allan McDowall was educated at HMS Worcester and has a sea career spanning 45 years with 18 years in command, mainly
of VLCCs and very large tankers. He spent 12 years ashore in engineeringfiom a shopjloor apprentice at Stothert B Pitt through the
design ofice to R B D . He took HNC, endorsements and the IMechE direct examination to degree level, befire being sent to Loughborough
University by Stothert @ Pitt to do a iMTech in engineering design under the late Profssor D.H. Chaddork CBE, of the Fighting
Ehicles Research Establishment at Shrivenham.
Following R@D at Stothert t 3Pitt he was project leader with Rotork; development engineer, then chief design engineer with
consultants Walters Engineers of Bath; then assistant works engineer at the Avon Rubber Company before returning to sea.
His MSc was in naval architecture (The behaviour of very large xhil, hulls) at the Unir~ersityofBath in his spare time while at sea
with Esso as second mate. He has done research into mechanisms (Studies of elastic joints) and also anchor perlformance, took out a
patent on one anchor and a registered design on another.
Allan McDowall is Hon. Secretary of the Solent Branch of The Nautical Institute. Recently retired fiom deep sea, he sails an
Evolution andflies a C752 in his spare time.
Note: This chapter comprises extracts from a Nautical Institute Monograph

Summary but control the speed of descent with the brake.
A NCHORING SYSTEMS O N LARGE VESSELS are designed Control the direction of the anchor cable at right angles
within the following general parameters. The anchor to the bow until sideways motion has stopped and
and cable are capable of holding a loaded vessel in a allow the vessel to rotate about the anchor until
current of three knots and a wind of 28 knots, brought up. This chapter describes the principles
maximum. They are not designed to stop a vessel with behind this manoeuvre and discusses limitations in
way on, as this momentum exceeds the limit of the anchoring systems about which the prudent mariner
system. should be aware.
There are generally 13 shackles on the starboard Introduction
anchor and 12 shackles on the port anchor. The Anchoring by walking the anchor and cable back the
windlass motor is designed to lift three shackles whole way is permissible, providing the cable is kept up
vertically plus the weight of the anchor, with a 5O0/n and down the whole time and providing the design speed
allowance on test when new. The cable stopper should of the windlass is not exceeded. Because putting 10 shackles
be able to carry approximately twice the proof load out in this manner takes in excess of half an hour, it is
of the cable and the windlass brake holding power is exceedingly difficult to do in practice without damaging
approximately half the breaking strength of the cable. the windlass motor. However, the problem of speed control
of the cable does not arise with this method as it does with
The usual way of anchoring a VLCC is to stem the the brake, which is why many people do it.
wind and tide, stop the ship and put the engnes astern.
Alternatively, the brake designed for the purpose can
The anchor is walked out to just above the bottom,
and should be used with care, as described below. The brake
after which it is let go or walked out until the required has a rated static applicable force typically 10 to 12 times
length of cable is on the bottom. This approach to that sustainable by the motor. Dynamic force is reduced by
anchoring gives heavy wear to the anchor system and a factor of about six, so the brake is about twice the available
can take a long time. A better and more effective force of the motor. The problem with the brake method is
approach is to attempt to keep the cable leading at that speed control and the force of brake application rest
right angles to the bow so controlling the change in with the skill of the fo'c'sle crew. Maintenance of the brake
axial inertia rather than controlling ship momentum. in an as-new condition is also necessary.
To achieve this the bow should be about 20" off Anchoring with the brake is a team skill on the part of
the weather and movillg sideways when the anchor is the crew and the master. Despite the stories of accidents,
these are mainly caused by human error of one kind or
let go. This must occur at the end of a tightly executed
another - water too deep, only one man operating the brake,
turn of about 1 3 5 O To achieve this the anchorage is speed excessive, speed excessive, windlass brake
down weather at 'low 'peed. On reaching not maintained, cable not kept abeam and failure of
the position abeam of where the bow is desired to be, associated equipment also due to lack of maintenance.
the engne is put on dead slow ahead and the helm ~ccasionallyequipment may fail unexpectedly, but this is
put hard over towards the anchoring position. ASsoon really blaming the gear design rather than causal lack of
as the turn is initiated the engine is stopped. Let go maintenance. Using the brake rather than the motor has
the anchor (it may need walking out to free the cable) two main advantages:
1. In an emergency, having the skill to drop will save the starboard 13 shackles, port 12 shackles. Tk~obow stoppers
day. for SBMs, SWL: each 200 tonnes (78mm stud chain). It is
2. Using the motor rather than the brake and having an immediately apparent that the cable stopper has twice the
accident as a result could lead to problems of insurance, holding power of the brake, even when the brake is in the
because the equipment is not being used for its designed as-rated condition, without fade and the brake is twelve
purpose.The motor can only be used with the ship stopped times stronger than the motor.
over the g~ouildand with power available, so walking
back is not an emergency option. Habitually walking back, The International Association of Classification Societies
it has been found, only leads to an inability to drop the (IACS) recommendation is that the maximum static pull
anchor at all due to the progressive seizure of parts. on the brake should be 45O/o of the ultimate tensile strength
(UTS) of the chain cable, the force at which the cable is
Recommendation designed and tested to fail. Proof strength of the cable is in
The brake should be used with due care. Practice should the order of 86010 of UTS, so it is apparent
- -
that the above
be a minimum of monthly for each windlass. This will brake is 70 tonnes over minimum recommended strength
involve dropping both anchors at each voyage end, Arabian (see Appendix 6.8 for the IACS recommendations). The
Gulf to Europe via the Cape. Less frequent practice is, in tendency, on this showing, is for brakes to be made stronger
my opinion, inadequate. rather than weaker than the recommendation
Anchoring a VLCC The reason for the deemed adequacy of strength of the
anchoring equipment lies in the fact that the windlass motor
This skill is not taught in college and it is not taught at
is designed to lift three shackles (82 metres) of cable plus
sea. People arrive on the bridge 011 their first command, the anchor. There is an allowance of 50'Yn over this for safety
having learned the habits of the people with whom they purposes on test, but not for in-service use. The brake, which
happen to have served. Due to lack of maintenance of is 12 times more powerful than the motor, is designed to
anchor equipment and the increasing size of ships over the control the mass of the cable in motion; not, absolutely not,
last forty years, more and more masters walk the anchor the mass of the ship. Therefore persons who attempt to
back all the way. This is not generally a good idea. for a control the mass of the ship by means of the windlass brake
number of reasons, as will be shown, though on occasions or worse, the motor, are not using the equipment as it was
it may be unavoidable. designed to be used. They are liable to have an accident.
Any weight coming on the cable is induced by the ship
Masters act according to their perception mass.
The general belief amongst ship's masters, particularly
those who have little or no experience of anchoring a very The situation as viewed by the classification
large ship (VLCC) is that the anchor equipment has not in societies
any way kept up with increases over the years of the mass At present the standard, as stated, is three shackles/82
of the loaded vessel. This is indeed so (reference OCIMF metres of water, cable up and down, whether hoisting or
'Anchoring procedures for large tankers'). Yet the actual using the brake. In the case of the windlass motor, there is
tongue mooring stoppers provided on the fo'c'sle of tankers a proposal by the International Association of Classification
are all the same (7Xmn1),because they limit the horizontal
force that can be applied to t h e equipment of the oil
terminal, the single buoy mooring (SBM). which force is
sustained at the sea bed level. This safe working load (SWL)
is a world standard of 100 tonnes (200 times two). This has
been found to be quite satisfactory in winds up to 30 knots.
In some ports, the stoppers are used singly, not in pairs,
to limit the force on the equipment at the sea bed to 200
tonnes instead of400 tonnes. General experience has shown
that this available strength is adequate, providing a tug is in
attendance and/or the engines are on 10 minutes notice at
all times. From the following data, it is clear that the
anchoring equipment is well in excess of the strength of the
SBM mooring stoppers.
A typical actual 150,000 tonne deadweight ship, a tanker,
say, has anchor equipment rated approximately as follows, as
calculated from the classification society rules:
Windlass brake holding force: 395 tonnes force

Cable stopper safe working load: 650 tonnes force
Ultimate tensile strength of cable: 600 tonnes force
Weight of one shackle of cable: 2.5 tonnes force
Weight of anchor: 10 tonnes force
Lifting power of anchor windlass": 32 tonnes force
Fzgure 35.1 A nzodern windlass installation
(This is based on the rule of 47.5 x diameter squared, (150,000 dwt S.B. I: tanker) 200t S.B.Mstopper inforeground.
newtons*. Divide by 10,000 to get tonnes.) Length of cable: Pawl (guillotine stopped) 650t in barkground. Windlass behind.

Societies (IACS) that the windlass should be capable of The anchor is then walked out until just above the
lifting the anchor and cable in 100 metres of water, in a bottom or until it just touches the bottom, in which case the
wind speed of 14 m/sec (28 knots), and a three knot current, direction the cable starts to lead indicates the direction of
at a speed of 0.15 m/sec (9 m/min). This proposal has not drift of the bow. Then:
as yet been adopted. This would lift 10 shackles of cable in A. The anchor is then taken out of gear and let go,
30 minutes, which is approximately one and a half to twice controlled by the brake.
the speed encountered in practice. Almost all ships are B. Alternatively, the anchor is walked out all the way, not
designed to the 82 metre rule. being taken out of gear at all, by means of the windlass
motor. This is not recommended by the manufacturers
There is no classification society rule for the testing of of windlasses.
the brake. The brake is tested by the shipyard on trials.
Failure to ensure that the ship is, in fact, going astern
Some yards evade the full depth. However, test or no test,
may cause a fouled anchor, because the cable is laid over the
the designed strength remains the same, and provided the anchor, which itself lies on the bottom shank forward instead
calculations are correct, the brake should operate as of aft. Therefore when the weight comes on the cable, the
desig-ned. The inference is that if the cable must be recovered cable is liable to be pulled back over the anchor, with
in 82 metres of water, then presumably the brake must be consequent possibility of fouling. Then the anchor has to be
capable of arresting the cable in that depth. This is the depth pulled round by 180, either capsized or, worse, horizontally.
specified by the manufacturers. This last has, on occasions, broken the shank of the anchor.
The situation as viewed by the deck machinery If the depth of water is in the order of 50 metres, two
manufacturers shackles being equal to 55 metres) and the final length of
cable is 10 shackles, then the difference in horizontal
Manufacturers state that the anchor should be dropped
movement of the ship from the moment that the cable is up
on the brake at some point from the hawse pipe to the sea
and down to the moment that the cable is bar taut is, by
bed, but that the cable must be kept vertical whilst the
Pythagoras, 49.3 metres. This is very nearly the width of
operation is by the brake, because of the risk of overload.
the ship, which is usually between 50 and 60 metres (see
Contrary to popular belief, it makes no difference to the
speed of dropping whether the drop is made from the pipe figure 2).
or from sea bed level. This is because terminal velocity is If the depth is one shackle, say 27 metres, and the cable
1/2gh,regardless of weight or density, water friction ignored. out five shackles, then there is only 25 metres before the
Dropping is made at sea bed level to protect the anchor cable becomes bar taut. The actual allowed distance is nil,
(where g is 9.81 m/sec/sec, the acceleration due to gravity because the cable is supposed to be maintained up and down
and h is the depth in metres). The manufacturers do not and to do this when anchoring with the brake is quite easy
recommend walking back all the way, because of the (method A). However, to maintain the cable up and down
difficulty of avoiding over-speed and/or overload of the whilst walking back is almost impossible (method B). The
windlass motor, which leads to intei-ilal damage. This distance moved whilst maintaining the cable vertical depends
practice was initiated without consulting them. on the speed of veering the cable with respect to the speed of
drift of the ship. This is not difficult with the windlass brake,
The pawl (guillotine or bar stopper) must be engaged
and the motor declutched when the drop is finished, with but is extremely difficult using the windlass motor.
the cable up and down. Windlasses are not designed to pull It is absolutely necessary, therefore, to halt the ship's
all the ship. They are designed to control the weight of the astern movement over the bottom before the cable becomes
cable only at a reasonable speed (as s l o as
~ ~possible) in up out of the vertical; and ships are very slippery in the fore
to 82 metres of water maximum, with the cable up and and aft line: they are difficult to hold stationary, particularly
down throughout the operation - not leading even short where there is no reference point. Otherwise, the windlass
stay and certainly not long stay. brake or motor, designed to control the mass of the cable
and anchor vertically only, will be being used to try to effect
The usual method of anchoring can cause an the deceleration of the mass of the hull. This is a so much a
accident, so is mistaken greater force than that for which the brake was designed
This statement does not mean that we are all unwise. that it is difficult to describe adequately. The motor is not
However, the solution to the perceived problem of using designed to lower the cable in this manner at all.
the believed-to-be inadequate brake of VLCC windlasses
by using the motor to walk back the anchor all the way Failure to achieve this halt to the ship's astern movement
will result in a bar taut cable with no elasticity left by virtue
instead is itself also a problem, but a less obvious one. The
of all the catenary having been used up - the astern
usual method of anchoring a VLCC is to approach the ino\~ementbeing attempted to be arrested by the fo'c'sle
position stemming the tide and wind, then to stop the ship, crew with the brake. Long before this situation, the designed
put the engine astern, possibly full astern. This is itself maximum forces, therefore stresses, in the brake or motor
potentially damaging in the engine room due to the vibration have been exceeded. Because the ship is proceeding astern,
induced, particularly on a steam turbine ship. The ship goes the full mass of the ship comes on to the brake, so the force
astern very slowly, at approximately 0.1-0.2 knots. This is being exerted is approximately one thousand times the
0.05-0.1 m/sec, 10 to 20 feet per minute - no more, over maximum allowed force in practice.
the sea bed and is exceedingly difficult to judge accurately Had the designer been asked to design a brake capable
without sophisticated navigation aids such as Doppler log, of arresting the mass of the ship, the scantlings would be of
ground stabilised or GPS in an open anchorage. the order of the propeller shaft. The new stern towing
COMMAND 219
brackets designed by Pusnes, for example, are massive. No easy to do by allowing the cable to get out of the vertical so
mention of acceleration; solely steady state towing forces that part of the mass of the ship comes on to the motor -
of 200 tonnes. If the reader is still not convinced, consider then what happens is that the casing of the hydraulic motor
now that other operation that regularly takes place on the may become progressively over-pressurised, and so the
fo'c'sle, the securing of the 78mm chain in the tongue stopper allowable designed internal forces on the motor components
for the SBM. also become excessive.
Securing the chain stopper of the nylon cable This always gives rise to metal particles in the hydraulic
connecting the VLCC to a single buoy mooring (SBM) oil which, because filters on the pump are quite coarse, go
The brake that is used here is the mooring brake, which through the pump, causing further similar damage. If you
has a rated holding power as tested of 47 tonnes, regardless are a master who habitually walks his anchor back, it is
of the size of the ship. The stopper is always put on with the suggested that you now ask your chief engineer to examine
nylon cable slack. Only when the chain tail is secure in the the filters in the anchor windlass hydraulic system. You will
stopper, and the securing pin home, is the weight allowed probably find metal fragments as described, for the reason
to come on the nylon cable, very gently. given.
Yet people talk about swinging the ship about on the Two other adverse effects exist of walking back
anchor brake or the motor, without the point of ground/ the cable all the way
sea bed reference that the SBM provides. There is only The first is that the casing of the hydraulic motor may
one component in the anchor handling equipment capable crack and, on occasion, does. This has the result that the
of sustaining the inertia of the ship, the pawl (guillotine anchor cannot be raised again. The cable has to be buoyed,
stopper). disconnected and slipped, to be recovered later, if possible,
at very considerable expense. The only reason that the
If the design forces are exceeded the cable will casing does not crack more often is because of the huge
run out extra strength that the designers have put into it, knowing
In this case, before the cable can be halted, it has run that users will abuse it if they are able to do so, quite
out to the bitter end. Detachment of the bitter end from the unintentionally. If your windlass is steam, then the stress
cable locker then occurs and the cable is lost. If such brake that walking back puts on the valve gear, which is operated
failure takes place in a big way, centrifugal reaction causes by an 'eccentric' disc, is colossal. Such an eccentric cannot
the whole cable to rise up off the gypsy in a great arc about be driven backwards. Failure of the eccentric is very
10 metres high. When the bitter end is reached there is no common due to trying to rotate it by the valve gear and
discernible pause. The end comes out of the locker and leads to difficult and time-consuming rectification by the
flails forward on to the deck, where it may cause a split in ship's engineers, with the likelihood of reduced windlass
the 20 mm deck plate, doing severe damage as it disappears power because of errors in resetting.
from view. All this happens in about 12 seconds, with
deafening noise and flames. The second, more common and more dangerous
happening is that the windlass clutch jumps out of
Fear of the above scenario engagement. This happens for a number of reasons,
The practice of walking back the scope all the way on regrettably most often because the clutch lever securing pin
the windlass is largely caused by fear of the above scenario.
has not been inserted or not secured. Added to this is the
The practice has other unpleasant surprises, too. The lifting
power of the windlass motor is, typically, less than '/,,th fact that the windlass clutch 'dogs' are illanufactured straight
that of the brake holding force, as already seen. The motor, crosscut, instead of slightly rebated, as would be most
as already stated, is designed to lift the anchor and cable in desirable. Because the clutch dogs are straight, most force
a maximum of 82 metres of water, vertically. comes on to the ends, with the result that they always wear
slightly tapered. This in turn causes lifting torque on the
Imagine for a moment that one was using an overhead
shaft to result in a secondary parting force on the clutch,
gantry crane, but one where the wire and the gantry were
which is sometimes sufficiently strong to overcome the
greatly over-strength. Suppose that a load to be hoisted
restraint of the operating lever securing pin, especially if
consisted of a large container. Imagine that this container
the clutch dogs are well greased.
was then progressively loaded until the weight in the
container was ten times the original, safe, load. Now imagine In addition to the above, the dog-clutch operating fork,
what would happen to the motor and gear box if this whlch runs in an annular groove cut in the clutch sliding
overload was then lowered to the deck. Clearly, the part, is a weak spot and has been known to deform and
components of the motor and gearbox would be grossly spring out of engagement owing to tk~isparting force, caused
overloaded and damage would result. This is exactly what by tapered wear of the dogs, as described. This accident
happens when the anchor and cable are walked back under has the same effect as releasing the clutch lever, as above.
In both the above cases, the effect is to release the anchor
load by the windlass motor, if the cable is not vertical.
suddenly with the brake off. It is very difficult to get the
The braking effect of the motor occurs because the brake back on in time, because the crew are quite
mechanical advantage of an hydraulic motor plus gearing unprepared for this eventuality. To arrest the cable before
is more than 50:l. A gear ratio of 50:1 or more is not capable the speed has built up too fast to stop takes very quick
of running back on itself. In fact, a Sumitomo hydraulic physical reactions - partly because the available length of
motor alone has a reduction ratio in the order of 180:1, so cable in the locker is no longer there. This is a frequent
there is no way it can be overrun. Instead, if the rated lifting mistake.
power of the windlass motor is exceeded - which is very
220 THE NALITICAL INSTITUTE

Figure 35.2 Turning in a strong tide and wind
Walking back the anchor and cable to full There is another, safer method of getting the
scope, all the way, itself can lead to accidents anchor and cable laid out on the sea bed
Whilst the anchor is walking back, which may be very When our grandfathers in the navy anchored, they
slow and on big VLCCs as slow as 7.5 cm/sec (15 ft/min) wanted to be secure in the knowledge that they could maybe
or even slower, the brake is normally off. This speed is have a pink gin, or possibly a huge party and know
slower than the speed at which the ship can normally be absolutely that the ship was not going to move. So what
controlled. Walking back 10 shackles at this speed takes a they did was to steam with the tide and or wind, whichever
long, long time -half an hour minimum, usually 45 minutes was stronger, put the helm hard over and just as the ship
- so the tendency is for masters to use less cable than they started to swing, let go the cable on the run on the inside of
should. This leads to dragging and consequent grounding the turn. They then ran it out to the required length, set the
- the wi-iter is thinking of a particular recent case in stopper and allowed the anchor and cable to snub the ship
Delaware Bay due to this. round into the weather. This set the anchor and the whole
operation was over in about four minutes. By today's
Walking back, with stress coming on the anchor before
standards this sounds deeply shocking.
there is sufficient cable to protect it, can also lead to over-
stressing of the anchor itself with consequent fracture. This The navy still anchor in a very similar way, except that
has happened on two occasions at Itaqui, on one occasion they use the brake a bit, which is not the purpose for which
leading to the total loss of a very large bulk carrier on her it was designed, as already exhaustively described. This
maiden voyage. Her wreck is still there, a warning to others. added 'caution' they caught from their merchant service
The second occasion led to the fracture of the anchor at the colleagues, no doubt. This practice of 'running out' had its
join of the shank with the flukes. Who can possibly keep roots in the days of sail, where Admiralty pattern
the bow of his ship under control for half an hour with the (Fisherman) anchors with stocks were used and the danger
of fouling the flukes was a serious risk. The anchor absolutely
cable up and down, let alone one hour or more?
had to set correctly first time - no engine to get you out of
So care in keeping the cable fore and aft and trouble, so no second chance.
walking back all the way can lead to the Such an anchor must lie on the sea-bed in the correct
accident this procedure is designed to avoid direction, without any possibility of fouling. Therefore the
People have the kinds of mishap described above hull movement had to be sufficiently brisk to ensure that
because are being very but the rope cable did not get entangled in the flukes or the
the whole system in quite the wrong way, for wrong reasons. stock. This happened naturally, because a sailing vessel's
COMMAND 221
tendency when stopped with the sails aback is for the bow The monograph
to fall off the wind, which gives the necessary sideways McDowall, C.A., A New Approach to AnchoringLarge
movement which is the secret of safe anchoring. The same Essels, The Nautical Institute, 2000.
thing applies today - it is fatal to get the cable fouling the
anchor. Bibliography
1. Green, W.G., Theory of Machines, Blackie Press,
'One could not possibly do that in today's ships', you
say. Certainly not deliberately, but one 250,000 tonne
Glasgow.
VLCC did just that by accident in the early 1970s. She was 2. Steel Designers Handbook, Dorman Long,
steaming towards Kharg Island, in ballast, at 19 knots when Middlesbrough.
the starboard anchor was accidentally let go. Due to the 3. Roark, R.J., Formulasfor Stress and Strain, McGraw-
great beam and the bluff hull form forward, the cable was Hill.
deflected to the ship's side and the ship was turned by the 4. den Hartog, J.P., Strength of Materials.
cable 180" without the bitter end parting. How can this 5. Merritt, W.E., Gears, C.U.P.
possibly happen? Is there a clue here in a safer way to 6. Exponential Brake. On the Mathematics 01 the Band
anchor? Brake. Proceedings of Institution of Mechanical
The secret lies in separating the momentum of Engineers.
the ship's hull from the forces necessary to 7. Manufacturers' data. Some prefer to remain
control the movement of the cable anonymous.
The reason is the difference between momentum of 8. Input from IACS., courtesy of American Bureau
translation and momentum of rotation. This principle is seen of Shipping.
in the operation of salvage tugs. When the load is taken up, 9. Statistics of accidents taken from data base of
it is observed that the tugmaster always aligns his tug at Lloyds Regster, by kind permission, with special
right angles to the fore and aft line of the ship towed. The thanks to Lloyds Regster and Lloyds information
ship is easily canted and the tug is then gradually aligned in service.
the fore and aft line. This effect is well known. It avoids 10. Actual ship data, Class NK. By kind permission.
snatch of the tow wire.
11. Morton, A.J., Baines, B.H. and Ridgway, K., On
To demonstrate this, you can take a walk into a marina the stoppingand anchoringof large ships -afeasibility
and choose a small yacht. Push hard on the stern with your study. Proceedings of Institution of Marine
foot in the fore and aft line and the yacht will not move - Engineers.
you are trying to shove about five tonnes in a straight line. 12. Anchoring systems and procedures for large
Now move round to the side and push at the end on the tankers. OCIMF 1982.
stern (or the bow) at right angles to the fore and aft line.
The hull is easily deflected because the inertia, instead of 13-1 8 taken from OCIIZIF:
being five tonnes, is now one tonne, with no friction and 13. Dove, H.L., MBE and Ferris, G.S., BSc,
this can be moved quite easily. Deuelopment of anchors, RCNC. Proceedings of
The monograph continues by covering, in detail, many
RINA, 23 March 1960.
other aspects of anchoring large vessels and includes 14. Improvements in mooring anchors, Proceedings of
formulae for working out cable stresses, stopping distances, INA, 31 March 1950.
rotational inertia and so on. Cable management, anchoring 15. Bruce, P., CEng FIMarE, Inadequacy of anchors in
procedures, maintenance and difficulties in recovering large ships, Transactions of IMarE, Vol. 92, paper
anchors are all covered extensively. C50, 1980.
16. Buckle, A.K, BSc CEng, 7'en year review of dejiects
The monograph also has useful appendices concerning:
and failures in large ships anchoring and mooring
Ship horizontal movement under various cable equipment, Transactions of IMarE, Vol. 92, paper
conditions. C 46, 1980.
Derivation of coaxial force. 17. van den Haak, R., Design of anchors, cables and
Rotational inertia/axial inertia. mooring wires, Transactions of lMarE , Vol. 92,
Derivation of 2nd moment of area. paper C 51, 1980.
Demonstration regarding 2nd moment of area. 18. The anatomy of the anchor, Author, source unknown.
The U-turn method 19. IXoyds Rules for the Construction and Classification
The U-turn method utilises the rotational inertia of the of steel ships.
ship to control the tension in the cable. T h e full
mathematical treatment is developed in more detail in the
monograph.
To execute the U-turn method follow the steps outlined
in the checklist on the pages following. The method is
illustrated in figure 35.2.
222 THE NAUTICAL INSTITLITE

Anchoring checklist
Yes No
A. PRE-OP MAINTENANCE
1. Has the windlass been tested within the last 30 days?
T N O , then extra care needs to be taken.
2. Has maintenance been done as per the makers instruction book? D
Ifthere are NO instructions, do the following:
a) Ensure the brake lining is 7mm or more. U
b) Ensure the brake drum is snlooth, with no build up of rust or resin. Ll
(Use frequently, or use needle gun plus pneumatic wire brush)
c) Ensure ALL bearings and joints are FULL of grease, with no grit or rust in. cl
d) Ensure that hydraulic oil is at the correct level (if applicable) cl
e) Ensure hydraulic filters are clean, with no metal particles in. C
l
(Metal particles are an indication of past overload)
f) Ensure the brake lead screw and nut are clean and greased. D
3. Have the owners' managers' instructions been read? Cl
4. These instructions should be in accordance with the maker's instructions. Are they? cl
5. Are the brake adjustments in the middle of the range?
IfNO, then operation is near the edge ofpernzissible limits.
PRE-OP PLAN - ENVIRONMENT

Is the depth less than 82 metres absolute maximum?
Unless your sh$ is specially equ$ped, this is the class limit.
Is the depth less than the owners stipulated depth for using the brake?
If depth is more than 30 metres, then walk back, using the brake.
Neuer walk back without using the brake at this depth.
Ifno instructions, regard 60 metres as the limit for brake only.
Is the nearest grounding line more than one mile away?
When allowingfor low tide.
Is the weather/tide onshore?
Ifthe weather is onshore and anchorage close, special care is needed.
Is the sea bed suitable? Not rock or coral.
Is there enough room to turn 180/3600?
Is the wind less than 28 knots?
Is the current less than 3 knots?
These are C1asszJ;cationSociety limits. You may trade windfor current:
i.e. I knot current = 9 knots wind.
Is the sea sufficiently calm? Excess motion of the hull.
C. PRE-OP PLAN - TRAINING

1. Have the foc'stle crew had training and are they certificated through
the company's training scheme? Windlass =primary lifting gear.
2. Has a pre-op briefing been held so that they understand that:
a) There should be two men on the controls, particularly the brake. El El
b) One man to apply grease to gears when heaving. U U
c) The orders that will come from the bridge. U cl
d) The cable will be walked back when at 2 knots to just above the bottom = U U
the DIRECT method by 'U-turn,
COMMAND 223
OR
When stopped to just touch the bottom = the TENTATIVE method. U U
e) The cable will be veered in one go. On the beam, 90" to thefore and a$ line, U Ll
because forces on the windlass are 20 times less this way,
approximately 3.5 times for inertia and six times for added scope.
f) The stopper will be put on and securing pin engaged whilst the cable cl U
is still up and down.
Because this is the windlass makers and class requirement.
D. THE APPROACH TO THE ANCHORAGE

1. Are there any other ships at anchor to indicate tide/wind?
2. Is there a suitable anchoring space, not in the fairway?
3. Is there a clear, safe passage to the space?
4. Is the space clear of the fairway?
5. If the anchorage is empty with a strong current, do you know
the direction of the current?
6. Is the chosen space accessible for bunker barges/launches/etc?
E. THE ANCHORING OPERATION - AIDE MEMOIRE

1. Choose a suitable speed of approach for the traffic/searoom.
2. If 'U' turn, approach at 180' to the final heading.
If 'tentative', approach at 20-90" to the final heading. In both cases, the aim is to
lead the cable at 90 to the ship.
The 'U' turn method
3(u) 'U' turn - start the turn when the bow is abreast of the planned bow final position,
full rudder. Speed is not important.
4(u) Once the turn is started, stop engine.
5(u) When speed is two knots, start to walk the anchor out to above the sea bed. Use the
anchor on the inside of the turn.
6(u) When the ship has canted 135" she will be virtually stopped. Adjust the angle to
the weather to suit the strength of the tide and wind.
7(u) With the bow moving slowly sideways, let go/walk back with the brake to 3.5 to four
times the depth, five times if possible.
8(u) Put the stopper on and engage securing pin with the cable up and down. Do not
attempt to bring the ship up on the brake or the motor - doing so is against the
maker's and class limits.
9(u) Ensure the ship is brought up with the cable abeam before allowing the cable to
draw ahead.
The 'tentative' method
3(t) Approach the anchorage slowly, angling to the weather 20-90'.
4(t) Start walk back at two knots, to avoid the anchor banging on the hull. Use the
anchor on the weather side, not the lee side.
5(t) When the ship is stopped, walk back the anchor to just touch the sea bed. The
fo'c'stle crew observe the lead, informing the bridge when leading out on the beam
and clear of the hull.

6(t) When the cable is leading in the desired direction, let go/walk back to the U CI
required scope - 3.5 to four times the depth, five times if possible.
7(t) Put the stopper on and engage the securing pin with the cable up and down. El Ll
Do not attempt to bring the ship up on the brake or the motor - doing so is
against the maker's and class limits.
8jt) Ensure the ship is brought up with the cable abeam before allowing the cable El Cl
to draw ahead, for inertia and scope reasons, the same as for the 'U' turn.
In both cases, when the depth is shallow and the bottom is soft, El Ll
practice letting go the anchor from the hawse pipe. In an emergency you will
have to. It is surprising how few ships can do this.
If you cannot, the necessary maintenance needs to be done.
COMMAND 225
Chapter 36
MAN OVERBOARD - RESCUING SURVIVORS FROM THE SEA

by Captain M. Williams FNI
Captain Williams, wizo is a Younger Brother of Trinity House, has served 35 years at sea and is serving as master on diving support
vessels. He is particularly interested i n preserving life at sea.
Introduction after he had been sedated. The next day I managed to

O NE O F THE MOST TMUMATIC occurrences at sea for all get him ashore by helicopter but had to send in another
concerned is the report of a man overboard. I assure crew member to accompany him as the helicopter
you, this report is often met with incredulity by pilot, quite rightly, was not too keen on carrying a
bridge staff and there can often be quite a delay before man suffering from severe depression.
the fact is recognised and acted upon. I experienced From the time of the steward's departure overboard
this first hand in 1998 whilst my vessel was carrying to getting him back was approximately thirty minutes.
out diving operations off the Indian coast. Fortunately This was on a very well founded vessel, fully equipped
the weather was calm at the time of the incident but a with crash boats and a complement of ninety-five men.
two-knot current was running and vessel was set up in Think of a similar occurrence on a conventional vessel
DP stern to current. with a limited crew and only lifeboats available for
A steward, who was afterwards diagnosed as man overboard recovery. Who do you allocate to man
suffering from severe depression, jumped off the boat your crash boat/lifeboat? How do you get a person
deck into the water claiming afterwards that 'the voices from the water into the boat? How often do you
in his head' had told him to swim to the stern of the practise man overboard drills? Are you able to launch
vessel and re-board. He was swept away in the current and recover the lifeboat in rough weather? Is your
and when it was reported to the bridge my immediate vessel's crew prepared in first aid to assist a person
reaction after initial disbelief was to sound the alarm who has been immersed in a cold sea? What
and then rush to the bridge wing to sight the man. contingency do you have in place if your rescue craft
Due to the helicopter deck obscuring my view I could breaks down during the recovery? Have you prepared
not see him but a crew member on the helideck who a search routine to enable you to find a man in the
had sight of him shouted to me that the steward had water? Have you established who will man your
drifted clear of the bow thrusters. Others joined the GMDSS, transmit your Pan message and keep a log
crew member on the helideck and as dusk was of events?
approaching they continued to keep the man in view. I suggest that the answers to all the above have not
Two lifebuoys were thrown from the bow to the man been fully addressed on most vessels. The only way
in the water. Fortunately he was able to swim to one they can be can be addressed is by carrying out realistic
of the lifebuoys. drills and from the lessons learnt, fine tuning your
The crash boat was prepared and launched by the written bridge procedures. In addition to your written
crane. Obviously my vessel could not move as I had procedures that should be in place as part of the vessel's
divers eighty metres below working on a pipeline. Also ISM, I would strongly advise a flip card system
in the area where we were operating there were no covering man overboard procedures for the lifeboat/
other vessels nearby to assist. I therefore had to rely rescue craft and the first aid teams.
totally on my crash boat crew to recover the man and
return him to the vessel. The crash boat in use had
Flip cards prepared
two seventy-five horse power outboard motors with To aid our man overboard plan we have designed
wheel steering. I watched in amazement as the man three flip cards, one for the crash lifeboat, one for the
drifted further and further from the bow of my ship bridge and one for the sick bay. This assists the officers
and the crash boat steered at a tangent off to starboard. to follow a logical sequence and reminds them of the
Apparently the steering control had become next duty. I am helped in the plan by having regular
disconnected and eventually the crash boat crew had crews permanerltly attached to the ship. This way, the
to manually steer the outboards to reach the casualty. training falls into a standard pattern which officers can
build upon. We can put the right person in the right
When the man was returned on board he was job - i.;. some ratingshave sharpereyesight and make
treated by the medic and as I had no way of getting better lookouts while others prefer to be boat's crew.
him ashore that night, a guard was posted on his cabin This all helps to create team spirit, as well as practical

experience, two important factors when searching for the datum, and steam back 1,000 yd from the
a survivor in the water, especially on a dark night or smoke floats. The ship stops and will remain
rough sea. stationary in the water. The lifeboat is now
launched.
The flip-card for the crash lifeboat lists the
9. The lifeboat commences a box search, 200 yards
following: offset from the ship's track (see figure 36.2); the
1. Extra searchlight at night, to make two portable first box search is between the ship and the smoke
lights. floats. The smoke floats will be left in the water to
2. Sleeping bag and spare life jackets from the check the drift of the water and mark the datum,
'immediate use locker' and nylon wrapping. This will be broadcast on all safety frequencies.
3. Crash boat should contain the man overboard net. 10. The survivor in the water would expect to be
4. Second officer in charge of the crash boat carries found in this first box, which is searched twice,
the VHF handset for communications with the once by the ship and once by the lifeboat. If the
ship. survivor is not found, a second box commences,
5 . Warm waterproof clothing must be worn by all with the ship moving along the track a further 1000
the lifeboat crew with lifejackets. yd, and stopping whilst the lifeboat carries out a
6. Box search plan to be followed after launch. second offset box search using the ship as a
7. 111 the event of a VHF communications failure, reference point. A third and fourth box search can
general flag and whistle signals for search and be continued in the same way.
recall. I I
REVERSE
WEEL
W SMOKEILKIHT FLOATS
MAN OVERBOARD
SHIP'S ORlOlNAL TRACK

SHIP 3TEAOY
ON RECIPROCAL
O n completion of the first box search, the ship moves a

Figure 36.7 Willinmson turf1
further 1,000 yards along track and stops. The lifeboat
Bridge procedure carries out a second offset box search, using the ship as
reference point.
For bridge use, the second flip card reminds the
O O W of his immediate duties as soon as 'Man
Figzrre 36.2 First box search by lifeboat
overboard' is shouted.
Once sighted in the water, the ship will sound a
1. Log the time - this is most important, especially long blast to indicate to the survivor in the sea that he
with the speed of modern vessels. (My ship travels has been seen. When picked up by the lifeboat he will
2,000 yards in four minutes). be zipped up in the sleeping bag, covered with nylon
2. Bridge smoke and light floats are both released. sheeting and returned to the ship as quickly as possible.
3. Bridge lookout to search astern to try to locate
the man in the water. The crash lifeboat has two 12ft manilla pendants,
4. O O W sounds the alarm signal to summon all one spliced into each end of the boat for hooking on
hands and place both engines on stand-by. to the boat's falls. This is necessary in rough seas or
5. Ship reduces speed and starts a full-turn circle heavy swells.
(Williamson turn) to bring the ship quickly back When we have the survivor on board, he is taken
on to its orignal track. to the sick bay and given proper treatment for
6. Four bridge lookouts are posted, one for each hypothermia and shock.
quadrant, to carry out a set search pattern. First a
general sweep through 90, then a detailed layer The third flip-card details the proper treatment to
search every 10" below the horizon, every two be followed. This is a critical time for a survivor, where
minutes. This needs to be taught at the practice loss of body heat, even by a small amount can be fatal.
drill. At night, the ship's two large searchlights He needs to be kept in a warm room, have all wet
would be manned and a similar layered search clothes exchanged for dry ones and kept in bed. Hot
pattern followed. water bottles wrapped in towels should be placed
7. Catering and motorman ratings would be spread around his trunk. He should only be given hot sweet
out along the cargo deck to keep a similar search. drinks and his temperature and pulse rate monitored
8. If the man in the water is not seen, the ship on every 30 minutes. If his arms and legs are very cold,
completing her 180" turn will steam slowly past they should not be allowed to draw off heat from his
the two smoke/light floats - now established as main trunk.
COMMAND 227
Danger of shock Recommendations
Shock is also a real danger and can occur up to 48 1. All the ship's company to take part in man
hours after a fall overboard. The survivor should not overboard drills and not just a small part of the
be left on his own and, if possible, should be taken deck department.
from the ship to a hospital. 2. All seafarers to complete a survival course every
five years and be able to swim.
Whoever is delegated to send the 'Pan' message 3. A systematic plan be prepared and practised for
by G M D S S should, as well as monitoring every ship (man overboard plan).
communications, be able to keep a log of events. 4. The old merchant navy expression 'If you fall in
- you will die', be refuted at every drill.

Chapter 37
MASTER'S STANDING ORDERS

by Captain Eric Beetham FNI FRIN
Captain Eric Reetham served at sea far ten years prior to Jirst sailing in command and spent 17 of the next 2 0 years in command, with
three years as owner's marine superintendent. His 25 commands rangedfiom 500grt to 300,000 dwt and included salvage sh$s, bulk
and log carriers, fast reefer shi;bs, tankers, VLCCs and OBOs. Each ship Ype presented dzfferent problems and circumstanccs.
The last I4 years have been spent as a surveyor carrying out casualty investigations, appearing as an expert witness or sitting as a
nautical assessor in formal investigations or marine inquiries. In this work he sees the type of accident that occurs and the mistakes that
cause them. He was a Vice President of The Nautical Institute for eight years and Presidentfrom 7996 to 1998.
Introduction pilot is carried he must, equally, be told if you think

V ARIOUS C ONVENTIONS, C ODES A N D G UIDES provide he has made a mistake which might adversely affect
the framework within which officers' duties shall be the safety of the ship.
performed in nearly all cases of routine and many
extraordinary circumstances. Operational procedures
In port
will be based upon the owner's navigation policy and 1) Follow the instructions of the chief officer with
these should work without conflict within the safety regard to ballast, cargo being worked, repairs
management system. This will apply to every ship. carried out etc. This supports the chief officer's
authority with the ship in port.
The master should provide his own standing orders 2) Ensure that access to/from the ship is kept as safe
- which will be supplemented on a daily basis by night as possible, well lighted and the gangway net
orders - to spell out to his officers his own personal properly rigged; make sure watchmen are on deck
requirements. This may be with regard to the and shore people do not smoke in unauthorised
particular ship, her trade, the bridge team and their places. The chief officer will see that the gangway
experience. These standing orders may reflect points and safety net are set up on arrival but it is then
that have caused him concern in the past and lessons up to the O O W to keep it that way.
he has learned and will set the standard that he requires 3) Keep the ship alongside and moorings tight;
from his watchkeepers. replace any ropes that break and call me if the
ship starts ranging or weather becomes adverse.
Amongst the mass of written guidance on board, Some officers don't appreciate that mooring
this is the opportunity for the master to set down quite winches have much lllore holding power 'on the
simply the ground rules or exactly what he expects brake' than they do 'on heave' and if the ship
the officers to do in different circumstances, to comes off the berth in strong winds, it can make
reinforce practices that he expects to be followed and things worse by trying to heave her back alongside.
to create a relationship in which a mutual confidence
4) Never hesitate to call for shore assistance (tugs,
is established. The officers will know when the master pilots, fire brigade or ambulance) in any
wants to be called and the master will know that they emergency and keep engineers advised. In
will do so. practice the captain or chief officer will be aboard
It is advisable to consider carefully the special if cargo is being worked but make sure the O O W
circumstances which exist every time a master takes knows he has authority.
over command. These will relate to the particular ship 5) There are many thefts from ships in port and
and to the officers and crew serving in her. There is a stowaways are a major problem. Try to check on
temptation to use just one set of tried and tested people coming aboard, that they do have business
master's standing orders without any adjustment for on the ship and, if in doubt, take them to the
each ship. This would b e a mistake and a lost person they wish to see or send the watchman
opportunity to address the special needs and the with them. The cooperation of everybody on
circumstances of each different command. board is necessary to try to minimise thefts and
stowaways but the example of a duty mate who
The purpose of good operational procedures is to takes this task seriously motivates others on duty.
ensure that a mistake - b e it an error or an omission -
by one person does not put the ship into danger. It is Before arrival and sailing
human to make mistakes and this applies as equally 1) Test all the bridge gear in accordance with the
to the master as it does to everybody else on board. It check list, switch on both steering motors, radars
is the duty of the officers to check their own work and and check alignment of radars, gyro repeaters and
to verify the work of others at hand-overs. When a course recorder. Prepare pilot information card.
COMMAND 229
2) Give the engne room 'one hour notice' meaning seaman on watch is always available to the O O W
that at the end of the one hour on arrival we shall and should be used as a lookout at night, in rain
want to manoeuvre and likewise one hour before or in fog. Usually single seaman watches are kept
'stand by' on departure. This is best defined to at sea but the O O W must know that a man is
avoid confusion and of course the engine room available to him if required during daytime.
has to be advised of this. 2) Comply fully with the regulations for preventing
collisions with other ships and use sound signals
Log books when within two miles.
1) Entries must be clear and accurate; names of all 3) In an emergency do not hesitate to use the engnes
persons involved in any incidents must be gven but, if at all possible, warn the duty engneer first
fully and entries by the OOW or duty officer must and call me. Try to avoid close quarter situations
be signed by him. This is invaluable a few years by early and substantial course alterations and in
later if there are any claims made. open waters give all traffic plenty of room. Nothing
2) If the wind is force 7 or more, put the weather in is gained by passing too close. Running UMS, it
every two hours and the barometer every hour if is preferable to have the duty engneer in the
it is changing much, plus remarks on water coming engine room first if that is possible.
aboard etc. In port, ensure that weather remarks 4) Respond to any requests from the engine room to
continue to be made in the log book. In cyclone reduce speed and, in the event of a blackout with
areas or adverse weather, further detail would be other ships around, try to get maximum helm on
given in the night orders. quickly and switch on emergency NUC lights. Not
3) While the log book only needs the important always possible but, if it can be done, this is the
times, keep a complete movement book with best way of reducing travel as running the way off
details of tugs, whose lines, moorings used, may take a long distance.
fendering of the quay, which side alongside and 5) O n taking over the watch, check the position,
number of the berth. Routine again, but so often check the course to steer and the course actually
records are incomplete. being steered; check the distance to go to the next
alteration, soundings or picking up land. In the
At anchor night watches, please read and initial the night
1) Keep a good check on position of this ship and orders. The routine of using the night orders every
others close by - ships may drag soon after
night is preferred as it reduces the risk of
anchoring, when the tide changes, when the
something being missed if the book is sometimes
weather freshens or when the brake won't hold
with a lot of yawing. The danger is not only of used, sometimes not.
this ship dragging but of others drifting down to 6) Compare magnetic and gyro compasses at least
us. The bow stopper must always be in use when every hour and take azimuths every watch. This
at anchor. In adverse weather it is helpful to paint is not an outdated routine, but good navigational
a link on the aft side of the gypsy so it can easily practice.
be seen if the brake renders. 7) Change to hand steering and back each watch
2) Normally full anchor watches will have to be kept (tests both) and check the course recorder. Aim
but if cargo is being worked while at anchor the for the minimum use of rudder but don't fiddle
opportunity must be taken at regular intervals to with the settings unless you think you can improve
check the ship's position. Always a problem but the situation. Small alterations, of course, may be
deck and bridge have both to be watched. done on the autopilot but always change to hand
3) Ensure the lights/signals are correctly exhibited; steering for bigger alterations. When a helmsman
usually a VHF watch will have to be kept and if is engaged in hand steering, keep a close watch
you've been away from the bridge for a time, on him until you are sure of his ability, both in
check with the shore station that they have not steering and following helm orders. The ability of
been calling us. helmsmen, due to the small amount of experience
4) If another ship tries to anchor too close or starts they gain (both in general and in any particular
to drag, try and get them on the VHF or flash ship), causes concern, particularly in canals and
them with the Aldis lamp.
restricted channels.
5) At the moment of letting go the anchor, try to get Use the navigational aids fully (including the echo
a position on the chart and note the ship's heading 8)
- that way the swinging circle can best be worked
sounder) but as a backup to visual position fixing
out on the chart. If the scale of the chart is good and do not rely on the aids to the point where
enough, it gves a circle within which the ship common sense is ignored. Always check the chart
should remain and is handy when weighing details for WGS details when using GPS in coastal
anchor in a crowded anchorage. waters and in restricted waters always use visual
bearings and radar distances. We passed through
At sea the era of 'radar assisted collisions' and may now
1) Make sure the navigation lights are on at night be into that of 'GPS assisted strandings'. When a
and that a good lookout is kept at all times. The 'black box' (voyage data recorder) is fitted,

continue to fix positions on the chart, particularly using the land as well. 111 some overseas ports
in restricted waterways. foreign charts are used for the channels and for
9) If not already running, always put the radar on in these we may receive no corrections.
good time if there is rain around or visibility is (15) The 'man overboard' response and manoeuvring
doubtful. In open waters the best use of radar is data are posted on the bulkhead in the
in tracking ships fi-orn 12 miles so that their wheelhouse; you should be fully familiar with the
movement is assessed by 8 miles and there is then former to respond immediately and be aware of
plenty of time to alter course if necessary and to the stopping distances and turning circles of this
make sure the alteration is having the desired ship. The manoeuvring data is posted and
effect. This clearly spells out the philosophy available to pilots; the 'man overboard' response
required by the master to avoid close quarter regarding release of the bridge wing 'man
situations - the other ship may be fast, may not overboards' and Williamson turn should be
b e keeping an efficient watch a n d may detailed if they are not already available.
unexpectedly alter course. 16) The OOW, particularly at sea, should be aware
10) Approaching heavy rain or fog, have a good look of the situation regarding cargo ventilation or work
around, switch on radar, warn the engine room, being carried out on deck. If weather worsens,
call up the seaman for lookout, switch on the the deck work may have to be suspended and a
navigation lights, fix the position of the ship, switch watch should be maintained to ensure the safety
on fog signal to automatic and call me. Extra of those working on deck. Instructions will be
manning or plotting routines will be arranged specifically gven with regard to cargo ventilation
then, depending on the locality/situation. Specific but the O O W should be directly aware of the work
arrangement for bridge manning in fog is wise for being carried out on deck (whether routine or of
ships trading to the USA, and a lookout forward a specific nature) and must be aware that he is the
may be required. one person able to keep an overview of such work
11) Keep the ship on the course lines laid off on the and the safety of those doing it.
chart and allow set as necessary to do so (and use 17) Rounds of the decks must be made after securing
GPS for this in open waters). In coastal waters the anchors on any departure. These include
bring the ship back to the course line and use set ropes, forecastle doors, deckhouse a n d
to keep her there, rather than simply laying off a superstructure doors and lights, hold/tank access
new course line to the next way point. The passage hatches, ventilators, any items stowed on deck
planning notes should help with tidedcurrents. being adequately secured and equipment left on
The whole point in laying off courses is that is the deck being collected and secured. Rounds of the
route we want to follow; laying off new ones when decks are to be made each evening at the end of
the ship has set inside can take her much closer to the working day but before darkness and these
dangers than was the intention. are to be entered in the log. It is then a matter of
12) Fix positions regularly and continue to do so even naming who shall make the rounds; after sailing
when there is a pilot on board to ensure the pilot's it will either be the chief officer or the officer on
route is safe. Ensure that pilot's instructions are the forecastle for unmooring and at sea either the
correctly carried out by helmsmen and look after chief officer or the 1200-1600 OOW. It is a good
the pilot with coffee etc. We are still fully practice to involve other officers in addition to
responsible for the navigation of the ship despite the chief officer in these basic routines that are
the presence of the pilot and position fixing and only too often neglected in many ships.
track monitoring continue in just the same way as 18) My presence on the bridge does not mean that I
without a pilot aboard. Language difficulties or have taken over control from the OOW. My
unusual expressions sometimes confuse handover to the O O W or my takeover from the
helmsmen. The ability of each helmsmen must O O W will be made clear on each occasion.
be verified.
13) Never respond to calls on VHF to 'ship on my General
starboard bow' etc for any action unless you are 1) All the deck officers should be familiar with the
positive of her identification (an Aldis lamp may steering systems and changeover procedures, with
be used for such identification at night). Even then, all the bridge gear and with all the lifesaving/
do not agree to any action that contradicts normal firefighting equipment, regardless of whose duty
safe practices. This is a frightening habit in some it is to look after them. All the publications -
ships but is better controlled rather than banned, watchkeeping, passage planning, codes of practice
as it is going to happen anyway. and manuals etc - are there for your guidance.
14) All 'cancelled' charts will be removed from the We may all think we've read them, but it is wise
chart room as they are replaced but there is a time to look through them again from time to time.
lag in getting corrections/new editions. Do check The background of the officers varies and ability
and identify -lights and buoys can shift very easily to read pages of English may be limited; the deck
- so try not to use them for position fixing without officers are bridge watchkeepers firstly and
COMMAND 231
secondly have their individual duties and - but it helps the officers to know just what is expected
responsibilities. from them by the master who is relyi~lgon them to
2) If the weather gets bad and we may have to slow manage but to call him if they are unsure of anything.
down or alter course, call me. Solid water washing
In the first night orders I would ask the officers to
aboard will damage deck fittings and ships do not
slow themselves down in head seas (the power is read and sign the standing orders if they are fully
understood - and would go through them with the
being used to drive the ship into the seas rather
officers together explaining the 'whys' if there was any
than through the water). If we are losing more
difficulty with English reading.
than 25 Oh of our speed (comparing rpm and log)
it may well be time to do something about it. The Night orders would give courses, rpm, manned/
safety of the ship, the crew and the cargo are UMS, clock changes (always at 0200 as far as the log
always the first considerations and are all in your book is concerned) and anything that was going on -
care while you are on watch. Remove the theory fire pump under repair, cargo ventilation, gas-freeing,
that ships slow themselves down. If the officers hatch lids or doors that are deliberately left open, etc.
cannot sense when the ship is going too fast in
heavy weather, give them a mathematical A copy is normally sent to the owners for their
guideline to follow. retention.
3) Call me any time, if in any doubt whatsoever - The aim of providing these standing orders and
for navigation, traffic, weather, breakdowns, safety night orders is to spell out the framework within which
or anything else. I would rather be called many the OOW or duty officer is expected to work. It avoids
times, apparently unnecessarily, rather than just any questions of 'but I wasn't told to do so' by the
once too late. officers and for all of us in the bridge management
team should remove any opportunity for anybody to
Summary
suggest that we have been negligent in the conduct of
M a n y of these 'standing orders' help the
our duties. Any such suggestion would be an affront
anticipation of the OOW and explain what is wanted
to our individual professionalism!.
- another master may have somewhat different ideas

Chapter 38
WORKING WITH THE CHIEF ENGINEER

by Mr. M. Jerkovic CEng, Chief Engineer, Croatia
- - -
Miroslav Jerkovic, afier technical school and two years work in Rijeka shipyard, finished High Maritime School for ship's engineers in
1955 andsailed as E O zrntil 1967 when he waspromoted to CEO - first class combined motor andsteam. From 1969 to 1997 he sailed
with dzfferentforeign companies as CEO. The longest service was with Kuwait Shipping Company and UnitedArab Shipping Company,
mostly with British oficers, which lastedfor over 17years. He has extensive exkerience of tr$le expansion steam engines, then with steam
turbine propulsion and different types of diesel engines. He has also served on dzfferent types of ships, general cargo, container ships,
chemical tankers and Panamax bulk carriers.
Introduction principles of safety. The master and C E O are

THER E S P O N S I B I L I T ~01 THE Chief Enaneer Officer responsible for applying these regulations, As the first
(CEO) is to ensure the most cost effective and efficient
'safety factor' on board, the seafarer must be aware of
function of all machinery on board. From this respect
and be instructed in the need to familiarise himself -
many CEOs can experience difficulties balancing the immediately upon joining the ship -with escape routes
cost of running an efficient ship with its safety. Naturally,
from his cabin, accominodation or engine room in
the equilibrium between these two sides depends very
the event of fire. Nobody can ever tell if it could be
much on the owner's policy and standards.
his last opportunity!
Nevertheless, the C E O must always take into
consideration, as the first and essential task on board, Of course, the master and C E O are not in a
the safety of the ship. From that point of view, it position to select the crew. Nor can they teach the
should be stressed that the first and most demanding crew, if need be, immediately upon joining the ship
duty of the CEO is the safety of the ship in its entirety about their correct duties, maintenance etc. This
and that also means safety of the seafarers. requires time and training. But what they have to do
straight away is to organise and familiarise the crew
Minimising the fire hazard with the position and use of fire extinguishers, fire
The right attitude of the seafarer is the first and hoses etc. and - most important - the way of safe
most decisive factor in safety on board. Safety must escape, even after a long journey before joining the
be understood, emphasised and applied. Of course, ship, when the crew is perhaps tired and tempted to
the theoretical knowledge of the fundamentals of fire go to sleep.
safety is by no means sufficient. Efficient training and
a clear head will assure, in most cases, that initial fires Statistics clearly show that three times as many
will be extinguished before there is serious damage. lives are lost in fires in ships' accommodation
Immediately after joining the ship the C E O should, compared to losses in the engine room and
as a first task, start building his own 'safety philosophy'. machinery spaces in general.
This should start with a most simple question: "what The chemistry of fire is well known. The most
could go wrong?" simple presentation is the triangle of thermal energy
After that, solutions should be thought through; (heat), air (oxygen) and fuel. Removal of any of the
how to prevent and minimise consequences, how to three sides of the triangle will extinguish the fire - a
secure recovery and what methods should be applied point which I wish to emphasise. In other words, the
to enable the ship to reach port safely. Regarding the hazard of fire is diminished when the crew is trained
officers and crew, it is essential to create an atmosphere and aware of the danger of keeping, for example,
of mutual interdependence in work and safety. The cotton waste or oiled and paint splashed rags and
C E O himself must take the role of a 'safety educator', boiler suits and similar away from pipes or anywhere
because a well trained crew is almost never prone to close to a source of heat. Such old/used materials may
panic and chaos. Drills and procedures are essential. cause fire, even through the slow oxidation of oily rags,
If there is a fire it is very useful to take relevant notes, where spontaneous heating causes ignition and
not only for the purpose of education but also for combustion. The waste, therefore, should either be
advancing safety and, if need be, to work on the retained in airtight tins or disposed of ashore.
eventual redesign of fire fighting systems for better The causes of fire are endless. They include fire
prevention. from a match or cigarette, electrical short circuits, oily
The International Convention for the Safety of Life cleaning rags, cotton waste, carelessly handling fuels,
at Sea requires all ships to comply with the general improper handling of inflammable materials, mixture
COMMAND 233
of hydrogen and oxygen from batteries etc. It is turbine, it was reserved until recent times for large oil
perhaps worth mentioning that careless cleaning of tankers, liquified gas carriers, third generation
fuel filters is a frequent cause of fire. In Japan, in a container ships and, naturally, for the great passenger
period of 12 years of fire investigation and an analysis ships. The gas turbine could be a very good choice in
of 6000 ships, it was established that the biggest merchant shipping, as it is in naval ships and the air
number of fires in engine rooms was due to industry. Certainly the gas turbine offers remarkable
inappropriate cleaning of fuel filters. Frequent fires savings in volume and weight, compared to diesel
in engine rooms also come from bursting of uncovered engines. And one further point - gas turbines produce
high pressure pipes from fuel pumps to injectors, when approximately 30h less of nitrogen oxides than a
the protective covers were forgotten. Many examples diesel engine. In this way it fulfils anti-pollution
show that absenbmindedness can inevitably jeopardise requirements.
the safety of a ship.
Diesel propulsion plant
Regarding extinguishing media and installations The vast majority of merchant ships are propelled
they are standardised according to the International by diesel engmes and are commonly named motor
Maritime Organization. It is impossible here to cover ships. Most modern seafarers have never sailed with
all the systems for fighting fire on board. The most any other type of ship propelling plant. It could,
common and effective is carbon dioxide. It is generally therefore, be of interest to describe briefly the essential
designed to fill 40h of engne room space, which is in parts and functions of such a design. Though the
motor ships, for example, the greatest volume. 8ti0h variations are endless, the basic design is more or less
of the carbon dioxide should be discharged in less common for all diesel engines. In practice, each
than two minutes. The alkaline powder system is more separate cylinder of an engine constitutes a power unit.
and more in use, especially in chemical tankers. It If one engine has more units - which in marine diesel
should be kept in mind that the engine room is a high engines is general practice - each unit is an exact
risk space where, in case of a fire, the CEO must take duplicate of the other. The ignition of the mixture of
direct command for fire fighting. Usually, the first step air (oxygen) and pulverised fuel causes the movement
is to stop the fuel supply. Of course, if circumstances of the piston which moves, via other mechanical parts,
permit, it is desirable to change over from fuel oil to the propeller shaft and propeller. In theory, an internal
diesel, because fuel oil can cool and solidify in the combustion engne, like the diesel engne and other
system. With diesel, the engne can be restarted. If types, is very simple. However, the application of the
the extinguishing system is compressed carbon theory is not so. It has been necessary to employ
dioxide, the critical procedure is to check that generations of scientists, engineers, designers and
everybody has abandoned the space where the fire others to develop these engines. In the end, what we
should be extinguished before discharging into it. This have now are powerful, reliable and economic
is because of the very high risk of suffocation. O n the machines.
other hand, p r o m p t reaction diminishes the But let us consult the CEO and his work with, on
development of fire and reduces damage to machinery and many times in, a diesel engine on board ship.
or cargo. It is clear how much more effective it is to What should be his basic care, routine work and
have a well trained crew. Once again, therefore, it is responsibilities toward the main propelling diesel
stressed that the safety of the ship and lives on board machine on board? The main aim, naturally, is to
depends in the first instance on the crew. secure the movement of the ship and to prevent, as
Main propulsion unit - introduction much as is humanly possible, breakdown of the
propelling power. What the owner expects from the
Whoever sailed as an engineer with a steam
CEO is efficiency in the consumption of fuels and
reciprocating engine can only confirm that it was a
lubricating oil and care in the use of spare parts, stores,
reliable 'old work horse'. It was extremely simple, was
repairs - which can be carried out by the ship's staff
reliable in operation and had full power available in
etc. Regarding economy, the diesel engine is the best
ahead and astern movement which could be reached
machine for fuel savings. This means the smallest heat
in a few seconds if emergency conditions arose. The
losses (associated with the thermodynamic processes).
engines are of robust and simple construction,
For safe and efficient service this engine and, more or
inexpensive and with low maintenance. In spite of so
less, all combustion enpnes, require cleanliness of the
many good characteristics their disadvantages are a
different:
very low ratio of power to weight and the high specific
fuel consumption, making the steam reciprocating Coolers
engine almost obsolete. Filters
Superchargers.
Next let us consider diesel, diesel-electric and gas
Fuel valves (injectors).
turbine propulsion systems. As the specific cost of
Moving parts.
running a large ship by diesel engines is the most
economic - the majority of modern ships are, for the Very important for the safety and long life
time being, propelled by diesel. Regarding the steam (durability) of an engine are clean and non-aggressive

lubricants and cooling water. About the quality and has a 'fresh water generator', a distillation plant, which
influence of fuels, we shall have a word later. desalinizes sea water into high quality fresh water, of
only approximately 2ppm (two parts of salt to a
What are the requirements of technology for the million).
safety and longevity of an engine? This is one of the
main questions or 'secrets of the trade'. To mention However, we shouldn't get carried away with
just one: what sort of metal should be used for a marine diesel engines. There are other power
cylinder liner? or piston rings? - the components propulsion plants, which we must not neglect.
which undergo the most arduous of service conditions.
As we all know, metallurgy of today can produce Marine steam turbine
miracles. Still, for cylinder liners, almost without Marine steam turbines are very reliable machines.
exception, it is 'good old cast iron' with chromium, This is of a great importance, especially for large ships,
vanadium, molybdenum alloys, etc. Cast iron where penalties for 'downtime' are very high. Delays
possesses self lubricating properties, as opposed to are very costly and it is sufficient enough to understand
steel, which does not. It is clear, therefore, that the life the pressure on the CEO. His attention is divided
or durability of an engme depends on correct cylinder between boilers, turbines, steam and diesel alternators
lubrication as well as compression and maximum and many auxiliary plants and machines. The steam
pressure. In cases of lubrication failure it can produce turbine, as one of the main components of the plant,
damage, in quite a short period of time, to both pistons gives a good feeling of safety and reliability. Therefore,
and cylinder liners. Bearings are even more sensitive. without running into details, we can try to describe
Very serious damage can occur in a few minutes. Of the ship's steam turbine plant; just a few essential parts.
course, this will happen only during transit of the Suez The most basic marine steam turbine plant consists
or Panama canals, or in perils of bad weather! of a steam boiler(s) with accessories, turbines,
Protection systems must be fitted, but the main point condenser with extraction and feed pumps. From the
is that care, knowledge and general professional condenser, condensed steam - as feed water - returns
qualities must be applied in the engine room at all to the boiler. To improve efficiency after the high
times. pressure turbine cylinder, the steam can be reheated,
As regards different types and application of diesel though the majority of turbines in service are of the
engnes on board, we should bear in mind that any so called 'non-reheat' types. The steam turbine, in most
strict classification of diesel engines is arguable. In spite ships, operates with inlet steam pressure of 50 bar and
of this, I would like to suggest a general classification a temperature of 510C.
for the ship's diesel engne, as slow and medium speed Regarding the types of steam turbines, they are
diesel engines. Both types are in use for main basically 'impulse' or 'reaction' types. The difference
propulsion (engne) and for ancillary systems. These is in the way they convert the kinetic energy from
components are more or less common for all types of steam into the torque. The superheated steam entering
ship's diesel engines. Perhaps, at the head of such a the turbine expands progressively through several
list, we should put the lubricating oil pump and the 'stages' and turns the turbine's rotor. Superheated
whole system, of which essential parts are: filters and steam, after completion of expansion and finishing the
coolers, purifiers and safety gear. Next is the fresh work in the turbine, enters the condenser. By this way,
water cooling system, generally called 'jacket water an optimal proportion of energy is converted from
system', with pumps, coolers etc., also the fuel oil steam to useful work. High vacuum created in the
system with pumps, heaters, filters, purifiers etc. condenser is of great importance. It must be kept
O n every diesel engme comes the fuel pump, of steady. Any fall of the vacuum value, for example of
very special design, with gear and fuel valve(s) - 25mm, creates an efficiency drop of 4O/o power.
'injectors'. With a governor and all the above- Engineers know this very well and also where to look
mentioned essentials, a rudimentary diesel engine can for the cause and remedy. Generally speaking, to
work. Of course, for a modern diesel engine, many safeguard turbine efficiency and 'longevity' vacuum
-
other parts are added. A very important unit is is of crucial importance. Utmost care must be given
generally known as the supercharger, which utilises to prevent any humidity in the turbine casing and
exhaust gas energy to provide a n additional consequently water erosion, as well as thermal stress
(supplementary) quantity of air, hence the name by sudden change of temperature. Other dangers are
'supercharger'. In this way engine efficiency is the vibrations and the critical revs, which must be
considerably increased. But this is not the end. avoided and resolved.
Whatever energy is 'left over' after passing through Because different turbine stages (high, low etc.
the supercharger can be used to produce steam in an pressure) develop from 3600 to 14000 rpm, it is
exhaust gas boiler. In this way, the efficiency of a necessary to reduce these revs, via gear reductors,
marine diesel can be very much increased and we have down to the propeller speeds. They vary from 80 rpm
not finished yet. Thermal energy from the main engne (for full speed) for the fast container ships and up to
cooling water can be also utilised. Every modern ship 140 rpm for VLCCs and large bulk carriers.
COMMAND 235
Marine boiler problems to ensure that the right level of maintenance
In operation at sea at the present time are three is carried out and that the plant is operating efficiently.
main types of marine steam boilers: bi-drum In particular, the CEO must know how to ensure the
convection bank, bi-drum radiant and single drum safety of the machinery.
boilers. All of them have superheaters, economisers,
air heaters and sootblowers. Irrespective of design or Fuel oil quality
construction, the first and the most important priority Far too often, seafarers can see waste oil and fuel
for any steam boiler is the cleanliness of all parts, sludge from ship's bilges, purifiers and settling tanks
especially the water side. It is very well known for in open ocean waters. Discharge of pollutants on land,
example, that a scale of only 0.6 mm can increase the in the atmosphere and at sea have become alarming.
local temperature by an additional 215C, compared Hopefully the MARPOL requii-ements should reduce
with a clean surface temperature. Scale, therefore, the quantity of environmentally harmful emissions. It
decreases not only the efficiency but the very 'life' of is becoming, at long last, a global task. I M O 2000
a boiler. Consequently, the chemical cleanliness of regulations will be a very serious challenge for
distilled water is of crucial importance. shipowners and a very costly business too.
In boiler management the operator (ship's It is clear that residual fuels are not going to get
engineer) is fully aware that boilers in general are better. Of course, though residual fuel is blended to
exposed to extremely hazardous conditions. First of meet standards, the CEO is never sure of its quality.
all a very high temperature, abrasive and chemically Or, perhaps, he is almost sure that the blending means
aggressive fuel constituents etc. Accordingly, vigilance addingjust enough good (distillate)fuel, to the leftovers
is essential at all times and, because of this, it is after the refining processes! The CEO, therefore, is
necessary to underline that the prime consideration is forced to keep samples of received fuel for at least as
cleanliness on both sides - gas and water. long as the 'bunkers' last. To analyse fuel on board
One of the most important parameters is the, so- thoroughly is practically not possible. The C E O
called, 'pH value' (alkalinity) of the feed water. It must cannot be sure of declared specified qualities,
be kept at 8.5 to 9.2 T B N (total basic number), especially the declared percentage of sulphur,
preferably at 9.0 at all times. Very important also, is aluminium, silicon, vanadium, ash, water etc. Viscosity
prevention of the penetration of oil from the returns is critical and it is all very well if there is a viscosity
from turbines, puinps and other machinery. Other control unit on board to control fuel temperature and
problems, which are often present, are corrosion, loss to ensure its viscosity before reaching the fuel pumps
of water, flame failure etc. One of the most dangerous and injectors. The viscosity should be in a range from
occurrences is the hydrogen fire and, of course, the 13 to 17 cSt - say generally around 15 cSt. If not, it
failure of the automation control system. will certainly lead to trouble.
Maintenance of the feed system is relatively simple, Regarding the settling tank temperature, for
but requires constant attention. It is, firstly, reasons of safety fuel must be held at some temperature
maintenance of the glands and joints of pumps and lower than the flash point, e.g 14"C (for British flagged
valves. Generally, steam and water leakage ships!). As for separator efficiency, it can be
rectification is the most frequent and permanent job considerably reduced by poor fuel quality or
which requires attention. The boiler fuel system marginally or even completely seized. If the fuel
pumps, filters, purifiers, heaters and burners are also received on board has a fresh water content of up to 3
essential parts of the system, with a very important or even 5/o and a salt water up to 30/0, the separator(s)
role and must always be kept in good working order. and the settling tanks will be able to separate out the
To ensure cleanliness and therefore a good heat water. But it is not the end of the story.
transfer across the boiler tubes, not only inside the
tube, but also outside the smoke surfaces, ship's boilers There is always a problem of contaminated water
have 'sootblowers'. Heat losses in general must be dealt and disposal of sludge. Another problem is high ash
with rigorously, because of the direct influence on the content and the very same with sulphur, aluminium,
efficiency of the boiler and the whole steam system. silicon etc. With carbon residue it is not any better
and it is well known how injectors become fouled.
Automation, in more or less every system and plant Also, vanadium is the main contributing factor to the
on board is progressing in new and old ships. It is a so called 'hot corrosion'. Unfortunately, vanadium is
challenge which must be accepted and dealt with. present in all residual fuels. Mexican and Venezuelan
Naturally, the CEO is not a superman and it would fuels, for example, are very well known as such. Many
be wrong to expect him to be an 'expert' in everything. CEOs have nightmares receiving bunkers there. That
Maintenance and correct performance will be the is, unfortunately, a part of the job, but the CEO must
responsibility of an engneer - specialist but it is the do his very best to overcome problems and difficulties
CEO who has the knowledge of processes and the with fuels. So fuel testing has become an increasingly
overall performance of the boiler and systems. The important routine. I n my view, companies
CEO has the responsibility to identify and diagnose (shipowners) should perhaps provide the ship with

proper (more sophisticated) fuel testing cabinets. This need to satisfy emissions limits and therefore to satisfy
money would be very well invested, because the legislation. Requirements for reduced fuel
residual fuels are certainly not going to get any better. consumption means generally that the fuel spray into
the cylinder must be controlled more precisely. Fuel
Regarding harmful exhaust emissions, like nitrogen quantity and the injection timing must be regulated
oxides (NOx), soot etc., relatively recently a unit has by input from engine sensors and this inevitably leads
been launched named a 'fuel conditioner' for the to the introduction of an electronically controlled fuel
production of water-in-fuel emulsion. Certainly it system. Many new engnes in service today have, for
improves economy and at the same time ecology. example, hydro-mechanically controlled 'jerk pumps'
Shipowners will most likely accept such a unit in order and injectors. They may have a hydro-mechanical
to respond to IMO requirements. The fuel conditioner governor which can be replaced with an electronic
is also accepted because of fuel oil sludge reduction, plus electric actuator. The whole system is much more
which is very welcomed, as well as NOx reduction flexible. In general, the electronic unit can provide
for 30% and soot emissions too. Perhaps the so called the entire engine control and monitoring function. In
'eco-friendliness' will have a chance and the CEO will the automobile industry such systems are already
certainly accept such a plant for 'environmentally installed in over 100,000 similar units. The forecast is
friendly propulsion', with great satisfaction. for a rapid application of such systems everywhere in
shipping, perhaps in only five to six years.
Intelligent engines
The automation of ship's plant started in the early Analysis clearly shows that the likelihood of
nineties. Probably the first full size low speed diesel technical errors are minimal compared with human
engine without a camshaft was built in 1995. It was an in approximately the ratio of one to five or more (in
engine with fully electronically controlled functions. favour of the technology!). Human errors usually occur
These included cylinder lubrication, fuel injection, because of deficiencies in knowledge and lack of
exhaust valve control and up to the engine start and experience, or perhaps because of inadequate
stop, practically the full range of all mechanical leadership. But there are problems due to fatigue
systems, covering all engne functions. The project was because of reduced manning. Simplicity of plants and
named as the 'intelligent engine'. But this automation mechanisms, by all means - we can accept this with
or 'mechatronic system' still requires a well trained - greetings - but a crew of ten or even less could be a
qualified crew. Engineers can't be replaced by a very tricky experiment and certainly could produce
computer. dangerous effects, especially if there is a need for
firefighting. The times are past, alas, when the CEO
T h e whole technology still needs overall
supervision, manoeuvring, maintenance etc. The knew his ship and engine inside out and tended it with
system can give much better handling of engine loving care. These are days of tight schedules, short
functions. It can provide the CEO with good quality 'turn around time', drastically reduced crews and a
information. It can maintain and guarantee a greater decline in practical knowledge and standard of engine
flexibility and in general, better handling. In this way, room crews. A certain standard of safety, therefore,
a so called intelligent engine can advance safety and must be created by the use of reliable materials, quality
economy because it is crucial to have the ship running components, constant monitoring and intelligent
economically, whenever required, correctly and as design and construction.
much as possible with a minimum of harmful Intelligent design means simplicity, achieved in a
influences on the environment. way that the irregularities are indicated to the operators
So, here we come again to the CEO, proper (crew) clearly and on time. In this way reactions are
operation and professional maintenance. T h e prompt and the necessary work is carried out on time,
reliability of components and systems, by which to relatively easily. The latest formulas: KISS and EEEE
trace the eventual deviations leading to stops or (Keeping it Simple for Seamen and Economy, Ecology,
damages, must be improved. It must also be better Environmental friendliness and Electronics) are very
than the crew, however well trained. It is necessary to costly demands. How much is all of that close to
keep in mind that proper operations, timely reality? And how often will the CEO get his hands
maintenance and the ability to trace defects and dirty? He should be watching the computer screen to
deviations - which all can lead to stops - depend on get information about the work and the state of
the human factor. Again, the main criteria are safety, machinery and components. He should analyse the
efficiency, reliability and good maintenance. Once parameters, trends etc., then decide what will go ashore
again the same conclusion: propulsion plants should for maintenance or repairs. Perhaps there is nothing
be safe and simple. But they are definitely neither much more he can do with a crew ofjust a few people
cheap nor maintenance free. but how far can crew reduction go? - Is our ability to
intervene compromised with such sophisticated
Fuel injection systems for the large diesel engine technology? The ISM code requires fully qualified and
have evolved rapidly over recent years, driven by the trained crew on board, especially for emergencies.
COMMAND 237
Simplification and advanced reliability of ship's efficiency compared with the standard rudder
machinery would be very beneficial. But can propeller. It looks like the future has started!
shipbuilders supply the shipping industry? Certainly
they can, but at what price? The correct question Conclusion
should, perhaps, be: at how high a price? At the end of this chapter, I would like to offer a
word more about professional requirements and how
Demands for the consumption of fuels with a low I see it. Safety of the ship is the first and most important
content of nitrogen and sulphur emissions, reliability task and duty. To put it another way, I wish to repeat
and simplicity of the propulsion and other plants, the following: fire fighting systems, emergency
eventually with a remote diagnoses etc. has a high price. generator, emergency fire pump, lifeboat and lifeboat
Therefore automation should be environmentally engines must always be in good working order and
friendly, user friendly (!) and perhaps owner friendly readiness. The seafarer cannot afford to be lulled into
too. hoping that perils will not appear. As with the safety
gear, so ship's staff must, in the first instance, always
Propellers
- be prepared (trained!) to prevent conditions which
Perhaps the most simple, if not adequate might lead to eventual cases of emergency or fire
classification would be to make a division between hazard.
propellers of fixed and variable pitch. Both are very
well known and I would prefer to point out some new, As for the ratings, irrespective of their nationality
interesting designs, which have appeared very recently and irrespective of their training, it is essential to have
in the shipping industry. One is named as 'contracted a 'clear atmosphere' on board. Fair play is essential.
and loaded tip' (CLT) and another is a part of a new All on board are members of a team and so should
behave accordingly! And one point more; occasionally
concept of propulsors.
and very unfortunately, we could also have on board
Interest in the CLT propeller is based on its so-called 'trouble maker(s)'. Perhaps not the best, but
efficiency and very good characteristics. T h e the only approach, is to make a sincere attempt to
advantage over the classic propeller lies in four understand and try to help, if possible. If not, with no
important points. The CLT propeller improves course hesitation, send them off from the ship, because very
stability, considerably reduces or eliminates hull often it can easily develop into unpredictable
vibrations, improves manoeuvrability and - very difficulties.
important for propulsion machines - fuel consumption It is not the job of senior officers to be psycholog~sts
is lower by up to 10%. Hopefully it will be reduced but they have to be responsible for the whole ship
more with further development. The first ships first. Regarding the position and work of an Enpneer
furnished with such CLT propellers show the above- Officer, he has to be a competent, self reliant operator,
mentioned characteristics and, very important, this who must have a full understanding of the engine as a
model of propeller could be applied to practically all whole unit and all components and systems. Equally
types and designs of ships, from Panamax bulk carriers essential, he must be able to perform the necessary
to fast feeder and container ships. Other good features maintenance and to take action to prevent damage.
are satisfactory cavitational behaviour and low In other words, he should be a professional and part
vibrations of the ship's hull. Perhaps the so called of a professional team. As part of the ship's staff, he
'intelligent engne' deserved a propeller of that type, must be well trained to use his skill efficiently and
as a crown to propulsion economy optimisation. always be ready to prevent conditions for any
appearance of a fire hazard.
Another application of the ship's propeller is as a
'bow thruster'. The use of this plant is very popular in Regarding the old (and very often misused!) Latin
shipping today because of the much improved proverb: 'Errare humanum est' (to err is human), it
manoeuvrability in ports. The 'time is money' saying should be forgotten on board. Perhaps it should be
could be applied here very well. It is not necessary to translated as an idiotic approach, especially for
remind you how good the bow thruster is for its younger officers. They should be encouraged to ask,
'ambient friendliness', but to remind you that the diesel for nobody on board is a superman! In turn, they
engine or electric motor which drives the bow thruster should expect a patient reply and an explanation.
has a considerably reduced exhaust contamination of The old saying that oil and water don't mix has
the air in ports, as compared to tugs. Another type of been proved to be very wrong even in fuel technology,
propeller which deserves our attention is a very new never mind between people! Once, long ago, it was
propulsion system, where two propellers are driven the approach to the two ship's departments - deck
by one synchronous electric motor, fitted in a and engine. Can you imagine with twenty people or
submerged housing. The propellers are on the same less (the idea of ten is already present!) that they should
shaft, one forward and one aft of the housing. Each be divided, the master and CEO communicating only
propeller operates at 50/o of total load. The advantage officially and only when forced to, or only by the
in efficiency is considerable. According to tests, the engine/bridge telegraph? From my experience on
twin propeller unit shows an incredible 20% higher board, I have realised how important are correct

relations between the master and CEO. They should impression, perhaps more than just an impression, that
b e friendly, but also with respect for mutual loyalty and continuity is being lost everywhere. Some
responsibilities. In the cabin, perhaps, it is fine to Danish and Norwegian companies still successfully
communicate with names or whatever fits. O n the stick to this, with the benefits of continuity for the crew
bridge or the engine room, however, only and and profit to the owner. But in such an atmosphere
exclusively by the position (title) so as to show all the and environment, all of a sudden, statistics show, as
respect given to each other's responsibilities, the of all breakdowns and damages, that the human error
psychologcal burden (pressure)of the job and by such becomes 5:1 and higher. A master and CEO over .5.5
behaviour to give support to each other also. This years old cannot get ajob, when their experience and
formal approach reduces stress and develops mutual emotional strength and stability are at their peak. The
trust and understanding. It is also of crucial value and House of Lords Committee reflected critically on that
importance to keep each other informed of everything policy where the depth of experience is reduced
that is going on, what action has been undertaken, or dramatically. Perhaps it could be fruitful to analyse
what plans are for maintenance, surveys etc. the experience of the crew and the ship's reliability.
Perhaps, when software and electronics become the
Regarding the 'office' (company, owner), most important element and when the concept of a
communications can sometimes be a 'sore' point. A truly 'intelligent engine' is more 'in', loyalty and
cable: 'do your best', is not a great help. It would be continuity may be of less importance. It is difficult to
much more welcome too if it asked for the situation be categoric, but perhaps the times when the CEO
or problem and offered alternative solutions. knew his ship inside out and tended the engne plants
Communications nowadays are very advanced, but with loving care are over.
unfortunately misused also! It is easy to ask and g v e
advice, to exchange opinions and perhaps to help just In closing this chapter, I wish to communicate to
by talking, keeping the records and taking short notes. you, only how I have seen it, how I have lived it and
Some interesting or important details and remarks how I have survived and retired, with reasonably good
often come out to suggest eventual solutions. health and a reasonably clear head. I would like to
point out, even more, that I wish to stress the need for
A word more with regard to manning standards. a professional approach to the seamen's life. A life
From the owner's viewpoint, everything is based on based not only on knowledge of thermodynamics,
cost and economy. Starting with the management and astronomy, flash points or stowage factors, but much
the crew's cost, there are the stores, maintenance and more. A life which is founded perhaps on a kind of
repairs, spare parts, fuels and lubes, insurance etc. The 'human bondage'. A bit of everything is involved,
crew's cost today is everywhere under severe scrutiny. when I think and talk about it with you, gentle reader.
The tendency is to reduce the crew as much as So, if you have read these lines, thank you for your
possible. It immediately brings up the question of kind attention! In this way you have helped to share
loyalty, training, continuity etc. I have a very strong with me a bit of this fascination and experience.
Chapter 39
WORKING WITH THE CATERING DEPARTMENT

by the Committee of the Association of Marine Catering and Supply
Introduction
PROVIS~ON OF A HIGH QUALITY of victualling, together
exceed statutory minima, but form the basis for their
with attention to personal health and welfare facilities, daily cost allowances and include small goods
provides the right environment for good industrial (condiments, herbs, spices, sauces) and convenience
relations, with efficient and safety-conscious crewing. foodstuffs which are usually outside statutory scales.
Catering standards, departmental duties, and workload Medical scales: Recommended medicines,
vary between individual ship managers, with the consumables and equipment for a specified
nationality of flag and complement and the differing complement size and voyage duration.
requirements of deep sea, coastal and ferry trades. Fresh water: Requirements for the storage,
treatment, purity, testing and uncontaminated supply
The information which follows outlines in a of potable water for drinking and domestic
generalised manner the what, why, where and how of consumption.
shipboard catering. Articles of Agreement: Contractual agreement
between seafarer and employer, itemising flag state
Workload and complement: Determined by the crew
statutory obligations and requirements. May also
manning regulations of the flag-State, particularly
itemise minimum requirements for cabin fittings,
numbers of officers and ratings, and the ship manger's
carpeting, bedding, towels, soap, personal tableware
requirements on menu content and personal service
and protective clothing issues.
standards.
Food preparation and meal service: Cooking, to Administration and control
destroy harmful bacteria and parasites, renders food Victualling: Selection, purchase, storage and
more digestible in texture and also more receptive to preparation for consumption of foodstuffs to meet
the palate, by pleasing the eye and stimulating the statutory victualling scales and ship managers'
digestive juices. prescribed standards within expenditure guidelines.
Housekeeping: An essential part of civilised living Special functions catering, for owners, managers,
is the maintenance of a clean, pleasant and orderly charterers, shippers etc.
environment. Protection of the investment in stores Bond / bars /shop: Purchase, storage, sale and cash
and equipment supplied for the vessel's continued accounting arrangements for wines, spirits, beers,
operation demands consumption control with clean minerals, tobacco goods, toiletries and clothing.
and orderly storeroom arrangements. Laundry work: Operation of ship's own laundry
Administration and control: Supervision by an officer plant and/or use of shore contractors to maintain clean
or senior rating in possession of recognised cookery, linen stocks.
catering and supervisory qualifications. Knowledge Medical: Maintenance of medical stores in
and experience in health, immigration, customs and compliance with flag-state statutory scales and
security procedures and the consequences of breaching appropriate secure locked stowage for dangerous and
these requirements. controlled drugs. Provision of on-board first-aid and
Cost control: Estimates of average catering medical facilities to meet accidents and emergencies.
expenditure relative to daily operating costs, excluding Maintenance of ships' medical log of accidents,
fuel, shore administration a n d depreciation: illnesses and treatments rendered. Liaison with port
victualling, between 310 and 4010; bond/bars/shop - agents on medical, dental and vaccination facilities
usually sold at prices which are expected to cover for personnel.
Equqment and chandlery: Purchase, storage and
handling and incidental costs; chandlery and
control of working consumables, crockery, galley
furnishings 0.50/1);shore laundry 0.51~;catering
utensils, housekeeping equipment and uniform stocks.
personnel 4010-5 %. Some managers also require the catering officer to
Statutory requirements coordinate the purchasing and control of general
Minimum standards are specified by the flag state chandlery for the whole vessel.
Port entry documentation: Preparation of port papers,
and may be exceeded and enhanced by ship managers'
crew lists, special declarations for restricted or dutiable
own standards, values and requirements.
goods and stores.
~ctuallingscales:Minimum quantities of staple food Relationship with port authorities: Interpretation and
commodities usually stated as weight per man per compliance with international, national and port
week and embodied within articles of agreement. Ship requirements and procedures relating to notifiable
managers may also publish their own scales. These diseases, immigration controls and customs

regulations, together with knowledge of requirements -lo0/-18C Deepfiozen: meats, fish, ice cream, fruit,
and procedures when security is breached - eg vegetables,some convenience
contagious diseases, illegal entry, stores theft, payment foodstuffs.
of duties and taxes. 0/4"C Chilled: dairy produce, cheese, eggs,
butter, fats, oils, fresh fruit and
Procedures and practice vegetables.
Purchasing: Forward planning and relating ship
managers' instructions to vessel's trading pattern. 4"/8"C Handling room: potatoes, bananas.
Anticipating consumption in relation to stocks held (if available)
and the availability of produce in ports of call, at a 10/15"C Air-conditioned: dry provisions: flour, sugar,
price and quality to meet requirements, without cereals, also cleaning
incurring losses due to poor quality, overlong stowage chemicals and products.
or excessive quantity.
15"/20C Ambient: utensils, durable chandlery,
Stores orders should always be in writing and be linen, crockery etc.
countersigned by the master. Ship managers often give Refrigerated stores require good uninterrupted air
guidance on suitable ports for purchasing sea stock circulation to prevent warm spots occurring, leading
stores, including frozen, canned and dry provisions, to thawing and putrefaction. All circulation must not
also durable stores such as linen, crockery etc. Fresh be obstructed and neat, orderly stows give easy access
fruit and vegetables must b e purchased more for quantity and quality checks. All stores should be
frequently and quantity related to quality, price, tidily stowed, labelled and capable of being read and
voyage length, store capacity and the adequacy of counted from the aisles without further sorting and
substitutes available - eg frozen, canned or dried fruits climbing. Wherever possible, stowage sequence
and vegetables. should be similar to the ship managers' stocks records
Where managers do not specify quality, pack size or account books, to facilitate checking and recording.
and style, purchases should be of a quality adequate All stows require securing against seaway movement.
for longer-term storage relative to intended Hygiene: Essential to have a systematic approach
consumption, with pack sizes appropriate to meal or to the clearance of all refuse, empty cartons and
daily consumption without wastage. Large cans and wrappings wherever located. Storeroom decks require
bulk sacks are wastef~~l
for small complements. Woven to be swept and kept clean on a regular basis. Stores
sacks harbour insects and should not be accepted, as racked with lowest levels stowed on boards clear of
most bulk dry-provisions can be supplied in multi-ply deck.
paper sacks. As a general guideline on price and
quality, UK and northern Europe remain the most Fresh fruit and vegetables may be kept with other
cost-effective purchasing area for all stores. stores which can be served without prior cooking, such
as cheeses and butter. It is essential to ensure that such
Currency fluctuations obviously produce is well wrapped and protected against earth
influence prices. A broad index of 100 for UK/ and plant dust, carrying food poisoning bacteria, which
Belgium/Holland during 1985/86 compared with: is circulated by the cooling plant. Dairy produce also
120 France, Italy (north), Singapore needs careful wrapping to protect it from acquiring
135 Greece, Australia, Chile, Brazil (South) the strong flavours of fruits, even though these will be
145/155 Italy (south),Spain, Morocco segregated within the storeroom. Cold chamber
175/190 Malta, Hong Kong, Saudi Arabia, scuppers need regular checking to ensure brine levels
Canada, USA (Atlantic) are maintained.
200/235 Panama Canal, Uruguay, Japan, SheIflife dating Primarily a retail facility, it provides
Gibraltar, USA (Gulf and Pacific) a guide for the consumption sequence of ship's stores.
250 Suez Canal Foodstuffs do not become 'unconsumable' overnight
Ethnic commodities may not always be widely on the basis of date stamping and producers always
available, especially meat and poultry slaughtered to allow a safety margin. Constant checking and care is
Mohammedan rites, and selective pre-planned required to avoid stock loss through over-stowage or
purchasing is essential to meet requirements. unwise purchasing. The UK Department of Transport,
Storage: Foodstuffs are perishable products and Environment a n d the Regions ( U K D T E R )
require specialised storage to maintain fitness for recommends that the period between production date
consumption within a limited period. Any food item and consumption date should be split one third for
stocked in excess of five to six months is liable to distribution and warehousing and two thirds for ship's
progressive deterioration or infestation making it unfit use. The main determinant of consumability must
for consumption. remain physical condition and appearance of
Subject to good quality purchases, the usual storage foodstuffs.
temperatures are:
COMMAND 241
Rotation: All stocks should be consumed in treatment is essential, either by use of shore contractors
rotation, with earliest supply being consumed first, and/or a programme of treatment by ship's staff. New
unless this leads to potential losses from the rapid stock should not come into contact with old, infested
deterioration of newer purchases. stock. Prevention of infestation in the first place should
be a prime consideration. Ensure that:
Health and hygiene in food handling
Ensure that: 1. Food is not stored, processed or consumed outside
of the designated storeroom, galley, pantry or
1. Correct temperature control is maintained in all saloon messroom areas.
refrigerated and food stores. 2. Meals are not taken into cabins other than under
2. Thawed produce is not re-frozen without prior controlled situations - eg medical cases. Soiled
cooking or rendering other preservative treatment. plates and discarded food attracts insects and flies
3. Foodstuffs are not exposed to ambient which carry diseases.
temperatures for prolonged periods. 3. Bulk foodstuffs are stowed in plastic food bins
4. Food is not prepared too far in advance of meal wherever possible, and all non-essential
times. It should be consumed very shortly after packagng, woven sacks and other wrappings are
preparation and cooking. disposed of quickly.
5. Hot food is not frozen or refrigerated without first 4. There is a systematic procedure for the quick
being allowed to cool to ambient temperature. removal of food waste and refuse from food areas.
6. Correct cookery techniques, including When port regulations require special disposal,
temperatures, are used. all waste and refuse should be removed to the
7. Frozen foods, especially meats and fish, are designated and covered receptacles quickly and
thoroughly thawed before processing and coohng. frequently.
8. Raw and cooked foods are never allowed to come 5. There is a regular cleaning programme with close
into contact with each other, as this can lead to attention to corners beneath furniture and fittings,
cross contamination with food poisoning bacteria. and other places which are difficult to reach.
Similarly, knives, utensils, slicing machines, cutting
boards and preparation surfaces must not be used Menu planning
for both raw and cooked foodstuffs without Balanced and attractively presented meals provide
thorough intermediate cleaning. variety and interest. Balanced menus which take
9. Correct clothing is worn by all galley and food nutritional values into account, contribute to good
handling staff, both for personal protection and health, mental and physical efficiency. Seafarers
to prevent cross-contamination. require on average some 3,300 calories per day.
10. Infected personnel are kept away from food Dietary and ethnic requirements as well as statutory
preparation and service areas. Coughs, sneezes scale allowances have to be taken into account. Special
and spittle can all transmit bacteria and it is arrangements, such as additional rations or enlarged
incumbent on all concerned to maintain the menu content, may apply for national or religious
highest possible level of good habits and hygiene festivals. Consumption of popular items must be
in personal behaviour and at work. balanced with stockholdings and should include the
1 I. 'No smoking' is strictly enforced in food storage, less popular but often more nutritious items in the
preparation and service areas. interests of healthy menu composition, variety and
12. Separate hand-wash facilities are provided in food economy. A limited menu content can be dull and
preparation and service areas. Wash-up sinks must repetitive, leading to high consumption of the food
not be used for personal hygiene. available and it is therefore necessary to equate
13. No person with open cuts, sores or skin eruptions coohng capacity with demand. More extensive menus
is permitted to work in food handling areas. High offering choices spread consumption and enable small
visibility dressings or other suitable covering must quantities remaining from previous meals to be
be applied to these wounds before food is handled included, reducing preparation workload, wastage and
by the infected person. costs.
14. An ample supply of clean linen or disposables is
The current trendis awayfiom some traditional foods
available for hand drying. such as animal fats, whole milk, butter, full fat cheese,
15. Spillages and waste matter on decks are cleared sugar and the undue use of salt towards whole cereals,
immediately and that decks of food preparation lean meat, fish, poultry, fresh fruit and vegetables.
and service areas are cleaned after every meal Traditional British dietary habits have led to obesity
service. related ailments - eg high blood pressure, diabetes
and heart disease, with menus low in the dietary
Pest control roughage necessary to help the bodily functions.
Infestation is usually evidence of dirty conditions,
inadequate cleaning and possibly the receipt of Meal service: There is a trend away from three full
infested stores or packaging. Early eradication hot meals a day towards two meals with an informal

buffet-style lunch. Self-service, buffet style presentation Alleyways - Sweep a n d wipe daily,
of meals is popular especially for cold courses, salads deeper treatment as
and lunches. Overall this can result in reduced steward appropriate
workload for table service, but it is still necessary to Cabins
clear soiled tableware and do the washing-up. Carpets and decks - Sweep twice weekly
Furnishing - Dust and polish weekly
Safety Toilets and showers (cabin
Statutory requirements of the flag state, eg the and public), bathrooms and
UKDTER's Code of Safe Working Practice for Merchant laundries
Seamen, and ship manager's additional requirements Decks, bulkheads, fittings Wash or wipe daily and
-
determine the safety standards to be met. It is and machinery check supply of disposables
and soaps
incumbent on all to contribute to safe working on
Shower heads and flexible - Soak thoroughly every three
board by the application of care, common sense and hoses months in chlorine solution
cooperation. Ship safety, personal safety and job safety Tumble driers - Clean filters after each use
are inter-related. Ensure that: All washing must be done using fresh potable water.
1. Elements of safety already mentioned in this Training An increasing number of non-UK catering
chapter are observed. ratings have only minimal craft training and seafaring
2. There is due consideration for others, as safe work experience. When ratings are willing to learn, properly
practices relate closely to hygiene and good health. structured on-the-job tuition can result in a better
3. Safety clothing and standard uniform dress is worn quality catering crew on subsequent appointments. If
as appropriate in working areas. guidance and tuition is not attempted, there is unlikely
4. There is a clear understanding of galley safety and to be much improvement in quality of personnel and,
action to take - eg deep fat fryer fire, turn pan as it is impossible to stand still, there will be a lowering
handles inwards, keep gangways clear, wash of standards.
knives with care, disconnect electrical equipment
when cleaning or maintaining. Training in the following will contribute to the
maintenance of safe working conditions and catering
Work schedules: A planned programme should be standards; managers' requirements, standards and job
followed to spread the workload as evenly as possible specification; health and hygiene practices.
over the work period without excessive overtime.
Specify the required hours of duty with rest and meal Detailed accounting records
breaks, job description, areas to be covered and special Invoices: These should be clearly signed by
duties. Indicate who directs the working arrangements. receiving officer and master with shortages, surpluses
Routine maintenance: Chandlery equipment and and breakages clearly marked. Invoices are usually
consumables should be used in a cost effective way to settled by one of the following methods: as arranged
achieve good 'housekeeping' standards of cleanliness, by the ship managers; port agent as part of vessel's
safety and public health. A typical cleaning routine disbursements; master from vessel's cash float; ship
would include: manager's office direct with supplier; ship manager's
Galley andpantries office through an agent of the supplier.
Food preparation utensils Whichever method is adopted, the value of catering
and machinery -Wash after each use invoices is usually recorded in various books of
Decks and working surfaces - Wash after each meal
account, and the master's cash records, if applicable.
service
Refuse removal - After each meal Victualling: Account books show commodity,
Refuse containers - Wash daily quantities stocked, purchased, remaining and stock
Fitting-s - Wash twice weekly, or more
valuation; invoice summary of purchases and value
frequently if necessary of the final remaining stock; comparison of actual
Bulkheads, deckheads - Wash weekly and conduct consumption with scale allowances. Final analysis to
routine check for infestation show consumption value compared with budget
evidence
allowance, usually on a cost per persodday and on a
Pantries - Wash daily total cost per voyage day.
Saloons and messrooms
Tables, chairs and vinyl decks - Wash and clean dry after Bond/bar/shop: Account books show stock held,
each meal. Thorough purchased and remaining on closure and selling prices
weekly cleaning applied; invoice summaries for purchases; cash
Carpets - Vacuum after each meal receipts record; and subsequent payments to master
Storerooms - Empty and re-stow every 2 or agents.
to 6 weeks depending on
stock levels, sweep daily, Inventory/equipment: Account books show stock
wash monthly and before held, purchased and remaining; invoice summary for
each main storing. purchases; stationery stocks and summary of invoices
COMMAND 243
for shore laundry contractors; interior and soft Storeroom procedure
furnishings maintenance and replacement may also The purpose of any storeroom procedure is to ensure
be included within this category. Possibly includes that the food received is available for processing when
statutory medical stores (excluding specific shore- needed, without spoilage or deterioration.
administered treatments).
Storerooms or storage place, refrigerators and
Maintenance: Record of painting and repairs with freezers, should be kept clean, neat and organised so
brief details of work completed and dates. that items are easily located. There should be a place
assigned for every item. Shelves should be labelled in
Files: Spare copies of port forms; spare copies of the order of the inventory book listings. Only
invoices and price quotations for comparison with
authorised personnel should be permitted to enter the
other ports and use of relief personnel. storeroom. When the chief steward is not in the area,
doors should be kept locked and keys should be
Storeroom operation controlled.
D. Sams, Managing Director, Garrets Ltd., UK
One major rule in storeroom operations is 'first
Physical Inventory should be taken: in, first out7.Stock must be rotated to avoid being
Before an order is placed. buried or forgotten. There is little extra work involved
At the end of each month. to move the old stock and place the new stock in the
When there is a change in chief steward/chief back or in the bottom. With this procedure you will
cook. avoid spoilage of food, which results in waste and loss
and money.
When possible, inventory counts should be carried
out by two people, as this ensures a more accurate Marking the date of arrival
count. Items should be called as they are in the shelves, on incoming items with a permanent marker on
in the same order as they are stacked on the shelves the boxes of meat, fish and perishable items is a must.
to avoid miscounting. It makes stock rotation much more easy to follow.
Dairy products are dated by the dairy company,
Common errors which can occur when performing bakery products and rice should be tagged with their
inventory counts: dates and all non-orignal containers must be labelled
with the new product.
Miscounting, and organised storeroom should
minimise this problem. Expiration date
Uncertainty about package size and weight can on all perishable food and beverage should be
also lead to miscounting. strictly observed. Food in danger of spoiling must be
All boxes and cartons should be checked if used quickly to avoid loss. Sometimes certain stock
opened. lies forgotten on shelves. Dead stock must be used or
Behind boxes and shelves should also be looked disposed of.
at: this could help locate missing items.
Loose items should be weighed. Catering management companies
Ships vary and with such a heavy demand for
Chief Steward receiving checking list catering services aboard passenger ships it is inevitable
Quality, quantity and weight count of the invoice that they have their own catering departments. The
should be checked against the invoice. staff may be hired independently of the company,
Inspect all cases or items that appear damaged. similarly ship storing may be subcontracted to
Expiry dates should be checked. specialist suppliers.
Check that fruits and vegetables are fresh.
Fresh fish (whole) is an extremely perishable item: Increasingly masters on general cargo vessels are
if delivered attention should be taken in checking having to take a greater responsibility for catering
for firm flesh and no offensive odours. Fish eyes supplies and voyage records can provide a useful
should be clear and bright and gills should be red/ insight into past practices and a guide for future
pink and free from any slime. ordering.
Check all items for evidence of insect or rodent With further reduction in crews it is becoming
infestation or contamination. economic to sub-contract catering supplies to a
Check products for unusual or foul odours. specialist company. They have specialist knowledge
Returning unsatisfactory merchandise of ships and trades and can purchase in bulk and obtain
Any damaged/spoiled items should be refused and discounts for this. Also there is a trade off in manpower
either exchanged or deleted from the invoice, or which can tip the balance between management fee
covered by a separate credit note from the supplier. and company benefits.

Chapter 40
USING SHIPBOARD COMPUTER BASED MAINTENANCE

SYSTEMS
by Captain Murdo Macleod FNI
Captain Macleodjoined the Merchant Navy as an ordinary seaman in 7954. He joined United Baltic as third ofJer,
to master in 1968. In 7973 he joined Sale17 UK in the Marine Services Division in 7979. In 1985 he set up Macleod Marine/Amos
Systems and specialised in stock control and inventory management. He is a Fellow of The Nautical Institute.
The planned maintenance system owners and managers decided on implementing these
concept computer systems which have been proved to be
M AINTENANCE S Y S T EM S should be graphical user successful.
interfaced (GUI) and highly visual, with features for
inventory control and purchasing administration. They There was also little or no continuity when one
officer relieved another: time just did not allow it. As
should be flexible and user-friendly. They should
the vessel's system was not linked to the office, one
incorporate the following functions:
individual, who did not use the system properly, could
Planned maintenance. in as little as two months bring the system to a state of
Repairs, modification and docking work. chaos. Because of that and other reasons, manual
Maintenance history. systems often fell into disuse and went out of favour.
Spare parts transactions (usage/inventory). The vessel's managers, in their offices, often had
Import/export of data (linked to communications. no clear picture of what was happening on board their
Graphical interface (drawing/plans, etc.). vessels until it was too late, i.e. these systems never
Requisition of spare parts. justified the expense of their setup, never had a
Purchase of stock items. definable saving and were never very successful. Other
Quotation comparison. points to consider are: crew sizes have been reduced
Budget. considerably since the advent of these systems and
Transport documentation. vessel turn round time, or time in port, has been
Reports (any database information). reduced.
The maintenance system should present data in There are several components to a GUI (such as
ways that are meaningful to the user. Functions are to Windows) planned maintenance system:
be tightly linked with data, so that each operation is
only a mouse click away. Platform (SQL Anywhere, Oracle etc.).
Software (Spectec's A4W, MMS's Windows
This will be a marked improvement on the old Systems etc.).
systems: manual, con-cards, simple DOS, where no Database (vessel's equipment, spares, jobs etc.).
integration between maintenance and spare parts History (input information on maintenance,
occurred. History was hardly ever written and, even breakdown, spares usage, requisitions, purchase
if it was, with the passage of time it was very difficult orders etc.).
to link to a specific incident or spares usage. Stock
control was hardly ever exercised. It was, and still is, The first three will usually be purchased and
one of the most important aspects of a good installed before the user ever sees them. The last item
maintenance system, with the result that the vessel's is all the information the user inserts as he uses the
crew were never certain about which spares, or stock, system and after he has proper training in its use. All
they had on board, or where they were located. There the information and figures in this paper are based on
was also a tendency to put wrongly ordered parts SpecTec7sAmos system.
amongst the correct spares, later resulting in the crew Training in the proper use of these systems is vitally
being under a false sense of security. When these parts important in understanding, using and, for your
were then required urgently, the cost of shipping them employers, getting the financial return they should
to the vessel often exceeded the cost of the parts expect from such a system. The training should cover
themselves (when you take into account the cost and concept; maintenance; spares and stock control;
freight of the wrongly ordered parts). It is for that, purchasing, from requisition to receiving purchase
and many other reasons - integrated system, less order; import and export; backup procedures; and
breakdown, better maintained vessel, better how to manage the system on board. This applies for
communication between vessel and office - that whichever software you have on board your vessels.
COMMAND 245
Practical reasons for their use survey items and others, such as certificates, all
There are many reasons for their use on board well- required to be done at fixed period intervals).
managed vessels today, especially so if the same Power tip
systems are used by all vessels in the fleet: T h e icon in any G U I system which, when
1. Economic reasons. depressed, will g v e you access to whatever you want
2. Better management of the deck, engine and to work with or use, abbreviated as PT.
accommodation maintenance. Stock item
3. Better integration between maintenance, stock Any item which can be used by the vessel such as
control and purchasing. spare parts; tools; charts; consumables (cleaning
4. Better control of hull and engine classification material, stationery, foodstuff, etc.); books and
requirements. publications and which can be purchased by, or for,
5. Better control of maintenance historical records the vessel.
for ISM requirements.
6. Easier assimilation for crew when transferring Unplanned maintenance
between vessels in the same fleet. Maintenance which is carried out when a
component breaks down or is damaged and the work
Terminology used is done to get it back into operation. Can be called
The terminology used in this paper will be as unexpected.
follows for the main items:
The initial screen on a typical maintenance system
Component should comprise:
A system or unit of equipment (such as tank;
winches; safety equipment; pump; lifeboat; Component PT on far left.
compressor; main engine or sub-system etc.), against Stock.
which planned maintenance can be carried out. Jobs.
Address.
Corrective maintenance Functions.
Maintenance which is irregularly planned for Rounds.
inclusion in the maintenance schedule (This can Component hierarchy.
include repairs or services which are required some Function hierarchy.
time in the future, such as port repairs or dry-dock Generate work order.
work) which would usually be ordered from an outside Report work.
W O detail.
History Planning.
Usually, in planned maintenance, it is sufficient to Requisition WO.
report the work as done with date, time taken if Forms.
required and parts used, if any used. History does not Reports.
need to b e written if you did the job as per Help.
specification, except when clearances or See figure 40.1.
measurements are taken, or you did or noticed
something which was not included in the job. When Numbering system
it is a classed component, then history should always Any system used must have some sort of
be entered. History should ALWAYS be entered for identification or numbering system. This is so that the
unplanned maintenance (cause - effect - action) and user of the software can easily understand and handle
for corrective maintenance. the information. In Windows based software, the
system generates another number when anything is
Job code
created, so that the software can better handle the
The identification code and/or number, which
information. If the human interface number can be
usually includes a job heading. done in a logical way, it will be easier for the user to
Job description understand.
A detailed description of a planned or corrective The numbering, as long as it is logical, can be
maintenance job, which should include full and clear
virtually anything in a Windows based system.
details such as clearances or measurements required,
Obviously, if it is easier to understand by the user,
with limits if appropriate.
e.g. ME - main engne; D G - diesel generators; LB -
Planned maintenance life boats & equipment; FW - fresh water; LO -
Maintenance that is planned and carried out at lubricating oil systems; H H - hull etc., and all the
regular intervals so as to prevent equipment components and stock items and spares for these items
breakdown (This can include hourly; weekly; monthly start with these two letters, so much the better. About
and yearly periods or multiples thereof. It also includes forty of these two-letter headers would be sufficient
246 THE NAUTICAL INSTITU'TE

for most vessels and about 60 for the largest passenger Components
vessels. If this is followed by three numbers, e.g. ME- Figure 40.4 shows a component from the LP
??? for components, this could allow you, if needed, numbering - lifesaving and protection equipment with
to put 1,000 components under ME; or if stock items the free-fall lifeboat highlighted and all its information
were ME-???,???,this would allow you to put 1,000,000 shown. O n the second line of the power tips can be
items of stock under ME, which would be far in excess seen all the things which can be done or attached to
of what you would ever need under any two-letter this, or any other component: New; Save; Delete;
number. Filter; Print; Cut; Copy; Paste; Details (technical
Some numbering systems are very complex and description); Jobs (attached with all information such
date back to ancient accounting systems. Others can as period, last done etc.); Parts (attached); Counters;
be such as SS.CC.NN.PPP or SSS.CC.NN.PPP, Images; Requisition Work and Report Work.
where SSS = system or location, C C = individual You will also notice that many of the power tips
component, NN = sub-component and PPP = spare (the first eight) are quite standard in many Windows
parts. Therefore, if SSS was life saving equipment; software programs today. Initially you will only be
C C is lifeboat No. 1 and NN can be lifeboat No. 1 gven access to what is considered necessary by the
winch/davits/motor etc. so that you can have 100 system manager, until you have proper training. In
(0 to 99) sub-components for lifeboat No. 1, against many companies only the chief engineer and the
each of which you can have a thousand spare parts master are gven system user access.
(0 to 999).
I also show a list of jobs attached to a component
The numbers with which you identify a component and the parts linked to the component. You will also
or stock item are type numbers or reference numbers. note that the power tips on the second line always
They are the surest way for the manufacturer to refer to the topmost screen - jobs (as in figure 40.4).
identify a component or spare part. A name can be
pronounced in many different ways and could easily Stock items
be misunderstood, which means that a name without Spares or stock items are vital for the management
a number cannot be relied on. If you have a of any ship. The spare parts are for use during
computerised system, you will have no problem, as maintenance. Other stock items, from general
you can have a combination of both and never print chandlery items to stationery or provisions, are
out the wrong number, as long as the correct numbers referred to in the following table as consumables:
were originally entered.
Stock item - any item consumed on board vessel.
An example of what some headers for a numbering Stock used - spare part used for maintenance.
system might look like, in alphanumeric order, is Stock location - store room location of stock items.
shown in figure 40.2. Stock inventory - match actual stock to system
stock.
Filters Stock - consumables - stock item other than spare
All areas or screens which can be searched such as parts.
components; stock items; addresses etc. usually start Stock - consumables inventory - only way to use
with a filter screen, as shown in figure 40.3. If the consumables in system.
'Enter' key is pressed, when the screen is completely
The columns below show how you would expect
blank, all items in the defined area will be displayed
to manage the stock in a planned maintenance system,
(it will load it all into memor y ). If it has only the first
and details on what you would achieve:
two letters, as LP in this case, only the lifesaving and
protection items will be displayed. When you are 1. Wanted - stock you desire to purchase
actually in any of these areas, the filter appears as a 2. Transactions - history of any or all stock item/s
power tip on the second PT line, which can be pressed 3. In/Out of Stock - to use or add to stock items
whenever another search is required. In other words, 4. Control - inventory control
if you require anchor and mooring equipment, you
would enter AM <CR>, and all that equipment would Stock items d o not need to be linked to a
be displayed. If you require equipment such as pump, component in a Windows system unless it is a spare
which could be anywhere in the 'name' field, you part belongng to that component. There are several
search for that with the O/o sign as follows: O/o pump in things you can do with stock items:
name line. 1. While spares can be used doing maintenance,
The filter point looks like this: other stock items, such as consumables (cleaning
material, stationery and foodstuff), will have to
be 'consumed' by some other means, i.e. stock
The resulting filter screen is not to be mistaken for control: taking an inventory of your stock, by
data entering. You only enter new or changed data location, or for a specific section of these
after passing through the filter in any working area. consumables, depending on how they were
COMMAND 247
Figure 40.1 Initial screen on a computer maintenance system
Figure 40.2 An rxample of what some headersfor a nunzbering system might look like, in alphanumeric order
7 - A
7
3
C w n i S talus
Figure 40.3 f i e Plter'screen

Figure 40.4 A componentfiom the LP (Lifesaving &Protection equ$ment) numbering
Figure 40.5 Stol-PSin a particular location
COMMAND 249
numbered. For instance, cordage and wires could in each level, as soon as you used a spare carrying
be prefixed by ROPE.???,and stationery STAT.?? out maintenance, the system would consider that
etc., or the locations could be for cordage and you have a need to requisition one replacement
wires BSOO to BS99 while the stationery could be item (see figure 40.6).
stored in ST00 to S1'49. Therefore you can do the
whole cordage and wire by using ROPE, either 3. Transactions: spare, lost, found or purchased are
doing them all at one go, or doing only one the only four transactions that can occur to any
location at a time, such as BS14, or doing all BS stock item.
by not putting any number. A stock check should Job description
always be done before a 'want or desire' to
Jobs are written with code, title, and class of job,
purchase is activated. To do a stock check, call up
follo\ved by the details. These should be as detailed
the location or the stock items section and then,
as possible; they should be precisely what you want
when on screen, print out the list or fill in the now
done when this job is to be carried out, and if any
column with the correct number in stock. In figure
measurements are to be taken. They should also be
3.7 05 we see stock items starting with number
specified, with the normal range and limit clearly
BE in any location. As you can see, all of the items
are stored in box 78 in the electrical store. To shown in the job. The period in days, weeks, months
correct the stock quantity, the column marked or hours are specified when the job is attached to a
Now would have to be updated (see figure 40.5). component, as well as stating when you want the job
done next time, by entering the date when it was last
2. 'Want' or 'have a desire' to purchase: this is where done. You will notice that details (full description) and
you indicate that you have a desire to requisition images (drawing) are available on the second power
or purchase that particular stock item, and then tip line. As can be seen in figure 40.7, the code is
the number you require. This call be done at ally SAF025, the title of safety -- fire fighting equipment
time you notice that you are getting short of the and job class - safety job. lmmediately underneath is
item. If it is a spare part item and you have set the the full description, or job specification.
stock levels: minimum, maximum, re-order level
and quantity in stock, as soon as the stock quantity Addresses
drops below the re-order level, the system will be T h e address register should include all the
triggered to 'want', whatever you have put in the addresses which a company would need including
re-order quantity. For instance, if you had one (1) manufacturers, vendors, agents, etc. The address file
Figure 40.6 Tramactions

should be common to the office and all the company a simple database. The software is vital for the proper
vessels (see figure 40.8). operation of the whole system, but the database can
be made simple, or overly complicated.
Database
Database construction is the 'difficult' (and often An experienced constructor would take from one
neglected) part of a good maintenance system. It to two months, depending on the amount of
requires vessel's manuals, planning, knowledge of components and stock items a vessel would carry. For
shipboard systems, knowledge of maintenance, the inexperienced, the time could be from six to ten
knowledge of the vessel's most critical equipment, times that. One of their main problems is that they think
knowing what must be included and what can be left it will be easy. They have no plan, they do not keep
out, choosing the correct spares from manuals, the track of what has been coinpleted and they get
ability to complete the system and testing the database. disheartened well before they can complete the
All general items such as disciplines, counter types, database. It is not a simple job and it must be planned
currency codes, units, components, stock and job properly. The constructor must also have knowledge
classes, QA grades and the various maintenance of enpneering, electrical, safety and deck maintenance
criteria - types, classes and causes, which will be procedures. The system must also be completed and
common to all your vessel's databases - should be tested to the best ability of the constructor. The final
entered first. Then follow the four main items in any testing will always take place in service, where minor
maintenance system - components, stock items, jobs inconsistencies can be corrected.
and addresses. Then you have to link everything
together and finally test the completed system before Some important aspects of a database are:
delivery. Getting the stock locations organised.
A plea often voiced is for a simple software system. Giving an identity to those locations.
What would usually meet their aspirations would be Entering all that into the database.
R m iR W S
F~emans Piotecbve Sut wrth Bods. Gloves, Glasses &Hood

lmersutn Stirks for Resutr: Boat Crew
Gas TQMSurk wth Llebne. Belt Lamp & Helmets
WC Sud w h Nmd Helmet, Gaggles ,4pron h Long Sbd G b m s -
*PUETA6iE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
CHECK 1 Aa portable hre extqu~shetsappafatus in accornmad&~mDeck
and Engine rwrn.
2 . Rebase 1 Dry-powder or 1 Fnarli extngs.&etter [E'VERY MONTH)
3 - Fot cwiosron ~nsidereleased fuam wtinguirhera
4 Enrure that appardrus I.; chnrgd ^ealedard read:, tc? use
5 C02boltles by walbt NU7 18 BE RtLEASEU
G Number ol spare cha~gez[Powder t Foam) which shoufd he on board
9 Condrtmrt d Portahle Ftre E41naui-hin~ Equ~pment
ocatson Tested & D&s
Figure 40.7 Job descr$tions
COMMAND 251
Getting the labels printed and attached to the or converted into work orders; this only needs to be
spares. done once. When the work order is reported as done,
it is then autolllatically generated again, ready for the
This is usually done at the time of installation and next time it becomes due, whether in a week or in
can take tow to four weeks. It is that 'Pare five year-. If any new job is attached subsequently, it
parts are at least given a location and the labels printed. will also have to be generated ollce,
Maintenance Before you start to plan, issue or print the
The maintenance system is composed of the maintenance for the next period, it is important to
following: update any counters you might have attached to the
Components and jobs (cou~lters/time/date)- system, as you would with the following example for
periodic maintenance (PM order). hours counters (see figure 40.9 overleaf).
Counters - run time - voyages - starts. Any new jobs created and attached to a component
Maintenance - generating - planning - issuing. will also have to be generated. This has to be done
Reporting - report date done with time and spares. only once for a new database and once whenever a
Work orders - unexpected - corrective - new job is created and attached. By reporting the
guarantee. routine maintenance job as done, the system
History required always on above item WO - plus automatically generates the next routine execution of
class items and measurement items. the job. Pressing PT, as shown in figure 3.7 01, starts
Once the routine jobs have been attached to the the generating process.
component, the frequency entered, whether in days, Once the work orders have been issued and printed
weeks or nlollths and the date when last done, then they then have to be executed, by whichever
this triggers when the job is due for maintenance next. department is responsible for doing so. This can only
If a counter is attached to the component (hours, be done to work orders (whether PM or WO) that
revolutions, starts, etc.), then the frequency (intervals have been through the planning stage (see figure
between repetitions of jobs, 2500H or 100 starts) is 40.10). Once the jobs are scheduled, which is done
entered and no further action is necessary under the automatically, depending on time (days, weeks,
component except to enter: discipline (department months) or counters, if a condition based maintenance
responsible for job); output forillat you want: listing (CBM) module is fitted, then the action of the CBM
or detailed; and if there is any history template, such monitoring system reaching a pre-defined condition
as you would require for measureillents to be taken,
would trigger a PM order being scheduled for that
or a checklist.
component. The next stage is that all the schedules
When all the jobs have been written in detail, and orders go through the planning stage; these orders can
then linked to the components, they must be generated be delayed or brought forward. Once the planning

Figure 40.9 Hours counters
stage has been gone through, the orders are then at unless it is a class item. Below is a list of various
the issuing stage and can be printed as required (see maintenance orders and when history should be
figure 40.11). These orders are then given to the reported:
appropriate departments to be carried out. When these
orders have been completed (date done, time taken, PM order (as per specification) - NO - unless
spares used and comments written, if necessary) then class item, then YES.
reporting to the system has to be carried out (see figures PM order (with measurement taken) - always
40.10 and 40.11). record measurenlents taken.
PM order (problem noted) - always with details
If at any time you have unplanned maintenance of problem.
and the work cannot be rectified on board, you will CMB maintenance work order- - always with
then need to create a work order for unexpected, detail.
corrective or guarantee (for new vessels) maintenance. Corrective maintenance WO (dry dock, etc.) -
They could be carried out at some future time or port, always with detail.
at the next dry-docking or the end of the guarantee Breakdown maintenance order - always with
period. T h e WO number will be generated cause/effect/action taken.
automatically. You would give it a title (clear and Guarantee work order - always with cause/effect/
precise), then link it to a component. Priority, due date action taken.
(next port, dry-dock or guarantee), window (time A reporting screen is shown for such a system
before due date when you would want this job to be (figure 40.13). In the reporting option, you tick the
due), and discipline (shore contractor, dry-dock or ones you want to report on. For instance, in our first
builder) would then be entered. item above, if we did not use spares none of the boxes
All unplanned maintenance should list cause, class would need to be ticked. The only part they would
and type (what caused the breakdown, what effect did enter information into would be general information,
it have and what sort of maintenance does it require). with date done and duration in hours; then OK. If it
The details should be written clearly and precisely (see had been a class item, you would also have the
figure 40.12). reporting option ticked and you would enter history
description. By pressing history, a full description can
The reporting can either be written on the order, be entered.
or written to the maintenance system directly, the latter
being the usual method after training. Once an order If you were reporting on unexpected maintenance,
is reported to the system as done, it automatically you would have the history and spares ticked and you
generates the PM order ready for the next cycle. If would also fill in the work classification. If breakdown
the order was done as per job specification (PM maintenance was classified in your company, history
orders), then there is no necessity to write any history would always be filled, and usually stock used. If you
COMMAND 253
Figure 40.10 Work order, planning stage
Figure 40.71 Order printing

Figure 40.73 A reporting screen
COMMAND 255
are carrying out any unexpected maintenance, which During this process, any form of the above type
you would have done normally every 12 months, and could have a differing status as indicated in the
which is due in three months time, then if you report following list:
this unexpected maintenance against this job, it will
again become due in 12 months time and not in three Active
months. Being worked by either requester or purchaser.
Active forms can be sorted or grouped according
Purchasing to the dates recorded in its various stages:
Everything that a vessel requires will involve * Approved for purchase.
purchasing. This will include the following: spares * Ordered by purchaser.
parts, consumables, corrective maintenance, and dry- * Confirmed by vendor.
docking repairs and services. Purchasing involves * Received by requester/or at final destination.
everything from the requisitioning, querying, ordering, Split
delivery, to receiving and one step forward to the This form exists, but all its original lines have been
payment for the P O received. split off into other forms. It is not cancelled, as it
is still useful for information purposes. It will still
Below is a list of these purchase form types, from show all its original order lines, in ghost form and
requisition (when whoever created it gave it the the number of the forms in which they are now
number which will always identify it, through all its located.
various stages), to purchase order and whatever could Cancelled
be happening to them: A form number no longer in use.
Requisition - created on board or in the office. It Parked
is a request for the purchaser to obtain some goods Either the requester or the purchaser feels this form
or services for you. is incomplete, or unnecessary at present and parks
Query - the purchaser is checking prices with one it in his local system. Amos normally transmits
or a variety of vendors. You are waiting for that/ changed data from vessel to office and vice-versa.
their quotation/s. In the case of parked purchase orders, no information
Purchase order - the quotation has been received, is exported until its parked status is changed.
the decision has been made to purchase and the Filed
purchase order has been issued. The requester/ A form on which all the goods or services have
purchaser is keeping track of the delivery, been received at the required installation. All filed
transport or receipt of the ordered goods. forms can still be accessed, either for filling in the

costs such as payments and final costs, or for each line and enter requirements: either from the stock
further research. list or write them out freehand (if what you required
was not in the stock list). This could be done for such
All forms are in two sections - the form header things as: 'boat hire to anchorage', 'repair deck rails'
and the order lines. They start from the form window. etc.
'The form window usually consists of a header and
the scrolling list of forms, or as many as can be seen When the purchase order has been placed with a
on the lower part of screen (see figure 40.14). The top vendor, either locally or by the office, you wait for
part will show the form header of whichever the scroll delivery. O n the delivery of the purchase orders on
bar is on in the bottom half. The form number is board you must tell the system what you have received.
generated by the system;. In the one shown, the You do this by going to the form window (see figure
number has the year, a dash and a five figure running 40.16) and tag the POs you are receiving: you get a
number. small option box. If you are receiving all the orders
complete and if you want labels and the POs filed on
Whenever you want to create a new form, you start
completion, then tick off the boxes and press OK. By
from the form window. Requisition forms can be
doing so, the orders will all be dated and marked
created automatically, or manually. If you want to do
a form automatically you should, prior to that, have 'received'. Stock items will be updated with the stock
gone into wanted in stock and indicated your received and all the orders filed.
requirements. You then go to white page PT and a Filed orders are still available for editing; the office
filter will appear. You indicate whether you want usually does this. The editing can take the form of
automatic or manual and whether you require either entering part or final payment or, if voucher
purchase, requisition or query. O n a vessel that has a handling is used (see figure 40.7), a for111 some
central purchasing office it is usually always requisition, companies use as a link to their accounts department,
unless you were making a local purchase. If you have to link the purchasing to their accounting system.
ticked off what you require in stock: wanted, then When final payment is made, the filed purchase orders
indicated 'automatic', the system will create the forms are the only historical link with the whole process,
with order lines and all you have to do is fill in the and can be used for research.
form headers. When you choose 'manual' and the form
header is available on the screen fill in the details, Import/export
click on the order line PT and then, when it shows the These systems usually have a mirror image in the
order line screen (figure 30.15), go to new page PT for office, so that if anything is changed in either system,
Figure 40.75 The order line screen
COMMAND 257
Figure 40.76 f i e form window
Figure 40.17 Ihucher handling

especially with regards to purchasing, then it is known Communications
both on board the vessel and in the office. Other For any software system or vessel to be viable at
changed information that can be transferred includes sea nowadays, it must have good communications. All
maintenance, history, stock, and logs. In fact, it is easier the exported information from your software must be
to export all changed information. This can be done exported, by some means, to your head office. This is
daily, weekly, or monthly, depending on your usually done with some communication system, which
company's requirements. The most common interval usually can compress the files to be exported and then,
via a modem and satellite, export the data at high
is either daily or weekly, with the result that both you
speed to your head office.
on board and those in the office always have the same
information on hand. Conclusion
Since I wrote this chapter 12 years ago, many things
Most software suppliers now can automate their have changed at sea and in software systems used at
systems to export information at predetermined times sea. Back then, hardly anyone used computers at sea
on a daily or weekly basis, using either selection files and maintenance systems were few and far between.
GUIs such as Windows had not been heard of and
or generic tasks. This export (of changed data) can
gigabytes existed only on main-frame computers.
also be done manually, using selection files (files
Nowadays all modern vessels have a computer, usually
created to extract the required information). These several and seafarers know how to use them.
then create export files, ready for transmission to the Maintenance software is a useful tool if, like everything
head office. By the same method, changed information else, it is used properly. I hope that this chapter will
from the office is imported from a data file into the help some in understanding some of its uses, and will
system vessel system, using a selection file. be of assistance.
COMMAND 259
Chapter 41
ENTRY INTO ENCLOSED SPACES

by Captain F.G.M. Evans BA CertEd GradIFE FNI
Captain Evans is a muster mariner and was, for many years, lecturer in charge of the fire and safety centre at the Warsash Maritime
Centre, Southampton. He obtained a BA through the Open University and is a Graduate of the Institution ofFire Engineers. He has
worked as an independent fire and safety consultant within the industry since 7989.
Summary refrigerating equipment.

SINCETHE FIRST EDITION of this book, the ideas that Biologcal activity - e.g. rotting.
this chapter embodies, that risks should be properly
2. Toxic, narcotic or intoxicant. An atmosphere may be
assessed and managed by the establishment of proper
toxic due to:
procedures, have become more widely accepted
through the adoption of the International Safety Toxic vapours given off from cargoes.
Management (ISM) Code. Nevertheless, enclosed The rotting or fermentation of cargoes such as
space incidents continue to happen. In one recent grain, edible oil, meat or fruit.
incident lives were lost for failing to follow procedures The decomposition of residues from chemical
which were discussed the day before in the ship's cargoes previously carried.
management meeting. Education is a long The presence of vapours from solvents such as
psychological process and people do not learn just by those used in paints.
being told. Products of combustion.
In order to reduce further the numbers of enclosed 3. - i.e. corrosive, severely irritant, hot, or
Injurious
space incidents, ships' masters must continue to ensure choking (dusts).
that sufficient information, instruction, training and
supervision are constantly provided to keep awareness The toxic hazards of dangerous cargoes should be
of the dangers of enclosed spaces and the need to made known to those likely to come into contact with
follow proper procedures for safe entry at a high level. them; such information should be readily available to
The risks described are definitely not confined to large the emergency response party, perhaps on a clipboard.
tankships and respiratory accidents can and have But toxic gases may be evolved from the residues of
occurred on all types of ship, large and small. The previous and otherwise harmless cargoes. Rotting or
general principles of safe entry should be followed fermentation may produce carbon monoxide or
even entering a freight transport unit and after a hydrogen sulphide and dangerous concentrations may
spillage of certain cargoes an open deck space may not be released until the residues are disturbed.
become a dangerous space. In an emergency following Gases that are narcotic or an intoxicant, which may
a respiratory incident, human instinctive behaviour include hydrocarbons and solvents, may cause the
has often resulted in multiple casualties; therefore victim to fall and injure himself. Injurious atmospheres
crews must be trained to make a conditioned response. may occur when, for example, water is added to a
strong alkali or acid, when boiling may cause a
Introduction corrosive mist and fumes to form.
Any enclosed space with limited ventilation may
have an irrespirable atmosphere. An atmosphere may The problem with many of the gases causing
be irrespirable because it is: respiratory accidents is that they give no warning -
no visible indication, no smell - or in some cases the
1. Oxygen dejcielzt. An atmosphere may be oxygen
sense of smell may be anaesthetised at dangerous
deficient due to:
concentrations - and no taste.
Oxidation of metals (rusting).
The early symptoms of oxygen deficiency and
Oxidation of oil residues in cargoes such as fish
many types of poisoning are similar and may be
meal.
confused with drunkenness. The victim himself may
The presence of any cargo which absorbs oxygen.
not be aware because his senses have been dulled.
The drying of paint films.
The person at the entrance must be trained to look
The use of de-oxidant chemicals - e.g. in boilers.
out for these symptoms and raise the alarm at the
Substances which give off vapours which may
earliest signs of unusual behaviour.
displace oxygen.
The presence of an inert gas or gases that have With oxygen deficiency there are no feelings of
been leaked or discharged from firefighting or suffocation. Such feelings are caused by an excess of

carbon dioxide in the blood, operating sensors to tell Entrances to unattended dangerous spaces to be
the body to breathe out and in again. In an oxygen kept closed or secured.
deficient atmosphere this carbon dioxide is breathed Safe entry procedures must be laid down.
out normally but not enough oxygen is breathed in. If The master must ensure safe entry procedures are
the brain is not receiving enough oxygen it cannot followed.
operate properly, it speeds up the blood supply so The principles and guidance contained in the Code
that the victim may die of heart strain, or he may feel of Safe Working Practices Ch. 17 must be followed.
that, instead of climbing this ladder, when he lets go An offence will have been incurred by any person
he will float... entering an enclosed space not following the
procedures or without authority.
Why time weighted averages? Drills to be carried out for rescue from enclosed
The effect of poisoning may be chronic or acute. spaces, at periods not exceeding two months on
With acute poisoning, the effect is immediate or tankers over 500 tonnes or other ships over 2,000
delayed only a few hours. Chronic poisoning may be tonnes (entry in official log).
either where a dose received now may cause chronic Oxygen meters and other appropriate test devices
illness in later years, or regular small doses may be to be carried on vessels where entry into
accumulative or have an accumulative effect that will dangerous spaces may be required.
cause chronic illness. Defences include talung all reasonable precautions
The long term exposure limit (LTEL)expressed as and diligence to avoid the offence or that it was
a time weighted average (TWA) is the maximum not reasonably practicable to comply.
concentration that can be worked in without harm, Masters sailing on ships regstered with maritime
for an eight-hour day. Sets of published figures are administrations that do not have such legislation in
available from the Health and Safety Executive (see place should bear in mind that the contents of chapter
Code of Safe Working Practices). A short-term exposure 17 of the CSWP are just common sense and would
limit (STEL), is the maximum duration that can be represent no more than the normal duty of care
endured for 10 minutes with one hour's rest between. required by a shipmaster. There is a maritime safety
Some substances have maximum exposure limits card gving a checklist and guidance for safe entry of
(MELs),which is an exposure limit which must never enclosed spaces in the supplement to the IMDG Code
be exceeded and exposure must be kept as low as at the end of the BC Code Section.
possible.
With amendment 29 of the IMDG Code, which
An atmosphere may be dangerous by reason of came into force on IstJanuary 1999, a new appendix
being flammable and in an enclosed space may form has been added to the BC Code in the supplement
an explosive mixture with air. Flammable hydrogen Appendix F to the IBC Code - Recommendations for
may be formed by active cathodic protection. Entering Enclosed Spaces Aboard Sh$s.
This document is not meant to replace the various Prevention of enclosed space incidents
codes of safe practice (CSP) and should be read in Rescue from an enclosed space is obviously very
conjunction with all the requirements of the codes difficult and enclosed space incidents are best
which give information on the hazards of various prevented. An enclosed or confined space should be
cargoes, such as the I M D G code for packaged the subject of a permit to work system as outlined in
dangerous goods, the CSP for carriage of solid bulk the CSWP. There was an incident in which an engneer
cargoes and the international tanker safety guides. In entered an open-topped tank and a cleaning cycle was
particular reference should be made to chapter I7 of put into operation that opened steam drains to this
the Code of Safe Working Practicesfor Merchant Seamen. space. Obviously such a space should be the subject
Couched in the officialese of nearly every paragraph, of a permit to work, which would include the posting
chapter 17 of the CSWP is a sad case history of death of a notice on the controls of the cleaning cycle.
or injury involving needless waste of lives and skilled Men doing hot work in an enclosed space where
personnel and distress for bereaved relatives and the only exit is upwards should avoid clothing of man-
friends. made fibre. Cotton or wool is preferable and will
Entry into dangerous spaces regulations protect from flash fires but man-made fibres such as
Every year a number of merchant seamen lose their nylon may melt on to the skin and cause third-degree
lives through enclosed space incidents. This has burns.
prompted British legislators to produce a statutory Any space which has been closed up or is poorly
instrument (SI) and a revision of chapter 17 of the Code ventilated must be ventilated and have its atmosphere
of Safe Practicefor Merchant Seamen. It puts responsibility tested prior to entry. Thought should be given to
on people, including the master or person in charge providing additional ventilation in the form of portable
of the vessel, and lays down penalties for a fans and plastic air ducting when work is being done
contravention. Summaries of the main points are: in an enclosed space.
COMMAND 261
Instruments for measuring flammable atmospheres two persons were rescued, and it was later
should be calibrated before use. Remember, they are discovered that a third person had made an
only calibrated for a particular gas. Oxygen meters unauthorised entry to the other end of the same
will indicate a respirable atmosphere when there are space.
toxic gases present which a r e toxic at low 3. H e has ascertained that the enclosed space
concentrations. Other gas detectors will only detect a incident is the only emergency occurring on board
specific gas so the hazard has to be known before it at that time.
can be sampled. 4. Perhaps if he is receiving no communication.
5. There is no other responsible person available to
The hazards associated with a particular cargo must
take charge at the entrance.
be well known by all responsible persons. When
persons are affected consult the Ship Captain's Medical The emergency response party is a small group of
Guide or the In10 Medical First Aid Guide l o r use i n men whose muster point is at a place where the
~ccidentsi ~ ~ v o l v i ndangerou.~
g gootls. equipment necessary to deal with emergencies is
stored. They should be communicating with the
Emergency procedures bridge, mustering and getting their gear ready all at
Unfortunately, there is not only the danger of
the same time.
making an entry into enclosed spaces, but case history
has shown that when an incident occurs, inept and There should be one responsible person in charge
unpractised emergency response leads to multiple of the incident at the entrance, with communications
casualties. It is up to the master to ensure that if there to the control centre (the bridge). If subsequent
is an incident his crew will, through drills and positive rescuers enter a space they come under the charge of
instruction, do the right thing and will be acting as an this officer, even if they have come from a different
efficient emergency team because they will be doing party. There must be proper breathing apparatus (BA)
what they have been 'conditioned' to do by training. control, with all entries logged. Backup relief rescuers
will have to be made ready and enter to take over the
A few realistic drills involving the rescue of a live- rescue at about the time the first rescuers have to leave
weight dummy from an enclosed space, involving the space.
movement through lightening holes and up ladders,
will soon convince people how difficult this is and Priorities and training objectives
make them follow proper entry procedures to ensure When there is an enclosed space incident, the first
that such an incident could not happen. priority is to get air to the casualties. Second is first
aid; removal of a casualty who has suffered a fall may
Drills are needed to ensure that the proper entry be delayed to avoid compounding the injuries, but
procedure is followed, even in an emergency. Many only if the atmosphere has been made safe or there is
accidents which have occurred in enclosed spaces have a limitless supply of air for victims and rescuers.
been falls due to inadequate lighting, slippery surfaces,
awkward access etc. and when a man falls in a tank, On-board training must ensure that, in the event
the instinctive thing may be to go and have a look at of an enclosed space incident, nothing is done that is
him. Such an incident could be reported as an injury likely to produce more casualties. The multiple
which may set the emergency response off on the casualty situation gets more difficult and may go
wrong foot if the fall was caused by a foul atmosphere. beyond the capability of the ship's resources to deal
with it. This is why the CSWP suggests that only the
In the event of an incident in an enclosed space minimum number of people necessary to do the job
the person standing by should raise the alarm and must are sent into the space in the first place.
not make an entry until other persons arrive and never
make an entry without breathing apparatus. There Without proper training, the instinctive thing to
should be one emergency signal, which takes people do is anything to save your shipmate. Lives have been
to their emergency stations, whether that emergency lost:
is following collision, stranding, fire or an enclosed By removing a face mask to share his air with the
space incident. casualty. Never remove a BA face mask in a
Command communication and control suspect atmosphere.
The emergency response station for the master is By would-be rescuers holding their breath and
the bridge or other prearranged control centre. As a making a quick dash in to pull someone out or
free a rescue line. Never enter a suspect
general principle the master should stay in the control
atmosphere without breathing apparatus.
centre. The bridge or control centre should only be
By rescuers staying to make that last effort and
left if:
running out of air. Leave with enough air supply
1. A responsible person can be left at the control centre. to gain fresh air, remembering that it takes more
2. H e can be sure that all the crew have been air to climb a ladder than go down it.
accounted for - there was an incident in which By rescuers hurriedly donning BA and not going

STRATEGY FOR SAFE ENTRY OF CONFINED SPACES
Work to be done in a
confined space
A Consider history of
mntents of space
Is everyone aware of NO
the dangers?
I Make them aware
YES
I
YES
Can the atmosphere YES

v
be made safer? - Remote Is it possible to test all
cleaning? NO
levels remotely?
I
+
NO
YES
specify entry Does the space require -YES
Is it really necessary only with two a safe entry certificate?
to enter? independent
NO
air supply &
NO
Would work require a
respiratory proteQion safer by removal
N hotwork certificate?
required? of combustibles? 6
NO
Will work entail breakmg
pipe-joints, disturbing
residues. paints. solvents eic.? 1
Specify protective
+ YES
NO
Provide additional ventilation
Continuously monitor atmosphere
I 1 Is space isol;ed? Isolate t o m ingress of gas, steam, or liquid.

Label valves.
Is access adequately lit?
Issue permit to work Inform other departments

with time limit where through SMT of nature of work.
necessary (ER if airline to be used)
bridge and entry teams

satisfactory?
Figure 47.7 Strateafor safe etry of confined spaces
COMMAND 263
through the donning procedures and safety checks, then enter as soon as someone arrives and he has
or forgetting to switch to positive pressure. Every briefed him. Persons who arrive may be out of breath.
BA wearer, even in an emergency, must go The ship's management team may arrange to have
through his safety checks and be checked by the others working nearby on radio call to assist. A rescue
control before entering a space. To do this quickly should be based on a prearranged plan and every ship
takes practice. A man who has stopped breathing will have its own individual problems, each of which
needs to have his lungs ventilated within less than may have a different rescue procedure.
three to four minutes!
It takes thought along the lines of the above to
The above lays down the objectives of organisation decide what are the best procedures in relation to
and training of the crew for dealing with enclosed manpower availability, equipment availability, size of
space incidents, plus the fact that rescuers need practise space involved and ease or difficulty of access. When
to be able to gain access to awkward spaces with a the procedure is decided upon, it should be practised
breathing apparatus on and to be able to move a dead- as realistically as possible, making sure the space has
weight body through lightening holes or up ladder- been made safe. Afterwards the exercise should be
ways. An effective training aid can be made from a debriefed and the procedures amended according to
plywood board with a hole in it of the same dimensions the lessons learned.
as a lightening hole. It can be used to develop the
techniques for getting through with a BA set on. Some other points to be considered when laying
down rescue procedures are:
The emergency response should see to it that air is
Rescue will be made easier if you have insisted
got to the victim's lungs as quickly as possible. The
that everyone entering a dangerous space was
rescuer must not enter the space without breathing
wearing a harness.
apparatus, but equally he should not enter the space Two men can handle an unconscious person better
without an air supply for the victim or victims. Also, than one.
for a vertical rescue, a lifeline needs to be taken in to Two men will be needed to move an unconscious
haul out an unconscious person. person through a lightening hole.
Going up a ladder, the men at the top do the lifting,
Entry and evacuation from enclosed the men below guide.
spaces Men in breathing apparatus may be needed to lift
Procedures for rescue at a halfway stage.
Rescue equipment should be taken to the entrance If there are two casualties in a space, air will have
when an enclosed space entry is to be made. The to be taken in for two.
emergency response plan should be realistic and If there is no equipment available, concentrate on
consider every eventuality in terms of what really may getting the men out as quickly as possible.
happen in an emergency. If a lot of equipment is taken Air shared is air halved; a device for sharing air
up the foredeck, what happens if there is another from a self-contained breathing apparatus set must
emergency on board such as a fire and the equipment only be used for very short rescue routes.
is not at the muster point? Certainly the one man at If bellows apparatus is being used, make sure the
the entrance cannot carry it all back. There may be bellows is in fresh air. It might not be apparent in
enough equipment on board for an attack to be made drills but there may be an irrespirable atmosphere
on a fire without needing the additional equipment outside a space, close to the entrance in a real
except for backup. When giving instructions about incident.
taking equipment to the entry point, think where it Equipment
should be taken from. Air line equipment is useful for
Members of the crew must be thoroughly familiar
rescue in that there is no limit on the duration of the
with all items of equipment. The best way of making
air supply. As it is not likely to be needed for
sure that junior officers are familiar with equipment
firefighting and is heavy and difficult to move quickly,
is: (a) arrange for them to g v e positive instruction to
it would be a good idea to have that standing by.
others, (b) see that they follow a planned maintenance
But it takes more time to bring into operation than schedule and (c) g v e them opportunities to use the
a personal BA set so perhaps the initial rescue attempt equipment in drills.
should be made by BA wearers and the rescue taken
over by men in air line equipment. Don't forget that It may be necessary to provide a portable sheerlegs
the air line equipment should be plugged into a BA and tackle for rescue from tanks on large vessels.
set and that the cylinder of the BA set should then be Some companies are providing guide lines, as used
turned off so that the full contents of the BA cylinder by fire brigades, to get relief rescuers quickly to
remain if the air line fails. (Note: If an air line is gven the scene of the rescue (tape could be used), but
to an unconscious person watch the pressure carefully.) remember lifelines should be worn where
appropriate.
The man standing-by at the entrance may don BA Ordinary breathing apparatus cannot be used as
while he is waiting for someone else to arrive. He can a resuscitation apparatus, but the victim may not

have stopped breathing. If he has then the old Body-handling techniques
'Holge Neilsen' type resuscitation may be used to All the body-handling techniques described in the
make him demand air. Ship Captain's Medical Guide should be practised, plus
There are various types of resuscitation apparatus, any other technique you may feel necessary to
some of which are not suitable for use in an surmount problems of awkward access on your
irrespirable atmosphere as they use atmospheric particular ship.
air or oxygen enriched air. Some are switchable. The way to get a casualty through a lightening hole
If a resuscitator has a device which allows a is face down (don't break his back). One rescuer goes
recovering patient to breathe in atmospheric air the other side of the hole after the casualty is in position
when the machine is in an exhalation cycle then - arms through first, then the body, turn him slightly
it should be fitted with a non-return valve when when necessary.

used in an enclosed space. (Sometimes supplied
What is a confined space?
as an extra, on a ship it should be left in place.)
When gases evolved are heavier than air, an
There is a danger in taking oxygen into a irrespirable atmosphere may exist in an open
flammable atmosphere, where this is likely to hatchway. In one incident involving tapioca root,
happen, it is better to put air in a resuscitator, which respires to g v e off CO,, two men entered the
medical oxygen will be available after rescue if hold to attach the crane wires to a grab, which was
necessary. sitting in a shallow depression in the surface of the
Where a face mask is strapped in place ideally it cargo. They collapsed; two more went down to see
should have a quick release mechanism as a what was wrong with them. Respiratory accidents have
patient who recovers his breathing will probably also occurred on the open deck where toxic fumes
vomit. are coming from an opening to a dangerous space, or
following dangerous cargo spillage.
Escape apparatus of the type worn by persons
entering, which would plve enough air to enable Proper entry procedures a n d prearranged
escape to fresh air in the event of the atmosphere emergency response is the only answer to the
becoming irrespirable, offer some security, but the continuing loss of life from enclosed space incidents
persons may be affected and may lose the will or -plus the fact that every opportunity should be taken
ability to survive before they have time to don to make crews more aware, so that accidents do not
them. happen due to ignorance.
A STRATEGY FOR EMERGENCY RESPONSE
I ALARM I
I MUSTER 1
I
1 EMERGENCYPARTY 'TO THE INCIDENT /
I B.A. EG
QUICKLY AS POSSIBLE 1
AIR TO CASUALTY CASUALTY TO AIR

resuscitator Lifhg/moving
another BA Dragging out
airline
bellows
-RESCUE SERVICE^
EMED~CAL
SAMPLE ATMOSPHERE - WHAT'S THE PROBLEM?
I IS VENTEATION RUNNING OR AVAILABLE? I

EVACUATE VENTILATE INVESTIGATE
Figure 41.2 A strategy for emergenq reqonse
COMMAND 265
Chapter 42
SAFETY ON DECK IN ROUGH WEATHER

by Captain E.W.S. Gill FNI
This paper won joint first prize in The Nautical Institute's 7986 essay competition.
Introduction completely overside, drenched by lubricating oil, with

UNLESS IT IS ABSOLUTELY NECESSARY, there is no reason oil drums smashing against the railings on each side
at all to risk the lives of crew members on decks that of him. Mercifully he managed to swing himself in
under normal circumstances are difficult, if not board again on the next roll and, badly shaken, crawled
impossible to make safe in times of bad weather. It is towards the accommodation. One of the lucky ones,
essential first to decide whether the risk is warranted, and how needless it all was, if proper precautions had
before exposing crew members to injury or death, been taken earlier, and the mate had been less
especially on decks which are swept by heavy seas. concerned about saving money in overtime.
The safety of property alone is seldom an adequate
reason for such exposure. That apprentice was myself and this experience has
always made me appreciate how important planning
For example, in 1947, a ship was travelling down and assessment of risk really is.
the west coast of Central America, en route from
Vancouver to Europe via the Panama Canal with a Summing up
cargo of grain. Off the Gulf of Tehuantepec the ship There was a lack of preparation. No routine check
was caught in a vicious sudden storm. It was a Sunday, was made of the ship from time to time. Insufficient
a day of rest, with the crew taking things easy without crew members were available to carry out the work.
overtime being worked. The ship laboured and rolled A lack of leadership in enforcing areas of responsibility,
heavily, when a big sea came on board, breaking loose as to whose job it was to secure the druins in the first
poorly secured drums of engine room lubricating oil. place.
The drums rolled about for some time before a Ship characteristics
young apprentice spotted them, by which time many Every vessel has different problems confronting its
of them had started leaking, making the deck a skating personnel, in respect to heavy weather damage. O n
rink in every sense of the word. He reported the conventional break-bulk vessels, the problems are
information to the bridge and the chief officer, mainly structural damage, or damage to hatchways or
reluctantly called from his siesta, organised a team to deck cargo. As most ships of this type are relatively
secure the drums. Initially, the apprentices alone were small, the vulnerability in a heavy sea is consequently
pressed into service (no overtime for them in those greater.
days). The chief officer and a young apprentice tried
to move along the lee side of the deck by the side of With the passing of the break-bulk ships, and the
the ship, but found that one section of shipside railing greater use of container vessels, the problems on this
had already been carried away by the crashing drums. type of tonnage, in addition to the above statements,
There was nothing to do but move towards the hatch are usually container lashings breaking loose, or
coaming, despite the drums which continued to crash slackening. But container vessels are vulnerable should
wildly about, and were even jumping over the hatch the integrity of the containers themselves be broached
itself. by heavy seas, and a container collapses, destroying
the tension of its lashings, and sometimes the integrity
The chief officer let himself go, carefully judgng of the whole vertical cell. For this reason it is better to
the roll so that he would reach the hatch coaming safely avoid exposure to heavy beam seas as much as
before the ship started rolling in the opposite direction. possible. With container ships becoming larger, and
He succeeded, but the young apprentice who did not also being jumboised, flexing of the ship in heavy seas
possess the same degree of experience, failed and slid can also cause container points or twist locks to shear,
inevitably backwards with the roll towards the gap in
and containers to break adrift from their lashings.
the railings. The chief officer managed to grab the lad
temporarily, but was forced to let go in order to keep Tankers have their own problems of low freeboard
his own balance. He yelled to the apprentice to catch through deep-draught loading, and economies of size
hold of the margn plate at the side of the ship, which which exposes them to extreme stresses in bad weather.
the apprentice did amidst the water and oil which was
swilling around him. But he lost balance and was Deck fittings are probably less vulnerable on
finally hangng onto the margin angle while being tankers, as they are not so prominent. But the decks
266 THE IVAUTICAL IIVS-I-ITUTE

are more exposed should crew members be forced to decks should never be neglected, or left until it is too
work on them in bad weather. late.
Car carriers are more likely to have problems Most crew members, especially those who have
within the hull, rather than on exposed deck surfaces, had little experience of heavy seas, and operating in a
as their high freeboard protects them in this respect. hostile environment, underestimate the power of
Rescuing people from small boats in heavy seas can heavy seas coming on board. The first duty of the ship's
pose a serious problem on these ships, owing to officers is to ensure that no one goes on exposed decks
excessive freeboard and rapid leeway made by these without permission. Study of wave characteristics will
ships. Crews are likely to be very vulnerable here. help to ensure that crew members do not unwittingly
wander out on the weather side of the ship.
Supply ships, by the very nature of their work and
design, are very liable to damage, and crews working People who know how to swim are usually better
on these craft are subject to much stress, owing to able to appreciate the dangers of waves, and the
schedules and weather slots. Their smallness also buoyant effect which waves can have on a body.
makes them very lively in heavy seas. Therefore, I believe that it is essential that all crew
members should have this understanding. This
Likely emergencies knowledge should be supplemented by lectures or
Surprising damage can be caused by loose instruction as to the effects likely to be experienced
equipment left lying on decks themselves. 1 recall an by people caught up in heavy seas coming on board.
instance of dunnage having been left carelessly on deck From personal experience, the surprise at being bodily
when a heavy sea sent one piece smashing through a thrown up into the air with a wave is hardly a pleasant
closed porthole to land on the desk of a chief steward. one, and the sheer helplessness of one's position
Fortunately, the man had recently left his desk at the seldom realised. The lucky ones remain on board their
time, so only damage to papers and property resulted, vessels, albeit chastened and possibly injured from
giving rise to nlalicious comments by some of 'the their experience. But it is the unlucky ones who are
devil looks after his own'! washed overboard, and probably lost.
I
The most probable cause for crew members to be Bad weather is seldom conducive to rest, yet crew
exposed on weather decks in bad weather is through members should not be tired when called upon to meet
something breaking adrift which requires re-securing an emergency. A tired man is a vulnerable one.
before structural damage happens, or because the
vessel has been damaged and requires to have its Communication
integrity restored. Anticipation of such incidents is In these days of hand-held radios, there should be
difficult, but the only valid solution. little trouble maintaining contact with the bridge, or
Sometimes it is a case of needing to g v e assistance other persons. The only difficulty is in ensuring that
to other vessels or people, when crew members are the radio is itself kept reasonably watertight or dry, I
exposed to the elements by the very nature of the have seen many Japanese pilots using an ingenious
emergency. Careful handling of the ship to minimise transparent plastic cover for their radios, which seemed
heavy seas coming on board and good communication to be tailor-made for their sets. These are far more
with the deck crew help to minimise the dangers here. suitable, and I imagine cheaper, than the simulated
leather covers normally supplied with this equipment.
Whatever the cause, the crew members are in a
place which normally is left exposed to the elements, Wherever possible, I believe that crew members
and which is probably uneconomical and impractical should be within sight of someone on the bridge at all
to make entirely safe in all weathers. Therefore, the times. Otherwise, never lose sight of whoever has the
meails of ensuring safety must be that of preparation, means of communication, and never be alone.
discipline, training, communication and correct It is self-understood, that damage control on the
equipment. It is too much to expect ships to be so weather side of a ship means that the vessel will have
designed that crews can operate in total safety. to be turned away from the seas, so that crew members
can gain access in reasonable safety to these parts. I
Preparation, discipline and training have always been a firm believer in having the people
Bad weather should always be anticipated, but with me on the bridge while manoeuvring, and prior
preferably avoided whenever possible. With all the to their venturing onto an exposed deck. In this way,
technology that is available to the modern seafarer, 1 have ensured that over-eager (foolhardy?) people
there is really no excuse to be taken unawares. do not venture out before the deck is relatively safe.
With sufficient time to prepare, all normal An overview of the situation can also possibly be
precautions should be taken, such as securing of made, and a discussion held as to the method of
watertight doors, scuttles, loose equipment, and the tackling it. 1 believe that wherever possible such work
crew members informed of the degree of intensity of is best carried out during daylight hours, when people
the storm. The riggng of lifelines on exposed weather are more easily visible, and lighting no longer required.
COMMAND 267
For example, during a vicious storm in the Whatever the damage or duty, the essential means
Mediterranean Sea, the anchors were found to be of dealing with this problem must also be anticipated
slamming and possibly breaking loose. The chief and carried, to reduce time required to tackle the
officer with the bo's'n and two seamen hurried on to emergency. Prior to bad weather it is a good idea to
the forecastle without waiting for the captain to turn have an emergency store of such items as rope, marline
the ship away from the sea. The result was that a sea spikes, spanners, hammers and timber kept handily
came on board, wrapping the chief officer around a to the deck, possibly at deckhouse or accommodation
bollard, which fractured his pelvis, while the bo's'n entrances, to tackle an emergency that is likely.
received cracked ribs, and one seaman a head injury. Most ships have weak points, and it is the duty of
The vessel deviated to Malta to land the injured prudent officers to anticipate them. O n container
vessels, the obvious problem is that of lashing bars
personnel. Was it all worth it, when a few minutes
and turnbuckles slackening off. It would be good to
delay would have ensured safety?
have the means of re-securing these at strategic points
around the ship. Then, again, there is the ever present
Equipment and operations likelihood of something within these containers
1 believe that the time has come for a more suitable breaking loose, with disastrous results to the adjacent
lifejacket to be supplied to ships. The present design containers. For this emergency, it is essential to have
has many faults, and appears designed more from a timber and other items to secure them conveniently
view of what can be made for a price, than to be really to hand. For it is invariably drums, or large coils of
effective. The recent criticism that one can more easily wire or sheet metal that break adrift in heavy weather,
drown in a DTp-approved lifejacket makes it if they have been poorly secured in the first place.
imperative that a more appropriate type be designed. Regular deck inspection, either physically, or by
An inflatable type, which operates automatically by means of a careful inspection from any high position
cylinder as many pilots are using today, is a better such as the bridge, can prevent many problems getting
idea, especially whenever work is required to be out of hand and becoming serious. An alert officer,
carried out while wearing them. These would be used appreciative to unusual sounds or noises, is invaluable
at least by those crew members whose need is to to detecting problems in good time. I recall a case
maintain mobility, for it is essential that mobility not where, on a regular deck round, an officer detected
be impaired when trying to avoid heavy seas. The fact the deep sound of something moving within a
that it would not g v e buoyancy immediately, but only container. O n opening it was discovered that .!-ton
at the command of the wearer, is important when rolls of sheet steel had been improperly secured, and
caught in the seas themselves, for the reasons already were smashing against the container side with the roll.
stated. Timely action prevented greater container damage,
Every seaman venturing out on deck should carry and minimised the risk to the crew who were
a knife, as well as being equipped with a safety harness immediately sent to obtain handily placed timber for
which could be secured as necessary for greater safety. bracing the cargo.
They should also be properly dressed, in adequate Conclusion
clothes appropriate to the temperature and conditions Finally, it should always be remembered that
and which are not restricting. Self-reflecting strip stuck seagoing is a dangerous profession, and there are times
to these clothes is wonderful for making sure people when calculated risks must be taken in the interest of
are seen. Seaboots which afford a good grip of the safety of life or ship. The risks themselves can be
deck must be used, for keeping one's balance in heavy rninimised only by good training, coordination of
seas can probably make the difference between living effort and experience. Unfortunately, the tendency
and dying, on decks that are tilting at all angles. these days is to emphasise the theoretical and technical
Protected feet are also safer feet, rather than the knowledge of our career, while almost ignoring the
popular 'thongs', beloved of seafarers. essentially practical nature of seagoing.

Chapter 43
FIRE A N D DAMAGE CONTROL

by Mr. G.B. Standring, Managing Director, Marine Safety Services Ltd.
Introduction
ships? Warships are designed with small watertight
DAMAGE CONTROL IS A TERM that originated in the
compartments, where rapid shoring of damaged
Royal Navy, referring to an on-board organisation
bulkheads can keep them floating and fighting.
designed to enable a warship to float, to move and to
Although merchant ships are not constructed like
fight, after sustaining some form of damage. Ever since
warships there are aspects of the latter's damage
the days of Nelson, the ability of a warship to perform
control organisation that can be modified to deal with
her designed function has been lost, or seriously
emergencies and limit damage.
impaired if the above capabilities are reduced to any
great extent. This loss can be accomplished by various Emergency organisation
types of damage - fire and flooding being just two To be truly effective in an emergency situation,
examples. the experience and skills of the individual have to be
Damage of many kinds can occur in a ship at any brought together within the ship's command and
time, as a result of a great variety of causes, rangmg control structure. This is commonly referred to as
from spontaneous combustion to collision o r emergency organisation. I n designing such an
explosion. The object here is to consider fire and emergency organisation, one has to take a number of
damage control organisation in the merchant navy, factors into account:
bearing in mind that an organisation is required that The normal chain of responsibility
a)
will minimise the effects of damage, once it has Individual skills and levels of training
b)
occurred. It is not intended to discuss the way in which c) The number of crew
ships may be constructed so as to limit damage, nor d) Special circumstances, structural limitations,
the various materials now available to limit fire spread particular cargoes, passenger mustering,
as these are adequately covered elsewhere. unmanned engne rooms or remotely controlled
It would be foolish to pretend that we will always machinery, communication facilities etc.
do everything correctly or that machinery or materials e) Personnel who will have special duties in
will always perform or behave as we might anticipate. connection with any of the above
By the law of averages the unexpected will happen to f) Equipment on board
some, if not all of us, and for this we must be prepared. g) The number of people who can physically get at
the emergency
A damaged ship, even though she remains afloat h) Flexibility
and retains some mobility, is useless commercially
unless she can load or discharge her cargo. Repair A further important consideration is that there
and salvage costs and time off hire are costly. It should be an element of standardisation within a fleet,
therefore behoves us all to ensure we limit damage by so that officers and crew will more readily integrate
having an efficient emergency organisation - a term into the organisation on joining a new ship.
more appropriate in merchant ships than 'damage Figure 43.1 illustrates a typical emergency
control organisation.' The task of such an organisation organisation derived from Royal Naval practice and
is: first introduced into merchant ships a number of years
1. To limit the extent of damage and injury to ago. It can be adapted to suit almost any type of ship
personnel by careful preparation and training. with only minor variations d e p e n d i n g o n
2. To limit the spread of damage to the ship as it circun~stancesand has gained acceptance within many
occurs, by effective countermeasures. shipping companies.
3. If possible, to effect the necessary emergency The central element of this organisation is the
repairs. emergency team or squad which will be made up of
How can all this be achieved in a merchant ship, certain key officers and ratings and which will deal
where manpower is limited and the size of the ship with all types of ship emergencies. It will be backed
may stretch lines of communication? up by the support squad which can provide extra
manpower for such tasks as boundary cooling, fetching
Clearly it is impracticable to have the sophisticated extra equipment, or even preparing lifeboats. The
damage control parties that are part of Royal Navy command will normally be from the bridge, whether
ships. Indeed are such parties, trained in keeping at sea or in port, as this is the natural centre of decision
warships afloat, practicable or necessary in merchant a n d communication. Here, the master will b e
COMMAND 269
It is essential that everyone on board is trained and
Master made to demonstrate clear confidence a n d
Officer of watch
understanding of the procedures in raising the alarm.
Particular attention should be paid to junior members
Chief engineer officer
of the ship's company who might have inhibitions
about breaking an alarm glass or pushing the button,
Remaining crew 1. Chief officer Engineer officer
perhaps preferring to try and avoid creating a
2. 2nd Engineer office and rating(s) disturbance or drawing attention to themselves. Some
Be available to ?. Deck officer on watch of the newer ones might not even know whom to call
support the emergency 4. Engineer officer
squad 5 . Engineer officer or where.
6. Bonun
There are many cases on record where people tried
8. ) Ratings to tackle the situation single-handed and unequipped.
Supernumaries Fzrst aid and Many lives have been lost as a result of impulsive
and wives r e p o r t t o provzsions squad rescue attempts in tanks and pump rooms. In other
t h e b r i d g e o r as 1. Cook/sleward cases people have tried to tackle fires with portable
I I
3. ) Catering
extinguishers and, only when it was too late,
4. ) ratings abandoned the attempt to raise the alarm, often leaving
door open to allow the spread of flames. This is
F@ue 43.1 gpicul emergency orgunisation something hat affects everybody on board, and may
mean the difference between ultimate success or
supported by possibly an officer and a rating and will failure.
also have easy contact with the radio officer in the
radio room. Deal with the situation operating as a team
Certain emergencies are common to all types of
The chief engneer and certain other personnel are ships a n d include fires in engine rooms,
assigned special duties. In general, because of his accommodation, galleys, store rooms and paint
particular responsibilities and knowledge of the ship, lockers, collision, grounding, man overboard, rescuing
the chief engneer can be most effective if gven a fairly a victim from an enclosed space, or even assisting
free hand and not tied down to a specific duty. He others in distress.
will need to exercise overall control of the operation
Quite frequently one emergency will trigger off a
of machinery as well as providing the master with
series of others, as in the case of a collision which
regular assessments of the situation and advising as
causes an explosion or outbreak of fire and injury to
necessary.
personnel, as well as damagng the hull and affecting
The first aid squad will stand-by to transport and stability. Clearly, a ship's emergency organisation
care for any casualties. In most ships the cook/steward requires a good deal of training and realistic practice
will be in charge of this squad which will usually if it is expected successfully to tackle the various
comprise about four catering ratings. 'The first aid situations that may be encountered.
squad will also be responsible for taking blankets and Communications
extra provisions to the lifeboats if required. The emergency organisation can only function
This, then, is a basic description of a type of effectively if there is efficient means of
emergency organisation which has proved itself in a communications. Most ships are now equipped with
number of real emergencies and which has a good walkie-talkie radios which are generally ideal for this
deal of flexibility. purpose.
Communication is obviously important from the
Duties of the emergency organisation
beginning and throughout the emergency, as it
There are three basic functions of the emergency
provides the means of enabling the whole organisation
organisation which may be listed as follows: to function as an effective entity, allowing the proper
Identify and report the emergency command and control structure to work. Fixed
This may sound obvious, but there are situations communications such as telephones and talk-back
- in smoke-filled accommodation, for example -when systems are useful, particularly in the early stages, but
this may be difficult. Good communications and they could b e knocked out by the emergency,
emergency reporting procedures can greatly assist the particularly a fire or a collision and cannot, therefore,
leader of the emergency squad in deciding how best be relied on for all occasions.
to tackle a situation. Also, the initial actions in an Personnel should b e trained in effective
emergency often dictate the success or otherwise of communication a n d should understand what
subsequent actions. A great many ships and lives have information is important. Lengthy discussions and
been lost because the person discovering the fire or verbosity should be discouraged because they jam the
other emergency did the wrong thing. system. Clarity of speech is essential.

Emergency headquarters Since the master is concerned with the safety of the
The emergency squad will require a suitable s h p as a whole, he must be kept in the picture concerning
location at which to muster on the alarms being the overall situation at the emergency point. Without
sounded and this position should contain such this flow of information, he will be unable to make
equipment as they will need, at least in the initial stages, essential and important decisions. For example, the
and will include items such as breathing apparatus, master may, during the course of a serious engme room
protective clothing and some fire fighting and rescue fire, decide from the information he has received that it
equipment. is prudent to order all non-essential personnel off the
ship, whilst leaving the emergency squad to continue
The selection of the emergency headquarters fighting the fire, thus reducing the number of personnel
requires careful consideration. Ideally it should: exposed to the danger. He cannot possibly take this
Be readily accessible from open deck and in all decision if he is not kept up-to-date with the situation in
weather. the engine room.
Be reasonably near to accommodation and engine The master must decide if the situation is within
room. the scope of his emergency squad, bearing in mind
Not be isolated by fire and smoke. that personnel protection is vital. The master will
Be large enough to hold the equipment stowed in require information from various sources, to assist him
a state of readiness and to allow accessibility by in deciding what his next step should be and in the
four or five men. worst situation he may decide that the saving of life is
Have communications with bridge and engine the only action the emergency squad can perform.
room. The master can only take these decisions from his
If possible, it should also be reasonably near any corninand post on the bridge and masters should not
emergency stops and controls and the operating necessarily get themselves involved at the scene of an
positions of the major extinguishing systems. It should emergency.
also contain the fire detection indicator panel. Of Likewise, the chief engineer officer, during an
course, it is seldom possible to achieve all this in an engine room fire, must be in a position to decide when
existing ship and a degree of compromise is often to use the fixed CO, flooding system, before the
necessary, but when designing new tonnage these situation becomes so serious that it will be ineffective.
features can usually be incorporated with minimum As the main engine will then b e out of action,
additional expenditure. Supplementary equipment it is clearly important for the master to be iilforilled
stations will also be established adjacent to high risk of this decision.
areas and remote from the emergency headquarters
where additional equipment will be available. Training
The first training requirement is to draw up a
Leadership realistic company safety policy, defining
Leadership is fundamental to the success of any responsibilities, training and equipment requirements.
emergency effort, and the leader of the emergency It is then necessary to train sea staff:
squad must be able to stand out from the remainder,
issuing clear, concise and crisp orders. If personnel (a) To auoid accidents
are to work together as a team, the leader must be This requires personnel to have a theoretical
knowledge of why accidents occur.
identifiable as being the man in charge.
(b) To deal with emergency situations
It was said of one famous military leader in action, Should the accident prevention part break down.
that 'his men would follow him anywhere - if only
Shore-based courses teach the theory and practice
out of curiosity'. This is perhaps an extreme case, but
of fire fighting, the use of equipment and, hopefully,
a n emergency squad requires firm and definite
an element of teamwork among the fire fighters.
leadership throughout an incident, particularly in the
However, there will be a number of differences from
initial stages. Orders must be forthcoming to direct
the real shipboard situation, as there are limitations
personnel to their duties and overcome the fear of the
to the degree of simulation that is possible. The
unknown that will exist in any emergency situation. equipment used will possibly be quite different
from that a t sea a n d the c o m m a n d , control
The command
and communication structure normal in a ship
The ultimate responsibility for the operation of the
will be absent.
ship's emergency organisation rests with the master.
In many situations he will rely on the advice of his Shipboard training, on the other hand, provides
chief engineer officer and these two must work in close the vital catalyst between what is learnt ashore in the
cooperation to ensure the safety of personnel, the ship classroom, or on the fire training ground, and practical
and her cargo, to see that the best possible action is application on board. It relates directly to the ship
taken by the emergency team. and its equipment. The entire crew is trained to work
COMMAND 271
together and within the normal framework of the ship's become an uninteresting chore. Lectures and
team, everyone benefits, even if they have not discussion groups can provide a valuable alternative
previously received training ashore. The best training to drills, as can practical demonstrations in the use of
policy will combine both programmes. specific equipment.
Realistic training drills are required to ensure that Masters should encourage officers and crew to
each member of the emergency organisation knows think up new ideas for exercises and this in turn will
his duty. Substitution is important so that the full help to generate enthusiasm. Drills should be
strength of the team can be maintained at all times. developed to allow for the training of substitutes so
An element of surprise is required to test the efficiency that the emergency organisation will have in-depth
of the organisation properly, although it is not capability and can thus overcome the problems
necessary to hold drills in the middle of the night. created by the absence of personnel for whatever
reason.
Conclusion
Training for emergencies is very much an ongoing Exercises ai-e often more beneficial if they are
process and should be conducted with imagination planned in advance and, if lessons are to be learned,
and as much realism as possible. There will inevitably they should be followed by a post-mortem discussion
be repetition if only for the sake of improving in which all crew members should be encouraged to
performance and ensuring a greater degree of participate. Above all, safety must come from the top
understanding, but training should not be allowed to and be seen to come from the top.

Chapter 44
BUNKERS - WHAT THE MASTER NEEDS TO KNOW

by Mr. D. Barrow MIBIA FInstPet AMNI
Doug Barrow is General Manager ofMaxcorn (UK) Ltd., global bunker traders with physical stocks being held by the parent conlpany
in Italy. He was thefounder cf~airmanof the Council ofManagement oftfle InternationalBunker Industry Association Ltd. (IBIA) and
remains an active member of the Council. Initially at sea as a deck oficer in the British merchant navy, he came ashore as a petroleum
surveyor in Kuwait, prior to joining a leading Middle East marine fuel supplier in 7977 as Operations Manager and later as General
Manager.
He left to head up the European@el oil trading department of a major London basedJapanese trading housefor six years. A short
spellfollowed in Singapore opening the ofice ofa globalAmerican based marine fuel broking company before returning in 7990 to head
the U K ofice of Maxcom Petroli S.r.1. He left in 7996 to spend a year opening the London ofice of a@el supplier in Gibraltar and
returned to Ma.rcom inJanuary 7997.
A guest lecturer at Oxford University, he has also given many papers on IBIA and various aspects of bunkering at conferejlces
around the world. His articles regularly appear in World Bunkering and other publications. As a supporting member of the London
Maritime Arbitrators Association he has acted as expert witness and successfully advised in contractual disputes.
Introduction Fuelcon, but this did not find market acceptance

A LOT HAS BEEN WRITTEN about bunkers in books, trade although a revised version is being considered. Bunker
journals and inter-company memos. A lot has been prices have increased in volatility, probably more so
said about bunkers in seminars, conferences and than the crude oil from where the product orignates.
lecture theatres. There is a wealth of information
available concerning the operational, commercial and Since bunkering can readily be sectioned into the
technical aspects of bunkers so there is no reason for three areas of interest described above - operations,
any ignorance on the subject. Unfortunately, there are commerce and technical - it is intended to cover the
knowledge gaps, especially amongst seafarers, and this subject in those categories. There may be issues in
chapter will try to cover some of the relevant each area that have an effect on one or both of the
information required by masters. It is appreciated that, other areas, but the scope of this chapter is to provide
while the master of a vessel is burdened with many an overview of the subject, allowing the reader to
issues, he is responsible for the vessel and accordingly understand if further learning is required.
must have some knowledge of what powers it. The
first person that the master should turn to on bunker
related matters would normally be the chief engneer. There are three principal methods for delivery of
Unfortunately, even British certificates of competency bunkers. The most Common method is by barge, which
do not cover all aspects of bunkering and it is not will be primarily considered below, but delivery can
uncommon for seafarers to be unaware of particular be made by road or rail truck and occasion all^ by
facets of bunkering. shore pipeline.
Since 1988 when the last edition of Comntand was Operations

published, there have been significant changes within The art of bunkering a ship is to transfer the fuel
the bunkering world. Refining technology has from the delivery facility to the vessel safely, efficiently
improved, leading to fuel quality changes and differing and cost effectively. By paying attention to the first
grade availability. Environmental pressures have also two points, the third will be achieved automatically.
had an effect on product quality and fuel handling When the master is advised that bunkers have been
procedures. There has been a greater global awareness arranged, he has little opportunity to influence the
about bunkers that has led to the formation of the choice of supplier. There may be little comment that
International Bunker Industry Association (IBIA), the master may make about the supplier anyway,
open to everybody within the industry - ashore and unless the ship is a regular caller in the port.
afloat. IBIA has taken the lead in bunker education Accordingly, the onus for the safe and efficient receipt
since its formation in 1993. A requirement for of the fuel lies with the ship. It is therefore of critical
increased standardisation has led to an international importance that there are proper fuel transfer
standard I S 0 8217:1996(E), which covers the procedures in place, that the concerned people are
specifications of marine fuels and an international aware of those procedures and have been trained to
technical report ISO/TR 13739:1998(E)covering the carry out the procedures. Many shipping companies
practical procedures for the transfer of bunker fuels have developed their own bunker transfer checklists.
to ships. There has been a drive towards a standard Some P&I clubs have produced similar lists. In some
bunker contract, which led to BIMCO developing ports, the local authorities have their own procedures
that are mandatory for the supplier and receiver to need not be that great, but the implications of
follow. ignorance are great and it is important that the master
is aware of some of the commercial practices.
Since the introduction of ISO/TR 13739:1998(E),
it is hoped that this will become the standard for all The first point to acknowledge is that while fuel
bunker transfers which will greatly reduce the oil is often a nasty, black looking liquid, to be buried
requirement for the multitude of various similar in the bowels of the ship from the moment it is loaded
procedures found today. It should be pointed out that until it is consumed by the engines at the appropriate
this document is not yet an international standard, so time, it is also a very expensive commodity. Depending
there is still opportunity for change, but it is anticipated on the type of vessel, the cost of bunkers may account
that it will form the majority of a standard and should for up to 60% of the running costs of the ship. It is
be read and referenced by all seagoing masters. The normally the greatest single item on the ship's account,
document covers definitions, pre-delivery exceeding crew wages and insurance. There is no such
requirements, post delivery requirements, bunker thing as a standard price of bunkers, as the market is
specifications, transfer procedures, quantity, sampling extremely volatile and its price depends also on
and dispute handling along with sample documents. location and local availability as well as the price of
the crude oil from which it is produced. The price
The key points to consider start with the provision paid by the buyer will also include transportation to
of a safe berth for the barge to come alongside the the ship as well as possible local taxes etc. but bunkers
vessel. Proper fendering and mooring facilities are
do not normally attract the levels of duty often paid
required and viglance must be maintained throughout
on petrol for road transportation.
bunkering to ensure the security of the barge and the
vessel. If personnel are to move between facilities, then The buyer of the bunkers may be the owner of the
safe access will be required - not an unsecured plank, vessel, the charterer or the manager. Bunkers are
balanced between the bridge wing of the barge and normally purchased under spot contracts, namely a
the deck of the vessel, for the engneer to traverse like one off purchase for the bunkers being supplied, but
a tightrope walker, petrified with the thought that his term contracts do exist in some cases.
next step may be his last - all for the sake of bunkers!
Clear communication must be established between Whoever has been responsible for purchasing the
the crew of both vessels with special regard to bunkers to be supplied will have entered into a contract
emergency shut-off procedures. Crew should have the with a seller. You may find it hard to believe, but in
relevant protective clothing having regard to the fact many cases the buyer will never have read the contract
that the thick black oily stuff to be transferred can be and be unaware of the exact terms and conditions of
hazardous to health a n d may ultimately b e supply. Unfortunately, this is too often the case. As
carcinogenic if the body is in contact with it for long master, you should ask the buyer for the relevant
periods of time. clauses in the contract covering the point of transfer
of title and risk, agreed sampling procedures and
Having considered the security of the crew and measurement methodology, who has responsibility for
the ship it remains to ensure the environment is not connection of hoses etc. etc. Due to a lack of a practical
polluted. The first, foremost and never to be forgotten
standard bunker contract, each supplier has their own
weapon in the fight against environmental pollution
terms and conditions and it may be impractical for
is the scupper plug. They come in various shapes, sizes
and designs, but a failure to ensure that all scuppers you to get the details from the buyer, but you will
are properly plugged before the commencement of alert the buyer to the fact that you are aware of
bunkering may be considered criminal. The cost and potential areas of conflict.
effort are minimal, but the potential fines, claims and Providing the bunkers are supplied at the agreed
possible imprisonment that may befall the master are
time and the correct grade and quantity are supplied,
tremendous. You personally may be liable for oil spills
from the vessel and, in many jurisdictions, the ship there should be few commercial problems. However,
may be arrested and the master imprisoned until such there is some significant documentation associated
time as adequate financial securities are in place. You with bunkering and it is essential that such documents
have been warned. are properly completed and copies retained on board.
While they may appear of little importance, they are
Obviously it is important to ensure that there is critical pieces of evidence required in any dispute
adequate space in the bunker tanks to receive the whatsoever. There should be a pre-delivery checklist.
nominated quantity, that the hoses are properly
Ensure that this is completed conscientiously and
connected with bolts in every flange hole, save-alls
are provided and hoses are properly drained prior to answers given must be factual, not just a load of ticks
disconnection, but the scupper plug remains the king. in the boxes. It is usual that the supplier's
measurements are those that determine the quantity
Commercial delivered and accordingly it is essential that the
At first sight, it may appear that the master's opening as well as the closing gauges of the delivery
knowledge of the commercial aspects of bunkering facility are observed and recorded. As a mariner, be

aware of draught changes of both receiving and The choice will not normally be the master's
delivering vessels and ensure those changes are decision, but it is important to ensure that the product
reflected in the measurement calculations. Obviously, to be supplied is the product ordered. The initial way
the chief engneer will monitor the quantity received is to check the pre-delivery documentation to ensure
on board but, under the terms and conditions of sale, it refers to the correct grade of oil. On board test kits
the supplier's figures will usually take precedence have improved considerably and there are now some
unless some very convincing arguments can be given. very efficient, portable and easy to use instruments
This will need to be supported by documentary that can monitor many of the main fuel qualities to
evidence. give a good indication if the fuel being supplied is the
same as nominated.
Similarly with bunker sampling, ensure that the
method used agrees with the contract, that it is The common parameters to be checked would
followed precisely and that the proper documentation include:
is completed. Sampling is one of the most important
aspects of bunkering and proper sampling devices Density (defines the mass delivered, specific
energy and CCAI).
should be used. When considering the size of the
Viscosity (defines CCAI, determines fuel grade).
sample versus the quantity of bunkers being supplied,
CCAI (relates to combustion performance).
it is of extreme importance to ensure that the sample
Water (1% water = an energy loss of about 0.43
is representative. Location of the point of sampling is
often a cause for disagreement and it is important to MJ/kg).
Salt (salt-water causes fouling and corrosion).
be aware of where the point should be. If there is any
Pour point (of concern primarily o n low
concern that the sample has not been taken properly,
temperatures).
then representation must be made immediately and a
Flash point (storage is usually limited to < 60C).
written record maintained. If the vessel is entered with
Compatibility (if two parcels of incompatible
a fuel testing service, it is important to ensure that the
bunkers are commingled it may lead to blocking
sample is despatched promptly to enable the results
of filters, pipes, heater and sludpng in tanks).
to be relayed back to the vessel prior to utilisation of
the bunkers, if possible. As a master, when in doubt - ask.
O n completion of the delivery, the bunker receipt Communications
will require completion and signing. Do not allow the Many of the problems associated with bunkering
document to be signed prior to the delivery. If there is are as a result of lack of education and poor
a dispute, you should make a remark to that effect on communications. It is important that you are able to
the bunker receipt. In some ports, the supplier does facilitate communications between the buyer and the
not allow this practice. If this is the case, it is important chief engineer, between the ship and the local agent
that a Note of Protest is issued immediately and the and between that agent and the supplier. If the supplier
buyer notified. does not receive the proper notices concerning the
ETA of the vessel, don't be surprised if bunkers are
Technical not available on arrival. Similarly, if the supplier has
This is an area where the chief engineer should be not been notified of any impediments to bunkering,
able to answer any questions you may have. Today, such as no night bunkering due to restrictions on crew
bunkers are normally sold that comply with one of overtime, or cargo operations likely to prevent access
the 15 grades of fuel oil or four grades of distillate fuel by the bunker barge etc., expect a complaint from the
mentioned in I S 0 8217:1996(E).Fuel is still commonly buyer when he or she receives an invoice for barge
known by its viscosity, which seems illogical when it delay. Keep close communications with the buyer. If
is really the energy content of the fuel that should be there is any problem, prompt notification to the buyer
important! The most common grades of fuel oil are may allow action to be taken that would mitigate
I F 0 380 cSt, which is often to ISO-F-RMG 35, and potential losses - failure to communicate could
I F 0 180 cSt, usually to ISO-F-RME25. The common subsequently cost money. Ensure all communications
grades of distillate are Marine Gas Oil to ISO-F-DMA are logged in case they are required as evidence to
specification or Marine Diesel Oil to ISO-F-DMB or defend or support a claim.
DMC specification.
Disputes
The selection of which grade of bunkers is to be
Disputes fall into four main categories - quantity,
used may depend on some or all of the following:
quality, delays and others. The first thing to remember
The engine manufacturer's warranties. is that disputes should be avoided and this can often
The technical superintendent's opinion. be achieved by good procedures, careful planning and
The charter party. good communications. The master should ensure that
Local product availability. losses are mitigated - namely any action taken should
Product price. be to minimise the overall losses, not just those of the
COMMAND 275
buyer. In the event of any dispute, it is the duty of the Imagine it is 0320. You are woken to be told that
master to ensure there is p r o p e r evidence to the bunker delivery hose has sprung a leakjust inboard
demonstrate the actual chain of events so that a of the ship's rail. Despite the precautions taken,
solution may be found at a later date. Too many bunkers have spilt into the harbour and are drifting
genuine claims are lost due. to lack of supporting towards twenty white luxury yachts and a wildlife
documents. These include deck and engine logs, sanctuary - what do you do? It will be your decision.
engineer's notebooks, copies of all relevant Unfortunately, these things usually occur just when
documentation and notes of protest. the head office has closed for a long weekend, and
the buyer has just gone on holiday. Be prepared -
Surveyors are sometimes used, especially in ports ensure you are not one of the uneducated.
that have a significant claim history. Be sure of the You have already started your preparations by
terms of reference of the surveyor. For quantity surveys reading this chapter. Don't be complacent, but don't
their function may be to check only the delivery be too alarmed - most bunkers are supplied without
facilities. At other times it may be to check the vessel's problem. Most of the suppliers around the world today
tanks and, on occasion, it may be to do both. If are responsible and they don't want to lose money or
surveyors are used, it is important to g v e them every customers. If you would like to know more, do not
assistance and to remember that if they are supposed hesitate to contact the International Bunker Industry
Association - it is there to help.
to be in attendance for the start of the bunkering, they
have been notified. References
In the case of a quantity dispute, it may be
IBIA On Board Test Kit Report
IBIA Guide to Bunker Samplers
appropriate to employ a surveyor immediately to try
IBIA Safity Cardsfor Essel's crew
and resolve the problem, but as they were not in
Glossary of Bunker &Lubricating Oil Terminolopy
attendance at the commencement of the bunkering, The International Bunker Industry Association
they will have to rely on existing documentation. The Baltic Exchange, St. Mary Axe, LONDON,
EC3A 8BH, England
Conclusion [email protected]
T h e foregoing only touches the surface of Leighgones, C., A Practical Guide to Marine Fuel
bunkering. It is not intended to be a finite text, but to Oil Handling
give some pointers as to what may be relevant or of MEP Series, Volume 3, Part 19
interest. Your involvement in bunkering will depend The Institute of Marine Engineers
80 Coleman Street, LONDON, EC2R 5JB, England
on the number and competence of the crew on board
[email protected]
and the involvement and interest of the owners,
Fisher, C. and Lux, J., Bunkers - A n analysis of the
charterers or managers.
Practical, Technical & Legal Issues
The one point you should be clear about is your Customer Services Department
level of authority. If you suspect the bunkers to be of LLP Limited, Sheepen Place, Colchester, Essex,
C 0 3 3LP, England
the incorrect grade, do you have the authority to reject
[email protected]
them and on what basis? If a sample is provided at
Fuel @Lube Oil Training Manual
the conclusion of bunkering, with the barge master
Kittiwake Developments Ltd.
claiming it is a representative sample, but you have 3 & 4 Thorgate Road, Littlehampton, West Sussex,BN17
no knowledge of its provenance, what action should 7LU, England
you take? If the chief engineer advises that the [email protected]
delivered figures are 50 tonnes more than he has I S 0 8217: 1996 (E) 3ISO/TR 13739:1998(E)
loaded, do you have the authority to keep the vessel International Organization for Standardization
in port until it is resolved, even though cargo Case postale 56, CH-1211 Geneve 20, Switzerland
operations have finished? [email protected]

ANNEX
Example of a delivery checklist for spill prevention transfer procedures
A bunker transfer operation should not commence j) A communications system is provided between the
unless the following requirements are met and agreed supplier's delivery facility and the vessel.
upon by the cargo officer and vessel officer: k) The emergency shutdown system is available and
operable.
a) The mooring lines are adequate for all anticipated
1) Communication procedures are established and
conditions. understood between the cargo officer and vessel
b) Bunker hoses and/or loading arms are long enough officer.
for intended use. m) Qualified and designated personnel are on duty at
c) Bunker hoses are adequtaely supported to prevent the supplier's delivery facility and vessel bunker
undue strain on the couplings. stations.
d) The transfer system is properly lined up for n) The bunker hose(s) has been visually inspected to
dischargng or recieving bunkers (additional checks ensure that it (they) has (have) no loose covers, kinks,
should be performed each time a valve is repositioned. bulges, soft spots or gouges, cuts and slashes which
e) All flange connections on the bunkering system penetrate the hose reinforcement, and that the hose(s)
not being used during the transfer operation are is (are) marked for identification and test data is
securely blanked or shut off. maintained in a test log.
f) The bunker hoses and/or loading arms are o) Adequate lighting of the manifold area is provided.
connected to the manifolds using gaskets and a bolt p) The cargo officer and vessel officer have met to
hole in every hole. ensure the mutual understanding of:
g) The overboard or sea suction valves are sealed or 1 The pre-delivery form.
lashed in the closed position. 2 Starting, stripping, topping and shutdown.
h) Adequate spill containments have been provided 3 Emergency procedures including notification,
for couplings. containment and cleanup of oil spills.
i) All scuppers or other overboard drains have been 4 Watch and shift arrangements.
closed or plugged. 5 Notification before leaving stations.
COMMAND 277
Chapter 45
ONBOARD TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

by Captain L.A. Holder ExC MPhil FRIN FNI
Len Holder served at sea fiom 1953 until 7963. He was then involved in Maritime Education and Training, at Liveqbool Polytechnic,
where he was Head of Dqbartnzent fiom 1977 to 7988 and then Director oj'the School of Engineering and techno lo^ Management.
Since 7989 he has been an independent consultant.
Len Holder completed a three-year term as President of the Nautical Institute in 1996 and since that time has been chairman of
Videotel Marine International.
Synopsis International Safety Management (ISM) Code

THISCHAPTER IS ABOUT T R ~ I N T N Gand development on requires, amongst many other provisions, that:
board. When you are in command, training is one of "...each ship is manned with qualified, certificated
your many responsibilities. Your main objective must and medically fit seafarers in accordance with national
be to ensure that effective training is carried out in and international requirements..."
relation to safety and commercial efficiency on your
current voyage. Your next responsibility for training Under the Standards of Training, Certification and
is to support the long-term professional development Watchkeeping (STCW) Convention each crew
and certification of all the seafarers on board. You also member should hold an "appropriate certificate". This
have a responsibility to keep yourself up to date and means:
certificated to current professional standards, and to
undergo refresher training as required. A national certificate of competence.
An endorsement from the government issuing the
Chances of success national certificate attesting that it meets STCW
There are various factors that will affect your standards.
chances of success in this part of your job. Some things A separate flag state endorsement, if the orignal
depend upon other people, but more depend on you. certificate was issued by another government.
The section which follows is a brief look at what you Also under STCW, companies should ensure that
can expect from other people, and the rest of the company trainers and/or assessors are properly trained
chapter concentrates on what you can do. Factors that and qualified and that they are provided with adequate
affect your success with training will include: resources for their work.
The support you get from ashore.
Whether you are set relevant and achievable Very few shipmasters have the chance to "pick their
objectives. team" these days. So it is to be hoped that your
The experience, motivation and ability of your company personnel managers ashore have been
trainees. careful in selecting your crew members, checking their
The ability and motivation of senior sea staff as qualifications and previous sea service. If they have
trainers. used selection tests, it would be helpful for you to have
The time available for training on board. details of the results on board, as well as having access
The resources, equipment and materials you are to the seafarers' certificates and records.
given for training. Many companies send their personnel on short
Training can help to turn a group of individuals courses ashore at colleges, in training centres or run
into a competent team. Like most activities, training in-house. The company should tell you what people
requires organisation, knowledge, skills and practice. have done. It is also helpful to know what is likely to
You may have little time for individual mentoring be available in the future, so that you can make
(coaching) of trainees, but you can motivate and recommendations for others at the end of the voyage,
organise others to achieve positive results. or request a course to keep yourself up to date.
Support from ashore: recruitment and Relevant and achievable objectives
selection Legislation
The first influence your shore management has on The International Safety Management (ISM) Code
your shipboard training programme is at the requires that:
recruitment and selection stage.
"the company should establish and maintain
What is the minimum you can expect? The procedures for identifying any training which may be

required in support of the Safety Management System other than the complete novice \\rho does not know
(SMS) and ensure that such training is provided for enough and has no one to pass it on to anyway.
all personnel concerned." Designating an officer to have responsibility for
training must not let other people think they have no
With ships that have ISM certification in place you
further responsibility. However, training records
should be building on and improving the procedures
would get in a mess if there were too many people
which already exist. involved in record keeping.
Other official documents that contain references In the same way that you will need to know what
or content appropriate to shipboard training include, the company expects from you, you will need to give
as an absolute minimum, the up-to-date amended
a very clear brief to your trainers. Some people are
versions of: natural teachers. Others find it difficult and have to
1. International Convention o n Standards of work at it. Careful thought needs to be g v e n to the
Training, Certification a n d Watchkeeping allocation of responsibilities. The trainer needs to have
Convention (STCW). the required qualifications, but must also be able to
2. International Convention for the Safety of Life at bridge language and cultural gaps, and gain the
Sea (SOLAS). attention and respect of the trainees.
3. International Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from ships (MARPOL).
Trainees
Motivating trainees is the key to good training.
4. Convention on the International Regulations for
When new crew members join, the company have a
Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREG).
responsibility to familiarise them with the ship,
5. I L O Convention 147 [Merchant Shipping
particularly with safety features, such as firefighting
(Minimum Standards) Convention].
and life-saving appliances and procedures. They need
Company policy to know the part they must play in emergency
Company training policies are important. Your procedures and be shown as well as told, where things
company may have a written policy
which emphasises the commitment of
the Board and Chief Executive to
training, sets objectives, states who is
responsible for what in training,
allocates a budget for trainers and
training, etc.
Whether or not you have such
clear guidelines, you should, in your
pre-voyage interview, phone calls
a n d / or c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , try to
ascertain what your company's policy
is, a n d what you are expected to
achieve in your new appointment.
With that as background, you will

need to set realistic training objectives
for the current voyage.
Senior sea staff as trainers

Your major assets are the officers
Figure 45.1 More use is being made of computer-based
and senior ratings who are the face-
and multimedia training on board
to-face trainers you have to organise
and supervise.
are stowed and how they should be used. They also
If your ship is a designated training ship, with a need to be instructed in the proper use of specialist
specialist trainer on board you have a valuable ally in equipment in their working areas. Some companies
making sure the training is done properly. Some begm "familiarisation" with briefings in their own or
masters and chief engineers like to designate one the manning company' offices. Once crew members
officer in each department to act as the "training are on board, the responsibility for making sure the
coordinator". This will often be the 2nd Officer job is completed, rests with the Master. Familiarisation
in the deck department, and the 3rd Engineer in the needs to be colnpleted and "signed off" and suitable
e n q n e room. records kept.
In fact, training is the job of everyone on board, Once your crew members are settled in on board,
COMMAND 279
you will get very little thanks for sending them back Safety and pollution prevention.
ashore as being not fully competent, other than in Shipboard familiarisation.
exceptional cases where a totally incompetent person Crew coordination and communication .
has "slipped through the net" and cannot hold down Sea training requirements of certification.
their job on board. The first job in training is to sort Assessment of competence and/or collection of
out the shortcomings of the crew members you have evidence of satisfactory performance in the work
been g v e n and startmaking the best of things, through place.
good management and through training where it is
Safety training is the first priority, and needs to
required. (See the Appendix to this chapter on
begin from the time crew members join.
Coaching Skills).
Technical training
You are reliant upon the certificates, records of
The operation and maintenance of the ship is
previous service, test results and initial observations
probably the most important area of training.
and questions on board, to know whether each person Legislation requires safety training to be carried out,
has a background of sound knowledge to the required but the company will expect the ship to be operated
standard, and the practical aptitude to put their efficiently and properly maintained. Manuals and
knowledge into practice. procedures may lay down the framework, but it is
There are statutory training exercises to be carried perso~lalinterest in trainees and properly planned
out and the day to day performance of individuals on training that will ensure satisfactory results.
board will soon start to show up any inadequacies. Commercial training
Above all, in these days of high pressure commerce The conlmercial efficiency of your company - and
and smaller crews, the only answer is for everyone on the future employment of everyone on board - will
board to take some responsibility for their own be determined in large part by the successful out-turn
training, finding out what they need to learn and of your cargoes or the satisfaction of the passengers
meeting the trainer half way. you carry. Each ship operator has experience and skills
in one or more different trades. This experience is
Organisation: priorities valuable and has usually been gained at a price. It
There are four main al-eas of training to be needs to be passed on within the company, whether it
considered: is navigating high speed ferries, running high quality
hotel services on a passenger ship, or loading, carrying
1. Statutory safety training.
and discharging special cargoes.
2. Technical training.
3. Training to improve commercial efficiency. Career development training
4. Career development training. Senior sea staff should assist trainees and junior
staff in gaining skills and experience they require to
Statutory safety training do their present job more effectively and to prepare
Senior officers need to liaise with company shore for their next certificate of competency. The Standards
staff a n d help with the d e v e l o p m e n t a n d of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping (STCW)
implementation of ISM Code and STCW Convention Convention places great emphasis on experience
requirements. Particular importance will need to be during sea service and the records of practical training
placed upon standards in: are an important part of the certification process.
A few shipboard Training Officers may
seek qualifications as specialist trainers or
assessors, in which case they will need to be
properly trained for their new role. Most
ships' officers will simply be supervising
training, evaluating candidate's performance
and recording evidence in a prescribed
format. The evidence collected on board will
then be put with results from shore-based
examinations and assessments, and used by
qualified assessors to fulfil the requirements
for issuing STCW certificates of competency.
In the past, officers have usually been
required to sign cadet record books and to
supervise and record experience for other
certificates (such as steering a n d
Figure 45.2 Drillsfornl an important part of safety training
watchkeeping certificates). The new STCW
280 THE NAUTICAL INSTI-rUTE

Code lays down clearer guidelines on the experience notjust an exercise resulting in a log entry, you should
required and how candidates should demonstrate their use your imagination and think out realistic scenarios
competence. It is important that records to be used as in which fires occur in different parts of the ship,
part of STCW certification process are kept in a format people must be rescued from enclosed spaces,
that is approved by the certificate-issuing national someone has fallen overboard, life-saving appliances
administration. need to be launched under difficult conditions, an oil
spill has occurred due to a bunker overflow etc. It is
The core of the Training Officer's role will still be important that everyone learns from these exercises
in guiding and encouraging trainees, indicating what and gains confidence in dealing with emergencies.
they should learn and what they can do to become There are video and other programmes that can be
better qualified. used as part of an exercise, but people learn more
Over and above basic STCW requirements, it will from being active and involved in practical drills.
be appreciated if you take an interest in the personal Delegation
career aspirations of your sea staff and point them in You cannot do everything, but your attitude and
the direction of appropriate programmes. There are commitment to training will affect those to whom you
many opportunities available these days from general delegate and will also affect the trainees. When
educational and recreational topics available through selecting people as trainers, their technical knowledge
the Marine Society, through a wide range of college is important, but also bear in mind their ability as
a n d commercial distance learning courses, to communicators, which depends upon personality and
professional development for aspiring shipmasters, self-confidence and language differences and/or
marine surveyors, pilots, harbourmasters or maritime cultural relationships with trainees
lecturers through The Nautical Institute diploma
schemes. Training on board can often be characterised by
missed opportunities. "If only we had thought of it,
Resources we could have put a boat down when we arrived
Your second most valuable training resource is your early". "It is a pity we did not get the cadets down in
ship, its equipment and procedures. In addition, there the shaft tunnel to observe the repair work", etc. To
are usually special aids to make the training more avoid these regrets and to make the best use of
effective. These may include: opportunities, it is necessary to think ahead and plan.
Manuals and books. Trainees should be encouraged to ask about training
Videos. opportunities for themselves and their colleagues.
Computer-based training packages (using diskettes They should point out the things they need to learn -
or CD-ROMs). after all, you cannot be expected to know that cadet
Spare equipment provided for training purposes. ""x" or seaman "y" has never been on the fo'c'sle head
It is important to choose the right medium for each when anchoring, or in the steering flat when testing
training task. Videos are excellent for group training the emergency steering. If you are successful, it may
sessions such as fire fighting or abandon ship drills, be possible to create a positive "training culture", with
particularly when there is an experienced person everyone participating.
leading the session and following it with a practical
drill. Computer-based training (CBT) is well suited to Career development for yourself
the gaining of knowledge (e.g. learning rules or It is important to take care of the professional and
procedures that must be committed to memory). Most career development of crew members, but do not
CBT packages allow the trainee to test him- or her- neglect your own requirements. Find out what your
self before applying for formal assessment. This makes certification authority requires to keep your certificate
sure the lessons are learned and saves time for of competency valid. Find out if there are courses that
supervisors. you need, to keep your endorsements valid, whether
it is in oil and gas, chemicals, ro-ro, passenger ships
Planning: making the best use of time or other specialist trades.
Your leadership role
The most important training at the start of the Keep up to date with professional developments
voyage is familiarisation and basic training in safety and career opportunities through journals such as The
and departmental duties. It is particularly important Nautical Institute's SEAT454YS. These days you also
to carry out drills with firefighting and life-saving have the Internet. The Nautical Institute world wide
appliances at the earliest opportunity so that everyone web site (http://www.nautinst.org) gves links to many
is prepared for emergencies. Contingency planning other interesting maritime-related sites.
for other emergencies, such as oil spills, is also Your local maritime college is usually a good source
important these days. For these drills, you are the key of information on short courses, etc. but if you want
person and must lead the planning, drills and to look further afield, Lloyds Ship Manager publishes
debriefing an occasional supplement "Guide to Word Wide
If you really want the training to be effective and Maritime Training" which describes a large number
COMMAND 281
of courses and gives contact numbers and addresses. References
The Marine Society in London is another good sourc,e 1 Guidelines on the application of the IMO Internationnl
of information. Safety Mn~zag~..tnent Code, International Shipping
FederationIInternational Chamber of Shipping,
As master you are a manager of people and a
1996.
manager of resources. There are many good
2 7'hr Rt'.ilised S T C W Con-i!e?ztion, International
management training programmes you can follow,
Shipping Federation, 1995.
which will help you. A short course ashore allows you
3 0 7 1Board Troirzi~zg Record Book forDech Cadets, and
to share ideas with other managers, but there are 012 Board Train,in,g Record Book for E I ' l g i ~ ~Cadets,
f~~r
distance learning courses as well. International Shipping Federation, 1996.
4 Holder, L.A., Trainirzg ccnd Assessment on Board,
Reporting back Witherby & Co., London, 19!17.
O n board, you should keep good records of 5 i2lnritimeEducatio.n n,rl,d Traini?~g:A Pructical Guide,
training and drills and be ready to show them to The Nautical Institute, London, 1997.
properly authorised port or flag state inspectors, 6 Guide to Word [{VideMamtirr~eTraining Lloyds Ship
company P&I representatives, company auditors etc. Manager Supplement, Lloyds of London Press.
Appropriate records should also be sent to the
company and given to trainees. Finally, please do not
forget to "close the management loop", and report
back to your company on how the training has gone,
what resources are needed for next voyage, who needs
to go on refresher and updating courses, etc.
Conclusions
Despite the changes in legislation, there are no
short cuts to competence. Companies that have good
training schemes will be best prepared for the future.
The normal methods of training, which include shore-
based college or training centre courses, followed by
practical training at sea will still be needed. And,
you and your senior sea staff have an important Figure 45.3 Demonstrations and "hands-on"practiceare
part to play! remembered longer than talks

Appendix to Section 3.10
Coaching/mentoring skills 2) Choose a suitable project or procedure. Don'tjust

Most shore-based training is through structured "off delegate easy jobs: there should be an element of
the job" courses. In contrast, training on board is challenge, and it will probably involve some
mainly "on the job" training, learning by doing, and measure of risk. Don't make it too difficult. (For
requires special management skills. These are referred example, as master, you might let the second mate
to as coaching or mentoring skills and this appendix anchor the ship in an open anchorage in daylight,
highlights some of the key points if this type of training but not at night in poor visibility).
is to be effective. 3) Briefing. Your management role is the key to good
Coaching needs to be structured: coaching. Brief the trainee well before hand, tell
him or her the outcome you expect and any
1 Determine the development needs of the trainee.
particular dangers to look out for. Help them to
These may be:
plan and let them ask questions.
a) short-term development for those who are not
performing well in their present jobs 4) Carrying out the project or procedure. Let them
carry out the work without unnecessary
b) medium term to prepare for changes and
challenges in the job interference. If possible let them "do it their way"
c) long term needs for promotion and career and clear up their own mess. Of course, the safety
development of the ship and people remains paramount.
Decide on the priorities ,5) Appraisal or debriefing. Afterwards, talk through
2 Choose appropriate learning strategies. These with the trainee how things went, what they have
might include: learned from the experience, and how they could
a) "off the job" learning from books, videos or do it better next time.
computer-based learning packages, or 6) What next? Discuss with the trainee what the next
b) "on the job" learning by experience, with step in their development should be. If it did not
coaching. go well, perhaps trying a similar exercise again. If
A combination of methods may be required. it went well, then it may be to try something more
The steps in coaching are as follows: difficult next time.
1) Identify the gaps in the trainee's knowledge and Remember

skills. Very often, junior staff on board know what People learn from you all the time, by the example
needs to be done, but lack self-confidence. They you set.
may be unsure of their ability to plan and People learn from their own mistakes.
implement a certain procedure without direct Don't blame people if they "screw up".
supervision. Priorities can be determined by
observation and by discussion with other officers THE PERSON WHO NEVER MADE A MISTAKE,
and with trainees. NEVER LEARNED ANYTHING!
COMMAND 283
Chapter 46
ALTERED COMMAND RESPONSIBILITIES

FOR PIRACY, STOWAWAYS, ILLEGAL DRUGS A N D TERRORISM
by Brigadier (Ret'd) B.A.H. Parritt CBE, Companion
Chairman, International Maritime Security (IMS)
Introduction Piracy
ALTHOUGH THE THREATS F R O M PIRACY, stowaways, Piracy/armed robbery has always been part of a
illegal drugs and terrorism have always existed, in the sailors life, the significant difference is that before,
last decade and particularly since 1stJuly 1998 with there was the combination of political will and naval
the introduction of the ISM Code, there has been a power to deal with this type of maritime attack. Now,
significant change in the command responsibilities of this is not the case.
a master as regards security. H e now has to
All soldiers know that the best way to deal with an
demonstrate that he has taken every effort 'to establish
armed man is to confront him with a weapon of
safeguards against all identified risks'. (Management
superior fire-power. The regular navies of the world,
Objective Para 2.2).
particularly the British and American navies, saw it
In the past, an experienced master was able to deal as a legitimate part of their mission to flush out and
with most acts of violence against his ship without destroy pirate craft. They were gwe extraordinary legal
public alarm or media attention. Maritime security powers to punish pirates, including the right to hang
law was non existent and the general view was that if those convicted so that they did not have the
a master could deal with a piracy or stowaway problem inconvenience of having to carry them back to their
quickly and effectively, with the minimum of fuss or own countries. Special laws were enacted to allow
delay, this was the sensible thing to do. them to pursue pirates, even into territorial waters.
Times have changed. Just as a master now has
recognised responsibilities for safety, pollution and Today we have a situation where, on the one hand
hygiene, so with maritime security he now has to pirates a r e becoming m o r e numerous a n d
conform to internationally accepted standards. sophisticated and on the other, regular navies are
becoming smaller.
Traditional, robust, measures that masters could
take in the past to solve security problems can now Naval vessels have, of course, improved their
result in public disgrace, dismissal and even prison. weapon capability and can go much faster, but most
This chapter deals with the current threats to the are designed to fight submarines or aircraft, to fire
security of a vessel and the factors that now influence and avoid missiles, to transport troops. Very few are
a master's command responsibilities. designed to capture or kill small fast canoes.
284 'THE NAUTICAL IIVSTITUTE

The biggest factor contributing to the growth in We thus have a situation which is so familiar to
the capability of pirates is, however, not their deadly seafarers, where governments are very strong on
automatic weapons or their ability to acquire large advice about what a master can and cannot do, but
twin outboard engnes and craft with high speed low are much less positive about their own responsibilities.
radar profile characteristics. It is the recent revolution It is left to the master to identify the risk and establish
in communications. his own safeguards.
Many pirate gangs no longer put to sea just hoping Pirates and armed robbers are thieves. They are
to catch a rich prize. They have agents in the loading not politically motivated to attack a specific ship or to
ports, they determine a ship's destination, they kill specific people. The overwhelming evidence is that
discover the nature of the cargo, they isolate the if these maritime thieves become convinced that their
individual container that carries valuable items such quarry is awake, vigilant and has protective measures
as computers, TVs or Mercedes Benzes and they fax in place, they will abort the attack.
or e-mail this detail to their 'coordinating centre'.
Every master should therefore have a ship security
Then, by the use of the ubiquitous mobile phone, plan designed to reduce the risk of a pirate attack.
the attacking craft can continually be guided and The plan should have the following phases:
controlled both before and after the attack.
The threat
More significant, however, is that the major nations It is not practical for a crew to maintain a high
now feel positively inhibited about tasking their level of security for long periods. Security measures
warships to 'search out and destroy pirates'. They must conform to a known threat. In the first six months
would of course support any action on humanitarian of 1998 there were 91 reported incidents of piracy -
grounds or, if they encountered an attack in progress 32 in the South China Sea, 14 in the Illdial1 Ocean,
would certainly try to stop it, but in an age of strong nine in West Africa and 19 in South America. While it
nationalistic awareness and extreme sensitivity over is recognised that only one in three acts of piracy are
issues of sovereignty, there is a feeling of reluctance reported, it is in these geographical areas that anti-
to instigate armed action in waters far from their own piracy measures should be initiated.
coast. This policy is generally welcomed by developing
countries who, remembering the colonial era, feel In 1997 there were 250 reported incidents of piracy,
uneasy about foreign naval vessels carrying out 56010 in territorial waters, 31'h in ports and only 13%
'gunboat' type diplomacy. in international waters. Statistics also show that the
majority of attacks take place between midnight and
There are also islands around the world whose dawn and that most attacks come from aft rather than
ownership is bitterly in dispute, especially if there is forward. The deduction is clear - when at anchor in
the likelihood of the island producing oil. T h e dangerous waters, take extra care in the quiet hours,
competing countries, therefore, protest loudly if the particularly aft.
warships of a rival approaches the disputed island. This
results in a naval no-go area which can become a The deterrent
dream location for a pirate. Thieves dislike noise, lights and signs of activity.
The ship security plan must, therefore, stimulate
As it is now more and more unlikely, therefore, continual, irregular, physical movement.
that a warship is going to be available to provide armed
protection, the obvious solution would seem to be to Thieves do not like opposition when they are at
arm the merchant ship? Paradoxically however, their most vulnerable, i.e. when they are actually
although there is considerable disagreement about boarding. The plan must therefore include highly
how to provide protection for merchant ships on the visible protective measures such as water hoses, anti-
high seas, there is almost universal agreement that grappling weapons and objectionable additions to
merchant ships should not be armed. anchor chains, rat lines and railings.
As the UK government succinctly puts it - 'The The reaction force

carrying and use of firearms for personal protection Once on board the ship, the armed pirate has the
or the protection of a ship, is strongly discouraged initiative. The plan must, therefore, include the
a n d will n o t b e authorised by h e r Majesty's capability for the maximum number of crew to go to
government'. pre-planned defensive positions as soon as the
approach of a suspect craft is identified.
A letter written by a master and published recently
in the press, highlighted this dilemma by asking: 'Why Such action can be perceived as dangerous and
is it I am ordered not to carry a shotgun on my tanker outside the job description of the crew. An essential
loaded with oil going through the Malacca Straits, but part of the plan, therefore, is to ensure that all crew
when I come ashore I see elderly gentlemen carrying are confident that this type of active response does
shotguns, sitting sleepily in the sun outside small provide a better protection than allowing themselves
jewellery shops?' to be captured by the pirates. Probably the most
COMMAND 285
important element of the ship security plan is the Stowaway incidents are increasing. We now live
willingness of the crew to work together to prevent in an era of mass migration. Whether it be for political
the pirate getting on board and the best way to achieve reasons, economic reasons, natural disasters or wars,
this is by repeated test exercises. thousands of people are deciding each year to improve
their lifestyle by moving country. A decade ago
Firearms stowaways were perceived by the press as rather
A master who uses a firearm to defend his ship exciting figures, risking their lives to smuggle
will certainly run the risk of having to explain his themselves on a ship. Now numbers have grown to
actions in court. Experience shows that using a firearm such a volume that governments who previously
can lay him open to the charge of 'employing an showed great tolerance towards clandestine
inappropriate level force'. International law is not very immigration, are now enacting legislation to punish
clear on this point and each case would be reviewed the carriers.
on it's merits, but it would appear that a master using
a Verey pistol or water hose which injured a pirate In the United Kingdom a hefty flat fine is levied
would not be under such heavy legal pressure as if he against every stowaway brought into the country.
had used a firearm which is designed to kill. Other costs also rise - provisioning when on board,
overtime of crew to guard stowaways, communications
T h e conclusion is, therefore, that although with owners, agents and club, attendance of special
governments throughout the world have for various immigration officers and translators, transport to police
reasons decided that they cannot provide armed court or jail, provisioning in jail, appointment of
protection against acts of piracy/armed robbery, they lawyers to obtain statements, visiting embassies,
still expect the master to take sensible precautions consulates, etc. to obtain travel documents, clothing,
against the identified risk of maritime robbery. pocket money, flight expenses including escorts, hotel
expenses in case there has to be a transit stop, payment
A master should, therefore, prepare his ship of fines if the country of the port has financial clauses
security plan, which in addition to providing routine in their immigration legislation, expenses of agents,
protection against theft, recognises that in certain areas expenses of club correspondents and of course the
of the world, particularly at night when at anchor, he cost of delay.
must provide additional protection especially to the
stern of his ship. The good news is that a highly visible A further complication is the fact that governments
display of vigilance does significantly prevent attacks. make a moral distinction between an unauthorised
The negative side is that failure to take such protective stowaway defined as 'a person who, at any port or
measures will be seen to be a failure to establish place in the vicinity thereof, secludes himself in a ship
sensible safeguards against an identified risk. without the consent of the shipowner or the master or
any other person in charge of the ship and who is on
Stowaways board after the ship has left that port or place', and a
After leaving a South American port a stowaway refugee who has a legitimate claim for political asylum
was discovered on board. He proved to be aggressive and is defined as 'someone who, due to fear of
and had to be secured and guarded. He demanded a prosecution for reasons of race, nationality, political
particular diet and broke furniture. Before arrival at beliefs or any other similar factors, is unable or does
the next port, the master received a fax from the agent not want to stay in the country where he is and wishes
warning him of a 'severe stowaway problem at the to move to a new country'.
port' and strongly recommending additional protective But however the stowaway is categorised, to the
measures be taken. The agent requested confirmation master he/she is aproblem and generally an expensive
of receipt of this fax. problem. In the past the costs have often not been a
great worry for the shipowner, as the P&I clubs have
The master told the chief officer to take extra
been willing to help. This is now changing and, g v e n
precautions but made no budget provision for local
the escalating costs and complexity of stowaway
security guards. In the event a stowaway did manage
legslation, the clubs are now demanding that the ship
to board and hid himself in the bulk sugar cargo. Sadly
should establish improved safeguards against the
he sank into the sugar and was asphyxiated.
identified risk of stowaways.
On arrival in the USA his corpse was discovered
and unloading was stopped. The ship was delayed until
Illegal drugs
Every indication is that the movement of illegal
event~~allythe health authorities allowed it to be placed
drugs by sea is going to continue and will become an
in a hygienic warehouse. The value of the sugar was
even bigger problem. The demand for drugs is
dramatically reduced and a series of multi million
increasing and large profits can be made by supplying
dollar legal claims were initiated. The master and the
this demand.
chief officer found themselves accused of not
'establishing safeguards against an identified risk' In 1998 Mr. Keith Hellawell, who has been
especially as they already had a stowaway on board appointed as the United Kngdom's first national anti
and had received a specific warning from the Agent. drugs coordinator, made the following points:

1. A kilo of drugs in Pakistan costs 8\50; the same board with their weapons and explosives i.e. that the
kilo in Felixstowe costs 7,200. master had established credible safeguards against a
2. 186 million worth of drugs were seized in the clearly identified risk.
LTK in 1997.
This, however, is usually not the case. Apart from
3. One h l o caught equals two kilos not caught.
the passenger industry, especially the cruise industry,
In the US, General Barry McCaffey, who is the if there were a terrorist incident on a cargo ship, it is
Director of National Drug Control Policy, has declared safe to say that subsequent governmental and media
a 'war on drugs' and in 1997 President Clinton enquiries would often reveal a standard of security
allocated US $ 873 million to a revitalised anti-drug which would now be considered inadequate even for
programme. Throughout the world governments are the routine protection of a car or family home.
enacting more and more punitive legslation against
shipowners and masters who, albeit inadvertently, are Acceptable safeguards
discovered to have transported illegal drugs. These The good news for a master is that a ship is an
punishments can range from whippings and hanging identifiable entity with a hull and a limited number of
in the far east, to heavy fines and imprisonment in the accesses. It is not too difficult to put into effect a
west. reasonable level of security which is able to reduce
the risk from the composite threat of piracy,
From the masters' point of view, this emphasis by stowaways, illegal drugs and terrorism.
governments on the carrier is unrealistic. Given the
size of ships, the small numbers of crew and the frantic The way to d o this was first agreed by the
programme involved in loading hundreds of sealed International Maritime Organization (IMO) in its
containers in a limited period of time, it seems grossly document MSC/Circ. 443 dated 26 September 1986,
unfair to expect the master to carry out a credible which was published following the terrorist attack on
search for illegal drugs, particularly given the financial the Achill~Lauro, and then by the enactment of
resources and ingenuity of the drug smuggler. maritime security legislation by the US, U K and
Canada.
But given the perception of a 'war against drugs'
countries, especially the US, see it as legitimate to say Although these protective measures are primarily
'We don't want drugs here. You brought them. You, aimed at the cruise industry, the same principles apply
therefore, are guilty!' and call be used by the non-passenger industry. They
are simple: The appointment of a named individual
Most countries do, however, want to b e responsible for security on shore and on board; and
constructive in helping the master discover illegal the production of a ship security plan which specifies
drugs. The US sea carrier initiative programme, how access control is to be maintained, how searching
outlines those measures which, if put into force by the is to be carried out, which areas are to be denied to
master, will be taken into account before a mandatory unauthorised persons and what reactive procedures
fine is imposed. In the UK there is a memorandum of are to be taken if the threat of violence escalates.
understanding agreement which can be concluded
between H M Customs and the shipowner which There is great flexibility in all these documents as
explains how the master can help detect illegal drugs. to how these measures can be implemented and the
final answer will depend on the type of ship and
Governments regard illegal drugs as one of the budget, but the most important factor is undoubtedly
most dangerous threats to their social structure. Drugs the motivation and training of the man on board who
bring crime, corruption, tragedy a n d despair. is responsible for security. If his attitude is not correct
Governments expect masters to establish safeguards and he magnifies all the difficulties, then it is easy to
against this identified risk. find excuses not to make a credible defence. A ship
Terrorism security
. plan
- which makes use of all available resources
Although terrorism is perceived as a threat and is supervised with intelligence and discipline can
primarily against the passenger section of the maritime genuinely establish a realistic safeguard against attack.
industry, stories of an oil tanker or ship carrying
nuclear waste being taken over by terrorists and Conclusion
anchored in the narrow mouth of a busy port have In the past decade the actions of masters have been
already been published and are seen by many as a abruptly thrust into the public domain. With the
distinct possibility. unprecedented opportunities that citizens now have
to put pressure on politicians, and the amazing
With so many acts of terrorism occurring all over developn~entof media capability, actions that masters
the world, involving every type of transport, the public used take in the isolation of the open sea are now
would not be the least surprised if a ship did become subject to detailed scrutiny, and have to be justified.
a terrorist target. They would naturally expect that,
just as with the risk of oil pollution, ships were taking So it is with security. Piracy, stowaways, illegal
sensible precautions to prevent terrorists getting on drugs and terrorism are perceived by the public to be
COMMAND 287
matters of concern to everyone, not just to those on preventing and suppressing Acts of Piracy and Armed
the ship. They expect a master to have in place Robbery against Sh$s (MSC/Circ. 623, 18 June
sensible, reasonable levels of protection. 1993).
The intangble problem for the master is what is IMO Guidelinesfor the use ofRadio Signals by Sh$s
'reasonable'. Given the reality of cargo carrying and under Attack or Threat ofAttackfiom Pirates or Armed
costs, how can he put in place a credible defence which Robbers (MSC/Circ. 805, 6 June 1997).
will stand up to subsequent enquiry?
Stowaways
The answer lies in the ISM Code, which states that IMO's Advice on Stowaways "Guidelines on the
there should be a contingency plan which will Allocation of Responsibilities to seek the successful
'establish safeguards against all identified risks'. Resolution of Stowaway Cases" (A 20/Res. 871, 27
November 1997).
This means a ship security plan based on MSC/
Circ 443 and the subsequent maritime security Illegal drugs and alcohol
legislation, managed by an officer who is capable of IMO's Advice on Drug Smuggling Guidelinesfor
ensuring that it is properly implemented. the Prevention and Suppression of the Smuggling of
Drugs, Psychotropic Substances and Precursor Chemicals
Security has always been a function of command, on Sh$s engaged in International Eafic (A 20/Res.
the altered circumstances of the past few years now 872,27 November 1997).
require that masters receive the correct training to
carry out this function. The Sea Carrier security manual US government
document describing the Carrier Initiative
Useful references Programme to improve cooperation between the
US Custom Service and the Maritime
Maritime terrorism
Transportation Industry.
The International Maritime Organisation (IMO)
Guidelines, Toprevent unlawfil acts against Passengers International Chamber of Shipping Guidelinesfor
and Crews on board Sh$s. Owners and Masters on Recognition and Detection of
[MSC 53/24 annex 14 dated 26 September 19861. Drug Traficking and Abuse.
The United States of America Maritime and Port The Norwegian Chamber of Shipping Guidelines
Security Act 1986 for the Prevention of Terrorism for Owners and Masters on Recognition and Detection
at Sea. of Drug Eaficking and Abuse.
The United States Coast Guard Proposals Rules US Coast Guard Regulations concerning Alcohol
issued by the Department of Transportation, - describing US Coast Guard regulations on the
concerning the Security for Passenger Vessels testing of both nationals and foreign marine
dated March 25th 1994. personnel.
The United States Federal Regster Department Useful books
of Transportation document, Coast Guard 33 CFR Four books published by The Nautical Institute
"Securityfor Passenger Vesselsand Passenger Terminals" and compiled by Brigadier (Ret'd) B.A.H. Parritt
datedJuly 18th 1996 and November 13th 1998. CBE:
The United Kingdom Aviation & Maritime Security at Sea - Terrorism Piracy and Drugs - A
Security Act 1990. Practical Guide.
Directions under the UK Aviation and Maritime Crime at Sea - How could this affect you? - How
Security Act 1990-1999. can you protect yourself - a practical guide.
Canadian Transportation Security Regulations 20 Illegal Drugs by Sea - A Nautical Institute study
May 1997; Cruise Ship and Cruise Ship Facility into the explosive growth of drug trafficking and
Security Measures 1 August 1997; Memorandum its impact on mariners, companies and their
of Understanding Cruise Ship Security 30 March liabilities.
1998.
Stowaways by Sea - illegal immigrants - refugees
Piracy - asylum seekers. A guide for owners, managers,
IMO's Advice on Piracy Guidelines to Sh$owners masters, agents, solicitors, immigration officials,
and Ship Operators, Shipmasters and Crews on correspondents, consuls and all those concerned
with migrant problems.

Chapter 47
SEAFARERS AND WELFARE SUPPORT

by The Rev'd Canon K. Peters, Justice and Welfare Secretary, The Mission to Seafarers
Three years ofMother's Unions and Youth Cltlbs, etc., convinced Ken that parish ministry was not his scene. Having undertaken some
training at The Missions to Seamen in Holland and Ireland as well as the Mersey Mssion to Seamen, after ordination he returned to
Liverpool asport chaplain. The Far East became Ken's home whilstport chaplain in Kobe,Japan for seven years. AfterJapan, Ken was
seconded to Liverpool once again until being invited by the Secretary General of the Missions to Seamen tojoin the Executive asJustice
& Welfare Secretary (January 1994), since when he has become known asJAWS.
Ken? undergaduate studies were in theology and he obtained a post graduate Masters in Business Administration. Later he
successful^ completed thefirst year in MSc in Maritime Law befare leaving Liverpool. Currently Ken is pursuing an M4 in Maritime
Policy at the University of Greenwich. Among other appointments Ken was an RNR Chaplai7zfar twelve years.
Introduction to be a necessary resource for seafarers as they

SEAFARERS ARE SUSCEPTIBLE TO STRESS and fatigue experience the difficulties of life at sea, separated from
brought about by a working environment that imposes their loved ones, in an occupation that presents them
unnatural conditions. Multinational crewing has many with physical danger which is sometimes accompanied
problems brought a b o u t by language a n d by various forms of exploitation and abuse. In efforts
communications difficulties, clashes of culture, to ensure that seafarers do not remain 'out of sight
religious differences and dietary requirements. All of and out of mind', the various missions established
these can be accentuated by living in close confines international networks of seafarers centres providing
with people who do not share the same cultural a warmth of welcome that is appreciated and has come
climate, social structure and political positions. The to be expected by seafarers. Most widely known are
taboos and mores of society are learned by immersion The Apostleship of the Sea (Stella Maris) and The
within a culture and by genetic inheritance. Balance Mission to Seafarers (Flying Angel).
of opinion is difficult to maintain within the ethnic
Port chaplains are regular ship visitors who, among
diversity of ships crews particularly when they are
the myriad of officials that climb the gangways, are
'thrown together' by a management that is not
the only people who want nothing from the seafarer
concerned with anything other than the best
but go, as a friend of all aboard, to listen, to bring
certification available at the lowest cost.
news and to invite them to a run ashore at the seafarers'
Good managers are aware of the hidden costs of centre. There seafarers can relax in a convivial
such an employment policy. The isolation can be atmosphere away from the hassle and possible danger
unbearable if crew members are unable to socialise of night clubs and waterfront bars. They can telephone
with each other. The stress experienced by officers home, write the post card and e-mail their friends and
who are not confident that their orders have been family. They can socialise with local people as well as
understood, passed on accurately and acted upon, can other seafarers and, perhaps with a drink, challenge
be an immense weight. Crew who are expected to others to games of pool or table tennis. The rest and
perform their duties efficiently and effectively can feel relaxation offered at these centres is really appreciated
intimidated by the lack of clear precise instructions. by those who feel increasingly pressured and stressed
by the demands of a fast turnaround with few
The result is often disastrous. Even without any
opportunities to go ashore. With limited time for
breaches in safety or a major incident, the cumulative
themselves seafarers often choose 'the mish' as their
effect is damaging to crew confidence a n d
preferred place.
performance. A voyage can become a process of
attrition. In these circumstances the relief of relaxation The missions have adapted to the dramatic changes
in the seafarers' centre is an essential element for the within the shipping industry: containerisation with
well-being of the crew. In these circumstances the the consequent decrease in the length of time that a
listening ear of the chaplain is appreciated beyond vessel is in port; automation a n d ever m o r e
measure. Especially so if the chaplain attends the ship sophisticated technological innovations that have
during an all too brief time alongside when there is reduced crew sizes; multinational crewing; flagging
no opportunity for the crew to leave the vessel. out with the remote management of ships; a plethora
of legislation emanating from the International
Seafarers' missions Maritime Organization and the International Labour
Maritime missions have been a feature of the Office; these have changed the face of shipping beyond
shipping industry for over one hundred and fifty years. all recognition. Shipping is no longer a homogenous
Over that time welfare support for seafarers has proved industry, it is diversified and globalised.
COMMAND 289
Working together for more international scale. ICMA has consultative status at
comprehensive care the International Labour Office (ILO) a n d its
T h e missions have recognised this and have delegation attends the maritime sessions of the ILO.
themselves responded by entering into ecumenical This advocacy role is in recognition that traditional
partnerships to bring together many of the Christian pastoral work will always be a feature of the missions'
denominations under the one roof of seafarers' centres. activity unless the cause of the many problems can be
There are some notable examples of this development. addressed at source. The missions have developed
In Hong Kong, the Mission to Seafarers invited the their prophetic ministry in drawing to the attention of
Roman Catholic Apostleship of the Sea (Stella Maris), the industry any incident of illegal practice,
and the Danish Seamen's Mission to work out of its exploitation and abuse of seafarers.
premises. In Felixstowe, U.K., The Apostleship of the The Mission to Seafarers has developed its justice
Sea, British & International Sailors Society, The and welfare department to work in this area of
German Seamen's Mission, Dutch Seamen's Mission advocacy. Tasked with liaison with the industry in its
and The Mission to Seafarers share a seafarers' centre. widest sense, including the regulatory bodies and
Similar collaborative partnerships exist in many ports political institutions, its secretary pursues the cause of
throughout the world. seafarers' welfare, not only on the world's waterfronts
but among ship owner representatives, union officials
These partnerships are between Christian churches
and politicians. The legtimate voice of the church in
who see that in many ports the way to most effectively
its care for seafarers is therefore heard in debates at
address the seafarers' needs is to join resources. In
various international bodies. Recent examples of
many cases there are partnerships with shipowners,
ICMA participation have been at the joint IMO/ILO
unions, agents, port authorities, flag states and
sessions on hours of work and manning and another
intergovernmental organisations. I believe that all joint session on human factors in casualties. In this
these, as well as the Christian missions, have the context the missions are caring for all seafarers,
responsibility of providing for and ensuring the welfare unionised or not, contracted or not, coastal or deep
of seafarers. As shipping becomes increasingly sea, on commercial vessels, cruise ships or fishing
globalised, with the expansion of second registers, smacks.
open registers, or as they are more commonly known,
flags of convenience, so the checks and balances that The success of ICMA is a great encouragement to
protected seafarers from some of the more dubious its members. The missions, through ICMA, participate
employment practices have become less and less at grass roots level, as well as at the council and
effective. So it is that incidents of abandonment of presidium of the International Committee for
crews, refusal to repatriate, failure to pay wages and Seafarers' Welfare. This brings the missions into direct
o t h e r contractual difficulties have risen to consultation with the ISF, ITF and governmental
unprecedented levels. organisations who are all seeking to serve seafarers'
welfare needs.
To support and empower seafarers, as well as to
remind employers of their responsibilities, the missions In this forum ICMA has expressed its support of
are addressing these problems by offering more than programmes to encourage flag states and especially
a safe haven with its bar and recreational facilities. the labour supply countries, to sign up to international
conventions that have the care of seafarers at their
The port chaplain is often seen as the only person in
core. ILO 147, the Merchant Shipping (Minimum
whom the seafarer can place his confidence. When
Standards) Convention 1976, is in a sense the flagship
they seek help, the chaplain will often take up the
welfare instrument. Similarly, the missions would
seafarers' complaint with the company. If the company
really like to see more nations sign ILO 163, the
refuses to listen or even recognise that there is a Seafarers' Welfare Convention 1987 a n d
problem, the chaplain may call upon the service of Recommendation 173. To enact enabling legislation
the harbourmaster, p o r t state control o r the for these conventions will do so much to acknowledge
International Transport Workers' Federation and the the basic rights of seafarers and assist the various
International Shipping Federation. It is in partnership missions and agencies to provide for seafarers' welfare.
with these institutions that the missions can provide a These instruments fit very well with the current
comprehensive system of care. emphasis on the human factors in shipping. The
introduction of the ISM code and the heightened
Speaking out for seafarers at an concern for safety at sea, the quality control and
international level management of I S 0 and the STCW revisions, all
Welfare work among seafarers is not only a reactive contribute to a developing awareness of the salient
activity. The missions are very pro-active in their care. importance of the seafarer. The recognition of seafarers
The ecumenical partnerships referred to earlier are not only as 'units of productivity' and the management
assisted by the International Christian Maritime of personnel not as a liability but as a company's most
Association (ICMA), a free association of members important asset, goes a long way to minimising the
that seeks to develop representation o n a n worst of employment practices.

Help with employment problems they do have the opportunity for a run ashore. They
Historically the missions pursued welfare for are either located close to, or actually within, the dock
seafarers by speaking out against injustices such as estate or are downtown in the entertainment district.
crimping. Today there is still a multiplicity of needs. The safety and security that they represent are also
The blacklisting of 'troublemakers', the underpaying important aspects. The exchange of foreign currency
of 'double bookkeeping', the refusal to grant medical at fair rates is in stark contrast to the 'rip off' that
treatment, speak more to institutionalised exploitation seafarers often experience. At least the evening begins
than to problems presented by a job which demands with respect shown to the seafarers.
physical fitness and mental alertness. No seafarer
should object to the legitimate demands of such a hard
Ship visiting
life style but for companies to take advantage of the This scenario is familiar to seafarers who welcome
seafarer's particular vulnerability is unacceptable in the chaplain on board and this ship visiting is of great
days of such highly regulated employment legslation benefit in these circumstances. When shore leave is
and practice. It is also unacceptable that, at the same denied by either the master of the vessel or the local
time as the shipping industry is becoming more and authorities, the attendance of the chaplain is essential.
more regulated, there is such a dramatic rise in This is not the place to list those countries that, for
incidents of exploitation and abuse. whatever reason, legtimate or otherwise, deny shore
leave but it is to be emphasised that the close
The abandonment of crews is the worst possible confinement of life on board ship is no longer the social
indictment of a rogue ship owner. That the industry existence it used to be. Long gone are the days when
has to consider establishing a guarantee fund or make Friday evening was cinema night and the whole crew
provisions within the insurance market to pay for such would gather together in one of the mess rooms and
incidents points to the fundamental problem of enjoy the latest MGM epic.
substandard shipping. The juxtaposition of the IMO's
effort to provide a comprehensive framework of Now it is a case of watching a video alone in their
legislation with an abandoned crew being forced to cabins, squeezed in between watchkeeping and sleep.
sell bits of the ship in order to purchase food is stark. One Spanish speaking Honduran on board a ship
When seafarers have to rely on the missions or unions alongside one Russian speaking Latvian, with the rest
for repatriation that is an indictment of the regulatory of the crew being Korean and Greek cannot make for
regime. a buzzing social life. The nationalities may change but
if language divides then crews will not be either safe
Keeping up-to-date or productive. This situation is not helped by a cook
The traditional image of a seafarers' mission as an who prepares fish and chips three days a week and
organisation offering low cost temporary steak pie and chips three days a week with pork chops
accommodation is well out of date. It has been and chips every seventh day when the crew are crying
replaced by a strengthening of its ship visiting ministry out for vegetarian curry and rice. If these issues go
and the transportation of seafarers. There is an array unresolved shipboard morale is seriously affected,
of activities such as bus tours for sightseeing, football attention to duty becomes lax and within a very short
matches, book and video library exchanges, and sports period of time the ship becomes substandard.
competitions. Seafarers' centres are fast becoming
communications hubs where the tradition of writing
Practical and spiritual
post cards and letters is supported by access to the With the tedium of life at sea, the temptation to
Internet and the benefits of least-cost routeing for their seek a thrill ashore in the arms of a prostitute, or with
the numbing effects of narcotics and/or alcohol, are
telephone calls.
all too present. Health risks are significant in seafarers'
Even the location of these centres often changes. lives. Awareness of HIV and AIDS, other sexually
The old docks system close to and sometimes in the transmitted diseases, the carcinogenic - link with
heart of towns, as with many river berths, has g v e n tobacco and the damage caused by excessive alcohol
way to new dock developments far from communities. intake need to be raised. It is often left to the missions
The sense of isolation that is very common among to distribute educational literature and counsel
seafarers is reinforced by this. Tanker berths, scrap seafarers with such concerns. In addition to these very
metal, coal a n d grain cargo handling are not human concerns comes the spiritual well-being of
environmentally friendly operations and are seafarers. Central to every mission facility is the chapel.
conducted as far away as possible so as not to impinge It is not an uncommon occurrence to see these chapels
on local scenery and certainly not on luxury residential being used by seafarers who are clearly not Christian.
waterfront properties. All too often these out of town They all recognise the chapel as a place set apart, a
dock estates are not served by public transport and it place of quiet contemplation and prayer. It is a place
falls to the missions to provide the essential lifeline to in which to p v e thanks to God for their safe passage
civilisation. Missions also have moved, either to where and in which to remember those victims of maritime
the ships berth or to where seafarers are drawn when disasters. It is a place in which to think of family and
COMMAND 291
friends at home and, in the dislocated world of causes of exploitation and abuse. The substantial
seafaring, to keep in touch with the important things growth in the number of seafarers seeking the help of
of life. chaplains for serious breaches of their rights represents
the human cost of an industry which weaves an
It is this word 'dislocated' that speaks so powerfully intricate web of corporate structure and tiptoes through
to a description of seafarers' lives and the need for the
breaches in international convention. The most
missions and other welfare organisations. When important relationships for the missions are those with
legslators fail to protect, when employers do not live seafarers and ship owners. For both, the missions are
up to their contractual obligations, seafarers suffer. It
here to serve.
is because they are so dislocated from their home
communities with their social structure that fits neatly Resources
with their cultural mores and a political and legal The Mission To Seafarers is pleased and privileged
framework which recognises the primacy of their to welcome seafarers into its centres in ports around
rights, that they are particularly vulnerable. This at a the world. Its central office can be contacted with any
time when, far removed from their families, domestic welfare problem by:
life can be fraught. Tensions are set up within a family
when a seafarer is away from home for month after e-mail to [email protected]
month. Then when home leave comes the family or
dynamics are disturbed when the seafarer, usually the
telephone +44-(0)20-72485202
father, returns only to find that the family is
functioning without him. The very thing that partners or
look forward to so much, and children love, having fax +44-(0)20-72484761
'dad' home, develops into family arguments as each
member tries to assert their position within the family or by writing to
whilst allowing the 'intruder' theirs. So it is that mission The Justice & Welfare Secretary
chaplains become involved with the domestic lives of The Mission to Seafarers
seafarers. It is unfortunate when such intervention is St. Michael Paternoster Royal
needed especially when the home visit is to bring news College Hill
of death of the seafarer. It is the least pleasant of all of London EC4R 2RL
the jobs of the chaplain to have to say, 'lost at sea, England, UK.
presumed dead'. Find out more by visiting our web site at
www.missiontoseafarers.org.
Care for all
There is a comprehensive system of care offered The International Christian Maritime Association
by the mission chaplain. This is freely given, regardless (ICMA) has a web site at:
of race or creed. To be a seafarer or a member of a http://dspace.dial.pipex.com/icma/
seafaring family is the only criterion for seeking help
from the chaplain. The chaplains of ICMA members The ICMA secretariat is at
are in six hundred ports around the world, ever present 2/3 Orchard Place
to remind seafarers of God's grace. Shipping is an Southampton SO14 3BR
industry which, in large part, is seeking ways in which England, UK
to uphold and remind seafarers of their worth, while e-mail [email protected]
unfortunately failing far too often to address the root telephone +44 1703 336 111
fax +44 1703 333 567

Chapter 48
MODERN COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS AND THE GMDSS

by Mr. I. Waugh, Mobile Radio & Satellite Communications Training & Consultancy
1 Ian W u g h has worked in marine radio/satellite communicationsjbr most of his adult l@. As a Royal Navy radio operator, he was
involved in SART operations both at sea and in Rescue Coordination Centres. He 'won' his Merchant Navy Radio OfJicerSticket at
Glasgow College of Nautical Studies and moved to work in Wick Radio - handling everythingfrom distress cases to routine daily
communications. He became BT'sJirst Customer Service Manager for Inmarsat-B and Inmarsat-M services at their introduction in
1993. Ian now runs his own business - delivering GMDSS training - and is a GMDSS examiner.
Introduction
Exchanging search and rescue coordinating
CHANGES TO INTERNATIONAL LEGISLATION to cater for
communications with RCCs and on-scene
the GMDSS (Global Maritime Distress and Safety
communications between vessels in the area of
System), which have resulted in many new 'distress
the SAR operation.
and safety' communications tasks falling on deck
Sending locating signals when you are the one in
officers, have come along at the same time as the rise
distress and receiving locating signals from others
in use of non-GMDSS and/or non-marine mobile-
in distress.
communications systems on board many vessels. The
Receiving maritime safety information (MSI)
convergence of computing and mobile
including weather and navigation warnings which,
communications adds another perspective to the ever-
it is hoped, should help you keep out of trouble.
changing world of marine communications. The
Exchanging bridge-to-bridge communications,
modern deck officer must know what systems are for
between ships in close proximity, for the safety of
use within the GMDSS and which are not - and to
navigation.
know what should be included in the radio log and
Exchanging general (routine day-to-day) radio
what can be left out.
communications with port authorities and vessel
This chapter will briefly explain GMDSS tasks - traffic services, pilot stations, other vessels; and
or 'functions' - and the marine radio/satcom with the office/home of owners, operators,
equipment used for those tasks, together with charters, passengers and crew.
aliernative, non-marine/non-GMDSS equipment
GMDSS equipment will cover all of the above
which might additionally be fitted on some vessels.
tasks and should always be your first choice for all
Included (at figure 04.01.1) is a sample radio log for a
GMDSS distress and safety communications. In the
fictitious voyage from Las Palmas de Gran Canaria to
general radio communications list, items such as
Reykjavik, Iceland, showing typical log entries for
telephone/telex calls and e-mail messages to homes
normal and emergency communications, and for
and offices may additionally be catered for by using
regular equipment tests and checks.
equipment outside of your GMDSS fit.
To get the best fiom this chapter, it should be read in
Where additional systems areJitted and may wellprove,
conjunction with Admiralty List of Radio Signals (ALRS)
in some cases, to be more convenient to us - the GMDSS
Volumes 1, 5 and 6, which are referred to in the text.
systems should still be used on a regular basis, for routine
GMDSS functions and equipment tasks, to ensure thatpersonnel arefamiliar with the operation
Vessels which have to comply with the GMDSS of the equqment which they might have to rely on in an
must fit particular radio and/or satellite emergency.
communications (satcom) equipment to carry out a The basic equipment fit for all GMDSS vessels
range of GMDSS functions - the equipment fitted includes:
being determined by their GMDSS sea area of
operation. The type of functions which must be catered (i) Marine VHF radio with digtal selective calling
for are: (DSC), used for distress (Mayday),urgency (Pan
Pan), safety (Securite) and routine day-to-day
Sending distress alerts from ship to shore; receiving communications between ships (including bridge-
distress alerts from shore and sendmg/receivingshp- to-bridge communications for the safety of
to-shp distress alerts (in the GMDSS, the first priority navigation) and between ship and shore in an 'Al'
for ships in distress is to get an alert to a shore-based area (defined later).
rescue coordination centre (RCC) so that, if that was (ii) A Navtex receiver (if operating in an area where
your only opporhnity to communicate, the RCC the Navtex service is provided) - or an Inmarsat
will be able to coordinate the subsequent search and enhanced group call (EGC) receiver if operating
rescue (SAR)operation). in an area where Navtex is not provided. These
two devices will provide automatic reception and and 70"s) and in which, for the purposes of the number
printout of maritime safety information (MSI) - one GMDSS function - that of getting a distress alert
the GMDSS term for weather forecasts/warnings, from ship-to-shore - is covered only by marine SSB
navigation etc. warnings and initial distress alerts radio operating in the high frequency (HF) bands.
from shore-to-ship).
(iii) A (satellite) emergency position indicating radio ALRS vol. 5 Diagrams H F D S C Coast Radio
beacon (EPIRB) for use as a secondary distress Stations, World Wide is applicable here.
alerting device from ship-to-shore (when your Non-GMDSS marine equipment and
VHF DSC or other primary system has failed to
get the required attention) or as a position
non-marine equipment
indicating device for the distressed vessel, a liferaft, All the distress and safety requirements and marine
or survivors in the water. general radio communications requirements can be
(iv) A search and rescue (radar) transponder (SART) met with marine radio and satellite systems fitted for
used for locating a distressed vessel/liferaft using GMDSS purposes. Some requirements, particularly
marine navigation radar operating in the 3- ship-to-shore and shore-to-ship telephone, fax and data
centimetre band. calls, can additionally met by non-GMDSS (marine)
equipment and/or non-marine systems. The most
(v) Marine VHF handheld radio for use in the liferaft common additionalsystems which the modern mariner
after abandoning.
may find in regular use include:
GMDSS sea areas of operation Cellular radio: either hand-held or fitted as a fixed
The world according to the GMDSS is divided unit/marine antenna. This provides telephone
into four 'sea areas of operation', known as sea areas
connection, including fax and limited data
AI, A2,A3 and A4. The four GMDSS sea areas are
facilities, when within shore based cellular radio
defined by the ability of a ship to transmit a distress
coverage. Where such systems are provided, the
alert, using GMDSS equipment, to a shore authority.
coverage is roughly the same as for marine VHF
The sea areas are defined as:
radio.
Sea area Al: Mobile satellite services: including Inmarsat-M and
'Within radiotelephone coverage of at least one Inmarsat Mini-M (both being marine systems). It
V H F D S C shore station'. T h e above range of is also not unusual to find Inmarsat-A/Inmarsat-
equipment would be appropriate to sea area Al, with B equipment fitted for commercial
the choice of NAVTEX or Inmarsat EGC receiver communications but not included as part of the
according to shore facilities for transmitting MSI in 'official' GMDSS fit.
the particular region concerned. The newer @lar orbiting' satellite systems such as
Iridium (which came into commercial service
Sea area A2:
An area outside of A 1 but 'within radiotelephone during 1999) and other systems which are
coverage of at least one MF DSC shore station' - in projected to come into service during the year
which case a vessel would have to fit, in addition to 2000 from Globalstar and from I C O global -
the above basic list of equipment, a marine single communications, are all projected to be 'dual
sideband (SSB) radio operating in the medium cellular and satellite' services - which provide the
frequency (MF) band and with DSC alerting facilities. connection through a cellular radio service as the
first choice, and through the new mobile satellite
ALRS volume 5 List of Diagrams and Illustrations services when out of cellular range.
- 'DSC' shows sea areas A I and A2, around the world.
Information about these new systems can befound in the
Sea area A3 Global Marine Communication Services section of
An area, outside Al/A2, but 'within the global ALRS ?%lz~me 7.
coverage of the Inmarsat geostationary satellite system'
(considered to be consistently good for GMDSS The radio log and regular equipment/
purposes up to latitude 70N and 70"s). In this area a power supply checks
vessel can fit either a marine SSB radio operating in As well as operating the various communications
the high frequency (HF)bands (which would normally systems, the officer on watch must keep a radio log as
be the same radio as the MF SSB radio fitted for A2
a record of communications. Regular equipment tests
coverage) with DSC - or, as an alternative, Inmarsat-
and power supply checks carried out must be recorded
A, Inmarsat-B or Inmarsat-C equipment.
and the master must inspect and sign the log daily.
ALRS vol. 5 List of Diagrams - Inmarsat Satellite The test routines are laid-down within the GMDSS
Coverage and Stations shows the limits of sea area A3. regulations and include the following tasks:
Sea area A4: Daily tests/checks
'Any area not included in AI, A2 or A3' (and is DSC internal test, without radating signals. All DSC
considered to be the polar regions above latitude 70N equipment is provided with this 'self test' facility.

State-of-charge of batteries should be confirmed liquid-electrolyte battery) or by using a load test
using a hydrometer or a voltmeter. The level of where voltage readings off load and on-load are
electrolyte should be checked (liquid electrolyte recorded in a separate log. Month-on-month, the
batteries - normally about lcm above the plates) voltage-drop on-load should not change if the
and batteries should be brought up to full charge internal condition of the batteries remains stable
if required. and all other relevant factors remain unchanged
Any Navtex receiver and any printers associated (i.e. no equipment additions/losses and all
with GMDSS equipment (e.g. the EGC receiver) connections/cables remain in a good condition).
should be checked to ensure that there is enough Finally, a monthly check of all aerials/antennas,
paper to meet the expected requirement. and their insulators, should be carried out. You
are looking to see that the aerials have not been
Weekly testdchecks darnaged in any way (particularly relevant to
A DSC test call should be exchanged with a coast vertical VHF antennas and SSB whip antennas)
station providing an MF DSC service. Radio and that connections remain tight. Insulators
regulations state that the 'DSC distress and safety should be washed with fresh water as salt water
frequencies should be avoided whenever possible' merely replaces the dirty salt and carbon deposits
for testing. However, a number of coast stations with a fresh layer of salt. When physical contact
are prepared to cooperate with testing on with the antennas is likely (e.g. when cleaning
21876kHz, as the test call is considered to be a insulators), all radio equipment should be switched
safety category call. You should use the minimum off and, if necessary, disabled (by removing power
power necessary to contact the station and a DSC fuses). Where there is a facility to earth or ground
acknowledgement should be received (and the antennas, that facility should be used to
logged). discharge any static build-up in the antenna wire.
Note: you should always listen on the alertingjiequency, Even a light shock can cause a person to reverse
making sure that there are no otlzer transmissions, before quickly over the edge of the superstructure.
hitting the 'send' buttorz for a test call. The log - Puerto de la Luz, Las Palmas
The handheld VHF radio(s) for use in survival de Gran Canaria to Reykjavik, Iceland
craft should be tested, using a working channel The ship's radio log shown in figure 48.1 might
(i.e. not on Channel 16). have been produced during the first few days of a
Any reserve power supply other than batteries (e.g. voyage from an A1 area (the Islas Canarias) through
a motor generator) should be tested to ensure an A2 area into the Atlantic ocean (a GMDSS A3
starting/proper operation. area) heading towards another A2 area around
Iceland.
Monthly testdchecks
All GMDSS EPIRBs should be tested using the See ALRS Valume 5 - DSC station diagrams; Navtex
self-test facility provided, without transmitting diagrams and SafetyNET schedule for Navarea I1
signals. The expiry date of the EPIRB battery and and I - which you will transit on this voyage.
the expiry date of the hydrostatic release should
also be checked. Make sure that some well Equipment assumed
meaning individual, in an attempt to prevent the GMDSS fit: VHF with DSC; MF/HF SSB with
loss of the EPIRB in heavy weather, has not used DSC; Navtex; Inmarsat-C; EPIRB, SARTs and
the lanyard to secure the EPIRB to the ship's rail. handheld VHF radios.
Search and rescue (radar) transponders (SARTs) Additional fit: Inmarsat-B (including telex option);
should be tested against the ship's radar to ensure GSM cellular radio (which provides service in the Islas
that it is being triggered by the radar when in the de Canarias, Madeira, the Azores, most of Europe and
test position and that it displays the expected parts of Iceland, especially around Reykjavik)
lights/sounds. Your own radar screen should
display a series of concentric circles when the Summary
SART is activated. Only run the test for the few Of necessity, this chapter has only scratched the
seconds necessary to ensure proper operation, or surface of modern radio communications and the
you may lead other vessels to believe that someone GMDSS. It is hoped that it will let the modem mariner
is in distress in their vicinity. SART battery expiry see their communications role a bit clearer than before.
date should also be checked. The Nautical Institute has a new book in progress
Battery condition should be checked both which will cover the full range of day-to-day
externally and internally. External condition communications tasks and procedures for both
includes cleanliness and security, tightness of GMDSS and non-GMDSS functions - radio log
connections and integrity of wiring. Internal keeping; looking after your antennas; computing and
condition can be checked by a hydrometer (you radio convergence; and how to prepare for your
should expect the same readings in each cell of a annual ship radio station survey.
COMMAND 295
GMDSS RADIO LOG BOOK
Vessel: S.S. ENTERPRISE
Callsign: GENT MMSI: 232999000
Frequency
Date/Time Station Station Communications Summary, Channel or
UTC To From Tests, Remarks Satellite
22/10/99 Alongside Puerto de la Luz, Las Palmas de Gtran Canaria
0900 Daily tests: DSC internal OK; Navtex and printers O K
Batteries all fully charged J Uhuru (3 off)
1550 Navtex programmed for Las Palmas (i)
1600 Sat-C logged-in for Metarea I1 + Additional area I AORE
1605 Sat-B acquired satellite AORE
1725 Las Palmas Weather forcast received (Master informed) Navtex
The log should include

Your sh@'sposition, at leats daily (when at sea - as we're sailing today it's shown here.
Daily tests and checks for DSC equipment; batteries; Navtex and printers (to see that there's enough paper).
A summary of Distress, Urgency and Safety communications.
We've also set up Navtex and Sat-C SafetyNET in preparation for sialing - (Navtex station ID and Sat-C SafetyNET areas/
satellitesfrom ALRS Kl. 5 )
1815-45 Port/pilots GENT (working harbourmaster/pilots) Ch 12/14/16

1845 Departed Puerto de la Luz, bound Reykjavik
184.5 Set voice/DSC watch Sea Area A1 Ch 16/70VHF
1915 Sailing report to office (Sat-B telex) AORE
2000 J Kirk (Master) J Uhuru (3 off)
2015 Oostende (traffic list - no traffic for GENT) 14179 kHz
2100 Set DSC watch Area A2 2187.5 kHz
21 10 Meteo France Wx Metarea I1 (Master informed) Sat-C
2140 Bracknell Wx Metarea I (Master informed) Sat-C
Although there is no obligation to record 'routine' excha~zges@ort/pilotcomms; trafic lists; messages to ofice, etc.) it does no harm and it
can he& othersfillow a routiflewhen on watch - it ako show that you're using your GMDSS equ@mentfor routine tah.
VHF channelsfor port/pilots forund in ALRS Wlume 6.
The log should be inspected and signed each day by the master and by the person nomifluted to handle emergency communications/
carry out the regular testslchecks.
On entering an A2 area (see ALRS Kl. 5) add DSC 2187.5 kHz to the VHF watch.
2240 234123455 DSC Distress Alert - 29'45'N 18'22'W undesignated J3E 2187.5 k H z
2241 O n watch J Uhuru 2182 kHz
2241 002241007 (DSC Distress Acknowledgement) 2187.5 kHz
2243 Mayday Wizard/GWIZ 29'44'N 1S022'W- please cancel my false distress alert -
234123455 transmitted in error - MRCC Tenerife please acknowledge
(Tenerife Traffic acknowledged)
Figure 48.7 Sample radio log

Chapter 49
MARINE PAINT TECHNOLOGY

by Mr. K.E.M. Haugland, Jotun-Henry Clark Ltd.
Mr. Haugland is a chemical engineerfiom Norway, having worked more than 30 years within Jotun Paints' worldwide organisation
in a number of different countries. He started as a laboratory chemist andprogressed via marinc coatings inspector to become involzred
in all aspects of a paint company's operation. Presently he is Customer Services Manager for Jotun-Henry Clark Ltd., embracing
technical sutport, training and education, customer relations, sales order administration and logistics.
Introduction Composition of paints

THE SINGLE MOST COMMON CAUSE for a vessel to be The ingredients included in a paint formulation
taken out of service is advanced corrosion. One of can be grouped in four categories:
the most important factors influencing a vessel's
operating costs is its friction while moving through Resin (binder)
the water. In both these important areas, paints or This is the ingredient in the paint that forms the
coatings play a crucial role. film, binds the other ingredients together, and 'glues'
the film to the substrate (provides adhesion). The resin
While marine paints are the number one defence is often referred to as the binder in a paint. A clear
against both corrosion and fouling, they also provide varnish is a good illustration of what a binder looks
the means to a pleasing appearance and identification like.
of ownership. A nicely painted and maintained vessel
has a greater effect on public image, and may instil Binders can either be naturally occurring or man-
more confidence with the general public, than the most made. Examples of natural binders are linseed oil
sophisticated electronic equipment hidden behind its (boiled), coal tar, wood rosin, and bitumen. Synthetic
bulkheads. binders include alkyd, epoxy, polyurethane, vinyl,
acrylic, chlorinated rubber. One may frequently come
Development of seagoing vessels is an ongoing across expressions such as epoxy paint, alkyd paint,
process, where specialisation and new refinements acrylic paint etc. The most common way of classifying
replace old and tested solutions, and marine paints paints is thus by referring to its binder (or resin), often
have to follow suit. Key words in this connection are referred to as the generic types of paint.
life cycle cost evaluation (LCC),life cycle assessment
(LCA),environmental / safety / health considerations, As for most things, the different binders have their
national and international legislation, industry individual strengths and weaknesses. Properties like
water resistance, chemical resistance, flexibility,
standards etc.
hardness, mechanical strength etc. are primarily
With longer service life expectancy of a vessel, with determined by the binder. It is thus important to select
less crew, faster operating speed, shorter time in port, the type of paint that best can withstand the expected
longer docking intervals, and a fierce competition conditions and exposure.
within the shipping industry, the requirements and
expectations to the paint systems increases, as do the Some paints contain more than one binder, often
consequences in cases of paint failure. Surveys have referred to as modified paints. Examples of such are
coal tar epoxy, vinyl tar and acrylic modified
shown that more than 950h of paint failures are caused
by poor workmanship, unsatisfactory conditions polyurethane.
during application, or wrong selection of coating Thinner
system (not fit for purpose). Pure resin will vary in appearance from a sticky
liquid, via a thick paste, to solid lumps. In order to be
Following a suitable education, it takes years of
able to apply paint, one needs in most cases to
experience to become an 'exper' in marine paints.
incorporate thinner to the paint. The solid resins must
Such experts, easiest found within the paint industry,
be made into solution, the thick pastes must be made
should be consulted in crucial or complicated
more liquid, and the sticky liquids perhaps made to
problems and decisions. However, a minimum
flow more freely.
knowledge of basic paint technology is without doubt
beneficial to key personnel making decisions on paint The primary reason for incorporating thinners in
specifications, supervising painting work or monitoring paint is to develop satisfactory application properties.
its cost efficiency. The following is intended as a basic Once the paint is applied, the thinners have carried
introduction for such personnel to various aspects of out their mission and are no longer needed. They will
protecting ships and vessels with paints and coatings. disappear through evaporation. It is important that
COMMAND 297
they leave the paint film before the drying/curing zinc phosphate and zinc dust. Other active pigments
processes have advanced so far that the thinners are may have a biocidal effect, as is the case for cuprous
trapped in the film. Adequate ventilation in enclosed oxide pigment in antifoulings. Other highly specialised
spaces is thus important not only for safety reasons, active pigments may for e x a m p l e provide
but also for the quality of the paint film. luminescence or conversion of rust stain.
T h e solubility of the different resins varies Barrier pigments are flake-shaped and will both
considerably, for which reason the solvent / solvent reinforce the film and make it less permeable to
blends used to dilute them have to be carefully moisture (increase corrosion protection). The most
determined. Addition of the wrong thinner to paint common barrier pigments consist of aluminium flakes,
can lead to reduced quality of the paint film. Gun wash micaceous iron oxide (MIO) flakes, or glass flakes.
and other unspecified thinners may possibly be useful The two first are mostly found in primers and mid
for cleaning equipment, but should never be added coats, while glass flakes also can be found in high
to a paint. abrasion resistant coatings.
Most paints are supplied from the manufacturer Additives
ready to be applied, i.e. addition of thinner will A huge number of different chemicals are available
normally not be necessary prior to application. Only for incorporation in paint's composition. These may
three situations may justify addition of thinner by the speed up the production process, ensure storage
paint applicator: stability, improve application properties, catalyse or
accelerate the drying process, and enhance the quality
1. Application on an extremely porous substrate of the resulting film.
(assists penetration).
2. Applications in very cold weather (the paint gets Drying mechanisms
too thick). A number of different resins / resin combinations
3. Application i n very h o t weather (solvents are used in modern paints. These generic types of paint
evaporate too quickly for the paint to flow out). have their strengths and weaknesses, something that
Addition of thinner will increase the possibility of may be a source of confusion to personnel only having
saggmg during application. It will also reduce the solid a distant relationship to paints. A simpler way of
assessing whether a particular paint is fit for purpose
content of the paint, altering the ratio between wet
is to consider its drying mechanism.
film and dry film thickness.
Most water-borne paints contain resin solutions that Drying mechanisms can be divided into two main
are dispersed in water. They use water as thinner. categories, each with their sub-groups:
Solvent-borne paints use various types of Drying involving a chemical reaction
hydrocarbons from the petrochemical industry as These paints come in two versions: single pack
thinners. Common types are white spirit, solvent products an ? two (or multi-) pack products. The vast
naphtha, xylene, isobutanol etc. They all have some majority use organic solvents for thinners, but some
degree of flammability. water borne products will also fall into this category,
as well as some solvent-free products. All chemical
Pigments
reactions are temperature sensitive. W h e n the
The term pigment is commonly used for a variety
temperature increases, the speed of the chemical
of powders used in paint manufacturing. They may
reaction increases as well (i.e. shorter drying time). At
be grouped as follows:
decreasing temperature the speed slows down and may
Colour pigments are powders which are added to even come to a stop. These paints will thus have a
paints in order to hide the substrate (provide opacity) minimum temperat~lrerequirement, below which they
and give the desired colour to the film. Most colours should not be applied (curing reaction stops). Low-
will be the result of mixing different colour pigments, temp or 'wintergrade' versions may be available,
and by altering this mixture one can adjust the curing at lower temperatures than the standard grades.
resulting colour. Colour pigments may be natural or
Two pack products
synthetic, organic or inorganic powders.
The resin will be in one of the packs and a curing
Extenders are naturally occurring mineral agent/hardener will be in the other. Curing takes place
powders, which are added to the paint in order to through a chemical reaction between the two
improve the quality of the film. They may add volume components. The reaction starts immediately after
to the paint, reinforce the film, increase abrasion mixing, meaning application has to be con~pleted
resistance, reduce gloss etc. within a given time (pot life). The resulting product is
a new chemical compound that can not be reversed
Active or reactive pigments are present in paint to its initial components. In general, these types of
for a specific purpose. Well known examples are anti- products will give the toughest films in terms of
corrosion pigments such as red lead, zinc chromate, abrasion and chemical resistance. Some of the more
298 THE NAUTICAL INSI-ITLITE

common types are epoxy, polyurethane, two-pack Generic types
acrylic, polyester. The most common way of classifying paints is to
Single pack products group them according to the binder(s) they contain.
These types of resin will react with a substance These groups are often referred to as generic types of
being present in the local environment. The most paint. Even people outside the paint industry use this
common type is alkyd resin (sometimes referred to as classification when they talk about epoxy-paint, alkyd-
oil paint), which will react with oxygen in the air. If paint etc. The following is a list of the most common
we prevent oxygen from reaching the paint, the drying generic types used in marine coatings.
process will stop. Acrylic paints, single pack
The second most common group of resins in this Based on synthetic solid resin, dissolved in solvents,
physically drying through evaporation.
category will react with humidity in the air. Moisture
cured polyurethane resin and zinc silicates are typical Acrylic paints, two pack
representatives of this group. If the relative humidity Based on acrylic resin that cures through a chemical
is too low where these paints are applied, proper curing reaction with a hardener, forming a topcoat with
will not take place. After curing, their film can be excellent outdoor durability. May have some
comparable to that of two-pack paints. Storage time restrictions on over-coating interval.
(shelf life) for these paints is normally restricted due
to their sensitivity to moisture. Alkyd paints
Based on chemically modified oils that dry through
There are other single pack resins, but few of them reaction with oxygen, sometimes referred to as oil
are used for marine coatings. Certain silicone resins, paints or conventional paints. Have been used as
used for heat resistant paints, require elevated general-purpose paints for a long time. Poor water
temperature to cure completely (post curing). resistance if submerged, limited chemical resistance,
and the film may be spoiled by strong solvents and
Drying without a chemical reaction involved thinners (e.g. paint removers).
These paints dry purely through a physical
evaporation of thinners; no chemical reaction is Bituminous paints
involved. Their resins are solid in their pure state. Based on solid to semi-solid residue from
During the paint production process they are dissolved petroleum distillation, also found in asphalt. Physically
in solvents, but once the thinners leave the film drying through solvent evaporation. May cause
through evaporation, these resins will turn solid again. discoloration of subsequent coats (bleeding).
T h e evaporation process is considerably less Chlorinated rubber paints
temperature dependent than a chemical reaction. Based on resin formed by the reaction of rubber
Solvent borne with chlorine, forming a white powder that is dissolved
The solid resin is dissolved in suitable organic in aromatic solvents. Physically drying through solvent
solvents, forming- a solution. When the solvents evaporation.
evaporate, the resin becomes solid. If exposed to the Emulsion paints
same solvents again, the resin will re-dissolve. The Binder consists of resin dispersed in water
dry film may thus have poor resistance against (emulsified),such as polyvinyl acetate (PVA),polyvinyl
solvents. However, in a two coats system, solvents from acrylate (PVAc), also referred to as latex. Physically
the second coat will soften or slightly re-dissolve the drying. Not resoluble.
surface of the first coat, resulting normally in excellent
inter-coat adhesion. Common resins belonging to this Epoxy paints
category are chlorinated rubber, vinyl, acrylic, coal Two-pack chemically curing paint with very good
tar and bitumen. abrasion resistance, water resistance and resistance
against chemicals. Require good pre-treatment.
Water borne
Resin is dispersed in water. A small amount of
Epoxy-mastic coatings
Based on two-pack epoxy binder, usually in
solvent is normally required to achieve this; so most
combination with another binder (e.g. a hydrocarbon
water borne paints will contain some solvent as well.
resin). This results in a much higher tolerance to
The drying mechanism consists of evaporation of the
surfaces not being blast-cleaned, a higher solid content
water, followed by evaporation of the co-solvent. After
of the paint, and the ability to apply high film thickness
drying, these paints are not resoluble in water, nor in
in each coat.
most solvents, but they tend to be less water resistant
than solvent borne products. Useful temperature range Epoxy tar paints (coal tar epoxy)
is restricted by the presence of water. Common types Based on two-pack epoxy binder that is modified
of paints in this group are emulsions of alkyd, acrylic, with coal tar. This results in a higher tolerance to
PVA, PVAc. surfaces not being blast cleaned and an increased water
COMMAND 299
resistance. Tar may be re-dissolved by subsequent flexibility to cater for movements, e.g. oil or alkyd
coats and cause tar bleeding. based, will best serve wood, being an organic material.
A pigmented film will reflect or absorb UV-light, while
Polyester coatings a clear film may let it pass through. The result is that
Coating in which the binder is unsaturated both the clear film itself and the wood may be in
polyester. It needs peroxide for cross-linking. Most danger of degradation when exposed to strong sunlight
polyester coatings need glass-flakes for reinforcement. for long periods. UV-absorber is sometimes added to
Chemically curing with very short pot-life. Extremely exterior varnishes, but its effect is of limited duration.
high abrasion resistance.
Tropical hardwood (e.g. teak) often has a high
Polyurethane paints content of rosin that may interfere with varnish,
Based on specially polymerised binder which is causing prolonged drying time, reduced adhesion, and
used in both one-component (moisture cured) and two- affect its gloss. When varnishing such wood for the
component (isocyanate cured) paints. Are hard- first time, clean its surface thoroughly with relatively
wearing and generally resistant to chemicals. Aliphatic strong thinner first, let it dry, and remove protruding
types have good gloss, colour stability and weather fibres gently with fine sandpaper before applying the
resistance. Chemically curing. first coat of varnish.
Silicate paints Several coats of varnish are required to protect
See zinc silicate paint. wood. Three coats should be the bare minimum, while
Silicone paints five coats are preferable. Varnished wood, particularly
Mostly used for heat resistant paints. The resin is when exposed outdoors, will require regular
based on silicone instead of carbon. maintenance. Milky areas in the film may indicate loss
of adhesion (uninflated blister), while pronounced
Vinyl paints discoloration of the wood suggests that the varnish
Based on synthetic resins, often chlorinated, which film is no longer intact. Suggested maintenance
are dissolved in strong solvents. Dries physically procedure:
through solvent evaporation. Declining in use due to
the need for high solvent content. Clean the wooden object with detergent and water
to remove oil, salt and other surface contaminants.
Vinylester coatings Remove all damaged varnish with a sharp paint
Based on vinylester resin, which needs peroxide scraper and/or careful abrading.
for cross-linking. Most vinylester coatings need glass- Sandpaper bare wood to expose firm material, and
flakes for reinforcement. Chemically curing with very feather the edges of intact varnish (smooth
short pot-life. Very high resistance towards chemicals, transition).
particularly at elevated temperatures. Build up new film on exposed wood by spot-
Vinyl tar paints applying several coats of varnish.
Contain both vinyl resin and coal tar as binder, Abrade the entire surface with fine sandpaper and
both being physically drying (solvent evaporation). apply a full-coat of varnish.
Zinc silicate paints Fouling - antifoulings

Zinc dust filled paints based on an inorganic binder. Introduction
Zinc silicates give very hard film, are resistant to It is estimated that some 4,000 to 5,000 species are
solvents, have very high anti-corrosion properties and involved in fouling. They can be classified into two
can tolerate high temperatures. Require very good pre- groups based on the size of the fully-grown specimen:
treatment. Ethyl-silicate need moisture for curing,
alkali-silicate is water-soluble. Macrofouling: includes animals and plants.
Microfouling: generally referred to as slime, a
Wood - varnish complex mucilaginous mixture of
Wood comprises of hollow cellulose fibres held bacteria and diatoms.
together by lignin. If left unprotected, water may
penetrate the fibres (causing the wood to swell and Some of these species are happy to swim or be
crack), UV-light will decompose the lignin (causing carried about by currents. Many must however find a
discoloration and loose fibres), and fungi may attack hard surface on which to attach in order to fulfil their
the wood (causing rot and decay). The most common life cycles. Every available space is contested, including
way of protecting wood against the elements is to apply ships' bottoms. The likelihood for fouling to settle on
a transparent barrier. This barrier may consist of wax, a ship's bottom will depend on a number of factors,
oil or varnish. such as:
A varnish is a binder without any pigmentation. Geographical area
Most of the earlier described binders can be used as Time of year
clear varnishes. A varnish with a certain degree of Sea temperature

Currents 2003 organo-tin containing antifoulings can no longer
Pollutants in the sea be applied to ships' bottoms. Early tin-free alternatives
Speed of vessel were based on 'ablative' or water sensitive physically
deteriorating binders, in order to avoid the build-up
Antifouling paints of the inactive porous layer mentioned earlier. The
The main purposes of antifouling paints are to challenge was to find a replacement for the organo-
prevent or reduce growth on micro-organisms on a tin composition that was harmless to the environment
ship's underwater hull, providing better fuel economy and at the same time still being able to provide the
and avoiding growth penetration through the anti- hydrolysing abilities of the binder. At the time this is
corrosive coatings. This is achieved by incorporating written, two different solutions are available in the
biocides in the film. A biocide is a chemical substance market. Since organo-tin is not present in these
that is released at very low rates and destroys or products, other biocides may be incorporated in the
inhibits marine fouling from settling on the substrate film to act alongside the traditional cuprous oxide.
it is released from. The most common antifouling
biocide is cuprous oxide. Other solutions
A number of more or less innovative solutions to
Conventional antifouling the fouling problem for ships have been developed
The very old-fashioned antifouling, using cuprous over the years, but few have had a commercial
oxide in a natural rosin binder. This rosin slowly viability. One of the few is the 'non-stick' antifouling,
dissolves in sea water, also known as 'soluble matrix'. where the surface of the coating has properties that
Effective life is generally short, approximately 12 make attachment difficult.
months.
Corrosion - anti-corrosives
Longlife antifouling
These are referred to as 'insoluble matrix' paints. Theory
The binder is insoluble in sea water, typically Iron, the main ingredient in steel, is found as iron
consisting of chlorinated rubber, vinyl or acrylic. ore (iron oxide) in its natural state. When the ore is
When biocides are released into the water, the processed to iron and steel, a considerable amount of
remaining part of the film will turn into a porous layer energy is required (e.g. iron smelter). Iron is however
on the surface of the coating. As the thickness of the most stable as iron oxide (the lowest energy level),
porous layer increases, the rate of biocide release and it will always try to revert to this form. The
transition from metallic iron back to iron oxide is
reduces. This porous layer leaves a very weak substrate
for any new coatings and a sealer coat would normally popularly called corrosion, and the end product is
be required. Over the years this will lead to a build up commonly referred to as rust. When we try to fight
of alternate sealer coat / antifouling coat (sandwich corrosion, we are thus actually fighting one of nature's
coating), which eventually will crack and loose its laws. This is a battle we cannot win, but we can extend
adhesion. Other biocides, like organo-tin (TBTO), the battle for a considerable time.
often complement cuprous oxide. Effective service life Three conditions must be met in order for
is up to 24 months. corrosion to take place:
Self-polishing - tin containing Anoddcathode must be present
These coatings have organo-tin chemically This simply means two different substances, or
incorporated in their binders, in addition to the usual areas within the same substance, with differing
cuprous oxide. When cuprous oxide is released, the electro-chemical potential. It can be two different
binder will slowly decompose (hydrolyse)in sea water, metals, or two different parts of a piece of steel
releasing organo-tin as well. This hydrolysing will with slightly different chemical composition (a
avoid build-up of a porous inactive layer, as is the piece of steel will never be completely uniform
case for longlife antifoulings. Biocide release is thus throughout).
kept at a consistent level throughout its service life. Presence of electrolyte (water/moisture)
The rate of hydrolysis can be adjusted to cater for Distilled water is a poor electrolyte, but any casual
vessels operating at various speeds. This type of water will do. Sea water is an excellent electrolyte.
antifouling has over the years proved to be the most Presence of oxygen
efficient fouling preventing coatings, with their service Found not only in the atmosphere (air), but also
life in principle only limited by external factors such dissolved in water/sea water.
as docking intervals and inspections by classification
authorities. If we can prevent any of the above three conditions,
the corrosion process will not take place.
Self-polishing - tin free
Environmental concerns about the release of Barrier effect
organo-tin to the sea and its effect on marine life have All paint films will to some extent act as a barrier,
steadily built up over the years. This has led to preventing water and oxygen from reaching the steel
increasing restrictions for its use, and from January surface, and thus preventing corrosion from taking
COMMAND 301
place. The effectiveness of this barrier may vary from the primary protection, with CP acting as a back up
one paint to another, and may be enhanced by adding for weaknesses or damages in the film.
flake-shaped barrier-pigments (e.g. aluminium flakes,
see section about pigments). The thickness of the paint Sacrificial anodes (SACP)
film is of course crucial to the barrier effect as well. We can interfere with a corrosion cell in such a
way that electrons are supplied from a source outside
Passivation the cell. This is arranged by connecting another metal
Certain pigments have the ability to passivate the electrically to the elements in the corrosion cell. If
steel surface under given conditions, such as zinc- this other metal is less noble than steel, it will supply
chromate, zinc-phosphate and red-lead. Some primers electrons to the original steel anode and become the
contain these pigments and provide protection both anode in this new cell. The result is that the new
through passivation and providing a barrier. Such (external) anode will slowly dissolve, preventing the
primers are generally not recommended for use in steel from dissolving (corroding). This new anode is
submerged areas (may lead to blisters). usually referred to as a sacrificial anode.
Galvanic protection The majority of sacrificial anodes are made from

Galvanised steel will have a layer of metallic zinc zinc, but aluminium alloy is also used. The latter has
on its surface. This protects against corrosion because a stronger driving force, so less metal is required to
the driving force that converts zinc to zinc oxide is achieve the same effect as for zinc. These anodes
greater than the driving force converting iron to iron appear as metal bars which are welded (or bolted) to
oxide. When these two metals are (electrically) the underwater hull area of vessels. They are also used
connected, the zinc will act as an anode and the steel inside tanks, e.g. ballast tanks, but will only be effective
will become a cathode. The result is that zinc will when they are submerged in sea water.
corrode while protecting the steel from corrosion. Impressed current (ICCP)
Zinc-rich primers have a high content of zinc-dust. Instead of supplying electrons from a sacrificial
anode, these can come directly from an electrical
When such primers are applied directly onto bare and
source, like a battery. Permanent anodes are built into
clean steel (electrical contact), they will protect the
the underwater hull of a vessel. These are connected
steel against corrosion along the same principles as
to a source of current (power supply, transformer and
galvanising. By applying subsequent mid-coats on top
rectifier) inside the ship. Using reference electrodes
of the zinc-rich primer (or on top of galvanising), we
and electronic controls, a current is impressed on the
slow down the corrosion of the zinc as well. underwater area, sufficient to prevent corrosion from
Aluminium/stainless steel taking place on exposed steel (damages in the coating
When certain metals start corroding, they form an system). Special coatings must be used in the area next
even and relatively robust layer of oxide on its surface. to the permanent anodes.
This oxide layer may prevent further oxidation Magnesium stripping
(corrosion) to take place, i.e. forming a protective oxide In normal sea water, the correct amount of zinc
layer. Aluminium and stainless steel are typical and aluminium anodes provide a current sufficient for
examples of such metals. If however a damage is made preventing steel from corroding without damaging
in this oxide layer, both the metal-oxide and the metal coatings of good quality. Anodes made from
itself are exposed to the elements. They will act as magnesium will supply a stronger current, so strong
anode and cathode, and in the presence of oxygen that poorly adhering paint and scales of rust will be
and moisture, severe pit-corrosion may take place. forced away from the surface. This can be taken
This is the reason why such metals are often painted. advantage of in connection with water ballast tank
refurbishing. Coils of magnesium anodes are installed
Cathodic protection (CP) in the tanks two to three weeks prior to a scheduled
Principle docking. By the time the ship is docked, the anodes
(See also the section on corrosion). When corrosion will be consumed and weak paint and cakes of rust
takes place, we will always find an anodic and a loosened and will have fallen down to the bottom of
cathodic area. In the presence of an electrolyte (e.g. the tank. After high pressure washing with fresh water
and drying, the tank can be coated with a surface
sea water), they will produce a flow of electrons
tolerant wbt-coating. Due to the formation of hydrogen
(electrical current), moving- from the anodic area
gas during this stripping process, certain precautions
towards the cathode. As a result the anode will slowly must be taken during that two week period.
dissolve (corrode). This is often referred to as a
corrosion cell. If we can suppress this flow of electrons, Coating systems
corrosion will not take place on the anodic steel area. Primers
This is what cathodic protection (CP) sets out to do. The first coat to be applied. Forms the foundation
Although CP may be used as the sole corrosion for the paint system and provides the adhesion to the
protection measure, most commonly it is used in substrate. Any active corrosion inhibiting pigments
combination with paints. The paint film will provide should be incorporated in this coat.

Mid-coats Surface preparation
Gives the main build (thickness)to the paint system, Even the best paint in the world will only perform
providing a good barrier effect. More than one mid- satisfactorily if the substrate has been prepared to the
coat may be specified in a system. required standard.
Topcoats Steel preparation
Provides the decorative finish and the first-line At the designing stage of a structure it is important
defence against the elements. that corrosion is taken into consideration. Corrosion
Generic systems traps should be avoided, like possibilities for stagnant
If a primer, mid-coat and topcoat all have binders water, inaccessible details, drain-holes that are too
of the same generic type, it is not likely that there will small to be painted.
be any problem in combining them in a paint system. During construction, faults in the steel (e.g. de-
Some care must though be taken if the manufacturer lamination and blowholes) must be repaired, rough
recommends different thinners for each of these welding-seams ground smooth and sharp edges
products. rounded.
Hybrid systems Cleaning
This term is used when paints of different generic All contaminants must be removed from the
types are combined in a paint system. It may also be substrate before pre-treatment starts. If not, they ~ i l l
used when a solvent-born paint is combined with a be much more difficult to remove after being forced
water-born paint, even if they both have the same into pores and the profile of the steel. Oil, grease, dirt,
generic type of binder. welding smoke, etc. is best removed by an industrial
The most common problem occurs when the detergent / degreaser, followed by fresh water cleaning
solvents in the second coat are too strong for the first to remove salt (the higher the pressure, the better
coat. Alkyd paint will 'lift' when subjected to strong result). Failure to remove contaminants is likely to
solvents (as with a paint remover), while a physically result in subsequent paint failures, such as reduced
drying paint will re-dissolve (see section 2: drying adhesion (flaking) and blisters.
mechanisms). Pre-treatment
Another possible problem may occur if a hard- The best steel substrate for painting is bare metal
drying paint (e.g. chemically curing) is applied over a with a certain roughness. The roughness (anchor
thick layer of a relatively soft or thermoplastic film pattern or surface profile) will ensure the best possible
(e.g physically drying). This may lead to cracking. adhesion. Presence of mill-scale and rust will prevent
the paint from being attached directly to the steel,
Discoloration may occur if the underlying coat leading to detachment. It may even promote continued
contains easily soluble matters that may bleed into corrosion under the paint film, resulting in rust
the following coat, e.g. coal tar, bitumen, dye etc. penetration. Although hand tools may still have their
uses, modern pre-treatment methods can broadly be
Over-coating an unknown paint divided in three groups:
It often happens that records of which paint was
used previously are no longer available. This will cause Mechanical surface preparation
difficulties in determining which type of paint to use Needle-pickers and other impact tools may still be
for repainting at a later stage. Applying a test patch is useful to remove cakes of rust, but they should only
the sensible way of approaching this situation. be used in combination with other suitable methods.
Rotating wire-brushes and disks must be used with
A quick test to determine which main group of care to avoid polishing (burnishing) the surface or
coatings the old paint belongs to is to perform a cutting too deep into the steel. Some more recent types
solvent-test. Make a scratch in the old paint and cover of equipment are easier to work with, like flexible
this with a rag soaked in a strong thinner, for instance abrasive disks, abrasive pads, flap wheels and rotary
an epoxy thinner. After 15 minutes remove the rag peening tools. They may expose bare and clean metal
and examine the surface for any changes: combined with a certain surface roughness. The most
-
If the old paint loose its adhesion, lifts and form common standards for mechanical pre-treatment are
blisters, it will be an oxidising type of paint (alkyd given as St2 and St3 ( I S 0 8,501).
paint). Blast cleaning
If the old paint does not lift but is dissolved (soft, Blast cleaning has for a long time been considered
sticky, smears), it will be of a physically drylng type as the most efficient method, producing the surface
(acrylic,chlorinated rubber, vinyl, bitumen etc.) most suitable for paint application. A number of
If there is no change - to the old film, it is likely to different blast media are available, giving varying
be a chemically curing paint (two-pack, epoxy, surface roughness. T h e requirement for purity
polyurethane, silicate etc.). (particularly salt content) must be observed. Problems
COMMAND 303
related to dust and air-born particles have imposed Inspection
restrictions, which again have prompted some Routines for inspections should be established
development within this field. Combining water with before the work starts. Typical checkpoints would be:
blast cleaning (shroud / wet / slurry -blasting) reduce
the dust but cause flash-rust ('gingering1).New types Steel preparation
of blast media are surfacing, but costs tend to limit Surface cleanliness
their use to special applications. Examples of such Pre-treatment
media are sponge (with or without grit incorporated), Application equipment & paints
solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) and baking soda. The During application
widely accepted standards for blast cleaning are Sal, Between coats
Sa2, Sa2-, Sa3 (IS08.501). After last coat
UHPWJ Daily reports/notes should be made, recording

Ultra high pressure water jetting is defined by weather conditions, areas treated, products used, film
NACE as water jetting at pressures above 25,000 psi. thickness readings, drying times, general observations
UHPWJ is capable of removing old paint and and any deviation from specification.
corrosion products (rust), revealing a surface which
initially correspond to Sa 2-. Due to the high humidity
Failures
in the vicinity and fog created by cleaning adjoining The majority of paint failures occur due to
areas, flash rust is usually encountered. UHPWJ does unfavourable conditions, use of incorrect product,
not create any surface roughness, but in cases of faulty equipment or poor workmanship. A few of the
maintenance work it will reveal existing blast profile common failures are:
from under old paint. Flaking. Caused by unsatisfactory adhesion. Often
found to be due to application on a contaminated (oil,
Application dust, water) substrate or due to incorrect over-coating
Before application starts, one must check that interval.
prevailing conditions are acceptable and the substrate Blisters. Caused by a pressure developing under
suitably prepared. Observe that certain paints have the paint film. Submerged areas may suffer from
temperature restrictions for application. While osmotic pressure (painting over soluble salts), leading
opening the tin, ensure that dirt from the lid does not to water-filled blisters. Atmospheric areas may suffer
fall inside the tin. Stir the contents before application from blisters created by solvents or impurities trapped
starts. Two-pack paints must be mixed thoroughly, within the film, which expands during increase in
using a mechanical agitator. temperature (gas-filled blisters).
Addition of extra thinner to the paint prior to Cracking. May be caused by a hard-curing paint
application is normally not recommended. applied over a relatively soft substrate. In cases of
Ensure that areas to be painted can be reached many coats of paint accumulating on top of each other
safely and that the operator can get close enough over the years, flexibility is reduced and crachng (often
combined with flaking) may occur.
to the surface to carry out a satisfactory job.
Drying. Lack of or extended drying times may be
Strong wind and/or too long distance between a
caused by too low temperature, addition of incorrect
spray gun and the substrate will lead to dry-
thinner, lack of or insufficient mixing of two-pack
spraying and extra loss of paint (which eventually
paints, inadequate ventilation.
may settle on areas not intended to be painted).
Rust penetration. Many factors may contribute to
Confined spaces must have adequate ventilation.
rust penetrating a paint film, such as poor pre-
Edges, corners, notches, welding seams, bolt- treatment, low film thickness, lack of stripe coating,
heads, nuts and hard to reach areas should be pinholes in the film, etc.
stripe-coated, using a suitable brush (eventually
airless spray). Health, safety and environment
During application, wet film thickness readings The most commonly recognised hazard related to
should be carried out regularly to ensure the painting is the presence of solvent vapours. These will
correct thickness is achieved. constitute fire or explosion hazard, a danger to health
Brush application will force the paint into the (inhalation and contact with eyes and skin), and
profile of the substrate, but will result in a lower environmental pollution (release to air). Other
film thickness than spray application. ingredients in paints may also have potentially
Roller application tends not to force the paint into negative effects, e.g. being harmful, toxic,
unevenness in the substrate a n d is not carcinogenic, cause eczema, heritable genetic defects,
recommended for the first coat. etc. It is always important to use the recommended
Airless spray application is the fastest method and personal protective equipment (PPE), notably of
normally produces a higher film thickness than approved quality. Information regarding PPE is found
other application methods. in individual products' material safety data sheet

(MSDS),issued by their manufacturer. MSDS will also priorities, budget restraints, availabilic- of material /
contain other useful information, such as what to do equipment / manpower, and so on, ma>- force the
in cases of fire, spillage, ingestion, storage, whole project to turn out differently from the initial
transportation, etc. intentions. Good communication between the parties
involved and proper recording of work actual1)- carried
Painting newbuildings out (or not carried out) will be important in situations
With decreasing resources (manpower and time) like that, as well as for the next docking. A few points
available for routine maintenance work, it is important worth bearing in mind for dockings:
that the corrosion protection established at the
newbuilding stage gives the best foundation for a Seaweed, slime and other soft fouling will usually
continued anti-corrosion programme for the operative be removed easily by water jetting. Barnacle,
life of the vessel. mussel and other shell fouling may have to be
removed by hand scraping. The barnacle bases
Life cycle cost (LCC) analysis that remain should be removed by sweep-blasting
LCC is a tool that can assist in identifying the most (or blast-cleaning). They should not be over-
beneficial paint system for a vessel. It should take into coated.
account costs of paint products, all costs related to Oil and grease must be removed from the surface
paint-work during construction and subsequent with a suitable detergent while the vessel is being
maintenance (labour, scaffolding, pre-treatment etc.), high pressure cleaned.
maintenance intervals, interest and inflation rates, off- Unless already used for water jetting, it is
hire, and so on, for the entire expected service life of important to rinse the hull with freshwater to
the vessel. Not surprisingly, choosing a better quality remove salt. Over-coating salt crystals is bound
treatment during the construction period often proves to g v e problems.
to be by far the most economical solution when the Work should not be carried out on steel that is
whole service life of the vessel is taken into wet or moist from condensation. Air temperature
consideration. changes faster than the temperature of steel, so
Planning/specification both need to be monitored. Double-bottom tanks
Discussions related to painting should be included that are not empty may cause condensation on
in the negotiations with the building yard as early as the outside hull, even if adjoining areas are dry.
possible. The painting programme must for instance If spot-blasting is required on the hull, it is better
accommodate requirements for climatic conditions to identify larger areas for a proper full-blast, than
and re-coating intervals in a realistic way. Most to have spots ("freckles")all over. Repairs in other
i m p o r t a n t is often the progress plan of paint areas can be carried out at the next docking,
application versus other types of work carried out. instead of spot-blasting the same areas at every
Repair of already painted areas due to damages docking. Weak areas will always be the transition
inflicted by other trades is often the most frustrating between old and new coatings, as well as damages
aspect of a paint inspector's job. caused by over-blast. Treating larger areas will
reduce the amount of such vulnerable transitions.
Incorporating published standards into the paint Satisfactory access to work areas is crucial for good
specification during the negotiating process is by far quality work. Too long a distance between water
much less painful than trying to achieve such standards jetting or blasting nozzles and the substrate will
in times of disputes during the construction period. cause reduction in effective pressure, which again
The more detailed a paint specification for a new will influence the productivity and/or the quality.
building is, the less disputes are likely to arise during Too long distance between a paint spray gun and
the construction period. the substrate will result in reduced coating film
Construction period quality, dry spray and higher loss of paint.
The most important aspects of paint-work during Drying times between coats, as well as drying time
the construction phase is to have clearly identified and before flooding the dock, is often a bone of
accepted responsibilities, authorisations, reporting contention. 0;e should bear in mind that
lines / routines and communication channels. If these manufacturers' recomn~endationsare made to
aspects are clear and the paint specification is sound, promote satisfactory results, and that deviation
the foundation for a satisfactory result has been laid. from these may have the opposite effect.
Dry-docking - paint perspective Training/qualifications

Even after detailed planning of the work and A number of training courses are available for
considerable efforts having been put into establishing personnel carrying out the tasks of a paint inspector.
the most suitable specification, painting in connection Some courses lead to widely recognised qualifications,
with a docking often ends up with compromises. while others are of a more general introductory type.
Condition of underwater hull area, weather conditions, Although quality control and inspection can do a lot
time in dock, important unscheduled work, change of to improve the outcome of a painting job, it is in the
COMMAND 305
end the operators' efforts and skills which are decisive. related to different products and objects can also be a
One can not inspect quality into a job, merely reduce useful source of information, as can web sites (e.g.
the number of apparent weaknesses. Training www.jotun.co.uk).
operators for pre-treatment and paint application, as
well as their foremen, ought to receive at least the A considerable amount of literature is also available
same, if not a higher, priority as for the paint inspector. from sources other than paint manufacturers.
Professional magazines related to the paint industry
Personnel involved in deciding paint specifications, as well as to the shipping industry regularly feature
planning the work, and seeing it through, will also marine coatings topics. A number of books related to
need certain qualifications. Experience gained over paint technology are published, both of general nature
the years may in some cases be the predominant and specific to the marine industry.
qualification as far as paint is concerned. One of the
options ships' officers and superintendents have, is to References
receive updates and training from their paint suppliers. Morgans, W.M., Outlines of Paint Technology,
Jotun-Henry Clark arrange training courses and published by E Arnold, 1990.
Berendsen, Marine Painting Manual, published by
presentations at regular intervals (Jotun paint school)
for personnel from various levels within their regular Graham & Trotman, 1989.
customers' organisations. An interactive CD-ROM British Marine Technology, published by British
Marine Technology.
disk is also available from the same company, from
which individuals can learn about corrosion protection Recommended Practice for Protection @ Painting of
of steel at their own convenience, using a multimedia Sh$s, 3rd edition, 1986.
Developments in Marine Corrosion, Royal Society of
computer.
Chemistry, 1998. (13 published papers from
References congress).
Informative and educational material is made Web sites
available for further study from most paint Paint Research Association (PRA) -
manufacturers. Jotun Paints' 'Coating and Inspection www.pra.0rg.uk
Manuat is an example of such literature. Various British Coating Federation (BCF) -
product manuals, working manuals and brochures www.coatings.org.uk

Chapter 50
STANDING BY A NEWBUILDING
by Mr. M.P. Cole IEng AMIMarE, Chief Officer (E) RF.A.
MOD Integrated Logistic Support Manager
The author is a serving engineer oficer with the Royal Fleet Auxiliary (R.RA.) and has held a variety ofpositions both ashore and
a$oat. He is currently on secondment to the Ministry of Defence Procurement Executive (MoDPE) as the Auxiliary Oiler (AO) project
Integrated Logistic Support Manager.
The MoDPEproject team responsiblefor the procurement ofAO class fast replenishment tankers are at the jorefiont of developing
and usingsystematic analyticalprocesses that enable inherent safety, operability and reliability characteristics of newbuilds to be optimised.
The project team is an interdisc$linary group comprising career civil servants and operating personnel on secondment to the MoDPE
fiom Commodore R.RA's organisation. The vessels are being designed and built, within a Concurrent Engineering (CE) environment at
Barrow-in-Furness by G.E.C Marine.
Special acknowledgement is given toJohn Moubray for the excellent advice andguidance contained in his book 'RCMIIReliability
Centred Maintenance, Second Edition' published by Butterworth-Heinmann.
Introduction Are overside ladders capable of being rigged safely

IT IS POSSIBLE for potentially subjective requirements and without damage to surrounding paintwork or
appertaining to safety, repairs and maintenance, human fittings?
factors and husbandry to be qualified and quantified. Is lighting adequate over ladders?
However, as they seek to influence so many areas of Have tread plates been fitted inside and outside
ship design, it is not feasible to produce a build adjacent to weather deck doors and hatches?
specification in which each applicable specific item of Accommodation and main superstructure
equipment or structure is allocated an individual set of Have furniture, equipment and fittings been
requirements.Requirements in these areas therefore need carefully sited to allow access to ship's structure?
to be actively managed during a11 stages of the design Does compartment layout allow easy access into
and build process. One way of achieving this is by the and within the compartment?
use of checklists, which can ensure that designers take Are vendation grills and diffusers readdy removable
due account of whole ship design requirements. The for cleaning and maintenance?
checklists may be used, in an iterative manner, to facilitate Where systems are fitted behind linings, have
design reviews, plan approval (both 2D and 3D if suitable portable plates been provided for access
applicable),build and acceptance.Examples of how these and maintenance?
checklists may be compiled are given below. Have suitable marker plates been provided to
Design and acceptance checklists indicate important fittings located behind linings?
Have non-watertight access doors been fitted with
SHIP HUSBANDRY kick panels and finger plates?
Have savealls been fitted under side scuttles to
Weather deck fittings collect condensation?
Have non-corroding materials been fitted where Does fixed furniture fit tightly against structure to
possible? alleviate dirt traps?
Have corrosion problems been addressed by Are and lobbies as free as possible from
insulating between dissimilar metals, providing extraneous items and fittings?
protective coatings or covers?
Have exposed surfaces been smooth finished with Machinery Space and Workshops
corners and sharp edges rounded to facilitate Have savealls and drip trays been arranged to
preservation? contain spillages, and under test taps and draw off
Have dirt and corrosion traps been avoided? cocks?
If not, have areas been sealed by continuouswelding Has equipment been arranged to allow all round
and the structure behind effectively preserved? access for survey, cleaning, preservation and
Has exposed equipment been protected against the maintenance?
ingress of water? Are floor plates portable and sectionalised to allow
If it is possible for water to enter, has adequate lifting by two people?
drainage been provided? Has pipework been sited clear of structure, fittings
Have water retaining ledges and pockets been and openings to facilitate cleaning and preservation?
avoided? Is all equipment adequately illuminated for
Have overside ladders been sited clear of operation and maintenance?
overboard discharges? Are there any joints and valves on pipework
running through electrical compartments? Maintenance
Has all rotating machinery been fitted with guards Is there sufficient space around equipment to allow
and warning notices? access for maintenance without hindering other
operations that are talung place?
HUMAN FACTORS INTEGRATION Has it been ensured that the installation of
Ergonomics, operability and accessibility equipment in compartments does not compromise
Can systems or equipment be operated? the necessary maintenance envelope?
Are 'lines of sight' adequate: Where it has not been possible to avoid obstructions,
With respect to specified operator populations has provision been made for local removal of
and specific categories of controls and displays? obstructions to ensure that adequate maintenance
Where applicable,with respect to both internal envelopes can be achieved?
and external (out of window) views? Has consideration been given to the portability and
Are controls and displays situated for ease of use? ease of lifting equipment for maintenance?
Is there clear headroom adequate for the activities Has the effect of high or low tenlperatures and
to be undertaken in the space: humidity been considered in relation to the ability
With respect to specified operator populations? of the maintainer to undertake the task?
With respect to specified tasks and activities?
Is there adequate space around equipment for Personnel movement and material handling
effective operation Have passageways, doors, hatches, etc. along routes
In particular are operating envelopes clear of been designed in accordance with anthropometric
obstruction: population data+
With respect to specified operator populations? Have passageways, doors, hatches etc. along routes
With respect to specified tasks and operations? been designed to accommodate personnel in full
Is there adequate space for load handling on storage firefighting lut?
route, etc: Have compartments and spaces been functionally
With respect to specified operator populations? grouped to ensure that the internal movement of
With respect to specified tasks and operations? personnel within the vessel is minimised?
Is there adequate clearance around equipment and Has adequate space been ensured to accommodate
systems for access to tasks: the carriage of injured personnel, specifically on
With respect to specified operator populations? stretchers?
With respect to specific equipment/system Have mechanical lifting/transporting arrangements
relationships? been provided to minimise human handling efforts
Have work stations been located to facilitate safe where heavy or bulk loads are required?
and effective traffic flow past the work station? Have direct access routes and sufficient handling
Have footrests been supplied for personnel who space been provided for storing and cargo
cannot place feet flat on the floor when using the operations?
seat at the correct height for adequate sight lines?
Do the work stations fully satisfy the ergonomic SAFETY AND HAZARDS
requirements of the defined user population in terms
of anthropometric requirements? Are 'emergency escape routes' identified and clear
from obstruction?
Man machine interface (MMI) Are door sills and hatch coamings correctly sized?
Has the MMI been designed to ensure commonality Are ladders of the correct type and free from
across work stations? obstruction?
Have controls and displays been grouped in Is the escape and damage control equipment
accordance with ergonomic specifications in located for easy use and access under adverse
relation to functionality and spatial compatibility? conditions i.e. poor visibility and close to the
Have controls and displays been grouped according associated equipment?
to frequency of use and importance? Are there adequate hand holds for rough weather
Have controls and displays been satisfactorily activities?
located in accordance with line of sight Are there arrangements for safety harnesses?
requirements? Are there guards around openings/dangerous
Have controls and displays been satisfactorily equipment?
located in accordance with reach envelope
Are there securing arrangements for loose
requirements?
Have control types been designed to optimise task equipment?
and activity requirements? Is lifesaving equipment readily accessible,
Do dimensions of buttons and controls meet including when the ship is heeled after damage?
ergonomic specifications? Is emergency equipment, including breathing
Are modes of operation of controls acceptable from apparatus, located where it may be required and
an ergonomics standpoint? that it is readily accessible by all personnel,
Do displacement distances between controls meet including in damage situations such as smoke and
ergonomic specifications? heel?
308 THE NAUTICAL INSTITU-TE

Have all areas of the ship in which potential Have adequate special to type tools and test
hazards to personnel have been identified, been equipment been provided to enable maintenance
clearly delineated and labelled in accordance with and repair of machinery by ship's staff?
the HSAW act? Are equipments, where they have b e ~ identified,
n
Has it been ensured that all drawers, lockers and capable of being repaired by replacement?
loose furniture and equipment can be secured to Have all critical workload drivers been identified?
minimise damage to walking and seated Do all electrical equipments have common test
personnel, in all sea states? point access and identification design features?
Have all safety related controls, alarms and Is machinery contained in workshops adequate
warnings been designed to meet specific to allow maintenance and repair of equipment by
ergonomic requirements? ship's staff?
Do warning signs satisfactorily meet the
requirements of BS5378 and BS5499?
Are safety related controls (such as emergency Appendix 1
stops), alarms and warnings designed to a Glossary of Terms
consistent specification?
Are safety related controls (such as emergency As low as reasonably practicable (ALARP)
stops), alarms and warnings easily operable by The principle that safety risks should be reduced
staff? to a level as low as reasonably practical is central to
Are safety related controls (such as emergency much safety legslation. It means that not only must
stops), alarms and warnings located in prominent, risks always be reduced to a tolerable level, but also
consistent, and easily reachable locations? that further reduction must be achieved, provided that
the penalties are not disproportionate to the
RELIABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY improvement gained. Reasonably practicable is
Have all critical systems been identified? defined as:
Are there any critical single point failures?
"So far as is reasonably practicable - qualifies the
Are there back up systems or equipment to
duty imposed by many health and safety (H&S)
maintain function in the event of failure?
provisions. It implies that the risk must be weighed
If so can the back up system or equipment be cross-
connected quickly and with ease? against the cost in money, time and trouble required
Are equipment types, wherever possible, common to avert it. Only if there is a gross disproportion
and interchangeable? between them and the risk is insignificant in relation
Is system design and equipment within the system, to the cost, can precautions be considered not to be
of existing and proven technology? reasonably practicable."
Has the optimum use been made of condition
Failure effects analysis (FEA)
monitoring and built in test techniques?
High level analysis carried out at system level to
Can all systems be accessed for maintenance?
analyse the effects of major equipment failure on
Can all equipment that is controlled remotely be
operated locally? system functionality. Used to identify single point
Has isolation of non-essential and essential services failures and determine redundancy requirements at
been addressed? major equipment level.
Does current system design meet numerical Failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA)
targets for availability and reliability? A lower level analysis identifying the individual
Are portable sections in systems or adequate cable ways (modes) in which an equipment can functionally
loops incorporated where required for withdrawal
fail and the effects of each failure mode. Used to
and maintenance routes ?
identify maintenance tasks and, if applicable, allows
Can equipment, where applicable, be removed
redesign options to be evaluated.
from the ship?
Has all lifting equipment been identified, or space Failure modes effects and criticality analysis
envelope included? (FMECA)
Is there adequate space for tools and parts to be An extension of the FMEA in which account is
set down during maintenance? taken of the severity criteria and conditional
Can equipment be maintained without climbing probability of failure.
on other equipment or is protection provided for
such activity? Fault tree analysis (FTA)
Are removal routes clear of obstruction, or where Whereas FNIEA techniques only identify a single
this is not possible, can obstructions be removed failure mode and use a 'bottom up' technique to
without unacceptable disruption? determine the effect of the failure mode, a fault tree is
Have adequate lifting points and other facilities essentially the logcal representation of the connections
been provided to enable maintenance and between a state of a system (a top event) and the
removal? primary events that lead to its occurrence. FTA is a
COMMAND 309
deductive (top down) method concerned with the The depth of analysis required will vary from case
identification and analysis of conditions and factors to case and must be commensurate with the size of
that cause or contribute to the occurrence of a defined the investment decision being evaluated, the options
undesirable event. Thus the tree models the ways in available etc. The key is to ensure that the level of
which the system operates in order to produce the analysis is sufficient to enable a reasoned judgement.
undesired top event.
The main steps involved in carrying out an IA are
All possible factors that can contribute to the top summarised below:
event are diagrammed in sequence and the branches
of the 'tree' are continued until independent events Define the objectives
are reached. Probabilities are determined for the These should be clearly defined and appropriate
independent events and, after simplifying the 'tree' to the level of appraisal.
both the probability of the undesired event and the List the options for meeting the objectives
most likely chain of events leading to it are computed. All possible options should be considered,
including the 'do nothing' option.
Fault tree analysis should consider:
Sift the options
Component failures. Identify and eliminate options which perform
Independent, dependent, and simultaneous worst against the objective. Make broad cost
hazardous events including failure of safety devices comparisons where appropriate to eliminate those
and common mode failure. options which are significantly more expensive.
Degradation of the safety of a subsystem or the Ensure that reasons for rejecting options are
total system from normal operation of another recorded. Subject remaining options to full IA.
subsystem. Identify the costs, benefits, timing and
Effects of defined human errors, including uncertainties of each option
operator and maintenance errors. Ensure that all costs are included in the assessment
Environmental factors. and that estimates are realistic. Only those costs
Operational modes. that vary (in total or in timing) between options
need be included. The primary objective is to
Hazard and operability study (HAZOPS) reach a conclusion that provides value for money.
To establish the hazardous states or conditions and Put those costs and benefits which can be valued
their effects by means of a methodical examination of in money terms onto a common basis (net present
the system and its elements. The analysis should be value - NPV) through the use of a discounted cash
carried out by a team with a broad knowledge of the flow (DCF)
system and its operation. Prior to the study being Payments and receipts data used in a DCF should
carried out agreed checklists containing guidewords normally be expressed at the price base at the time
relevant to the system should be compiled in order to of appraisal.
provide a basis for the study. The degree of depth of Weigh up the uncertainties and risks
the checklist should be dependant on the knowledge Apply sensitivity analysis to the assumptions
of the system at the time the study is carried out. This including timescale, cost etc. Three point costing
technique can therefore be applied at any stage of the should be used as the basis for sensitivity analysis.
project life cycle. In order to carry out a HAZOPS a Assess other factors
system description is necessary. The HAZOPS can These may include environmental; health and
then be used to identify hazards which can safety; morale and other considerations which
subsequently be analysed further by hazard analysis cannot always be valued in money terms.
techniques such as FMECA and FTA. Present the results
The main body of the submission of the analysis
Investment appraisal (IA) should contain an adequate summary of the results
A means of comparing all proposals with financial
of the appraisal.
implications with their alternatives. The technique can
be used to: Net present value (NPV)
The value obtained by discounting all cash outflows
Assess competing tenders.
and inflows attributable to capital investment by a chosen
Evaluate different development and production
percentage e.g. the entity's weighted average cost of
options (e.g. timescale, batches etc.).
capital. The chosen percentage should take account of
Evaluate payment scheme options.
predicted inflation rates; cost of borrowing etc.
Assess financial options (e.g. leasing).
Evaluate contracting out of services. Note:
Assess options for reorganisation/redeployment of This chapter is an extract from Improving Sh$
work. Operational Design, The Nautical Institute, 1999.

Chapter 51
SHIP STRUCTURES INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE

summarised from the IACS 1994 publication "Bulk Carriers -
guidelines for surveys, assessment and repair of hull structure"
by Lt. Cdr. J.A. Hepworth RN Ret'd, MIMgt MNI
The kind permission o f I A C S to include uarious quotationsj?om their publication is acknowledged.
Tony Hepworth entered the Royal Navy as a cadet through Dartmouth Royal Naval College in 7953. Following training there, in
several shore establishments and at sea he served aboard a variety of vessels, including time as a Commandiizg Oficer. He travelled
worldwide, including one circumnavigation of the globe aboard HMS KENT
Retiring in 7969 as a Lieutenant Commander, Tony then worked chiejy overseas in the Middle East until 7982, in ports and
airports in Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Qatar, Kuxlait and the United Arab Emirates. Tony returned to the UK in 7982 to set up
his own business, which celebrated its 18th year in 7999.
Consultancy assignments have included work for the World Bank, Lloyds Register of Sh$ping, the UK Crown Agents, and the EU
7ACIS programme through the European Bank,for Reconstrziction and Development - in countries as diverse as Ethiopia, Malta,
~rinidad, ~&naica,Pakistan and, mire recently, in Kaxakstan and Russia.
He has carried out a number ofassignmentsfor The Nautical Institute, including typesetting of books, some editing ofpublications
and other work.
Acknowledgement Masters will also need to be aware of the "IACS

THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION of Classification Early Warning Scheme (EWS)", enabling statistical
Societies (IACS) published excellent guidelines in analysis of problems as they arise.
1994, entitled ~ u i kCarriers - ~ u i d e l i n e for
s Surveys,
Assessment and Repair ofHull Structurdll. The publication
Survey requirements
acknowledged the significant contributions made to T h e guidelines detail class and statutory
requirements and other surveys. Class and statutory
it by a variety of marine industry sources in the
preparation of the text. It also acknowledged the kind requirements include periodic classification surveys,
contribution of Denholm Ship Management Ltd. in damage surveys and statutory surveys. 'Other' include
condition surveys and on-hire/off-hire surveys.
the development of selected graphic representation
in that edition. Technical background for surveys
Introduction Chapter 3 of the guidelines explains the purpose
Bulk Carriers - Guidelinesfor Surveys, Assessment and
of periodical hull surveys, mentions the use of standard
Repair ofHull Structure is one of an intended series of
nomenclature and details structural damages and
manuals with the intention of giving guidelines to assist deterioration. This latter section includes:
surveyors of IACS Member Societies, and other A general section.
interested parties involved in the survey, assessment Material wastage/corrosion.
and repair of hull structures for certain ship types. Fractures.
Interested parties will, of course, include masters. Buckling.
It relates to a bulk carrier type ship which is Deformations.
constructed with a single deck, single skin, double The IACS Early Warning Scheme (EWS) for
bottom, hopper side tanks and topside tanks in cargo reporting of significant hull damages is explained.
spaces, and is intended primarily to carry dry cargo,
including ore, in bulk. Figure 04.04.1 shows a typical Survey planning and preparation
cargo hold structural configuration for a single skin Chapter 4 of the guidelines covers:
bulk carrier.
Survey programme.
T h e manual includes a review of survey Principles for planning document.
preparation guidelines, including safety aspects, Conditions for survey.
encompassing different main hull structural areas Access arrangement and survey.
where damage has been recorded. An important Equipment and tools.
feature which is included is a section illustrating Survey at sea or at anchorage.
examples of structural deterioration, what to look for Documentation on board.
and recommended repair methods.
Figure 04.04.7 Tyibical cargo hold structural configuration for a single skin bulk carrier
Strength deck Strength deck

Hatch -__r plating, longitudinal
1 ,Topside tank
transverse
Topside tank plating Topside

Vertical strake tank
Side shell
Topside tank longitudinal
sloping plating Topside tank sloping
plating longitudinal
Side shell frame -_,

CARGO HOLD
Inner
Hopper tank slop~ngplating
11 1~ ~ ~ i ~ ~ ~ a l
Double
bottom
tank
plate / ~ottom
I
shell
/ Bilge
Bottom plating
Double bottom
tank floor longitudinal tank
Figure 04.04.2 Nomenclature for typical tramverse section in way of cargo hold

Survey execution Each area of the catalogue has a general
How the survey is conducted depends, naturally, introduction, explains what to look for and has general
on the type of survey to be carried out. Following a comments on repairs. A large number of clear. detailed
general section, chapter 5 of the guidelines lists diagrams are included to illustrate various points.
definitions and considers thickness measurement and
overall and close-up surveys.
Conclusion
These excellent guidelines for surveys, assessment
Structural detail failures and repairs and repair of hull structure are aimed principally, of
Chapter 6 of the guidelines includes a catalogue of course, at surveyors of IACS Member Societies.
structural detail failures and repairs, collated from data However, some aspects will be of interest to the master
obtained by the IACS Member Societies. It is intended when a vessel is due to be surveyed, assessed and
to provide guidance when considering similar cases repaired. In particular, the diag-rams can be used, with
of damage and failure. The catalogue comprises: technical staff, to explain what may be happening to
a hull structure and what could be involved as a result.
Area 1 Shell plating, frames and end brackets.
Area 2 Transverse bulkheads and associated Reference
structure. Bulk Carriers - Guidelinesfor Surveys, Assessment and
Area 3 Deck structure (including cross deck strips, Repair of Hull Structure, IACS, 1994.
main cargo hatchway corners, hatch covers The publication and further information can be
and coamings and topside tanks). obtained from T h e Permanent Secretary,
Area 4 Double bottom structure including hopper. International Association of Classification Societies,
Area ,5 Transition regons in cargo spaces, fore and 5 O l d Q u e e n Street, L o n d o n S W l H 9JA,
aft. telephone 0171-97(i-0660, fax 0171-976-0440,
Area 6 Fore and aft peak structure. telex 261720 JACS G.
AREA 4 s ti t ~ o u b l bottom
e structure EXAMPLE 4
Detail of damage Fracturing of longitudinals in way of bilge well
Sketch of damage Sketch ot repair
Fracture
$Where required the Iongitudinals to be
cropped and part renewed
I I I
Figure 04.04.3 Example of double bottom structure damage and repair (part of diagram on@
COMMAND 313
Chapter 52
THE USE OF ELECTRONIC AIDS TO NAVIGATION

Marine Safety Agency Marine Guidance Note MGN 63 (M+F)
Notice to Owners, Masters, Skippers, Officers and Crews of Merchant Ships and Fishing Vessels
This Guidance Note supersedes Merchant Shipping Notice No. 1158
Summary
This note emphasises the need for correct use of navigational equipment by watchkeepers.
Key Points
Be aware that each item of equipment is an a d t o navigation
Be aware of the dangers of over-reliance on the output from and accuracy of a single navigational aid
Recognise the importance of the correct use of navigational aids and knowledge of their limitations
Appreciate the need to cross check position fixing information using other methods
Be aware of the factors which affect the accuracy of position fixing systems
1. NAVIGATIONAL EQUIPMENT common error has been altering course on insufficient

Provision of Navigational Equipment on Ships information and by maintaining too high a speed,
particularly when a close quarters situation is
1.1 T h e Merchant Shipping (Navigational developing or is likely to develop. Information
Equipment) Regulations 1993 (SI 1993 No 69) require provided by radar and ARPA/ATA in clear weather
certain ships to be provided with a magnetic compass conditions can assist the watchkeeper in maintaining
installation and other specified ships to be fitted a proper lookout in areas of high traffic density. It
additionally with a direction finder, an echo sounder, cannot be emphasised too strongly that navigation in
a gyro compass, radar and ARPA installations, a speed restricted visibility is difficult and great care is needed
and distance measuring installation and a rate of turn even with all the information available from the radar
indicator. and ARPA/ATA. Where continuous radar
1.2 Provision is also made in the Regulations in watchkeeping and plotting cannot be maintained even
greater caution must be exercised. A "safe speed"
respect of siting and serviceability of the installations
and, in the case of radar and ARPA installations, the should at all times reflect the prevailing circumstances.
qualifications of the radar observers. Interpretation
1.3 A number of recent accidents have been caused 2.2 It is essential for the observer to be aware of
by over-reliance on a single electronic navigational the current quality of performance of the radar (which
aid. Watchkeepers must always ensure that positional can most easily be ascertained by the Performance
information is regularly cross-checked using other Monitor) and to take account of the possibility that
equipment, as well as visual aids to navigation. small vessels, sinall icebergs and other floating objects
such as containers may not be detected. When video
1.4 Some radars are equipped with AutoTracking
Aids (ATA) which enable targets to be acquired processing techniques are employed, caution should
manually and automatically plotted. Such systems do be exercised.
not provide all the functions of ARPA. Radars for 2.3 Echoes may be obscured by sea or rain clutter.
smaller vessels may be provided with Electronic Correct setting of clutter controls will help but will
Plotting Aids (EPA) which require the operator to plot not completely remove this possibility. When plotting
each target manually. EPA provides the target larger targets on a medium range scale, the display
calculations for each manual plot. Operators should should be periodically switched to a shorter range,
be aware of the functional limitations of ATA and EPA. and the clutter controls adjusted, to check for less
distinct targets.
2. THE USE OF RADAR AND PLOTTING AIDS
2.4 The observer must be aware of the arcs of blind
General
and shadow sectors on the display caused by masts and
2.1 Collisions have been caused far too frequently other on-board obstructions. They must be plotted on a
by failure to make proper use of radar and ARPA in diagram placed near the radar display which must be
both restricted visibility and in clear weather. A updated following any changes which affect the sectors.
-- - -- - - -

Plotting should be taken of the target's range because, at close
quarters, risk of collision can exist ex-en with a
2.5 To estimate the degree of risk of collision with
changng compass bearing.
another vessel it is necessary to forecast the closest
point of approach. Choice of appropriate avoiding 2.10 Radar should be used to complement x~isual
action is facilitated by the knowledge of the other observations in clear weather to assist assessment of
vessel's track. This can be obtained by manual plotting whether risk of collision exists or is likely to develop.
methods or using EPA, or automatically, using ATA It also provides accurate determination of range to
or ARPA. The accuracy of the plot, however obtained, enable appropriate action to be taken in sufficient time
depends upon accurate measurement of own ship's to avoid collision, talung into account the manoeuvring
track during the plotting interval. Observers should capabilities of own ship.
be aware that an inaccurate compass heading or speed
input will greatly reduce the accuracy of true vectors Clear weather practice
when using ARPA or ATA, and should therefore treat 2.11 It is important that all using radar and ARPA/
the apparent precision of the digital display with ATA should obtain and maintain experience in its
caution. This is particularly important with targets on operation by practice at sea in clear weather. This
near-opposite courses where a slight error of own- allows radar observations and ARPA/ATA vectors to
ship's data can make the difference between a target be checked visually. Thus misinterpretation of the
apparently crossing ahead or passing clear. radar display or false appreciation of the situation,
Choice of range scale which in restricted visibility could be potentially
dangerous, is highlighted. By keeping themselves
2.6 Although the choice of range scales for familiar with the process of systematic radar
observation and plotting is dependent upon several observation, and the relationship between radar and
factors such as traffic density, speed of own ship and electronically plotted information and the actual
the frequency of observation, it is not generally situation, watchkeepers will be able to deal rapidly
advisable to commence plotting on a short range scale. and competently with the problems which will
Advance warning of the approach of other vessels, confront them in restricted visibility.
changes in traffic density, or proximity of the coastline,
should be obtained by occasional use of longer range Operation
scales. This applies particularly when approaching 2.12 The radar display should be kept on at all times
areas of expected high traffic density when information when weather conditions indicate that visibility may
obtained from the use of longer range scales may be deteriorate, and at night wherever fog banks, small
an important factor in determining a safe speed. craft or unlit obstructions such as icebergs are likely
Appreciation to be encountered. This is particularly important when
there is a likelihood of occasional fog banks so that
2.7 A single observation of the range and bearing vessels can be detected before entering the fog. The
of an echo will give no indication of track of a vessel life of components, and hence the reliability of the
in relation to own ship. To estimate this, a succession radar, will be far less affected by continuous running,
of observations must be made over a known time than by frequent switching on and off.
interval. The longer the period of observation, the
Radar watchkeeping
more accurate the result. This also applies to ARPA/
ATA which requires adequate time to produce accurate 2.13 In restricted visibility the radar display should
information suitable for assessing collision risk and be permanently on and observed. The frequency of
determining appropriate manoeuvres. observation will depend on the prevailing
circumstances, such as own ship's speed and the type
2.8 Estimation of the target's true track is only valid
of craft or other floating objects likely to be
up to the time of the last observation and the situation
encountered.
must be kept constantly under review. The other
vessel, which may not be keeping a radar watch or Parallel index techniques
plotting, may alter its course and/or speed. This will
take time to become apparent to the observer on own 2.14 Investigation of casualties where radar was
being used as an aid to navigation prior to the vessel
ship. Neither ARPA nor ATA will detect any alteration
grounding have indicated that inadequate monitoring
immediately and therefore should also be monitored
of the ship's position contributed to many of the
constantly.
accidents. Parallel index techniques provide valuable
2.9 It should not be assumed that because the assistance to position monitoring in relation to a pre-
relative bearing of a target is changng, there is no determined passage plan, and would have helped to
risk of collision. Alteration of course and/or speed by avoid these groundings. Parallel indexing should be
own ship may alter the relative bearing. A changing practised in clear weather during straightforward
compass bearing is more reliable. However, account passages, so that watchkeepers become thoroughly
COMMAND 315
familiar with the technique before attempting it in 2.20 Some older radars may still have reflection
confined difficult passages, or at night, or in restricted plotters. It is important to remember that parallel index
visibility. lines drawn on reflection plotters apply to only one
range scale. In addition to all other precautions
2.15 The principles of parallel index plotting can be necessary for the safe use of radar information,
applied, using electronic index lines, to both relative
particular care must therefore be taken when changmg
and true motion displays. These index lines can be
range scales.
stored and called up when required on all modes of
display. Electronic index lines also enable the operator Regular operational checks
to switch ranges. With such a facility, care must be
taken during passage planning to ensure that the 2.21 Frequent checks of the radar performance must
correct parallel index lines for the intended voyage be made to ensure that the quality of the display has
are available for retrieval. not deteriorated.
2.16 O n a relative motion display, the echo of a fixed 2.22 T h e performance of the radar should be
object will move across the display in a direction and checked before sailing and at least every four hours
at a speed which is the exact reciprocal of own ship's whilst a radar watch is being maintained. This should
ground track. Parallel indexing uses this principle of be done using the performance monitor.
relative motion, and reference is first made to the chart
and the planned ground track. The index line is drawn 2.23 Mis-alignment of the heading marker, even if
parallel to the planned ground track with a only slight, can lead to dangerously misleading
perpendicular distance (cross index range or offset) interpretation of potential collision situations,
equal to the planned passing distance off the object. particularly in restricted visibility when targets are
Observation of the fixed object's echo moving along approaching from ahead or fine on own ship's bow. It
the index line will provide a continuous indication of is therefore important that checks of the heading
whether the ship is maintaining the planned track. Any marker should be made periodically to ensure that
displacement of the echo from the index line will correct alignment is maintained. If misalignment exists
immediately indicate that own ship is not maintaining it should be corrected at the earliest opportunity. The
the desired ground track, enabling corrective action following procedures are recommended:
to be taken. Check that the heading marker is aligned
(a)
2.17 Electronic parallel index lines are drawn and with the compass heading of the ship.
used in the same way on true motion displays in both
sea-stabilised and ground stabilised mode. Parallel (b) Ensure that the heading marker line on the
display is aligned with the fore-and-aft line of the ship.
index lines are fixed relative to the trace orign (i.e. to
This is done by selecting a conspicuous but small
own ship), and will consequently move across the
object with a small and distinct echo which is clearly
display at the same rate and in the same direction as
identifiable and lies as near as possible at the edge of
own ship. Being drawn parallel to the planned charted
the range scale in use. Measure simultaneously the
track, and offset at the required passing distance off
relative visual bearing of this object and the relative
the selected fixed mark, the echo of the mark will move
along the index line as long as the ship remains on bearing on the display. Any misalignment must be
track. Any displacement of the fixed mark's echo from removed in accordance with the instructions in the
the index line will indicate that the ship is off track equipment manual.
enabling corrective action to be taken. 2.24 To avoid introducing serious bearing errors,
2.18 Parallel indexing is an aid to safe navigation adjustment of the heading marker should not be
and does not replace the requirement for position carried out by using the alignment of the berth on a
fixing at regular intervals using all appropriate ship which is alongside in harbour; nor should it be
methods available including visual cheeks. carried out using bearings of targets which are not
distinct, close to the vessel or have not been identified
2.19 When using radar for position fixing and with certainty both by radar and visually.
monitoring, check:
Electronic radar plotting aids (ARPA and ATA)
(a) the radar's overall performance,
2.25 In addition to the advice given above and the
(b) the identity of fixed objects, instructions contained in the Operating Manual, users
of ARPA /ATA should ensure that:
(c) the gyro error and accuracy of the heading
marker alignment, (a) the test programmes are used to check the
validity of the ARPA/ATA data,
(d) the accuracy of the variable range marker,
bearing cursor and fixed range rings, (b) the performance of the, radar is at its optimum,
(e) that parallel index lines are correctly (c) the heading and speed inputs to the ARPA/ATA
positioned on a suitable display. are satisfactory. Correct speed input, where provided

by manual setting of the appropriate ARPA/ATA 3.3 Some equipment processes data from se\-era1
controls or by an external input, is vital for correct electronic positioning systems (e.g Decca. LORAS
processing of ARPAIATA data. Serious errors of and CPS) and computes the best possible position. so
output data can arise if heading and speed inputs to providing a valuable check of one system against
the ARPA/ATA are incorrect. Users should be aware another. The use of such equipment does not remo\-e
of possible hazards of using ground stabilised mode the responsibility of the navigator to check the position
with ARPA/ATA when assessing risk of collision with periodically using other means, including visual aids.
approaching vessels, particularly in areas where
significant tidal streams and/or currents exist. When 3.4 Users should be vigilant when receivers are
course and speed inputs are derived from electronic capable of reverting to dead reckoning (DR) mode.
position fixing systems (e.g. LORAN, GPS and Serious accidents have occurred when faults in sensors
IDGPS) the display is ground- stabilised. The output and antennae connections have caused the receiver
data of tracked targets will relate to their ground track to switch to DR mode undetected by the watchkeepers.
and, although accurate, may be highly misleading 3.5 Some terrestrial hyperbolic navigation receivers
when assessing target aspect and determining collision- give a numerical indication of positional accuracy in
avoidance manoeuvres. In cases of gyro failure when the form of values of Horizontal and Positional
heading data is provided from a transmitting magnetic Dilution of Precision ( H D O P and PDOP). Users
compass, watchkeepers should remember to should refer to the equipment manual, as the receiver
determine and apply the errors of the magnetic will not necessarily allow for fixed or variable errors
compass. in the system.
2.26 The use of audible operational warnings and 3.6 Further information on hyperbolic position
alarms to denote that a target has closed on a range, fixing systems as well as up to date details of their
transits a user-selected zone or breaks a preset CPA operational status and coverage can be found in the
or TCPA limit does not relieve the user from the duty Admiralty List of Radio Signals, blume 2.
to maintain a proper lookout by all available means.
Such warnings and alarms, when the ARPA is in The Decca Navigator System
automatic acquisition mode, should be used with 3.7 Decca Marine Data Sheets g v e the fixed errors
caution especially in the vicinity of small radar- for geographical areas where these are known. Where
inconspicuous targets. Users should familiarise no errors are given, it should not be assumed that no
themselves with the effects of error sources on the error exists. In areas where no fixed errors are given,
automatic traclung of targets by reference to the ARPA Decca positions should be treated with caution,
Operating Manual. especially when near the coast and in restricted waters.
2.27 Information on detection and use of Search and Receivers which convert positional data to latitude and
Rescue Transponders (SARTs)is provided in Chapter longitude may not take fixed errors into account.
4 of Volume 5 of the Admiralty List of Radio Signals. 3.8 Decca is also subject to variable errors which
3. TERRESTRIAL HYPERBOLIC depend on the time of day, season and distance from
POSITIONING SYSTEMS the transmitters. The error in a given location is not
constant, and the Decca Marine Data Sheets give
General diagrams and tables which can be used to predict an
3.1 With world-wide coverage by satellite approximate error based on a 68% probability level,
navigation systems, the use of hyperbolic positioning (i.e. they are not likely to be exceeded on more than
systems at sea is declining. The Omega system has one in three occasions).
ceased operation, and under present plans the Decca Lane Slip
Navigator System will cease to operate in Europe
around the year 2000. LORAN C, however, is to be 3.9 Particularly at night, there is a possibility of
retained for the time being in certain areas. It will be slipping lanes due to interference such as excessive
available to maritime users as the terrestrial electronic Decca skywave signals, external radio interference and
position fixing service to back-up global satellite electric storms. The possibility of this happening is
systems. small at short range, but increases towards the edge
3.2 The use of lattice charts with hyperbolic of Decca coverage. Fouling of the Decca antenna and
positioning systems has declined, because most disruptions to the power supply can also cause lane
receivers convert the readings to latitude and slip. It can best be detected by plotting the ship's
longitude. These receivers display positions referred position at regular intervals and comparing with fixes
to a particular horizontal datum (e.g. WGS 84). This obtained by other means.
may not be the datum of the chart in use. The user The LORAN C system
must still remember that hyperbolic systems have
inherent errors, and that the apparent accuracy of the 3.10 LORAN C has a greater range than Decca and
displayed positions should be treated with caution. is based on the measurement of time difference
COMMAND 317
between the reception of transmitted pulses. The may convert the position to other datums. In this case
91-ound-wave coverage is typically between 800 and the observers must ensure that they are aware of the
1200 miles, although the accuracy of positional datum of the displayed position. Where the difference
information will depend upon the relative position of in datums is known, a note on the chart provides the
the transmitters. offset to apply to positions referenced to WGS 84,
but where this is not given the accuracy of the
3.1 1 When entering the coverage, or when passing displayed position should be treated with caution.
close to transmitters on the coast, the receiver may DGPS positions are normally referenced to WGS 84
have difficulty in identifying the correct ground-wave though local datums may be used (e.g. NAD 83 in the
cycle to track. Care should be taken to ensure that it USA). Also, when using DGPS, it is possible that the
is tracking on the correct cycle.
positioning of charted data may not be as accurate as
3.12 The fixed errors of the LORAN C system are the DGPS position. Mariners should therefore always
caused by variations in the velocity at which the pulses allow a sensible safety margm to account for any such
travel. Additional Secondary Factor (ASF) corrections discrepancies.
are provided to allow for these errors. Account should
4.5 From April 1998, a new Volume 8 of The
be taken of ASF corrections which may be very Admiralty List of Radio Signals, entitled Satellite
significant in some areas. Some receivers automatically Navigation Systems will contain full descriptions of all
allow for calculated ASF values and display a corrected satellite systems, including GPS and DGPS, as well
position. as notes on their correct use and limitations. Also
4. GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS) included will be descriptions and examples of over-
reliance on GPS, together with the advantages and
4.1 The NAVSTAR GPS Standard Positioning disadvantages of using DGPS, and a full account of
Service (SPS) now provides a global positioning the problems caused by differing horizontal datums.
capability gving a 95% accuracy in the order of 100 Mariners using satellite navigation systems are strongly
metres. The system is capable of much greater advised to study the information and follow the advice
accuracy, but the commercial service is deliberately contained in this publication.
degraded by Selective Availability (SA). Differential
GPS (DGPS)is also becoming more widely available. 5 . ELECTRONIC CHARTS
DGPS receivers apply instantaneous corrections to 5.1 A number of vessels now use electronic charts.
raw GPS signals determined and transmitted by Mariners should be aware that the only type of
terrestrial monitoring stations. Positional accuracy of electronic chart system with performance standards
better than 5 metres may be possible. adopted by I M O is the Electronic Chart Display and
4.2 The GLONASS system is fully operational and Information System (ECDIS). One requirement of an
available to commercial users. The system is similar ECDIS is that it must only use official vector data
to GPS and also provides global positioning for 24 produced by a national hydrographic office. At
hours a day. Some receivers use both GPS and present, this Electronic Navigational Chart (ENC) data
GLONASS signals to compute a more precise is not widely available and the use of ECDIS is limited.
position. The repeatable accuracy of GLONASS is An ECDIS using official E N C data satisfies the
higher than GPS as there is no degrading of signals SOLAS Chapter V requirement for vessels to carry
by SA. When navigating in confined waters, navigators up to date charts.
must bear in mind that the displayed position from Vector charts
any satellite positioning system is that of the antenna.
5.2 The ENC is a database of individual items of
4.3 Serious accidents have occurred because of digitised chart data which can be displayed as a
over-reliance upon global satellite positioning seamless chart. ENCs of appropriate detail are
equipment. In one case a passenger vessel grounded provided for different navigational purposes such as
in clear weather because the watchkeepers had relied coastal navigation, harbour approach and berthing.
totally upon the GPS output which had switched to The amount of detail displayed is automatically
D R mode because of a detached antenna. The switch reduced when the scale of a particular ENC is reduced,
to D R mode was not detected by the watchkeepers. in order to lessen clutter. Individual items of data can
Checking the position using other means, including be selected and all relevant information will be
visual observations, would have prevented the displayed (for instance, all the available information
accident. relevant to a light or navigation mark.) ECDIS is
therefore very much more than an electronic version
Datums and Chart Accuracy
of the paper, chart. With vector charts the data is
4.4 GPS positions are referenced to the global "layered", enabling the user to de-select certain
datum WGS 84. This may not be the same as the categories of data, such as a range of soundings, which
horizontal datum of the chart in use, meaning that the are not required at the time. This facility, as well as
position when plotted may be in error. The receiver reducing chart clutter, enables the user to select a depth
318 'THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

contour so providing an electronic safety contour integrated with the radar and electronically plotted
which may automatically warn the watchkeeper when data from ARPA, ATA or EPA, with part or all of the
approaching shallow water. Mariners should use the radar display overlaid or under-laid on the chart
facility to de-select data with extreme caution as it is display. There is a danger that the combined display
possible accidentally to remove data essential for the may become over-cluttered with data. The combining
safe navigation of the vessel. of target data on an electronic chart does not reduce
the need for the targets to be observed on the radar
5.3 Unless using an ECDIS meeting the relevant display. Mariners should also exercise caution where
international performance standards in an area where target vectors based on the vessel's watertrack are
ENC data is available, navigation must be carried out overlaid on an electronic chart which displays the
on an up-to-date paper chart. A number of vector chart vessel's ground track.
systems are available which use commercially
produced data for which the manufacturers accept no 5.6 Electronic charts will become an essential part
liability. These systems vary in capability and are of the navigation system of the modern bridge and
termed Electronic Chart Systems (ECS).Such systems contribute greatly to navigational safety. However such
have no IMO adopted standards. If an ECS is carried systems must be used prudently bearing in mind the
on board, the continuous use of paper charts is proliferation of approved and unapproved equipment
and the current scarcity of official vector data.
essential.
Raster charts
MSAS(A) Navigation & Communications
5.4 Another type of electronic chart system is the Marine Safety Agency
Raster Chart Display System (RCDS).This uses Raster Spring Place
Nautical Charts (RNCs), which are exact facsimiles 105 Commercial Road
of hydrographic office paper charts, for which SOUTHAMPTON
hydrographic offices take the same liability as for their SO15 1EG
paper products. There are at present n o I M O
performance standards for RCDS and they too must TelOl703 329138
only be used in conjunction with paper charts. Fax 01703 329204
February 1998
General
MNA 051/17/001
5.5 Electronic chart systems are integrated with an
electronic position-fixing system (LORAN, CPS or O Crown Copyright 1998
D G P S ) enabling the vessel's position to be
continuously displayed. Problems may arise caused An executive agency of
by the possible differences in horizontal datums THE DEPARTMENT O F THE ENVIRONMENT,
referred to above. Electronic charts may also be TRANSPORT AND T H E REGIONS
COMMAND 319
Chapter 53
WORKING ON SECONDMENT
by Captain RF. Walker BSc MCIT MNI, Mobil Shipping and Transportation Company
Captain Robert Walker joined Mobil Sh$ping Co. Ltd. in October 1975 as a cadet and obtained 2nd mates license and an honours
degree in Nautical Studies at Liverpool by the end of 7980. He progressed through the ranks within the conlpany, serving in the tanker
Jleet andgained his nzaster's license in 1988. As chief oficer he was seconded to Mobil Sh$ping and Transportation in Faifax USA
in 1993 for 18 months in the trafic department.
Bobjrst sailed in command in 7995. As master in 7996 he spent eight months as marine advisor in Singapore before returning to
Faifax as supervisor in the dispatch department and as nautical advisor in the nautical services department. In mid 1997 he moved to
Mobil Shipping Co Ltd. in London as supervisorJleet manning and training before returning to MOSATFaifax in October 1998 as
nautical advisor. He was posted to Sin<gaporein March 1999 as marine representative, Asia Pacific.
Captain Walker is a member of The Nautical Institute and a member of the Chartered Institute of Transport.
Introduction gained on these assignments would have been

WHENI ARRIVED AT WASHINGTON Dulles International invaluable should I have decided to remain at sea in
Airport in-January
- 1993 I discovered that the terminal command.
building was extremely busy. Crowds occupied every
In this chapter I will attempt to provide a summary
square inch of available floor space, the immigration
of my personal experiences and views on secondment
lines snaked out for ever and when I finally made it
and describe some of the problems I encountered. I
through customs into the arrivals hall there appeared
hope that this will be useful information to those
no way through to the exit. It was a Saturday and the
considering similar opportunities.
world's press had arrived to witness the inauguration
of President Bill Clinton's first term in Office, set for Shore assignments
the following week. My arrival was also in preparation Since January 1993 I have undertaken five shore
for a 'first term in office'. I was bound for a stint of based assignments, both foreign and in the UK, in
duty at the company's headquarters located just my capacity as chief officer and as master. The first
outside Washington DC. I was then Chief Officer on assignment involved working as a member of the
secondment from the fleet for the first time. With dispatch team in the company's Chartering and Traffic
eighteen years of sea going experience behind me I Department based in Corporate H Q in Fairfax,
had temporarily swapped my uniform for a suit and Virginia. This assignment understandably proved to
was about to discover what it was like to work behind be the one that required the greatest adjustment. Apart
a desk that was not in continuous motion. With grim from moving to a shore based office environment,
determination I managed to push my way through to working in another country with a diverse work force
the exit and strode my sea legs ashore for the first was equally challenging.
time.
The initial task was basically one of settling in as
The position was one of a n u ~ n b e of
r shore based the new kid on the block and getting up to speed with
assignments currently held within the company for the job requirements. Cargo scheduling, chartering,
fleet officers. These assignments integrate seafaring voyage orders, agencies, freight, demurrage and
knowledge and experience into the shore environment bunkering were the prime functions. Although some
and also provide a learning opportunity for seafarers of the conlmercial considerations are to some extent
within the shore management structure. In essence a covered by a sea going educational background it was
two way street in which an individual can look at the quickly apparent that I still had a lot to learn - a
management system and life working ashore while at daunting task for the proverbial fish out of water. My
the same time provide managers with the opportunity cargo handling experience at sea proved to be of great
of working with and getting to know sea staff better. assistance and actually allowed me to contribute. This
helped both the department and myself enormously.
Six years later and my uniform has been replaced
Although I was learning a new job I was also being
by a suit on a p e r m a n e n t basis. T h e several
asked about mine. This was indeed a two way street
secondments that I experienced have proved very
of exchange.
interesting and rewarding. Although there are periods
when I miss being at sea I am content with the Explaining issues pertaining to the particular ships
knowledge that I have been exposed to enough facts that I had sailed on in the fleet assisted the cargo
which have helped in my decision to pursue a career schedulers and ship charterers a great deal. This
ashore. I also know that the knowledge and experience included issues such as cargo quantities and stowage

as they relate to stress and trim, cargo segregations of life it became quite a shock to find m>-selfreadjusting
and pumping sequences, tank cleaning and ballast to life at sea once more. The boot \\-as on the other
change operations. My experiences relating to specific foot and I was reversing the whole procedure. Once
port calls and ship characteristics was also put to good again I had to become used to being a\va)-from family
use by the department. and friends for a period of time and adjust to the
routine of life at sea.
A major adjustment I found was the difference in
working schedule and vacation periods. Working Once on board I quickly adjusted to the demands
around the clock for a number of months followed by of life at sea. The need to make many decisions, often
an uninterrupted leave period is exchanged for a quickly and unaided, was in stark contrast to office
continuous working week. During sea leave periods it life. Ashore, most decisions are made in conference
is not customary to bring the job home. I learned or jointly and colleagues are readily available to assist.
ashore however that it is not so easy to leave work at In January 1996 after an eighteen month period back
the office and often found it following me home. This in the fleet in command I was assigned to the Nautical
may not necessarily bode well with the family and Services department for my second shore based
therefore they should b e p r e p a r e d to make assignment. I would be working with the Marine
adjustments as well. O n a more positive note is the Representative based in Singapore. This was a totally
fact that you are always close at hand. different job function and location from my previous
assignment. My main responsibilities now lay in ship
Domestic issues needed to be addressed prior to vetting and inspections, which has a high priority
my undertaking the assignment. This included within the corporate Environment Health and Safety
obtaining the correct working visas, arrangng health program. Having this service available in Singapore
care coverage and organising a place to live. To a large as well as Fairfax and London enables this program
extent this was dealt with by the company on my to be maintained on both a global and twenty four
behalf, but this may not necessarily be the case for all. hour basis.
There are also financial implications, which need In addition the job included marine related matters
to be considered when accepting shore assignments.
associated with ports and terminals. Similarly new
Most importantly one must recognise day to day living
projects, terminal inspections, crisis response, incident
expenses will increase. At the same time disposable
investigations, overseeing tanker discharges and port
income may decrease when taxation considerations
are factored in. Under the assignment scheme my turn-rounds were routine job requirements.
company provided advice and assistance to address Furthermore it was not unusual to find oneself assisting-
these issues but I caution this may not be the case for the company's Marine Superintende~ltsduring their
everybody. attendance of ships in Singapore for repair and
maintenance. The company has a Shipping Agency
Other complications arising from working overseas based in the Singapore Marine Office. Its running is
include on scene domestic issues such as opening a the responsibility of the Marine Representative and
bank account, transferring funds, obtaining the consequently the assignment included involvement in
appropriate driving license, driving on the 'wrong' side agency work. Not unexpectedly, the performance of
of the road and ensuring continued validity of the all these tasks required a certain amount of travel
correct visas. In general, learning a new way of life within the Far East region.
can be both challengng and enjoyable.
I found the transition from ship to shore was a little
Value of experience easier this time. Dealing with hands on marine related
The experienced I gained whilst working in the matters was much closer to sea life. The mix between
traffic department became extremely useful when I being in an office environment and getting out into
returned to sea in command following the assignment. the field proved to be a good working balance. I was
There was a distinct advantage in understanding the being made aware of another perspective of the marine
problems experienced ashore and the different industry which proved to be very interesting and
prioritisation of requirements. I was able to focus on
educational.
aspects of shipboard operations that would directly
impact commercial considerations. I well understood Domestic issues
the complexities which arose in traffic department Just as with the initial assignment it was important
operations. Consequently a fifth change of cargo orders to make the necessary arrangements prior to and
in as many hours taxed my patience less. Equally it during the assignment. Domestic issues again required
was also comforting to know that shore staff were more
close attention. This included maintaining a cultural
aware of the problems experienced on board ship,
awareness and an understanding of business and social
since I had been able to pass on to them some of my
etiquette. Acclimatising to the tropical conditions,
knowledge.
adjusting to the relatively expensive standard of living
My assignment ended in mid 1994. After eighteen and learning to commute on some very congested
months ashore becoming familiar with the new way roads were examples of other adjustments I needed
COMMAND 321
to make. Fortunately once again the company assisted the job requirements and surroundings. I was drawing
me in obtaining work permits, driving license and more and more on the knowledge and experience I
housing arrangements which could be problematic had gained at sea and it was being put to good use in
without such help. the office environment.
The assignment lasted for eight months and during In mid 1997 I was transferred to the UK and
that time I was able to apply my knowledge and assigned to the Fleet Managers office in London as
experience gained at sea in a variety of ways. I also Supervisor, Fleet Manning and Training. It was my
realised that the exposure to the different aspects of first assignment in the UK and my last assignment as
the marine industry received during this assignment a Fleet Officer.
increased my overall awareness and would serve me
well in my next position in command. The primary function was to oversee the scheduling
of UK based officers and ratings to the fleet and to
The next two assignments followed directly on coordinate with the manning offices based in Bombay
from the Singapore position in September of 1996 and and Manila. Other responsibilities included officer and
were both back to back in two different departments rating recruitment, shore based training for company
based in the Fairfax, Virpnia office. In this respect and STCW'95 requirements, certification, cadet
there was no real transition from ship to shore, rather induction and training, disciplinary procedures, drug
an adjustment to environment and job requirements. and alcohol policy, officer and rating appraisals,
I remember someone once told me that a change is as promotion assessments, financial budget control, pay
good as a rest and I can attest that this is true. awards and union negotiations.
Nevertheless, moving from the tropics of Singapore
to winter in North America was a bit of a shock. I had Ship masters unwittingly find themselves as
spent eight months in short sleeved shirts and now personnel managers because they too make daily
had to find clothes to combat the rigours of winter. decisions regarding personnel welfare, intervention in
and resolution of personnel issues and the exercise of
Initially I was reassigned to the dispatch group, man management skills. In this respect I found my
but in the more responsible position as supervisor. experience extremely useful. It was also reassuring for
Having prior knowledge of the environment and work
me to realise that I had been through the whole process
requirements I felt that the adjustment was a lot easier.
of induction, training, certification and promotion
I was able to focus more readily on the work and also
found time to select different aspects of the business myself and therefore had a good handle on what I
which I wanted to explore and learn more about. The was managing.
business concept of chartering ships has always I quickly realised however, that keeping a fleet
interested me and I found myself asking more manned effectively and efficiently was rather more
questions and getting involved as much as possible. complex than I had originally envisaged. People are
The responsibility of scheduling and purchasing the
sometimes very unpredictable and the best plans were
bunker fuels for the fleet was also an interesting
often laid to waste by individuals who for one reason
addition with exposure to dealing on the open markets
and hedging for best prices. Working in the corporate or another were not able to follow the master plan.
headquarters also gave me an insight into the non- The work proved extremely interesting and was
marine aspects of the company. I was able to learn not all office bound. I travelled extensively in the UK
more about supply, trading and marketing functions visiting nautical colleges, attending manning and
of a major oil company. training seminars and meeting with representatives of
After six months I was assigned to the Nautical professional bodies. Visits to ships and overseas
Services Department as Nautical Advisor. It is here manning offices also involved a certain amount of
that the world-wide Nautical Services group is foreign travel.
managed and includes the group I was a member of
Although a UK citizen with no visa or work permit
during my time in Singapore. My main responsibilities
issues, adjusting to working in central London
were to manage the global ship inspection program.
presented its own challenges. Since my home base
This included scheduling inspections in the US regon
was not within commuting distance, temporary
and screening ships for acceptability in company
service. Travel was also a feature of this part of the residence had to be provided by the company. Living
assignment as I was required to inspect tankers in ports and working in a city is a trade off between price and
on the East and Gulf Coasts and visit proposed or new commuting time. It is extremely important that to
terminal sites throughout this region. avoid undue stress in travelling to and from work
careful consideration must be gven to the selection
Office environment of where one is going to live. In my case my commute
By the time I had reached this stage in my career I was approximately one hour door to door. This
was begnning to feel less like the proverbial fish out worked fine for me, as the commuting life did not cause
of water and was becoming more comfortable with too many difficulties.

Issues arising during secondment It is a question of priorities and ~vhetherthe personal
I have mentioned a number of fundamental issues, sacrifices are offset sufficiently b>- the experience
which need to be addressed and dealt with on gained.
temporary assignments. These issues are far rangng The company currently maintains about fifteen
and varied but to assist may be summarised as follows: shore-based assignments for sea staff in various offices
around the world for both deck and engneer officers.
Adapting to change in:
Apart from assignments mentioned thus far, other
Job specification and requirements. opportunities lie in technical operations and ship
Work schedules and leave ratio.
auditing.
Working environment.
These positions have been established over a
Domestic situation.
period of time to meet the demand of the business
Financial circumstances.
and are varied to meet changes in requirements. As
Housing.
new ventures continue to be explored around the
Transportation/commuting.
world the demand for quality nautical expertise is
And consideration for: rising. Opportunities for masters and other sea going
Family accompaniment. staff to work for periods of time on secondment are
Bank accounts. therefore becoming more and more frequent.
Visas and work permits. The decision to accept a shore-based assignment
Driving- licenses. is not an easy decision to make. An individual who
Social security numbers. has spent all his working life pursuing a career path at
Health care. sea is suddenly faced with a temporary shift in career
Cultural awareness. priorities and a change in working environment. One
may or may not have the inclination to do this or
Conclusion indeed be prepared to accept a disruption in personal
Secondments are clearly advantageous for both the domestic circumstances that may be required to fulfil
seafarer and office staff since the broad knowledge the assignment.
and experience gained by both is invaluable. The Since that first time in 1993 I have passed through
experience is not without personal adjustment and Washington Dulles airport on a number of occasions
sacrifice. Maintaining flexibility is extremely important and it has never been quite as busy. The path through
and one must be willing to uproot and travel at a to the exit has become progressively easier. In the same
moment's notice. Family support is also a key issue way the knowledge and experience gained from each
and is essential if life on secondment is to prove a assignment has made the transition from sea to shore
success. For example it is not easy to move children smoother. Throughout this process the personal
to different schools around the world at a moments adjustments I have made have undoubtedly been
notice and expect them to settle in quickly and readily. worth while.
COMMAND 323
Chapter 54
WASTE MANAGEMENT ON SHIPS

by Captain D.N.L. Yeomans BA FNI
Captain Eomans started his career at sea witfz tfle Shell Tanker Company in 1955. In 1962 he joined the Royal Nazy as an Observer
in the Fleat Air Arm. In 7967 he joined the Royal Fleet Auxiliary and was appointed master in 7985. Captain Eomans has made a
special study of waste disposal on board sfz$s and is a Fellow of The Nautical Institute.
Introduction the volume of waste requiring stowage for ultimate

WASTECAN BE DEFINED as materials and products that disposal. This is important because in most cases it is
have ceased to be of use or commercial value to the the volume of waste that creates the prime difficulty.
purchaser or owner. The valuable raw materials that The types and sources of shipboard waste are
were used in the production in order to create the numerous and some are shown below. The exclusion
asset are now often heavily modified and occupy space of food and other biodeg~adableputrescibles from the
needed for replacements. Their continued presence waste stream is of vital importance on the grounds of
is unwelcome due to ancillary difficulties with health health and habitability and their disposal in
or toxicity and so disposal becomes increasingly more accordance with the regulations is assumed, though
important. Shipboard waste starts to be produced and this is not as easily achieved as might be at first thought.
to become the problem of the master as soon as the Waste that should be stowed intact under cover
ship itself is manned and commences its normal in original container (if possible)
commercial role and it continues unremittingly until Glass waste arises mainly from food packaging,
the ship is laid up or scrapping is completed. with a small input from domestic breakage, with the
T h e legislation concerning the disposal of residue being made up from glass liquor a n d cordial
shipboard garbage is clearly and succinctly laid down bottles. It is probably the most intractable type of waste
to handle and treat. Intact in the orignal boxes it is
in Annex V of the International Convention for the
bulky, heavy and if the boxes get wet and break down
Prevention of Pollution from Ships 1973 ( MARPOL
releasing their contents, extremely dangerous.
73/78) and is mandatory for all vessels sailing under
Crushed, its volume is much reduced but it becomes
the flags of nations that are signatories of the potentially lethal to handle and the containers must
International Convention. The aim of this chapter is be glass proof and not allowed to spill. However, if it
to assist masters and their delegated representatives is intended to dispose of this waste at sea, then crushed
with the difficulties of the collection, segregation, glass is to be preferred as it sinks instantly and does
stowage and disposal of ship generated waste, given not constitute a hazard to marine life.
the latest legislation that is now in force under
MARPOL, UK law and forthcoming EU directives. Heavy containers full of broken glass are not easy
The sources of waste will be highlighted, as will the to land safely and without spillage to disposal facilities.
factors that will tend to increase or diminish the total In addition, if the colours of glass are mixed the glass
amounts. "cullet" is valueless and cannot be reused to make
glass. Glass crushing is also a hazard for the crusher
Methods of segregation, securing, preventing its operator during the crushing operation. Whole or
migration around the ship, mitigating its odour and cracked glass containers loose in garbage sacks are
pest attraction potential and the health and safety subject to breakage and liable to injure the sack
aspects in preventing it causing damage to ship or handlers.
personnel will also be covered. Some ideas will be
given which might assist in increasing the motivation Wastes that should be washed (if necessary),
and maximising cooperation of the personnel on board compacted or crushed
in the processing of their own shipboard waste. Tin plated cans are normally residues of ships
catering, with major additional inputs being used tins
The sources and possible volume of various beers or cordials. (Disposal of beer cans
outside Special Areas is made more difficult if they
reduction in waste input contain plastic "widgets" to condition the beer. In
Over 9O0/o of ship's waste is the result of products addition, these inserts make the cans heavier, more
or cargo brought on board. The only exceptions are difficult to compact and uneconomical to recycle.)
parts of the ship's structure or machinery that have
failed and that are now redundant. It follows, then, Aluminium waste arises mainly from empty beer
that if these imports can be reduced or their waste and soft drink cans. A very small additional amount
potential minimised, the result will be a reduction in might be created by aluminium foil food wrappings.

...
Wastes to be compressed and shredded 111. Aluminium cans.
Paper, cardboard arising from food wrapping iv. Plastic bottles and tubs and jars.
(soiled and clean), ship's stores packaging from food v. Cardboard, plastic and paper and 11-ox-en
supplies, ship bars and recreation rooms, i.e. containers.
cardboard beer cases, old newspapers and magazines,
redundant ship's/personal paperwork and Therefore, ship's supplies that arri1.e on board
correspondence and computer printouts. In this inside plastic, hessian, cardboard / paper containers
category, some of the most difficult types of waste to or wrappings, all of which are easily shredded and/or
collect, control and store are packing materials such compressed after use, mitigate the problem from the
as straw and shredded paper. outset.
Re-use
Plastic films and pre-shrunk plastic wrappings form
Re-use is more difficult on board a ship but many
a major part of all waste. The latter are often found in
uses have been and are found for oil drums and plastic
close conjunction with cardboard as the retaining
containers. Some containers will be required initially
medium attached to a cardboard shell for bottles and
as bins for collection of segregated materials i.e. glass
cans of food or alcohol, etc. Hard and soft plastic/
cullet and, as they degrade, replacements will be
PET bottles and plastic retaining rings for six pack
required.
beers are particularly dangerous environmentally if
dumped, as they form potent and lethal traps for Recycling
marine wildlife. The ubiquitous polystyrene packing Recycling will not be possible on board but if the
chip is difficult to collect, control, compress and store waste stream of the vessel can be presented in its
and if allowed to escape forms an ideal agent for the constituent elements it will avoid disposal difficulties
blockage of pipes and strums. with shore authorities, make the Garbage Book record
keeping easier and possibly constitute a source of
Carbonaceous wood waste
income for the ship or a local charity. Though difficult,
Wood waste appears either in the form of
this standard of waste presentation should be
redundant packing cases, wood shavings used as shock
achievable given the available manpower and the
absorbent packing material, or the arisings from
command structure of shipboard life by instigating
dunnage or other cargo related use. Wooden pallets,
cleaning, sorting and segregation at source.
either damaged or intact, will frequently appear. These
are useful for storage on board and in the landing of Studies have shown that each crew member on a
waste. normal well found and fed ship will generate from
one to two kilograms of rubbish each day. As the level
Potentially toxic or hazardous waste of affluence increases, the amount of waste generated
Waste in 225 litre oil drums, empty or partly used per person increases. Each type of waste above has a
paint tins of all sizes and drums (usually about 25 litres value. For example, aluminium is now worth around
capacity) which have previously contained various 800 a tonne ( about 33,333 tins of 30gms each!).
toxic and non-toxic chemicals will appear regularly. Disposal is, of course, subject to the constraints of
Many of them will be of the hard plastic screw top MARPOL and the current UK and EU legslation
variety, missing labels and COSHH designations and while the vessel is at sea, and in harbour to the facilities
containing residues of their previous contents. From and control of the Nation State and the Harbour
the 1" September 1996, items such as these require Authorities.
specialist disposal throughout the European Union
under the Special Waste Regulations (1996). Possible methods of collection and
It is very clear from the above, that the sources of segregation
the waste are primarily containers, packaging and Covered waste food bins must be located in every
paper. The waste hierarchy of Reduce, Re-use, food preparing, serving and eating space, and be
Recycle and Dispose can be used to determine the clearly labelled "For Food Waste Only". These must
Best Practical Economical Option (BPEO) for the be regularly emptied and rinsed out. No food waste
shipboard waste problem. or other biodegradable putrescibles should be entering
the waste output.
Reduction
Reduction will require careful monitoring of the Ideally there should be differently coloured bags
sources of stores. Heavily packaged and marketed for each type of waste input; paper, cardboard, plastic
goods normally have more waste than bulk supplies film, plastic bottles, tins, glass etc., but it is unrealistic,
in paper sacks or plastic bags. Studies have shown that both in terms of cost and organisation. The best
the order of merit for the least efficient packaging for possible economical option will probably be a number
a given amount of contents, is: of triple bag sites around the ship. One for the
collection of paper, cardboard, soft film plastics, plastic
i. Glass jars and bottles. bottles and containers; one for tins and cans; and
ii. Tin plated cans. finally one for glass. These must all be clearly labelled
COMMAND 325
for the desired inputs and also show a clear prohibition or bursting altogether. Re-collecting ship's garbage is
of food waste. not quick, pleasant or easy.
Paper, card a n d film plastics are readily It must be remembered that quite heavy items will,
compressible and a high density can be achieved using from time to time, end up in the waste and their
a specialist machine. The same thing can be said for potential for damage is considerable. The Bruer was
plastic bottles and containers. With the latter, however, lost because a length of pipework lashed on deck broke
care must be taken to ensure that screw-tops and lids loose and removed air pipes to the bunker tanks
are removed prior to treatment to avoid dangerous allowing sea water to contaminate the fuel, resulting
explosions! For the purposes of recycling it is not in total engine failure, and eventual grounding.
important if tinplate and aluminium cans are held in
the same bag. A normal plastic bag will reach its Achieving the end result
strength limit at about 20 kilograms of crushed cans No matter how well the ship is provided with
and be only about 300h full at this point, whereas a properly sited, well maintained and located
full bag of uncrushed cans will only weigh about 3.5 equipment, the desired results will only be gained
kilograms. Cans should always be crushed, as opposed through the full participation and cooperation of all
to shredded, to minimise the dangers to personnel personnel on board. The fact that a well run ship is a
handling the bags and to preserve bag integrity. In small enclosed community with a fixed hierarchical
order to achieve any worthwhile results it will be structure should make it easier to motivate personnel
necessary to provide some equipment capable of to cooperate, but from personal experience it would
compressiilg and shredding the waste inputs. This must appear that there is great sense of apathy and
be user friendly, effective and kept serviceable at all disinterest about what happens to items that are
times. Once the impetus is lost it is very hard to re- discarded. They immediately become somebody else's
engender enthusiasm. problem. Every beer can becomes an instant orphan
as soon as it is empty.
The main machinery must be sited in an area where
the ambient temperature is comfortable and access It will be necessary to change the deep-seated ethos
safe in all weathers. Ideally it should be close to the that the sea is there for the rubbish and that no one
area where the waste is stowed. All galleys, serving will know or be able to trace anything back. Despite
areas, recreation rooms and bars should be provided years of publicity and continual inter-governmental
with can crushers capable of dealing with the type of legslative updating, campaigns by pressure groups,
tins used in that facility. It is essential that all food and major television series and information broadcasts, the
drink tins are washed prior to crushing, to avoid smells message does not appear to have reached its target.
and their becoming an attractant to insects and other The problem could be exacerbated in multi-racial
vermin. Tins or other containers that held or still crews where environmental education may not be well
established. However, good waste management is no
contain paints, solvents, chemicals etc., should not be
longer optional and every ship which trades with the
crushed or damaged and where possible should be
EU and the USA will soon have it's waste trail closely
re-sealed and stowed carefully for disposal as
monitored and regulated and will eventually end up
hazardous waste. If possible, their C O S H H labels
on a constantly updated database.
should be preserved and on no account should their
contents be allowed to enter the sea. Finally, once It therefore becomes important that all personnel
the waste has been segregated and its volume are informed of the rationale behind the plans being
minimised, it must be stowed somewhere out of the implemented and that they are for the general well
weather until it can be landed. It must be secured being of the entire crew in order to minimise the
carefully and covered so that it does not migrate volume, the nuisance value and the effort in accounting
around the ship in the wind and block scuppers, drains, and measuring the ship's retained waste.
strums and breather pipes. This also inhibits visitations
of birds and insects. The establishment of a rota for the operation of
the waste treatment plant and, perhaps, a small
In many cases it is possible to build a dump using reduction in working day might create an acceptance
redundant pallets or dunnage somewhere out of the of the need to do this uncongenial job. It may also be
weather a n d n o t too near to fan intakes or necessary and helpful to state the possible penalties
accommodation portholes or entrances and to keep it on the ship and crew if they do not comply fully with
covered with tarpaulins when not in use. Ideally it all the regulations. These will range from fines on the
should use pillars or ship's superstructure features to master and owner to detentions in port or, in extreme
give it strength and, if necessary, should be wired cases, exclusions from trading in EU ports. It is likely
around to stop it's collapse. It must not be in such a that the latter two would have greater persuasive power
position that it can be broken up by boarding seas. as arguments, as this would undoubtedly have an
The covering must be secured at night, in strong winds impact on jobs, pay and shore leave. So it would be
or heavy weather if the contents are not become very much in the crew's own interests to cooperate to
saturated and prevent the containers being damaged the full.

I t will be necessary to site clearly labelled regarding the dumping, incineration or destruction of
receptacles well in advance of the start date and its ship's waste. A detailed ship's garbage plan must
constantly publicise the desired response. It is unlikely be in force, with a responsible person designated to
that, at first, much waste will fall into its correct place be in charge. There is also a requirement for all vessels
in its desired condition. It is indeed probable that the over 12 metres in length to display placards indicating
first success will be with the waste food bins as these the correct regulations for disposal of waste in the
are easily recognised and become smelly if left for too native tongue of the Country of Regstry and either
long. Before long it becomes second nature to use English or French. All of these are subject to random
them and then empty them. The next priority must inspection and failure to comply carries heavy
then be the galley, where a large amount of metal and potential penalties.
plastic containers, plastic wrapping and cardboard
boxes are opened and emptied. If galley staff can be The garbage book and its trail has become as
persuaded to wash out and crush all metal containers important as the oil record book. However, E.U.
and rinse food contaminated plastics and glass prior legislation in the pipeline is due soon to become ever
to placement in the correct waste container, a major more onerous and record intensive. The suggested
part of the ship's garbage input is under control. model is the UK Environment Protection Act (1990)
S.34(1), which will impose a "Duty Of Care" on the
The most intractable problem will be to achieve ship's master, necessitating a Waste Reception Facility
the crushing of recreational cans, i.e. beer and soft Requirement Report at least 24 hours prior to arrival
drinks and their separation from glass bottles used in in an EU port. The arrival would entail the issue of a
the same recreation room/bar. It seems that despite detailed waste consignment note to the receiver of the
the provision of can-crushers and every other facility, waste and all relevant shipboard paper work would
this is an aspect that needs constant monitoring and be subject to inspection. There would be continuous
pressure to obtain a reasonable result. Paper and tracking of the ship from one port to another if any
cardboard is not so difficult because it is not associated waste (i.e. hazardous/ toxic/noxious) remained on
with food or communal recreation. It tends to collect board and was not landed.
naturally in piles in cabins and offices and stores so it
is more easily collected. The big difficulty with much It is immediately obvious that the C O S H H
cardboard and paper packaging is that now it legslation will play a big part in this consignment note
incorporates plastics, which, unless removed, makes and all substances taken on board which are subject
the paper both undumpable outside Special Areas and to this legislation will have to be controlled very
un-recyclable when landed ashore. carefully and accounted for from the point of loading
to the point of discharge. There is a lot more but it
The same difficulty is becoming common with glass will be obvious that shipboard garbage is no longer
bottles and containers which use a plastic cap with a something to be ignored or lightly discarded.
locked on serrated neck sealing ring, making the bottle
illegal to dump even outside Special Areas. Finally, if The master's constant problem will be to ensure
the ship's garbage is properly presented to the that the entire ship's complement is aware of and fully
designated receiver (see below) and he can add cooperating with any garbage plan in force. There will
segregated cans, glass, paper and plastic bottles to his be a need for constant monitoring of bag contents to
stockpile for recycling, there may be a sum of money ensure the absence of putresicibles, maintenance of
payable. This might be used, for example, to subsidise segregation, volume minimisation, etc. The overseer
the purchase and operation of a ship's mobile phone of the Garbage Plan, Book and Logbook entries is
or even to cover free supply of newspapers in port. bound to be called the Rubbish Officer, but it will be
These may be the kind of incentives needed to gain a name only, because he will require very considerable
a greater acceptance of the need and purpose of a waste knowledge of regulations, patience, determination,
management scheme. Whatever happens it will be a persuasive and administrative skills and must be able
constant challenge to obtain the cooperation of the to motivate the 'unthinking' and the 'uncaring'. He
personnel, especially on voyages with numerous will more than earn his wages if he enables the ship to
officer and crew changes. trade freely during his time on board without a single
delay or fine imposed by government inspectors or
Conclusion harbour authorities incurred through default of ship's
The job of achieving the desired result will not be waste management or disposal arrangements.
easy and there will always be the mentality that thinks
the sea is an anonymous and unlimited waste bin.
References
1 Glen Plant, Ship generated waste i n the EU,
Despite all efforts, rubbish will still enter the sea out
Proceedings of the Institute of Wastes
of sight or at night. From the 1st ofJuly 1998 all ships
Management, pp. 11-12.
over 400 tons gross or certified to carry 15 or more
persons must keep a garbage book and full records 2 MARPOL 73/78.
COMMAND 327
I % <a m r umoanl of w o c ~or rnricicrrr/ .i-<.I,
~ i . i l hthr p a p m ~ l a r / t c
ond cardboard I&? p~oprrl;dtrC./,Ic:/vscl. I mjinrl~d

Chapter 55
BALLAST WATER ENVIRONMENTAL AND SAFETY ISSUES

Compiled by The Nautical Institute's Papers and Technical Committee
via Mr. D.J. Patraiko BSc MBA MNI, Project Manager for The Nautical Institute
David J. Patraiko graduated from the Massachusetts Maritzme Academy (US) and sailed on a uarzety of lizternatzonal vessels zn hzs
twelve years in the Merchant Navy. He holds a Unlimited Master Marzner's licence and was awarded an MBA degree from Henley
Management College (UK). Afier a briefperiod as an zxdependent consultant
What's it all about? ballast tanks are pumped out and then refilled with
Nobody likes to carry ballast, because nobody gets water, risks include poor stability, exceeded sheer,
paid for it. Unfortunately, with today's trade patterns, stress and bending forces and structural damage due
carrying water for ballast is a way of life. To many, the to sloshing.
practice of loading ballast water in one port and This situation is further exacerbated by there being
discharging it in another seems innocuous enough no coordinating international regulations, thus leaving
especially for those in the petroleum and chemical national administrations to set their own (often
trades. However, as world trade has increased in conflicting) requirements.
volume and very large and ultra large bulk carriers
(liquid and dry) transport millions of tons of water from At the time of writing, Spring 1999, IMO have only
one ecosystem to another around the world, adverse been able to publish guidelines as a resolution
ecological effects are causing severe environmental (voluntary) and the industry is heatedly debating just
and financial damage. about every aspect of the issue, from whether it should
be an issue at all to highly complex alternatives to
The root of the problem lies in the unfortunate eliminating the offending micro-organisms.
coincidence that the environment in the port of loading
quite often has the same characteristics, such as It is a safe bet, however, that the issue of ballast
temperature and salinity, as that of the discharge port. water management will effect all ship masters on
This allows micro-organisms living in the ballast water international voyages to some extent. An
to re-establish themselves in the discharge port. To understanding of the potential dangers to his ship, and
combat this problem, national governmeilts most his planet's environment are therefore worthwhile.
affected by the import of ballast water have started to
require ships to replace coastal ballast water with ocean Environmental issues
ballast water, while at sea. The theory behind this is O n the 27th of November 1997, the I M O adopted
that any residual micro-organisms from brackish water assembly resolution A.868(20)entitled 'Guidelines for
will be killed off by the high salinity of sea water, and the control and management of ships' ballast water to
that any micro organisms loaded with the sea water minimise the transfer of harmful aquatic organisms
will not survive when discharged back into brackish and pathogens'. But what exactly are these 'harmful
water. aquatic organisms and pathogens' and how harmful
can they be?
This all sounds simple enough, but these They are organisms that have moved beyond their
procedures do impact on ship operations and can have natural geographical range of habitat. They represent
fatal consequeAces to safety at sea. To b e g n with, the all phyla, from micro-organisms to various plants and
sheer exercise df swapping out ballast water (often in animals, both terrestrial and aquatic. Invasion of non-
excess of 100,000 tones) consumes resources such as indigellous aquatic species, according to the 1995
personnel, time and fuel oil and can double the wear National (US) Research Council's study
and tear of associated equipment. Of primary "Understanding Marine Biodiversity: A Research
importance though, are the effects the transfer can Agenda for the Nation" is "one of the five most critical
have on vessel safety. The vast majority of ships today, environmental issues facing the ocean's marine life".
which are being required to exchange ballast at sea,
were never designed for such operations. Using the What are the impacts of foreign
flow through method of ballast exchange, a process introduction?
by which ballast tanks are overfilled by pumping in The impacts of introducing non-indigenous species
additional water to dilute the orignal water, vessels can be divided into two areas: ecological and
are at risk of over or under pressurising tanks and economic. These categories, however, are
causing a safety risk to the crew from large quantities interdependent; an exotic species which has an
of water on deck. Using the sequential method in which ecological impact also has an economic one and vice
COMMAND 329
versa. It is important to note that there are many travel faster and world trade grows, species are better
species introduced each day which do not survive in able to survive the journey and the threat of invasive
their new environment and cause no damage species from ballast water increases. Around 150
whatsoever. But exotic species have the potential to million tonnes of ballast water are released in
cause far reaching economic and ecological impacts. Australian coastal waters each year from international
shipping and a further 34 million tonnes from coastal
Ecological impacts vessels. The US alone receives at least 21 billion
Every introduction of exotic species that become gallons of ballast water each year from around the
established results in changes to the receiving world, leading to problems like that of the well-known
ecosystem. Unfortunately, most of the observed effects zebra mussels.
have been detrimental and irreparable by displacing
native species and altering trophic level structure. Eurasian zebra mussels, Dreissena polymorphn
Introduced species often prey or1 many parts of an (Pallasj, were introduced via ballast to the Great Lakes
already established food web or compete with in the mid 1980s. Orignally from Europe, they now
indigenous species for resources such as food or space. flourish, to say the least. 700,000 zebra mussels may
Without any natural predators, invaders can threaten occupy only one cubic yard. Able to thrive, the mussels
or even eliminate indigenous species. They also carry spread throughout the Lakes, as well as the Mississippi
with them the threat of new diseases which can destroy and Hudson Rivers. The mussels have had a number
vulnerable native inhabitants. In some areas, native of negative effects: because they rapidly reproduce,
species are on the brink of extinction due to the they have clogged up water and drain pipes at
introduction of an exotic species. municipal water supplies and at industries. They are
expected to cost the US $5 billion in control efforts
Economic impacts
- and reparation. They have displaced native fresh water
Introduced non-native species may cause inussels of the area, and drastically altered the food
widespread destruction by rapidly taking over an area web. The zebra mussel population continues to grow
and eliminating economically profitable native species. and no immediate end is foreseen.
This can result in enormous spending by state and
federal agencies as they attempt to eradicate pests and Another example of an exotic species which has
restore natural species. A study published by the US invaded an area after introduction via ballast water is
Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Hal rrzfrrl the American comb jelly, Mtr~miopsusleidyi. A comb
No)/-Indigenoz~rSp~rzeszn the U n i t ~ dSfrrtes,finds that the jelly is a small, marine invertebrate superficially
US alone spends hundreds of millions to perhaps resembling a jellyfish. It is carnivorous, and preys on
billions of dollars trying to repair the damage of tiny aquatic animals, such as plankton. Transported
harmful exotic species. Numerous other economic in ballast possibly from New England, the American
sectors may be negatively affected, including comb jelly i n v a d e d 2 m c k and Azov Seas in Europe.
The rapidly expanding population preyed so heavily
-
agriculture, forestry, fisheries and water use, utilities,
on plankton that its biomass declined by as much as
and natural areas. Exotic species may cause economic
damage by (1) hybridizing with valuable species and 90 per cent. Anchovies, which feed on plankton,
producing worthless crossbreeds, (2) carrying or sharply declined as well, causing local fisheries to
supporting harmful pests and (3) possibly reducing suffer.
recreational prospects in an area. Another part of In Australia, Tasmanian authorities have been
economic impact is one which has social and health forced to implement expensive monitoring controls,
consequences as well. and to close down shellfish harvesting i11 the Huon
Not only may exotic species import diseases that River several times in recent years due to the presence
affect related species, but humans as well. Often cures of toxic species of algae, known as dinoflagellates, in
are costly. The threat ofnon-indigenous species is their south-eastern Tasmanian waters. The dinoflagellates
unpredictability. They may be poisonous, serve as in question are taken into ships when ballast water is
vectors for human disease, or create conditions for loaded and settle in a dormant stage in ballast tank
disease to spread. Invading species may also breed sediment. When released with ballast on arrival in
with native species, resulting in dangerous or Australia the organisms settle on the sea floor until
poisonous hybrids, which humans may unknowingly conditions are suitable for them to hatch; they then
consume. Again, any cures and preventions may be enter the water table and become part of the shellfish
expensive and many people might suffer in the feeding cycle. They produce toxins which can then
meantime. cause paralysis and sometimes death in humans who
eat affected shellfish.
Ballast water
Ballast tanks can hold millions of gallons of water Ballast tanks are filled and emptied off the coastline,
containing any and all of the aquatic life found at a in estuaries and bays where fresh water and salt water
port; everything from bacteria and algae to worms meet. Thus species picked up during a filling are able
and fish have been found in ballast water. As ships to survive when emptied back into conditions similar

to their native community. If, instead, ballast was In the introduction of Resolution A.868(20), it
emptied in the ocean and filled with marine water, states that the potential for ballast n-ater discharge to
species would be much less likely to survive in the cause harm has been recognised not only b>-the I M O
foreign location. but also by the World Health Organization (TVHO).
The guidelines are not to be regarded as a certain
Ballast regulation
- solution to the problem. Rather, each part of them
In light of these problems, many governments are should be viewed as a tool which, if correctly applied,
worried and concerned about the import of ballast will help to minimise the risks associated with ballast
water to their ports. Some governn~entsand regional water discharge.
states have therefore issued restrictions for the
discharge of ballast water under their jurisdiction. The The I M O guidelines cover issues of training and
countries most concerned have promulgated advice education, procedures for ships and port states,
to ships for ballast management, together with a recording and reporting procedures, ships' operational
request for their cooperation in applying the procedures, port state considerations, enforcement and
techniques voluntarily. Standard procedures have monitoring by port states, future considerations in
been developed that will be accepted by quarantine relation to ballast water exchange and finally ballast
authorities as achieving the level of acceptability system design. The guidelines come with annexes for
desired by the port state. a ballast water reporting form and guidelines on safety
aspects of ballast water exchange at sea. To facilitate
At the time of writing (1999) these countries vessel compliance to these guidelines the International
included Australia, Canada, Chile, Israel, New Chamber of Shipping (ICS) in cooperation with
Zealand, USA and the regions of Buenos Aires in Intertanko have published an excellent book entitled
Argentina, the Orkney Islands in the United Engdom, Model Bnllnst W a t ~ Management
r Plan which comes
and Vancouver, Canada. complete containing a floppy disk with templates to
Unless applied carefully some of the measures incorporate into individual ships plans.
being urged for ballast management can affect a ship's
safety, either by creating forces within the hull that
Shipboard operations
are greater than the design parameters, or by The voluntary guidelines put forth by the I M O
compromising the stability of the ship. It is because call for all vessels to maintain a ballast ~nanagement
of concern about this that the I M O became involved plan irlcluding a full and accurate ballast log. The plan
in what would otherwise be a purely quarantine matter. will ensure procedures have been established taking
It has been recognised by governments and the into account all safety aspects and considerations for
shipping industry that individual countries' needs that particular ship. Thelq-dLdemonstrate at the
should be harmonised with the greater need to ensure arrival port that the correct measures have been
the safety of ships, their crews and passengers. While completed. Even if a ship is not trading in an area
many parties are pressing for ballast discharge to be where ballast water information is required, it may
adopted as an annex (Code for Ballast Water later prove worthwhile to have a history of what water
Management) to the International Convention for the has been carried.
Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified
by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL Water treatment methods
73/78), at the present time it has only been adopted as At the moment, although various methods of ballast
a resolution and is therefore voluntary. On the 27th water treatment are being examined, including
of November 1997, the I M O adopted assembly dilution, heat treatment, exposure to ultra-violate light,
resolution A.868(20) entitled 'Guidelines for the filtering and chemical treatment, none as yet (with rare
control and management of ships' ballast water to exceptions) seems to be practical or cost effective for
minimize the transfer of harmful aquatic organisms general use by cargo ships and tankers. 'This leaves
and pathogens'. the only approved methods being retention on board
(i.e. passenger ships and car carriers) or exchange at
With this resolution I M O recommends that each sea. The two methods of carrying out ballast water
ship should b e provided with a Ballast Water
exchange at sea have been identified as the sequential
Management Plan, detailing the way that the ship can
method, in which ballast tanks are pumped out and
comply with any measures demanded by a port state.
refilled with sea water; and/or the flow-through
Once it has been established that the management of
method, in which ballast tanks are simultaneously
ballast is necessary to meet the quarantine
filled and discharged by pumping in sea water.
requirements of a port state, preparation for it should
be treated with the same seriousness as preparation of When exchangng ballast at sea, guidance on safety
a cargo plan. All concerned with the operation and aspects of ballast water exchange as mentioned later
safe passage of the ship can thereby be assured that in this chapter should be taken into account.
they are both protecting the marine environment and Furthermore, the I M O recommend the following
ensuring the safety of the ship and crew. practices:
COMMAND 331
Where practicable, ships should conduct ballast three full volumes of the tank capacity could be
exchange in deep water, in open ocean and as far needed to be effective when filling clean water
as possible from shore. Where this is not possible, from the bottom and overflowing from the top,
requirements developed within regional and
agreements may be in operation, particularly in Certain watertight and weathertight closures (e.g.
areas within 200 nautical miles from shore. All manholes) which may be opened during ballast
the ballast water should be discharged until suction exchange, should be re-secured.
is lost, and stripping pumps or eductors should
be used if possible. Ballast water exchange at sea should be avoided
Where the flow through method is employed in in freezing weather conditions. However, when it is
open ocean by pumping ballast water into the tank deemed absolutely necessary, particular attention
or hold and allowing the water to overflow, at least should be paid to the hazards associated with the
three times the tank volume should be pumped freezing of overboard discharge arrangements, air
through the tank; pipes, ballast system valves together with their means
Where neither form of open ocean exchange is of control, and the accretion of ice on deck.
practicable, ballast exchange may be accepted by Some ships may need the fitting of a loading
the port State in designated areas; instrument to perform calculations of shear forces and
Other ballast exchange options approved by the bending moments induced by ballast water exchange
port state. at sea and to compare with the permissible strength
Safety precautions limits.
Ships engaged in ballast water exchange at sea An evaluation should be made of the safety margns
should be provided with procedures which account for stability and strength contained in allowable
for the following, as applicable: seagoing conditions specified in the approved trim and
Avoidance of over and under-pressurisation of stability booklet and the loading manual, relevant to
ballast tanks. individual types of ships and loading conditions. In
Free surface effects on stability and sloshing loads this regard particular account should be taken of the
in tanks that may be slack at any one time. following requirements:
Admissible weather conditions.
Stability to be maintained at all times to values
Weather routing in areas seasonably affected by
not less than those recommended by the
cyclones, typhoons, hurricanes or heavy icing
conditions. organisation (or required+ administration).
Maintenance of adequate intact stability in Longitudinal stress values not to exceed those
accordance with an approved trim and stability permitted by the ship's classification society with
booklet. regard to prevailing sea conditions.
Permissible seagoing strength limits of shear forces and
and bending moments in accordance with an Exchange of ballast in tanks or holds where
approved loading manual. significant sti-uctural loads may be generated by
Torsional forces, where relevant. sloshing action in the partially filled tank or hold
Minimum/maximum forward and aft draughts. to be carried out in favourable sea and swell
Wave-induced hull vibration. conditions so that the risk of structural damage is
Documented records of ballasting and/or de- minimised.
ballasting.
Contingency procedures for situations which may The ballast water management plan should include
affect the ballast water exchange at sea, including a list of circumstances in which ballast water exchange
deteriorating weather conditions, pu111p failure, should not be undertaken. These circumstances may
loss of power, etc. result from critical situations of an exceptional nature,
Time to complete the ballast water exchange or "force majeure" due to stress of weather, or any other
an appropriate sequence thereof, taking into circumstances in which human life or safety of the
account that the ballast water may represent 50 O/o ship is threatened.
of the total cargo capacity for some ships.
and Duties of appointed ballast water
I
Monitoring and controlling the amount of ballast management officer
water. According to the I M O recommendations, the
ballast water management plan should include the
If the flow through method is used, caution should
nomination of key shipboard control personnel
be exercised, since:
undertahng ballast water exchange at sea. Their duties
Air pipes are not designed for continuous ballast will be established as part of the ship's operational
water overflow. procedures. Duties of the appointed officer in charge
Current research indicates that pumping of at least of ballast water management include:

Ensure that the ballast water treatment or specifying the sea state, lvhether the barometric
exchange follows procedures in the ballast water pressure is rising or falling, the wind speed and other
management plan. such criteria. Such information ma)- prove to be the
Inform the owner or operator by an agreed master's best defence if called upon to explain why
procedure when commenci~lgballast water he decided not to exchange ballast en route.
exchange and when it is completed.
Prepare the ballast water declaration form prior Nobody is sure what form of regulations will govern
to arrival in port. the discharge of ballast water in the future, but there
Be available to assist the port state control or is plenty of evidence that transferring certain aquatic
quarantine officers for any sampling that may need organisms a n d pathogens can b e extremely
to be undertaken. detrimental and is therefore taken seriously by national
Maintain the ballast water handling log. governments. Prudent ship operators should act to
Other duties specified by the company. implement a ballast water management plan that
protects their vessel, their business, the environment
Conclusion and is in accordance with port states in which they
This chapter has sought to outline some of the operate. \
environmental problems caused by transferring \
harmful aquatic organisms and pathogens by ballast References
water, international and national regulations to The International Maritime Organization (IMO),
minimise their effects and safety issues involved in 4 Albert Embankment, London, SE1 7SR, UK,
vessel compliance to these regulations. It is not Tel+44 171 7611, E-mail: [email protected],Web Site:
intended to b e a guide to creating a ballast www.imo.org. The I M O can provide up to date
management plan. The ICS/Intertanko guide and information o n the state of international
I M O Res. A.868(20)are highly recommended for this regulations covering ballast water. They also list,
purpose. on their web site, links to other organisations
involved with ballast water issues.
Most ships were never designed to exchange ballast International Chamber of Shipping (ICS)/
at sea. h s k s to the safety of the ship, her crew and Intertanko publication 'Model Ballast Water
ultimately the environment need to be carefully Management Plan', Contact: Marisec Publications,
examined and planned for. The forces inherent in 12 Carthusian Street, London, E C l M 6EZ, UK,
exchanging ballast at sea are very different from the Tel: +44 (0)207 8844, Fax: +44 (0)207 8877.
same operation in port. The vessels motion in a The Baltic and International Maritime Council
seaway, even a gentle swell, can cause severe damage (BIMCO) claim to keep up-to-date information
to internal structures due to sloshing effect and on port state requirements on their web site
dynamic loads at sea can exceed permissible strength (www.bimco.dk), but access is for members only.
limits for shear force and bending moments.
Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force (ANSTF)
Conditions which would make ballast water web site: www.anstaskforce.gov.
exchange at sea unsafe should be identified. Heavy Massachusetts Institute of Technology Sea Grant
weather is the most obvious, but there may be others, College Web site: (http://massbay.rnit.edu/
including crew availability and personal safety. The exoticspecies/index.html).
I C S recommends that a list b e produced of The Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service
circumstances under which ballast water exchange at (AQIS) Web site (www.aqis.gov.a~~/docs/ballast/
sea should not be undertaken. This may include bpamphlet.htm).
COMMAND 333
Chapter 56
OIL POLLUTION PREVENTION AND EMERGENCY RESPONSE -

THE SHIPMASTER'S RESPONSIBILITIES
by Captain C.J. Shill MNI, Chevron Shipping Company
Christopher Shill began his career as a deck cadet with Port Line in 1970. He also workedfor Beta Maritime and Sanko Line before
joining Chevron Shi;bping Co. LLC (CSC) as a chiefoficer in 1997. He came shoreside in April of 1997 to serve as technical expertfor
the Marine Manuals Update Project. This labour intensive project brought CSC's operation manuals into compliance with the ISM
Code. He simultaneously served as demurrage analyst and upon completion of the manuals assignment worked as a voyage manager
arranging voyage orders, communicating with agents, arranging bunkers and assisting with the safe and effective management of the
CSC VLCCJleet.
Promoted to master in March of 1998, Chris Shill assumed command of a 35,000 tonneproduct carrier in May of that same year.
Captain Shill is also the rec@ient of the 1997 Luddeke Prize for the Nautical Institute's Command Diploma Scheme.
Introduction structured plan becomes clear when one considers the

OILPOLLUTION PREVENTION and emergency response pressures and multiple tasks facing personnel when
are but two of the ship master's responsibilities. These confronted with an emergency situation. In a time of
responsibilities encompass ensuring the safety of the crisis lack of planning often results in confusion, errors
vessel, preventing human injury or loss of life and and failures to communicate. This can result in delays
avoiding damage to property and the environment. and a worsening situation. This in turn may result in
the vessel and its personnel being exposed to
To aid the shipmaster in the discharge of his increasing hazards or causing greater environmental
responsibilities, the introduction of the International damage.
Safety Management (ISM) Code came into effect in
July 1998 for oil tankers. Additionally, in compliance For the purpose of the VRP, an 'oil spill' is an actual
with the requirements of MARPOL 73/78 and the or probable discharge of oil. The body of the plan
International Maritime Organisation ( I M O ) contains all information and operational instructions
Resolution MEPC 54 (32),every oil tanker of 150 gross required by the SOPEP preparation guidelines. The
tons and above and every ship of 400 gross tons and appendices contain names, telephone numbers, telex
above carries on board a Shipboard Oil Pollution numbers, etc., of all contacts referenced in the plan as
Emergency Plan (SOPEP). T h e plan aids the well as other reference material. The plarincludes:
shipmaster in responding to an oil spill or threat of oil
The reporting procedures to be followed by the
spill, and in setting into motion the necessary actions
master or other persons having charge of the ship
to minimise or stop the discharge and mitigate its
at the time of an oil pollution incident.
effects.
A detailed description of the actions to be taken
In addition to the SOPEP, tankers trading or immediately by persons on board to control and/
intending to trade to the United States must carry a or reduce the discharge of oil following the
U.S. Coast Guard (USCG)-approved vessel response incident.
plan (VRP). This also applies to vessels conducting The list of authorities or persons to be contacted
bulk cargo oil lightering operations within the in the event of an oil pollution incident.
exclusive economic zone of the U.S. The procedures and shipboard point of contact
To assist Masters in the proper discharge of their for coordinating action with national and local
responsibilities with regard to maritime safety and the authorities in combating oil pollution.
protection of the marine environment, Chevron The master's role and responsibilities
Shipping Company LLC (Chevron)complies with the
T h e master is responsible for immediate
requirements of the ISM Code by having a
notification and implementation of oil spill
documented Operational Procedures System (OPS). containment and clean-up activities.
The OPS contains interlocking procedures used to
manage operations affecting safety and environmental Safety, the most important consideration when
performance. The Chevron VRP, in order to comply planning and conducting vessel operations, is never
with the requirements of MARPOL and the USCG, sacrificed for speed or economy.
incorporates the SOPEP into its VRP, making it an
integral part of the OPS. Duty to report
The master involved in an incident reports the
Purpose of the plan particulars of such incident to the fullest extent possible
The need for a predetermined and properly and without delay. This requirement is specified in
accordance with MARPOL, Protocol 1, Provisions generating system or other essential shipboard
Concerning Reports on Incidents Involving Harmful navigational aids.
Substances. Notifications are to be made:
Within Chevron, the responsibility for ensuring
Whenever there is an actual discharge of oil that these notifications are made is divided between
resulting from damage to the ship or its equipment. the master and the Qualified Individual (QI).The QI
For the purpose of securing the safety of the ship is an English-speaking, shore-based Chevron
or saving life at sea. representative who is familiar with implementation
When there is an actual discharge of oil during of Chevron's vessel response plan, is trained in their
the operation of the ship in excess of the quantity responsibilities under the plan and is available on a
or instantaneous rate permitted under the present 24-hour basis.
MARPOL convention.
The table below shows the notification sequence
When there is a probability of a discharge of oil.
in the event of a spill.
While it is impracticable to provide precise
definitions of all types of situations involving an oil Notification process
discharge, the general guidelines for making a report Any shipboard employee who witnesses an oil spill
include cases of: reports the spill to the watch officer or the master. The
master then makes notifications as required by the
Damage, mechanical failure or breakdown which SOPEP and coordinates shipboard activities with
affects the safety of the ship such as collision, national and local authorities in combating an oil spill.
grounding, fire, explosion, structural failure, The QI ensures that the master's notifications have
flooding, or cargo shifting. been made and makes his or her own notifications as
Failure or breakdown of machinery or equipment required by the SOPEP. These notifications include
which results in impairment of the safety of notifying vessel charterers, the cargo owner and
navigation such as failure or breakdown of steering company personnel and, within Chevron, activating
gear, the propulsion system, the electrical the Oil Spill Response Organisation.
Spill observer
Master or I
watch officer
Nearest coastal state
v
Terminal Notify
National Response
Local Agent Fleet Manager
P&I Club Qualified Individual
State Authorities Representative Flag State
Figure 56.7 Not$cation sequence in the event of a spill
COMMAND 335
If the vessel is in port, the terminal and the local Advisory communications
agent
- must be notified. From these two entities, the Some countries require a radio advisory when a
vessel requests the initiation of immediate containment vessel near their coasts suffer casualties that impair
and cleanup response using any available local the vessel's operating capabilities. By "advisory" it is
equipment. The master, or designated person, notifies meant that the communication is only to advise and
the fleet manager and the QI, provides details of the alert government agencies of the possibility of a request
incident, describes the actions taken a n d the for assistance.
notifications made, identifies notifications yet to be
made and requests the QI's assistance, as needed, in It is possible that a vessel could suffer a casualty or
mobilising resources and making ally additional a n equipment failure such that it is not in any
notifications. immediate danger or distress, but that the possibility
still exists. The master should always err on the side
If the vessel is in U.S. waters, the National Response of safety and immediately advise local authorities of
C e n t r e a n d the state authority a r e notified. the possibility of an oil spill; even if it is only a slight
Additionally, a P&I Club representative is notified, one.
provided with details of the incident and a request for
assistance, if necessary, is made. Additional reporting and record
keeping requirements
If the vessel is in open water, the master notifies It is the responsibility of the master to ensure that
the fleet manager and QI as above. The master also an accurate written record is kept of events related to
notifies the nearest coastal state, following the any spill, substantial threat of a spill or incident.
guidelines of I M O Resolution A 648 (16), General Whenever possible, the record should include
Principles for Ship Reporting Systems and Ship photogaphs or video footage. Only facts should be
Reporting Requirements, using the report format logged and speculation should be avoided. The written
defined in the SOPEP manual. record includes at least, but is not limited to, the
If in U.S. waters, the National Response Centre following:
and the state authority is notified. A description of the incident, including time and
Methods of notification location.
In the event of an incident the master must report Actions taken by vessel personnel to respond to
by radio whenever possible but in any case by the the spill or incident.
fastest channels available at the time the report is made. If applicable, assistance received and the body or
The primary notification method should be voice organisation that provided assistance.
communication using the vessel's cellular phone, Transfer of authority from the master to the
SATCOM, VHF a n d HF radios, or landline if shoreside incident commander.
available. The secondary notification method is by Completed required notifications.
urgent telex, fax or electronic mail. Within Chevron,
The master must also provide a written report of
the telecommunications centre provides 24-hour
the incident. This report covers all aspects of the
routing of all vessel communications classified as
incident and should be supplemented by photographs
"URGENT". Urgent communications are relayed by
and/or video evidence, whenever possible. This report
the telecommunications centre to the office-based
should include at least the following:
manager's h o m e fax machine a n d p h o n e o n
weeknights, and to the weekend duty manager's home Note of protest.
fax machine and phone on weekends and holidays. Statement of master, officers involved and any
This ensures that a responsible person within the other vessel or terminal witnesses.
company is alerted as quickly as possible. Abstract of applicable logs - deck and/or engne.
Reporting to flag state and local authorities Copies of letters of responsibility served against
The master must ensure that all government- or by the vessel.
required reports are submitted, including those Copies of claims filed against the vessel.
required by the country in whose waters an incident Copies of all reports made to local governments.
occurs. The master must also report to the country Sketches or photographs, if available.
under whose flag the vessel is registered. With the help Estimates of costs incurred by ship and/or shore.
of the vessel agent, the master determines which local Survey reports.
government agency has jurisdiction over oil pollution Reports to P&I Club.
and what reports this agency requires. The format for
notifying government authorities is stipulated by the In the event of an oil spill, the insurer will require
I M O under Resolution A648 (16) and is required as a detailed account of how the incident occurred, what
an appendix to all SOPEP manuals. This appendix steps were taken to prevent it and what efforts were
also includes the list of agencies or officials responsible made to minimise damage. Such an account should
for receiving and processing reports. be supported by the following items of evidence:
336 THE NALITICAL INSTITUTE

A record of the quantity of the pollutant. The master may delegate a responsible person as
The vessel's Oil Record Book. the only person of contact to deal specificall)- with
Video images of the extent of the spill, if possible. communications.
All relevant e-mail, telexes a n d other
correspondence. After an oil spill, shipboard personnel take initial
Samples of the spilled oil, of any oil collected near steps to stop the source; they notify Chevron, all
the vessel and of on-board fuel and cargo. applicable government agencies and monitor the oil
Accounts of the incident from all crew members spill. The shore-based personnel are responsible for
involved. handling the bulk of the response operations, including
Evidence of previous oil pollution in berth or port the development of strategic objectives that provide
area. overall direction for the conduct of the safe and
The procedures followed during transfer of cargo efficient control, containment, recovery and cleanup.
or bunkers within the vessel. The master informs the designated shore-based
Rates and ullages, soundings of loading and/or incident commander of the current spill status and
dischargng operations at the time of the spill. response steps taken. The shore-based incident
A copy of the terminal's cargo or bunker commander then assumes responsibility for
instructions concerning an acceptable loading rate. subsequent actions, informing the full spill
The name of the crew member in charge of management team of incident status and response
transfer operations. steps.
Times and results of inspections of equipment used Responses
in cargo and bunkering operations. While it is also impracticable to provide the precise
Instructions from the owner and/or the charterer. sequence of all types of responses for all spills, the
Methods of effecting emergency stops. following are general guidelines.
Procedures governing use of equipment such as
scupper plugs and drip trays. General initial response for all spills
Broken parts of any on-board equipment whose 1 Sound the general alarm and warn appropriate
failure contributed to the spill. shore personnel of possible danger.
2 If applicable, stop oil transfer operations.
Evaluating the situation and prioritising 3 Secure any ignition sources and deploy firefighting
responses equipment.
Should an incident occur, it is the responsibility of 4 Ensure the safety and stability of the vessel.
the master to prioritise required actions. The safety of 5 Test the atmosphere for hydrocarbons and toxins.
shipboard personnel is always the first priority. The 6 Instruct crew to d o n appropriate personal
second priority is the stabilisation of the vessel in order protective equipment (PPE) before cleanup
to limit damages, with the ultimate goal being to operations begin.
prevent the loss of the vessel. The third priority is the 7 If possible, confine s_pdled material to vessel.
summoning of firefighting, damage control, towing 8 Commence cleanup operations.
and spill response assistance from sources other than 9 Establish type and amount of oil spilled and
the vessel. estimate its potential impact on the surrounding
area.
Incident Commander
The master serves as initial incident commander Internal cargo transfer in an emergency
until being relieved by a shore-based incident In an emergency it may be necessary to transfer
commander. T h e incident commander is the cargo internally, from a damaged tank to an
responsible party's person in charge of the incident. undamaged one. If the vessel has power and its piping
It is imperative that the master, or other designated systems are intact, transfer cargo in the usual manner.
person, be clearly identified as the official and only If the vessel has no power and piping systems are not
point of contact on board for all matters related to the intact, use portable, submersible pumps, power packs,
response a n d to the reported incident. These hoses and fittings to transfer cargo.
responsibilities include:
Ship-to-shiptransfer in an emergency
* Ensuring that personnel safety is accorded the Emergency lightering operations should b e
highest priority in response operations. planned and conducted in accordance with the Oil
Ensuring the spill is contained, cleaned up and Companies International Marine Forum (OCIMF)
disposed of efficiently. Ship to Ship Transfer Guide and the International
Supervising the cleanup of spills confined to the Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals
vessels deck. (ISGOTT). These two widely accepted publications
Keeping shore-based management informed of all detail industry standards in the area of ship-to-ship oil
pertinent facts and the progress of the cleanup transfer operations. It should be recognised that, due
operation. to the emergency nature of the situation, actions taken
COMMAND 337
may require deviations from these standards and Steering gear failure
guidelines. When a steering gear failure occurs the master
should consider the following actions:
Damage, stability and hull stress calculations
If the vessel is damaged or aground normal stress Switching to backup or manual emergency
calculations may not apply. All relevant stability and steering systems.
hull stress parameters will need to be assessed prior Slowing the vessel to a safe minimum speed or
to starting any movements of cargo or bunkers. stopping if necessary.
Making the anchors ready for immediate use. The
If necessary, additional damage stability and anchors should be made ready for use at the
residual strength information can be obtained from earliest opportunity. Deteriorating conditions may
the home office. This information provides the master prevent or delay this action from being taken at a
with guidelines to plan the appropriate response. later time. In water too deep for an anchor to reach
bottom lowering the anchor or anchors to about
Emergency towing
Under normal circumstances and time permitting, four shackles (60 fathoms) may help to reduce
downwind drift. The anchor and cable may act as
the home office or local agent, at the master's request,
a drogue and may help to keep the ship's head
arranges towing services. If in the master's judgement
into the weather. Recovering four shackles of cable
the vessel is in danger, the master must immediately
and the anchor is within the design capabilities of
request assistance from any available source. Under
most windlasses
these circumstances the preferred contract for services
is Lloyd's Open Form. If the tug or vessel offering Main propulsion failure
assistance declines Lloyd's Open Form, in order to When a main propulsion failure occurs the master
ensure the safety of the ship, the master should accept should consider the following actions:
whatever arrangement is insisted upon, under protest,
record the fact and report the terms of the arrangement Steering the vessel away from any hazards.
to the fleet manager as soon as possible. Establishing the vessel's position and determining
set and drift.
Sampling Making the anchors ready for deployment.
Safety permitting, any spilled oil should be Showing lights or day shapes for vessel not under
sampled. Any oil observed on the water while the command.
vessel is at anchor or at berth should be sampled if Making ready for tug assistance if appropriate.
possible. Samples should be made in duplicate,
properly marked with date and location and sealed. Making ready for tug assistance
Samples will be most valuable if the sampling is Chevron vessels are fitted with emergency towing
authenticated by someone who is not part of the systems that meet the applicable regulatory
vessel's crew (e.g., a cargo surveyor, U.S. Coast Guard, requirements. Each vessel has a vessel-specific
Harbourmaster, or Terminal Representative). emergency towing arrangement instruction manual on
board that includes a deck arrangement plan and
Post incident drug and alcohol testing describes the components, general safety instructions,
It is important to carry out post incident drug and deployment procedure and maintenance of the system.
alcohol testing as soon as practicable after an incident. The prevailing weather and sea conditions, the nature
However, the master should never allow testing to and extent of vessel damage or distress, the type of
interfere with critical operations generated by the towing arrangement on board the distressed vessel and
incident. Actions such as stabilising the vessel, the capabilities of the towing vessel determine whether
containing the spill, tending to injured personnel, the vessel is to be towed from the bow or the stern.
firefighting, etc., must always take priority over Radio communications between the distressed vessel
regulatory-required testing. and the assisting vessel are established and maintained
throughout the entire planning and execution of the
The master or senior officer on board must towing operation. Once a plan has been agreed to and
determine who is to be tested. Tests should only be understood by both vessel crews, neither master takes
requested from those persons whose actions or any action in regard to navigation or engine
decisions could have contributed to the incident. In manoeuvres without first informing the other master.
most cases this means the officer in charge of the
operation that led to the incident and those directly Collision or grounding
involved in the incident and watch-standers will have Following a collision or grounding, the master has
to be tested. Wherever possible advice should be to assess the situation to determine if prompt re-floating
sought from the home office. of the vessel is appropriate to reduce hull stress and
decrease the chance that oil will leak from a ruptured
Casualty procedures checklist tank. Re-floating may be inadvisable, however, due
Due to the pressures and multiple tasks facing the to the risk of further damage. To make this
master following an incident, a checklist will aid in determination, the master should evaluate some of the
carrying out duties and responsibilities. following:

Tides and currents. Confirming that the leak is not from another
Weather (including wind, state of sea and swell) source such as the stern tube or engine room
and any forecast changes. overboard valves.
Characteristics of the bottom. Arranging for an underwater inspection as soon
Water depth around the ship, the calculated as possible. If the leak is identified a temporary
buoyancy needed to re-float and the draught and underwater repair may be possible.
trim after re-floating. Gauging tanks to check for previously unidentified
Hull stress status. cargo loss.
Transferring cargo or bunkers out of the leaking
Explosion and fire tank.
When explosion or fire occurs, the master should Once cargo level has reduced or the tank been
consider the following actions: emptied consider establishing a water bottom.
Stopping all transfer operations.
Fighting the fire with most effective means.
Summary
Isolating the casualty area from cargo or bunkers One of the most important tools that a master can
by closing deck and tank valves. have is a detailed response plan along with a thorough
knowledge of that plan. This knowledge includes:
Excessive list
The results of marine environmental pollution.
Any list that is unplanned or greater than planned
The impact of oil on the marine environment.
should be considered excessive. The master should
The penalties for spilling oil.
consider the following actions:
The importance of preventing spills.
Stopping transfer operations. T h e prevention of marine environmental
Checking all soundings/ullages in tanks. pollution.
Determining the cause of the list. The correct waste disposal procedures.
Checking hull stability and stress conditions. O n board crew response to incidents of marine
Correcting the list by transfer of cargo, bunkers pollution.
or ballast. Contingency plans for responding to an incident.
Notification procedures in the event of a spill.
Hull leakage
In the event of hull leakage the master should The master should ensure that, in the event of an
consider the following: incident, personnel are equipped with the
organisational and technical skills required for efficient
Stopping all cargo transfer operations until the and effective rapid incident response.
source is identified.
COMMAND 339
Chapter 57
WEATHER ROUTEING AND VOYAGE PLANNING

Captain Baillod started his seagoing career in 1963. Afier an early time with Scandinavian companies he joined Suisse Atlantique
where he was promoted master in 7980. Captain Baillod is still serving as master and regularly contributes to industry forums. He is
a member of The Nautical Institute Bulk Carrier Working Group and a Fellow and Council Member.
Introduction improved, but on-the-scene reports are still needed.

THETWO ASPECTS OF WEATHER ROUTEING are safety and For the common benefit, masters of ships not engaged
economy. The two are somewhat linked but do not in a weather observation program should report
necessarily come together. As an example, a short unusual weather occurrences for which there are no
route in heavy following seas may appear attractive, warnings being issued, whether compelled to do so
but in case of engine breakdown or loss of steering by law or not. Significant weather patterns for which
control the vessel may come dangerously within the no warnings issued are still common nowadays, even
troughs, particularly if the G M is high and the cargo in well covered areas such as the North Pacific. I have
liable to shift. Generally speaking, however, it may on several occasions reported sustained severe gale
be fair to say that a safe route is also an economic force winds for which no warnings were given. At the
route, provided that the choice is reasonable. The time of writing, certain areas such as the South East
prime factor for the success of weather routeing is the Pacific, South East Atlantic and Indian Ocean are still
quality of the forecasts which, despite the improvement being poorly covered by weather charts and
achieved in the past years, is still subject to many meteorolo@cal - ice warnings. Government budget
limitations. T h e accuracy of the storm tracks cuts are often the cause for such shortcomings.
(particularly their latitude in cross-ocean is
an essential feature of the forecast data accuracy Weather maps: indication of probability
requirement, as it often plays an important part in the As an inexact science meteorology, particularly
selection of a particular route. forecasting, is subject to the laws of probability. Some
weather systems have a higher probability to develop
Later in this chapter the steering principles will be than others. Their position, track and rate of
described. Surface and contour charts are now development are also subject to various interacting
available and their accuracy is sufficient to give the physical laws. For example, in a pressure field
mariner a good assessment of the weather ahead. This resembling a saddle between two highs where pressure
can be accepted with confidence, provided the mariner rises on two sides and falls in the other two directions,
understands the weather pattern by comparison with sudden storm formations are probable as a strong
surface analysis, shorter term forecast and contour pressure flow quickly builds up, particularly
charts. This applies similarly to weather routeing downstream (in the direction of the upper flow). The
computer data evaluation which may be available on degree of probability of storm formation in such areas
board. The quality of the forecast is, naturally, will depend upon various factors as pressure
inversely proportional to the extent of the forecast. A differential, temperature inversion, velocity of upper
continuous update is necessary, therefore and the latest stream, etc. It would be very useful to the mariner to
information has always to be preferred. The simulation be informed of such probabilities. Slower ships, in their
ahead, of weather development with the help of routeing choice, tend to take more consideration of
computer data and software should include climatological statistical data than their faster
information to the user as to its value, i.e. the age and counterparts. Climatological deviations from the
quality of the data upon which the forecast is norm, such as the forecasted persistence of a mid
computed. The clarity and conciseness that such tools latitude blocking high in winter mid ocean, should be
afford should not deceive the user into a sense of false emphasised in weather warnings.
security or over-reliance.
Numerous forecasting rules have been devised in
Value of ship's reports the past. The science of marine meteorology has
With the advent of increasing work loads affecting advanced a great deal. Today a 96 hours forecast is
navigating officers, ship's weather observation reports nearly as good as a 24 hours forecast was 20 years
are becoming more scarce. It is also a general belief ago. Such rules are therefore now less actual, as
that ship's reports are not needed any more. This is animated satellite pictures linked with visualisation of
not really true. Present technology has greatly the upper air stream and close tracking of the weather

system offer better forecasting tools. Weather maps the Buys Ballot Lan- to assess the bearing of the
picturing past and future movements of relevant storm. Note any shifts or tendencies.
systems are available and computer technology is now Observe the organisation and tendenq- of the
offering animated ocean weather graphics along storm using successive satellite pictures and
various projected routes. compare to actual observations.
Compare data from various sources (i.e. Japan,
Successful weather routeing can only be achieved Hawaii and San Francisco or Halifax - DDK -
by obtaining a regular update of synoptic and NAM).
forecasting data. Such information can effectively be Observe the sea and swell and take note of the
backed by observation of successive satellite pictures various wave trains by checking their period and
showing the size and following the development, height.
persistence and trends of weather systems once they
have been identified by comparison with synoptic By comparing the data available one can estimate,
charts. In order for the master to judge the value of with reasonable confidence, the distance to the centre
computers, increasingly being used for weather or the frontal trough where wind shifts occur. Steep
routeing, it is essential for him to have a good swells with occasional breakers have probably not
understanding of the weather systems and deduce the travelled a long way. They may just have achieved
reliability and quality of such aids by comparisons with transition from swell to sea, whereas longer swell
own observations and the study of alternate weather waves with rounded tops will have travelled a long
maps. way.
The analyst communicates to the vessel via Close scrutiny of the barograph and the pressure
facsimile charts or by transmitting data to an on board differential rates will d o much to assist in the
computer. Important navigational decisions involving assessment of distance to the storm. At night,
the safety of the ship may depend upon such observations of the sea are obviously far less effective.
information. Means of warning the mariner of the Changes of heading and a close watch on the ship's
probability of sudden storm build ups way in advance, behaviour (rolling and/or pitching motion), noting the
indicating its reliability, should be notified under position of deck areas most subject to sprays or
circumstances of low probability. Alternative scenarios shipping water, can help. The use of searchlight and
and their interactive effects could be proposed to the the observation of radar clutter may provide additional
mariner. assistance. With experience, the wind constancy,
precipitation, humidity levels and cloud formations
When editing forecast charts or transmitting will give further hints to the mariner.
forecast data to computers, I feel that the degree of
probability of a particular weather system to develop Various notions
and become significant should be evaluated by the Some of the following statements are uniquely
analyst. The reliability of the position, forecasted based upon my own observations and are not formally
movement, speed and development could b e recognised. They must, therefore, be read with caution.
quantified by a code indicating the confidence level Meteorology being an inexact science, an experienced
of the information given. O n weather charts a code or master will draw up his own rules using his intuition
"confidence vector" could be added to indicate the as well as experience to complement data orignating
from weather maps and computer simulations.
reliability of the information given regarding the
development, position, track and speed of a particular When passing by a slow or stationary cyclonic
system. On a computer screen a particular colour system, the wind shifts will more or less follow
could be used to indicate such information. Alternative the Buys Ballot rules (subject to variations of in-
scenarios and their probability could be made draught angle across isobars). The shift of swell
available in a separate window. direction will, however, generally lag behind by
approximately one half quadrant.
Various notions & weather routeing tips Meeting a developing low eastbound (northern
Observations
hemisphere). If you are unable to avoid being
W h e n within range of a storm, constant
overtaken towards the south by a north east
observations can help the master to supplement very
developing low, attempt to decrease latitude so as
valuably the information he is receiving. Such
to meet it at a younger stage of development and
information may quite well offer improved update and
benefit earlier from the west following wind shifts.
accuracy. The following are amongst the points to be
(In the southern hemisphere read north for south
considered:
and vice versa).
Obtain close observation of the wind direction and Confused swells can create unwanted rolling and
speed and compare them with the direction of pitching motion, becoming very severe in certain
isobars on synoptic charts to evaluate the angle of areas and conditions. A constant watch with very
in-draught across isobars. This will help to apply frequent heading changes may be necessary
COMMAND 341
especially if the ship, due to the nature of her cargo, Close observation and records of consecutive
draft or stability is vulnerable to sea motion. contour and surface prognosis charts should be
Low powered ships, in general, lose proportionally used to achieve an insight into the ocean weather
more speed in moderate to rough seas and swells. pattern. T h e necessary information can be
At a certain point, the performance in rough seas gathered by:
depends upon the vessel's loaded condition, hull - The 500mb Stream Lines.
shape, strength and sea keeping qualities rather -
The track, speed, tenacity and intensity of the
than power. large anticyclonic masses.
In certain areas, particularly in the wake of a - The building rate, speed and movement of
depression and despite experiencing favourable the developing depressions on the ocean's
winds, cross swells may very significantly affect west sides and their possible presence and
the performance and handling of a ship. development in mid ocean.
Ships may differ significantly in their behaviour General storm tracks are often substantially
under various loaded conditions. Length, rolling affected after the passage of a large and intense
period, block coefficient, freeboard, length to storm. Consequent depressions may well follow
beam ratio, stability, reserve buoyancy and hull similar tracks.
shape are amongst the many factors affecting The best avoiding action for heavy seas may
ships, under various sea states. Control of heading sometimes be that of waiting for a storm system
and speed is a crucial factor governing the safety to pass by, particularly towards the beginning and
and performance of the ship. end of ocean passages. The period of succession
Light draft ships should, by all means possible, between troughs and ridges may hold fairly steady
avoid areas of heavy swells - weather forecasting for a certain period. This knowledge should be
is usually less reliable on the west side of oceans used when choosing a coastal route prior to
where eastward travelling systems developing commencing the ocean passage, e.g. the Pentland
overland build up intensity and change behaviour Firth/English Channel and the Tsugaru Strait/
as they meet the ocean. Ocean waters usually offer South Kyushu. Careful consideration is needed
a favourable media for the development of frontal when making such choices, weighing up the
systems in particular. Some depressions, however, implications of extra mileage, the expected
find favourable topographic features to develop weather trend and the opportunity to revert, if
over land prior to reaching the sea. unexpected conditions develop. Consideration for
Interacting lows. The weaker low will usually be the safer route should far outweigh that of the extra
absorbed by the more vigorous one. mileage, especially during the winter season. As
The merging of two lows may induce a temporary an example, having decided to go north about
weakening of the system (although regeneration Japan when eastbound from the northwest Pacific
is consequently possible, particularly if there is a via Tsugaru, out of Korean or West Japan Ports,
bordering steering high ridge). O n the other hand, much care is usually needed, as depressions build
the merging of two highs often causes an up very quickly in the area. Should the trend be
intensification of the newly combined anticyclone. for the high pressure ridge to precede the vessel
The advance speed of a young depression is in its eastward movement, a predominance for
usually proportional to its development rate. A southerlies perhaps often reaching gale force winds
developing low accelerates, whereas a filling low (except in summer) can be expected. This would
tends to slow down and stall. Older, slower hinder attempts to move south of the depressions
moving systems may also regenerate. They may overtaking the vessel.
intensify and develop rapidly when meeting Although climatological routeing has its value,
several blocking ridges as this has the effect of particularly for slower ships in need of better
stopping their movement and feeding them. Such strategic planning, the actual weather data must
a slow moving and intensifying system may always be monitored closely. One must not neglect
the fact that an unusual weather pattern may well
generate tremendous seas over an extended period
occur. For example, prolonged and sometimes
within a particular area. Any ship caught in it may
intense easterly gales may occasionally be felt
suffer very high seas and be unable to move out where westerlies are normally very predominant.
of it. The movement of such a system, if any, may This may, as an example, happen in the North
be rather erratic and very hard to predict. A typical Pacific when high pressure predominates the mid
example of such a dangerous condition occurs in 40s. South of the ridges along the upper 30s,
the north Pacific around 40N/1500W, with easterly gales may be frequent and strong for some
bordering ridges to the northeast (Alaska High), intermediate period.
southeast (California High) and northwest (Polar If possible avoid or be aware of the sector of a
Ridge from the Bering Sea). It is not uncommon depression subject to the tightest gradient or deep
for lfim seas and swell to persist for more than a troughs with heavy confused seas. Huge winter
week. storms may build up fast. Severe gale to storm

force winds with very high seas and swell may, in Intensification (winds strengthening, pressure
some cases, be felt 1500 to 2000 miles from the dropping) and development (size)of a lo\v usually
storm centre, particularly in the North Pacific. The coincide in higher latitude in open seas. Intense
whole North Atlantic, up to the upper 20s, may storms of small diameter sometimes occur
sometimes be affected by such systems. unexpectedly in certain coastal areas. Tropical
Cyclonic interaction: In practice, movement rules revolving storms may also be very intense but
are often subject to interaction, particularly in small in diameter.
complex systems. When two cyclonic systems Very heavy seas and swells can be encountered
approach within interacting distance their speed, on any sector of depressions, particularly when
track and behaviour are nlutually affected, as the they head across long ridges bordering a blocking
sectors featuring opposing winds meet the high. This often occurs in the winter on the
circulation and the tracks of both systems become poleward side of depressions as they, on gaining
subject to transformation. The intensity of latitude, meet a slowing sub-arctic high. When
circulation decreases, particularly at the bordering electing to sail a route with known heavy following
sectors and a deflection of their tracks takes place, seas it is essential to recognise the ship's condition
usually inducing a mutual revolving cyclonic and reliability. Although relatively little speed loss
movement. After mergng both systems often normally occurs in following seas, the presence
regenerate. A common example is that of a of swell may seriously affect performance. The
tropical revolving storm (TRS) becoming extra- potential risks involved in case of losing power,
tropical when nearing a sub-tropical low. or simply losing control of the ship due to steering
Westerly swells generated by successive frontal difficulties, must be appreciated. This may become
systems principally affect the sea condition in particularly dangerous if the ship is stiff and loaded
middle latitudes. Winds are generally more with a cargo which may be liable to shift, or if her
consistent in their strength and duration along the machinery is not fully reliable. The heavy load
warm sector of developing depressions, but high imposed upon the rudder and steering gear is
constancy and a prolonged wind path is also another factor to be taken into account,
possible elsewhere, particularly along ridges. particularly in ballast or light draft. If quarterly
Heavy seas, particularly during winter months and seas are becoming dangerous the master may have
west headings, are hard to avoid. Under these to consider heaving to. This should be done before
circumstances a sub-arctic route with better the manoeuvre becomes too perilous.
shelter, such as the Bering Sea, may lessen Deep frontal troughs may also be dangerous. The
exposure to westerlies. East bound generally steer sudden passage of a cold front can bring very high
far to the Equator side of the depressions. As the and confused seas. If having to meet a low it is
systems are usually moving eastwards their effect preferable to meet it in its early stage. This may
is felt for longer periods and it is, therefore, be useful when travelling eastbound and observing
important to attempt to avoid passing polewards the weather systems.
of a depression. When west bound, if not impaired In this respect it may be worth considering that
by ice or navigational restrictions, one may aim due to lesser wind constancy one may observe
at sailing towards the polar side of depressions. less sea and swell orignating from the polar side
Otherwise, sail as far towards the equator from of a particular system than from its equator side.
the depression's track as possible and reasonable. This may be particularly true if moving ahead of
Intensifying depressions in higher latitudes are a depression. Although the weather will be
often at a more developed stage (i.e. 30s versus generally closer to the bow, sea conditions may
40s). not be as bad as those on the frontal side, provided
Due to lesser wind constancy, one may observe the system moves quickly. Very heavy seas and
less sea and swell originating from the polar side swells can be encountered on any sector,
of a particular system than from its equator side. particularly when depressions steer across long
This may be particularly true if moving ahead of ridges bordering a blocking high. This often occurs
a depression. When eastbound, although the in the winter on the poleward side of depressions,
weather will generally be much closer to the bow, when they meet the sub-arctic high as it slows
sea conditions may not be as bad as to the frontal down on gaining latitude.
side, provided the system moves quickly. On the In higher latitudes the chances of encountering
other hand, be guarded when ahead of a northeast heavy seas are generally greater, particularly
moving low (in the Northern Hemisphere). The during winter months. When choosing a track in
decision to turn south to avoid head seas must be higher latitudes it is important to recognise that
taken early, before the seas become too high. the chances of meeting extreme weather with
Southerly winds ahead of a depression may blow confused seas may be greater than in temperate
over an extended distance along a ridge and latitudes. In sub-arctic regions the frequent
generate high seas and swells for a ship situated weather changes and low constancy in wind
north of the system. direction may result in a comparatively lesser build
COMMAND 343
up of swell. In open oceans and higher latitudes, smooth. There is always an amount of disturbance
due to increased fetch length, high swells from interacting with the formation of waves as the wind
the equatorial quadrants are usually more frequent blows over its surface.
than those of polar quadrants. The position, 3. Fetch (straight distance travelled over the surface),
predominance, intensity, persistence and size of if typically less than 180 to 250 miles (depending
respective troughs and ridges are other factors upon the generating wind force) will restrict the
affecting the predominance of swells and seas. development of waves.
Along the Norwegian west coast, heavy seas, swells 4. Water depth. If depth is less than half the wave
and storms are very frequent, particularly in length the sea bottom will substantially slow the
winter. This frequency generally decreases motion of the waves. The lower part of the wave
towards the northeast, between Haltenbank and nearest the bottom slows more than the top,
the area southwest of Nord Kap. thereby increasing the height and decreasing the
In areas such as the Bering sea, the ice limits to length of the wave. When approaching shallower
the north and the comparative shelter of the water, the effect will be amplified and the faster
Aleutians may offer an attenuation of sea moving tops will cause instability in the form of
conditions. There are, on the other hand, exposed breakers or surf. If approaching shallow water at
coastal areas where the sea and swell's interaction an angle a change of direction of motion or
with coastal currents and abrupt depth changes refraction tending to become parallel to the depth
generate abnormal and dangerous waves. curves takes place.
The value of performance curves under given 5. Current. An opposing current has the effect of
weather conditions is rather limited, particularly increasing wave height and decreasing wave
when the ship meets various wave trains under length, whereas a following current has the
the interaction of sea waves, swells and wind opposite effect - decreasing wave height and
speed. increasing its length.
Cyclonic and anti-cyclonic track tendency. In the 6. Temperature differentials. A change of
northern hemisphere the general track tendency temperature gradient water/air, whereby the air
is towards the northeast for cyclones and east becomes colder than the sea, tends to cause an
southeast for anti-cyclones. This applies to high increase in wave height, typically a 10 per cent
pressure cells with closed isobars but not to ridges increase in wave height for a one degree
of high pressure occurring between lows. The Centigrade change in temperature.
seasonal difference between tracks is that they are
more southerly in winter. In winter, cyclones on Tropical revolving storms
the east coast of a continent sometimes follow a I do not propose to describe the rules of TRS
marked northerly track, those on the west coast a avoidance nor their usual tracks. Those are well
southerly track. In summer the reverse tendency documented, fairly simple and available on the bridge
occurs. This is due to the fact that continents are of almost any ship. My object here is to comment on
colder than the adjacent sea in the winter and certain features of such storms and warn of the
warmer in the summer (substitute north for south necessity to take early tactical action whenever
and vice versa in the southern hemisphere). possible.
Waves TRS are being tracked very closely nowadays.

Many empirical formulas have been evolved to Nevertheless, forecasting errors are still frequent and
estimate probable wave height for a given wind substantial. A master should not be lured by the
strength and may be useful for creating mathematical apparent accuracy of computer generated forecasts but
models and computer simulations. They may also be should always attempt to use alternate forecasting
a guide to the mariner. In practice, however, wind sources, such as Japan and Guam for the Pacific
seldom blows in a steady direction or at a steady typhoons. Tropical storms can be very unpredictable.
strength. The appearance of the sea (the wave height Sometimes their irregular path can be deduced by a
and length) is influenced by a number of factors, which close study of synoptic charts, such as the influence of
can be summarised as follows: a high pressure ridge for example, but in many cases
the factors governing their movements are linked to
1. Wind speed and consistency of direction. Wave the upper air structure and temperature inversions or
length and height are directly proportional to wind other phenomena which may not be easily available
speed provided the direction remains steady. A or evaluated by the mariner. It is essential, therefore,
"time saturation level" is reached, typically 24 to to monitor very closely both the track and speed of a
48 hours, depending on actual wind strength. storm. A deceleration may be the precursory sign of a
Beyond that time the generating waves will not change of direction. Once this track change has taken
grow any longer, although the significant swells place, re-acceleration is possible. Predicted positions
thereby generated will travel longer distances. can be a good help but a very wide margin for error
2. Swell intrusion. In practice the sea is never really must be allowed for.

When "TRS loops'' occur it is usually at slow speed, Several areas are notorious for dangerous "freak
when the storm "feels" resistance or attraction from waves", with a deep unusual trough. Such 1s-ax-esare
different sides. A stationary or nearly stationary TRS usually generated by currents opposing ~vindsand
must be treated with particular caution. Apart from swells approaching shallow water. In particular, air/
its unpredictability, the seas generated can become sea temperature differentials have also been known
enormous and with favourable upper air and high sea to contribute towards the generation of such abnormal
temperature the chances of further development are waves. The writer has witnessed such waves on a few
very good. Slow moving TRS, subject to various occasions. In one particular instance the impression
atmospheric interactions, are more likely to follow of "free fall" was felt to such an extent as to raise grave
unusual tracks and, under certain circumstances, even concern to all on board. The vessel survived, but with
a "looped path". A close record of the central pressure important structural damage. Under certain conditions
and radius of storm and gale force winds is also I recall having encountered abnormal waves or
necessary in order to detect and appreciate its dangerous seas in the following areas: southeast Cape
tendencies and to decide on the amount of safe Africa (Aghulas current), East Taiwan, New Zealand
distance keeping. I have recently witnessed a waters, the southern tip of Kamtchatka, Cape Pilar
September typhoon almost stationary west of Luzon northwest of Spain, areas northeast of Japan and
which, without warning, started moving east across southwest Norway.
Luzon then east southeast at 23 knots, before slowing
down and turning northeast onto a more predictable Sometimes, on entering the ocean after the passage
track. I believe that a contributory cause for its of certain straits, steep and dangerous swells are
irregular behaviour was the interaction of another encountered, particularly when the ocean floor rises
typhoon at a higher latitude and a more advanced steeply into restricted waters, with tidal streams and
stage, creating an active flow in which that storm found eddies meeting the incoming ocean swells. Such swells
a favourable breeding space. are encountered with little warning. In a few instances
I have had to reduce speed quite suddenly to avoid a
Weather routeing climatology, the sea severe pounding after passing through the following
and weather routeing straits - Tsugaru, Lombok and Magellan (Cape Pilar).
Climatology and weather patterns Similar swells may be encountered on passing
Initially, weather routeing was based o n numerous other straits, such as areas of Cook, Bass,
climatology without tahng into account actual weather Gibraltar, and so on.
situations or trends. Today's technology is vastly
improved and efficient weather surveillance analysis Weather routeing
and prediction is available, its use being most effective The master may have better knowledge of his ship
in middle and high latitudes. Climatology is, and her response under the prevailing conditions and
nevertheless, still being used, particularly for slow should, accordingly, have the last word regarding the
vessels on long sea passages. Generalisations can be choice of a route. He should also, however, never
made with some conviction in certain areas. In the refuse advice if offered and should use the best meails
North Atlantic, for example, more severe sea wave available to achieve the voyage safely.
activity takes place between latitudes 50" to 60' north
in winter, with extensions of intense seas protruding One of the most challenging duties of the master
into the Denmark Straits, the Norwegian Sea and along remains that of choosing a safe and economical route
the south and east coast of North America. The many for his vessel. The considerations are many. The master
cyclones crossing this vast area in winter, particularly will try to keep his vessel clear of heavy seas but,
on their southern quadrants, induce the very hazardous depending on the area and the season, this may not
wave conditions for ship operations, requiring large be possible. In such cases he will seek a safe heading
amounts of ship speed reduction. and speed for his ship, aiming to keep her under
control, minimising sea impact and avoiding violent
The higher proportion of speed reductions and
motion. The general route and tactical course, having
damage caused by heavy weather occur at lower
due regard to expected weather developments and
latitudes during the winter than during the remaining
currents, will often be considered by a Weather
seasons because of the more southerly trajectories and
higher frequency of the illajority of these migratory Routeing Company (WRC), which has highly
storms. Similar observations can be made in the North sophisticated long term forecasting methods and
Pacific between Japan and the Gulf of Alaska. Less weather surveillance tools. Today's technology has
restrictive ice conditions permit western passages into greatly improved and an optimum route may be
the Bering Sea, north of the Aleutians, following assessed with the help of computers with very good
easterlies. Due to reduced fetch, the sea conditions results. Whilst taking into account such
are more manageable than at similar latitudes in the recommendations from the WRC the master remains,
North Atlantic. The southern oceans have similar nevertheless, fully responsible for his vessel and it
seasonal characteristics but somewhat different would be foolish to minimise this attachment to the
patierns due to the absence of land masses. ship.
COMMAND 345
O n the one hand, he may not have access to the compared 96 hours forecast charts with forecast charts
wealth of information available to the WRC, but on for 48 hours produced ten years ago and have noticed
the other hand is on the spot and far more conscious that the same or even better quality is possible today
of safety considerations (i.e. cargo, ship condition and for a forecast period double the length. Computer
stability) and the ship's response and behaviour. Also, models based on long term observations are
he will probably have a better on-scene appreciation established, data is simulated and compared with
of the sea conditions and therefore be best suited to actual observations in order to establish any deviations
adjust heading and engne power according to local from the norm, in such a way that trends can best be
conditions. detected. Human intuition can be used to tailor a
particular computer data analysis to suit local
The WRC usually assumes that the master will be observations or own findings.
able to maintain the recommended course. In many - The deviation between
the computer and the human modified analysis can
cases this may not be possible due to slamming, heavy then be measured and compared with actual
rolling or sea impact. For this reason, the WRC and measurements to provide a useful human interface.
the master should work closely together and try to
understand each other's appreciation of the ship, her Weather routeing - some advice
crew, her safety and her intended voyage. 1. Determine the vessel's operational limits, based
on load line, Institute warranties and cargo
In most cases the WRC is hired by the charterers, characteristics.
who will have economics as their first priority, 2. Adjust routes to take into account navigational
the safest route not always being the most restrictions (including ice, load line, traffic and
economic. An economic route can only be draft).
accepted if it is safe for that particular vessel. 3. Consider alternative routes in order to seek
In many instances, WRC are known to give initial advantage or minimise disadvantage from wind,
recommendations for a shorter route towards a sea, topographical or current conditions.
strategic position, based upon optimistic forecasts,
4. Start collectingsurface, upper air (contourat 500Mb)
with consequent re-routeing to avoid impending
and sea state prognosis charts, at least three to four
weather deterioration.
days before commencing the passage, in order to
Post-voyage analyses are usually carried out by
get acquainted with the weather features, intensity
the WRC at charterers' request. Such studies are
of the systems and sea conditions.
based on numerous assumptions and have only a
5. Use upper air forecasts to locate the 5640 Mb
limited value. Computer Climatologcal Database
contour which will g v e a good indication of the
is now available to the master gving him, together
expected general direction and southern boundary
with up-to-date weather data analysis and forecast,
of storm tracks. Watch for possible splits in the
access to an amount of information which could
upper air flow as an indication of the formation of
come close to that of the WRC.
two storms tracking in opposite directions,
O n board computer systems are being installed on typically north and south.
various vessels. Using these, the ship's response and 6. When nearing departure start collecting satellite
resistance characteristics are being analysed and pictures, if available.
projected into a programme linked to the weather 7. Compare successive charts, particularly satellite
pattern and its predicted developments, regularly pictures. Observe tendencies, organisation or a
updated by satellite communication link. T h e dissipation of respective systems.
information available from such a tool allows the 8. Look ahead, plot the ship's approximate position
master to have easy graphical access to all available well ahead of time and appreciate the situation
elements in order to help him choose the optimum on the planned track. Consider alternative routes
route for his vessel without outside interference. and strategc positions, bearing in mind fetch and
the ability to acquire some shelter from high sea
O u r intelligence analyses trends intuitively,
and swell.
whereas computers analyse them rationally according
9. Bear in mind the limitations of your ship, her
to a lopc established by the programmers. Simulations
stability, condition and nature of the cargo.
are frequently used to establish trends which have been
10. Regardless of whether you are receiving WRC
detected by the computer. The amount of trust put
assistance, stay on top by monitoring the weather
into the results of such experiments varies a great deal
situation. Endeavour to keep officers fully involved
between humans. People familiar with computers or
and interested in the weather patterns and closely
those who have witnessed their efficiency and those
monitor winds, sea condition, pressure tendencies,
who understand the mathematical logc involved place
precipitation, cloud formation and sea
more trust in them.
temperatures, comparing actual observations with
As an inexact science meteorology offers a very the weather maps.
particular challenge for data analysis, processing and 11. Endeavour to collect weather information from
simulation. Nowadays, many of us mariners have various sources.

12. Where applicable, collect ice charts and/or ice As a result, the mariner must make himself very
bulletins from various sources. Avoid the areas aware of the consequences of such changes and be far
by as wide a marqn as possible. Bear in mind more cautious when planning a passage. Today it is
uncertainties; be particularly aware in areas where very frequent for well established seasonal weather
shipping is scarce and information incomplete. patterns to become very disturbed.
Monitor sea temperatures as frequently as
possible. Use all available means to detect ice, References:
bearing in mind limitation of radar and other aids. For the Safe Navigation inJapanese Coastal Waters:
If available use night imagery or infrared devices. Japan Maritime Safety Agency.
Always bear in mind the possibility of ice drifting Geostrophic Wind Scale, HMSO Metform 1258,
outside known limits. Beware of new ice North Atlantic Plotting Chart.
formation, particularly in sheltered waters with Duxbury, K., Seastate and Tides, Stanford Maritime.
calm and cold weather. Many ships have become The American Practical Mariner, Bowditch.
seriously damaged when new ice was formed Mariners Weather Log.
without warning in such areas as the Northern Tropical Revolving Storms, The Nautical Institute,
Baltic or the Bay of Bothnia. 19...
World Climate Research Programme, World
We are all becoming aware of the climatological Meteorological Organisation, 1995.
changes which have taken place in the past decade.
Global warming is evident. We have also witnessed
the El Nino phenomena and one of the worst hurricane
seasons in the northwest Atlantic in 1998.
COMMAND 347
Chapter 58
THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE COMMAND PARTNERSHIP

AND DIPLOMA SCHEME
Introduction every master will be able to g v e examples where they

WHILEPREPARATION FOR COMMAND might be seen as a have had to make decisions based upon their best
personal responsibility, appointment to command is judgement.
a company responsibility. This scheme has, therefore,
been drawn up as a partnership. It is important to Although there can be tensions and difficulties, all
note that The Nautical Institute Command Partnership owners want, and indeed need to, ensure the inherent
Scheme is intended to complement, not supplant, safety of the voyage because it is fundamental to the
company selection and training for those destined for 10% tern1 reputation of the company.
command. Whereas tasks as chief mate have been largely
Having beell selected as a for command concerned with events within the ship, the position of
when the opportunity arises, the record book is command requires a wider sense of judgement. Very
designed to enable candidates to collect evidence to often masters are confronted with situations where
demonstrate your abilities to carry out most of the there are no clear-cutright and wrong ways to decide
command functions. the outcome.
The scheme cannot replace the need for training, The Nautical Institute, over the past twenty five
which will have been identified during your selection years, has run a series of Command Seminars, from
interview. The scheme and record book will enable which it has been possible to derive some helpful
candidates to experience elements of command and limiting guidelines:
help candidates define weaknesses in their knowledge Think ahead, anticipate and plan.
and skills which can be discussed with their company. Communicate well, keeping all involved - the
The record book is also offered to individuals who crew, the company and the cargo owners -
want to follow the scheme of their own volition. informed.
The first part of the partnership scheme is designed Put in place procedures to ensure the ship is not
to provide the guidance for understanding more put at risk through the error or omission of one
clearly the purpose of the record book tasks and person.
collection of evidence. Do not put the ship or people in a situation of
uncontrollable risk.
Command has a status of its own which is unique. Care for the cargo.
T h e master is the ship's captain, the company Seek to optimise the return to the company.
manager, the custodian of cargo and a public authority. When in doubt seek advice early.
The authority of command derives from two Act with integrity and set a good example.
Be confident in good seamanship.
complementary sources: the public who empower
governments through statutory law to bestow authority Protect the marine environment.
Strive for improvement.
for safe ship operations through merchant shipping
legislation and the company which assigns authority Further information which contains the distilled
through appointment. wisdom of ship masters and other specialists is
This authority cannot be transferred as it attaches contained in this, the accompanying book, The Nautical
to the position of master. The master discharges the Institute on Command. This is a practical book full of
responsibilities associated with c o m m a n d by useful advice and should be read carefully because it
delegating appropriate authority to the officers on will enhance the quality of the decisions you make.
board through their job descriptions, company Good decisions in turn generate respect and respect
instructions, master's standing orders supplemented translates into support a n d good management.
Throughout the record book, references to relevant
by bridge orders and procedural arrangements.
chapters are given.
It is not the master's role to do everything on board,
These few introductory notes will be sufficient to
but it is his responsibility to make provision for the
safe and continuous operation of the ship through demonstrate that the role of command cannot be
separated from company management. Having been
clearly understood delegated procedures.
selected as a candidate for command it is very much
In most cases there is no conflict of interest between in the company's best interests to develop a mutually
charterer, company and marine administration, but agreed programme of preparation.

In the past this has usually been done through a attended already and working out the areas for special
series of interviews but there was growing evidence attention. Some pointers are g v e n in this section, but
of the need for a more formal programme because the subject cannot be generalised easily and the
the range and scope of issues to be covered are so candidate should seek to strengthen any weaknesses.
broad that there is now a requirement to provide a
well structured programme if all the subject areas Building upon that there should be a well structured
where command decisions impact on the profitability visit to each of the principal managers concerned. The
of the company are to be covered. areas to be covered are too wide for a 'chat' approach.
We recommend the use of a checklist in this section to
In the guidance section there follow key points cover all the key points.
about what makes a good master and what makes a
bad master. Undoubtedly the candidate will have their With this background the candidate will be able to
own views about this, because the aim of the scheme follow the task based scheme which covers a wide
is to turn the negative influences into positive range of practical tasks relating to master's
outcomes. responsibilities.
To do this there are two aspects. Firstly, the For those who are able to undertake a special
candidate may have to adapt to the role of command project, The Nautical Institute is providing the
and secondly the company may need to provide opportunity to obtain a prestigious diploma.
training where this is seen as desirable. Full details of the Command Partnership Scheme
Training needs can be identified at the selection can be obtained from The Nautical Institute, 202
interview by comparing the job description as mate Lambeth Road, London SEI 7LQ or from the
with that of master, noting the training and seminars Institute's web site: www.nautinst.org.
COMMAND 349
Chapter 59
CASE STUDY - MAN OVERBOARD

Introduction starboard turn I did not feel that the buoy would have
O N 9 MARCH1978 in the late afternoon a cadet, Eric cleared the ship's side. At about this time the radio
Hendry, fell overboard from a tanker close by the officer was instructed to send the following message:
Tunisian coast.
3723 N 09" 15 E Man overboard stop in sight we are
There were three reports written to cover the proceeding all vessels keep clear.
incident, one by the master, one by the chief officer
and one by another cadet, a girl, who happened to be As the vessel passed through a heading of about
working with Eric at the time. The reports speak for 225" the chief officer informed me that he had lost
themselves. Here they are, direct from the original sight of the man and the buoys. At no time during the
submissions. turn did I see either the man or the buoys. The time
of the accident was estimated bv the OOW to have
Statement by the master been 1605. There was an accurate fix on the chart for
''At about 1610 hours 1 was summoned to the 1600 with Cape Serrat being about nine miles distant.
bridge by the ringng of the ship's general alarm bells. T brought the ship round to the 1605 position and at
On the bridge were the OOW, the chief officer and 1652, with the vessel accurately fixed in the 160.5
the helmsman. The O O W who was standing in the position, I stopped the engines. At this time a round-
vicinity of the radar informed me that there was a man the-ship lookout was underway with many officers and
overboard. The chief officer was standing outside the crew stationed around the vessel attempting to locate
starboard wheelhouse door and was looking through Cadet Hendry. Both motor lifeboats were in a state of
binoculars in the direction of the starboard quarter. I readiness for lowering.
noted that the vessel's helm indicator was at hard to
When the chief officer had lost sight of Cadet
starboard and that the vessel was swinging in that
Hendry I instructed the radio officer to activate the
direction. I placed the telegraph to stand by and took
auto alarm and transmit the following:
a pair of binoculars to join the chief officer. I asked
him if he had the man overboard in sight and he AXXRefmny man overboard now lost position all vessels
replied, 'Yes'. By noting the direction and angle of his in vicinity please assist.
binoculars I tried to locate the man. The chief officer
informed me that the man had two lifebuoys in close This message was transmitted at 1636. The weather
conditions prevailing were wind WxS force 5/6,
proximity to him.
moderate sea and swell. The sea was choppy and
Mv first reaction was to reverse the wheel to hard
i
waves were breaking. The sky was overcast and
to port in order to accomplish a Williamson turn but visibility was getting poorer all the time. Sunset was
to bring the vessel to port would have meant blocking at 1725 hours and by 1745 the vessel was searching
off the chief officer's field of vision as the vessel's funnel the sea with searchlights (2) and the aldis lamp. At
crossed the direction of the man overboard. As the this time two other vessels were in the vicinity and
man was in sight I decided to continue to turn to assisting. At 1948 Tunis Radio Station repeated our
starboard. XXX and continued to do so throughout the search.
At about 2015 we were joined by two vessels. By 2045
At this time it registered in my mind that the man six other vessels were assisting.
overboard smoke-light buoy had not been released.
The only such buoy on the bridge at this time was At about 2215 one informed us that he had seen
situated on the port wing. The starboard buoy had something and the vessels turned to port. O n
been lost during heavy weather in the North Atlantic. investigation the sighting was false. By 2328 my
A cable ordering a replacement man overboard was concern for the cadet was grave. At 0030 the fourth
made to the vessel's owners subsequent to this loss. I engineer and the junior second officer reported
returned to the wheelhouse and asked the O O W why sighting a floating object. A light was dropped and
he had not released the port side man overboard the vessel turned round. O n investigation nothing was
before the order to hard starboard wheel was given. sighted but a piece of floating plastic and we resumed
He informed me that he had been told not to. When our easterly track pattern at 0110.
asked who had given the order not to release it he
stated, 'I don't know.' I asked him who had g v e n the During the night vessels were assisting as they
hard starboard order, he said, 'I did,' I again checked passed the area. PAN calls were made by myself on
the direction and position of the binoculars being used the VHF at regular intervals with the message:
by the chief officer and again asked him if the man Man overboard all vessek navigating in the vicinity between
was still in sight. He replied, 'Yes.' Cape Serrat and Cape Blancplease keep a sharp lookout. Man
is with lifebuoys. All vesselsplease rqbort any sighting.
In considering whether to release the man
overboard at this time I estimated that the man was At 0330 the vessel was positioned to the north east
more than a mile from the vessel's position and with of Cape Blanc and I decided that the best hope lay in
this distance and the fact that the vessel was on a hard the fact that, with the inshore set being felt by the vessel

and the wind, which had been veering during the night Statement b>-the chief officer
towards NW, the cadet could well have been carried "On the m o d 2- ri 3 >I:-,::h; 1.:,,, : :l,:-':.i
. .
inshore and I considered that the most profitable open up the inspection $ a : ~ 1': I:-. rz.5 xi.+:+ _r : ,- :
daylight searching would b e made around the - --- - - I+

midships Sampson posts. On tn:;-.J~,L-.... . T ~ I ZI T F
coastline. At 0608 I sent the following to 3VX: needed a few inches of water baled rx: :: 2::
Still searching urge you arrange helicopter assistance the starboard one needed about n\-o feer c 8 ifr.z i :
soonest. scale removed from it. I then told the t\io c a c e z :I
get on with that task after lunch. The)- first drained
At about 0630 a Tunisian naval patrol boat joined the water out of the port one and replaced the
us and assisted by sweeping across our track. At about inspection cover. They then went across to the
this time two aircraft were sighted but they were at starboard one to remove the scale. I had told them to
too high an altitude to be of assistance. All the other dump the scale over the side.
vessels had left at this time.
I was about halfway down the ladder from the
By 1000 hours the vessel was three miles to the lower boat deck to the main deck on the starboard
NW of Cape Serrat and I decided to look again at the side when I saw the female cadet running aft from the
overboard position. At 1040 the vessel had regained starboard manifold shouting, 'Eric has fallen
the position of the accident and after that tracked again overboard'. I turned and ran up the ladder to the after
on a course of 080". At 1230 I was convinced of the end of the boat deck shouting, 'Man overboard',
futility of searching in this area and so again took the hoping somebody on the bridge would hear. O n
ship inshore and searched along the coast between reaching the after end of the boat deck I looked over
Ras Dukara and Cape Blanc. At 1426 the vessel was
the side and saw Eric Hendry floating past. He was
off Cape Blanc and a course was shaped to regain the
sort of back paddling so as to keep clear of the vessel's
eastbound traffic lane off Cani Isle.
propeller and looking up towards the ship. I picked
At 1.530 the vessel had regained the course line up the nearest of the two lifebuoys positioned on the
and proceeded en route to Skaramanga. Sharp lookout rail and threw it. It landed between five and ten yards
was continued until nightfall but at 1845 there seemed from the cadet. I then saw a second lifebuoy land about
no alternative but to abandon the search. 15 yards from him. Somebody had thrown it from the
next deck down. I then ran up to the bridge going
This statement represents a true statement of the through the wheelhouse from the port side. The O O W
incidents as I remember them."
was holding the telephone. I told him to g v e the 'three
Statement by the other cadet ring' signal on the alarm bells. I told the quartermaster
"The chief officer told Eric and myself to drain out to put the wheel hard to starboard and, grabbing a
the port riser and remove the dry scale from the pair of binoculars, I ran to the after end of the bridge
starboard riser and to throw this overboard. We took on the starboard side and tried to keep the cadet and
out some of the scale and put this on a large piece of lifebuoys in sight.
folded sacking. We carried the sacking up a few steps
The sea was fairly choppy with white horses and
to the height of the manifold grating. Eric then carried
the sacking across the grating and dropped it to the after a while I lost sight of the cadet. I did not actually
deck below. see him reach a lifebuoy but while I could see him he
seemed to be swimming towards them. In the
We were standing forward of a set of bitts. I meantime the CPO and some men had started to get
suggested that we take off the gate but Eric said that it number one motor lifeboat swung out and lowered to
would be too dangerous. When saying this I saw that the embarkation deck. I sbouted down to him to also
the pins were completely down. We then decided to get number four motor boat ready. I then sent one of
swing the sacking over the top of the railings on the the crew to check that all the crew were out of the
count of three. Eric and I took two corners each. At cargo tanks we had been cleaning. I then sent two
this time Eric was standing just forward and inboard sailors up to the bow to keep a lookout. Most of the
of the set of bitts, also just in line with the gate. I was crew were already at the ship's side looking out and
standing just forward of the gate. O n the third swing I boat crew were ready in lifejackets.
was looking down at the sacking so I did not see what
actually took place but the next moment I saw Eric as Once we realised it was going to be a long search I
a white flash but I could distinguish that he was falling organised the lookout into watches of two hours each
feet first. - two men on the bow, one at each manifold, one
each side aft and one on the bridge; the chief engneer
I started to run down the deck, shouting, 'Eric has organised lookout watches for the engineers on the
fallen overboard', to where a few members of the crew bridge. I spent the remainder of the search on the
and the chief officer were standing, which was around bridge with the master, leaving it occasionally to check
the manhole to the starboard slop tank. I then ran to the on the lookouts posted around the ship."
cargo control room telephone to the bridge to tell them
what had happened. After this I went up to number one
lifeboat but the chief officer shouted to me to go onto This feature is published with the assistance of the Eric
the bridge. He then asked me how it had happened. Hendry Memorial Trust, the purpose of which is to support
After t h s I stayed on lookout on the bridge." measures to avoid similar tragedies from re-occurring.
COMMAND 351
Chapter 60
CASE STUDY -
THE GROUNDING OF PASSENGER VESSEL HANSEATIC
Extracts from a report by The Transportation Safety Board of Canada
MARINE OCCURRENCE REPORT
GROUNDING
PASSENGER VESSEL "HANSEATIC"

SINIPSON STRAIT, NORTHWEST TERRITORIES
29 AUGUST 1996
REPORT NUMBER M96H0016
Synopsis
While on passage from Gjoa Haven to Resolute Bay, passage were positioned ahead of the vessel and the
the "HANSEATIC" ran aground in Simpson Strait. passage was straightforward and uneventful. Little
The weather was fine and clear and the vessel was attention was paid to the buoys or whether they were
being navigated visually, by reference to shore ranges, in their charted positions.
and by radar. The passage plan was disrupted when it The "HANSEATIC" left Gjoa Haven in the
was assumed that a buoy, which had been left in the afternoon of 29 August for Resolute Bay. Initially, the
strait from the previous navigation season, was voyage to Resolute required that the "HANSEATIC"
marking a shoal. The buoy had been moved out of retrace her morning passage through Simpson Strait,
position by ice. in a westerly direction. The route involves many
The Board determined that the "HANSEATIC" alterations of course and, as on the inward passage,
grounded because the bridge team did not strictly the master had the conduct of the vessel. With him on
adhere to the plan that had been prepared for the bridge were a helmsman and the chief officer who
navigating the vessel through the strait. Relying on a assisted with the navigation. The ship, which has an
navigation buoy left in the strait from the previous operating speed of 14 knots, was making about 10
navigation season contributed to the grounding. knots and no difficulty was experienced with the initial
part of the transit. A position taken at 17385 confirmed
1.2 History of the Voyage that the vessel was proceeding parallel to, and
O n 29 August 1996, the "HANSEATIC" ( a modern approximately a cable south of, the 288" course line
8,378 gt passenger uesselj was in the eleventh day of a indicated on the chart for the ranges on Eta Island.
Northwest Passage cruise which had started in Nome, The vessel was south of the charted course line to avoid
Alaska, and was to have terminated in Greenland. The a 6.1 metre shoal reported near the track. Once past
cruise had taken the vessel to several communities in the shoal, and approximately half way along this leg,
Alaska, Yukon and the Northwest Territories. the "HANSEATIC" was brought back towards the
288" course line. At 1745, a check of the ship's position
On the morning of 29 August, the "HANSEATIC"
by the chief officer showed the vessel abeam of the
made an eastbound passage in Simpson Strait to the
northwest extremity of Saatuq Island and almost
village of Gjoa Haven where she was to anchor for
exactly on the 288" course line. The vessel was at this
part of the day, while passengers went ashore for a
point about half a mile from the next alter-course
tour of the village. During the trip, several buoys were
position, and the chief officer turned his attention to
unexpectedly found in the strait. The master had not
setting up the radar for the next leg.
anticipated seeing any buoys in the strait because the
Arctic C a n a d a Traffic System ( N O R D R E G Meanwhile, the master was monitoring the vessel's
CANADA) had advised him that the buoys for position relative to the 288" course line by reference
Simpson Strait were still on board the CCGS ''SIR to the Eta Island ranges. Because the ranges were
WILFRID LAURIER", as the ice breaker had not
yet had an opportunity to position them. The majority 3 All times are CDT (Coordinated Universal Time minus
of the range markers for the various legs of the inbound five hours) unless otherwise noted.

astern of the vessel, and with the helm orders ranging months' experience on board the "HANSEATIC" as
from 290" to 293', the master had to frequently go chief officer.
out to the starboard wing of the bridge to check the
ranges. The master was reportedly keeping the ship 1.7 Bridge Team
on a heading which was increasingly to starboard of The master, chief officer and helmsman were on
the course line to counteract the effect on the vessel the bridge prior to, and at the time of, the grounding.
of the northwest wind. Although an ice navigator was o n board the
"HANSEATIC", at this time of year the vessel was
As the "HANSEATIC" approached the alter- permitted to navigate in the Simpson Strait area
course position, the master was aware that the ship without his aid, and he was not on the bridge during
was north of the ranges, but the sight of a green buoy the passage.
on the starboard side gave him confidence that she
would pass clear of a shoal lying just to the north of The bridge team was well rested at the time of the
the course line. However, the buoy had not been occurrence.
removed at the end of the previous navigation season
1.8 Environmental Information
and the winter ice had moved it about 200 metres to
1.8.1 Weather
the northeast. Consequently, the "HANSEATIC" did
not clear the shoal and ran aground in position T h e weather was fine and clear with a
68" 33.75' N, 097" 32.2' W. northwesterly wind of 17 to 21 knots. The sea was calm
in the sheltered waters of the strait and the visibility
As the vessel was not considered to be in any was reported to be about 5 miles. The air temperature
danger, during the next few days, while awaiting was 7C; the sea temperature was 4C.
assistance, passengers were afforded the opportunity
to explore adjacent islands, using the ship's boats. On 1.8.2 Tide and Tidal Stream
05 September 1996, with the exception of a few who According to the Sailing Directions - Arctic Canada,
had requested to be flown home, the passengers were V~lumeI, the average tidal range in Simpson Strait is
about 0.6 m. The range for the tidal cycle during which
transferred to another vessel to carry on with their
Northwest Passage cruise. the grounding occurred was calculated to be about
0.5 m. The grounding occurred about four hours after
Following several unsuccessful attempts, the vessel high water.
was finally refloated on OX September 1996, with the
help of the tug "EDGAR KOTOKAK" and the coast The Sailing Directions advise that "the tidal stream,
guard cutter "NAHIDIK. from brief and broken observations, is rectilinear,
running roughly parallel to the axis of the strait..."
1.3 Injuries to Persons They also caution that "...tidal streams up to 4 knots,
No one was injured as a result of the grounding. and up to 7 knots near Eta Island, have been
experienced, with marked changes of direction, tide-
1.4 Damage rips and back eddies around the islets and shoals."
Damage was limited to the underwater hull O n Canadian Hydrographic Service (CHS) chart No.
between frames 77 and 126. The shell plating was 7735, tide rips are indicated in the area of the
holed and severely rippled on both sides of the grounding.
centreline girder but there was no pollution as a result
of the occurrence. From an analysis of the information available, the
Institute of Marine Sciences in Sidney, B.C., formed
1.5 Certification the opinion that they "...would not expect there to be
1.5.1 lressel a strong deflection of the current from the along-
The vessel was certificated, crewed and equipped channel direction in the vicinity of the range line ..."
in accordance with existing regulations. They concluded that "...currents were unlikely to be a
1.5.2 Essel's Navigation Personnel significant factor in carrying the Hanseatic off the range
Both the master and the chief officer held qualifications line."
appropriate for the tonnage of the vessel on which
they were serving a n d for the voyage being 1.9 Navigation of the Vessel
undertaken. 1.9.7 Navigation Epuifiment
The vessel's navigation equipment was reportedly
1.6 Personnel Experience in satisfactory condition. Two radar sets were being
The master of the "HANSEATIC" had 26 years' used in the navigation of the vessel and no deficiency
experience as master on a wide variety of passenger was reported.
vessels. Although he had sailed in the Canadian Arctic
on several occasions, this was his first voyage through The Global Positioning System (GPS) was not being
used. Positions obtained by GPS in Simpson Strait can
Simpson Strait.
be off by as much as one mile, when plotted on the chart.
The chief officer of the "HANSEATIC" had 25 years' This lack of precision is due to the inaccuracy of
seagoing experience, 10 as master. He had seven geographical coordinates on charts of the area.
COMMAND 353
1.9.2 Charts and Publications A note on chart No. 7735 states that "the channel
The marine chart being used by the vessel was the leading through Simpson Strait is marked by seasonal
CHS chart No. 7735, Simpson Strait. buoys which are liable to be displaced by ice." All
Sailing Directions published by the Department of
Many areas of the Arctic coast a r e either Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) advise that "mariners
incompletely or inaccurately charted, or both. The should not rely on buoys being in their charted
geographical coordinates are not accurate on some positions at all times. Buoys should be regarded as
charts (including chart No. 7735) but the shore lines warning markers and ... Masters should always
and other features on chart No. 7735 are correctly navigate by bearings or angles on fixed shore objects."
depicted relative to each other. Positions obtained from The Sailing Directions - Arctic Canada, Volume 1 also
the radar and by visual means will be accurately warns that "buoys laid in Arctic waters must be
represented on the chart. regarded merely as temporary and very unreliable aids
The SailingDirections-Arctic Canada, Ihlumes 7 and to navigation ... and they are always liable to be carried
3 are relevant to the area of the occurrence and these away by the movement of ice. . ." The SailingDirections
publications were on board the "HANSEATIC". - Arctic Canada, Volume 3 advises that "buoys in
Simpson Strait are seasonal and consist of four oil

1.9.3 Aids to Navigation drums welded together end-to-end and painted red
The Sailing Directions advise that the channel or green. Some years, because of ice conditions, it is
through Simpson Strait is marked by beacons, beacon not possible to lay the buoys, and since buoys in these
ranges and buoys. The Sailing Directions also advise ice-strewn waters cannot be depended upon to remain
that the buoys in Simpson Strait are seasonal. in their correct positions for very long, little reliance
However, because the Canadian Coast Guard (CCG) can be placed on them."
policy is that the operational requirement for ice-
breakers takes precedence over the removal of the 7.10 Passage Planning and Bridge Resource
buoys in the strait, the buoys are not always removed Management
at the end of the shipping season. Each season, the The master and the chief officer had been involved
C C C does not consider the strait to be buoyed until a in the planning of the passage. The Sailing Directions
Notice to Shipping is issued, specifically stating that describe the passage through Simpson Strait as
the buoys for the area have been deployed. Such a probably "the greatest navigational hazard in the
Notice to Shipping had not been issued at the time of whole mainland passage ... because of numerous
the occurrence. Although the buoys are built to be shoals, narrow channels and strong tidal streams". This
expendable, some of the buoys are not destroyed publication also states that "numerous dangerous
during the winter and remain afloat in the strait or shoals ... lie close to the channel and it is probable
grounded on adjacent beaches. Buoys that remain that these are altered considerably by ice action each
afloat are almost invariably displaced from their season."
charted positions. While the buoy that marked the
shoal on which the "HANSEATIC" grounded had In describing the topography, the Sailing Directions
been moved about 200 metres to the northeast, the advise that "on the north side of Simpson Strait, the ...
buoy that marked the shoal on the other side of the coast presents a low, regular and rather featureless
channel was found some 1,300 metres to the west of appearance, with no distinctive landmarks" while the
its charted position. south ". . . coast is somewhat higher than the north
coast but its overall elevation is moderate gradually
A stretch of some 20 miles of the navigation rising to distant hills ... The islands in Simpson Strait
channel depicted on CHS chart No. 7735 comprises consist mainly of stones and large boulders, and ...
eleven legs, eight of which are defined by a set of shore tend to blend in with each other and with the adjacent
range markers. Persons experienced in navigating in shoreline."
the Arctic advise that, because some of the range
markers are built on low islands, they may be pushed For the passage in Simpson Strait, the master had
out of position by the ice and mariners must be the conduct of the ship and the chief officer was
cautious when using them. Six of the eight sets of range assisting by plotting the vessel's position. In the parts
markers are ahead for an eastbound vessel. of the strait where the alignment of the channel is
indicated by shore leading marks (ranges),any lateral
The 108"-288" range markers on Eta Island were displacement of the vessel from the alignment could
checked after the "HANSEATIC" grounding and were be quickly detected by the master. To indicate the
found to be in their correct positions. vessel's progress along the alignment of the channel,
radar distances and bearings of the shore were to be
All aids to navigation in Simpson Strait are unlit.
obtained and plotted by the chief officer. No
1.9.4 Cautionay Notes Regarding Buoyage supplementary parallel indexing was being used when
Canadian publications relevant to a passage the vessel was on the Eta Island range markers, but
through Simpson Strait contain several warnings parallel indexing was to be used on the next leg. With
against relying on buoys in the area. the vessel proceeding westbound on these two legs,

the range markers were astern. When the vessel was The radar had not been set up for parallel indexing
proceeding on the Eta Island course, the radar distance on this leg and the only on-going means of promptly
ranges used varied with the application. detecting lateral movement caused by the current
would have been to keep the shore range markers in
1.11 Ice Navigator line. However, when the vessel was brought back to
According to the Arctic Shipping Pollution the course line, she was allowed to cross it and to
Prevention Regulations, the "HANSEATIC' was not continue with the range markers open. Range markers
required to carry an ice navigator, although an ice that are already open do not readily indicate to the
navigator had been on board since the vessel departed observer that further, gradual deviation from the
Nome. The "HANSEATIC" was in open water at the ranges is taking place.
time of the grounding and the ice navigator was not
on the bridge-nor was he required to be. The positions plotted by the chief officer at 1738
and 1745 show the vessel being brought back to the
1.14 Situational Awareness course line between these times. The 1745 position,
Situational awareness can be defined as the taken from the radar some 2-3 minutes before the
accurate perception of the factors and conditions vessel grounded, showed the vessel to be slightly north
affecting the crew and the operations of the vessel of, but close to, the line of the ranges. This position
during a specific period of time. This is developed by suggests the possibility that the current contributed to
using "all the knowledge that is accessible and can be the grounding of the "HANSEATIC". However, the
integrated into a coherent picture, when required, to direction and distance of the grounding position from
assess and cope with a sit~ation."~ the 1745position, 308' x 3'/, cables, calls into question
A person performing a complex task such as ship the reliability of the 1745position. The course required
navigation depends on situational awareness when to be made good to keep the vessel on the line of the
making and carrying out plans throughout the ranges was 288" and, with up to 5 ' leeway being
operation. Situational awareness does not happen allowed for the northwest wind, the vessel was steering
instantaneously, but develops on three different levels. 293'. A rectilinear tidal stream parallel to the axis of
First, the person has to perceive the situational the strait would basically be in line with the 288"
elements from information displays, communication, course. For the 1745 position to have been accurate
or from external references. The person then integrates there would need to have been an aberration in the
the information by using hidher experience and rectilinear tidal stream. To sweep the vessel 20" off
knowledge. Finally, the person projects the the course line (15"if she was not making the leeway),
information into the future to make and modify plans over the last 3'/,cables before the grounding, would
as tasks are completed or delayed and new have required an aberration in the tidal stream
developments arise. In general, it can be expected that sufficient to produce a 3 knot component at right-
poor or unsuccessful performance will occur if there angles to the line of the ranges. The analysis by the
are problems at any one of these situational awareness Institute of Ocean Sciences discounted such a cross-
levels." channel component, and observations from the
stranded vessel did not detect any such anomaly on
One of the ways that the integration of information subsequent tides. Also, a dramatic deviation of this
can be erroneous is when a person is affected by magnitude from the vessel's heading is not reflected
confirmation bias. This is a tendency to seek in the actions of the master who, of those involved
information to confirm that which we already believe with the navigation, was the one constantly monitoring
to be true. Information that is inconsistent with the the range markers. The master did not detect a need
chosen hypothesis is then ignored or discounted. for corrective action and, on the contrary, was
increasing the leeway correction, to the opposite hand,
2.0 Analysis just prior to the grounding. This would suggest that in
2.1 The Tidal Stream plotting the 174,5 position the distance off Saatuq Island
The Sailing Directions warn of the vagaries of the was underestimated, and that the "HANSEATIC' was
tidal stream in Simpson Strait but it was not possible not making 5" leeway but was gradually deviating
to determine with any certainty what part, if any, the further from the line of the ranges.
current played in the grounding of the
"HANSEATIC". 2.2 Navigating on the Ranges
On the morning eastbound passage, most of the
4 N.B. Sarter and D.D. Woods (1991),Situation awareness: ranges had the markers ahead of the vessel and in
A critical but ill defined phenomenon. The International that respect the afternoon westbound passage was less
Journal ofAviation Psychology, 1 ( 1 ) , 4\5-57, straightforward. Nevertheless, the plan that was
5 M.R. Endsley, "Situational awareness in dynamic human prepared for the passage of the "HANSEATIC
decision making: Theory", in Situational Awareness in through Simpson Strait should have allowed the vessel
Complex Systems, Proceedings of a CAHFA Conference, to safely transit the area. Both the master and the chief
Feb 1-3,1993,pp. 27-58 (DaytonaBeach,Florida: Embry- officer were experienced navigators. However, by
Fbddle A4eronauticalUniversity Press, 1994). allowing the vessel to run north of the course line with
COMMAND 355
the ranges open, the master lost the considerable three minutes before the vessel would have come up
contribution the ranges were making to keeping the with the shoal. In such circumstances, where time and
vessel out of danger. Attempting to estimate how far a distance are critical, it is prudent to supplement manual
vessel is displaced from the course line by assessing plotting with parallel indexing, to allow the navigator
the relative position of two "open" range markers to react quickly enough.
provides, at best, imprecise results. As a vessel
proceeds further away from the range markers, 2.4 Composition of Bridge Team
maintaining the same angular separation of the It cannot be determined conclusively whether there
markers translates into a further displacement from would have been sufficient time for the bridge team
the intended track. The degree of precision needed to to take corrective action had the 1745 position shown
safely navigate the "HANSEATIC' through Simpson the vessel to be heading into danger. There was little
Strait required that the vessel be kept on the line of time for the chief officer to resume monitoring the
the ranges; it would have been expedient to have ranges after he had plotted the 1745 position. However,
promptly adjusted any allowance for leeway and/or it should not have been necessary for the chief officer
set as soon as the ranges showed the vessel leaving to divert his attention at such a critical time in order
the course line. This would be particularly appropriate to set up the radar for parallel indexing on the next
when passing close to a shoal that the Sailing Directions leg. More than one radar was available, and with the
warn could have been altered by ice action. vessel only on the shorter legs for a few minutes,
another, possibly junior, officer could have prepared
As there was the possibility that ice had displaced a radar set for parallel indexing on the next course.
the range beacons, good seamanship suggests that Such an addition to the bridge team, by attending to
parallel indexing should have been employed, to back supplementary detail, would have allowed the master
up the ranges. And as it was likely that the gradually and chief officer to concentrate fully on the navigation
sloping terrain would have produced a less-well- of the vessel, particularly critical in this most-
defined radar image, it would have been prudent to demanding section of the strait.
have set up the parallel indexing using points on both
sides of the channel, and to have checked the distance 2.5 The Role of Confirmation Bias in Course
from land on both sides of the channel when taking Selection
positions from the radar display. The master of the "HANSEATIC" was aware that
the ship was north of the course line; he was also aware
2.3 Plotting of Positions that there was a shoal just to the north of the course
As the passage was planned, the main purpose of line, in the last half mile before the alter-course
the positions plotted by the chief officer was to allow position. However, he believed that the vessel was still
him to monitor the vessel's progress along the course in the channel. Contributing to this assessment was
line, with lateral displacement from the course line the influence of confirmation bias. The two most
being determined by reference to the ranges. When obvious cues available to the bridge team with respect
the vessel was on a leg without ranges or was to the vessel's position were the open range markers
intentionally running off the ranges, as when clearing and the green buoy. The open range markers in
the 6.1 metre shoal reported near the track, the themselves were not easy to interpret and required
positions plotted by the chief officer served to supplementary input before a decision on corrective
determine both progress along the intended course action could be made. Previous exposure to warnings
line and lateral deflection from it. This was also the against relying on buoys during navigation did not
case just before the grounding, when the master overcome the reassuring sight of the green buoy (on
allowed the vessel to run north of the ranges. During the starboard bow, where it was expected to be). In
this time the chief officer plotted a position, taken from addition, a lack of conflicting information from the
the radar at 1745, some 2-3 minutes before the vessel chief officer's radar plot reinforced his incorrect
grounded. This position showed the vessel to be assessment of the vessel's position, and no other action
slightly north of, but close to, the line of the ranges. was taken to verify that position.
Other evidence suggests that the 1745 position was
not accurate. The chief officer who plotted the 1745 Consideration was p e n to the possibility that a
position was also monitoring the vessel's progress and, left-right reversal error could have accounted for the
shortly before taking the position, had seen that the erroneous heading. This is one of the more common
vessel was on the ranges. The 1745 position was, errors to occur in situations such as that faced by the
however, reportedly derived from a distance and master, in which the range markers are astern of the
bearing taken from the radar display. An accurate vessel. However, this type of error - the master calling
position at this point might have given the bridge team for a starboard heading adjustment when he meant a
sufficient time to take action to avoid the shoal. port adjustment - is usually recognized immediately,
arid then corrected. It should have been readily
The position in which the vessel grounded is only apparent that the ranges were continuing to widen and
about l'/,,cables outside the line of the ranges, and the vessel's head was moving to starboard. That the
the 1745 position was plotted from a fix taken less than master repeatedly called for further starboard heading

adjustments does not support the hypothesis that left- 9. During the inbound passage the bridge team did
right reversal error accounted for his behaviour. not determine if the buoys unexpectedly found in
the strait were in their charted positions.
3.0 Conclusions 10. A position plotted on the chart some 2-3 minutes
3.1 Findings before the grounding was probably inaccurate.
1. A passage plan was prepared for Simpson Strait
which employed the navigational experience of 3.2 Causes
the master and the chief officer. The "HANSEATIC" grounded because the bridge
2. The passage plan made use of the range markers team did not strictly adhere to the plan that had been
in the area and positions derived from the radar prepared for navigating the vessel through the strait.
display. Reliance upon a navigation buoy left in the strait from
3. Parallel indexing was not used to supplement the the previous navigation season contributed to the
passage plan on all course legs. grounding.
4. The vessel was allowed to proceed off the ranges
when this was not necessary to avoid a
4.0 Safety Action
navigational hazard. The Board has no marine safety recommendations
to issue at this time.
5. Buoys had not been removed from Simpson Strait
at the end of the previous navigation season. This report concludes the Transportation Safety Board's
6. Some buoys were not destroyed by the winter ice inuestigation into this occurrence. Consequently, the Board,
and a critical buoy was displaced only about a consisting of Chairperson Benott Bouchard, and members
cable from its charted position. Maurice Harquail, Charles Simpson and WA. Tadros,
7. Despite warnings in the relevant navigational authorized the release of this report on 14 May 1998.
publications, the displaced buoy was used as a
navigation mark.
8. The vessel grounded on the shoal that the buoy Note: The term 'ranges' refers to leading lines.
had been positioned to mark during the previous
navigation season.

Index of chapters
CONTENTS IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER
Chapter Subject Page
A
35 Anchoring a VLCC .................................................................................................................................
217
34 Anchoring and anchorage in strong tides ............................................................................................ 214
33 Anchoring systems - some insights for mariners ............................................................................... 210
B
55 Ballast water environmental and safety issues ...................................................................................
329
44 Bunkers . what the master needs to know ..........................................................................................
273
C
39 Catering department. working with ..................................................................................................... 240
38 Chief engineer. working with ................................................................................................................
233
46 Command responsibilities for pirates. stowaways. illegal drugs and terrorism. altered ................284
3 Command. training for ............................................................................................................................
21
14 Commercial management and the shipmaster ................................................................................... 101
48 Communication systems, modern, and GMDSS ............................................................................... 293
D
12 Distress .the master's responsibilities ..................................................................................................
87
E
16 Economic efficiency in shipping. measures of .................................................................................... 118
52 Electronic aids to navigation. the use of .............................................................................................. 314
41 Enclosed spaces. entry into ...................................................................................................................
260
F
43 Fire and damage control ........................................................................................................................
269
10 Flag states and the shipmaster .................................................................................................................
70
G
60 Grounding. the. of passenger vessel HANSEATIC (a case study) .....................................................352
H
6 Health management on board ................................................................................................................
40
I
7 International oil pollution legslation and conventions . an update ................................................44
5 ISM Code and the master .......................................................................................................................
33
Law. the master's responsibilities in .......................................................................................................

27
Man overboard . a case study ..............................................................................................................

350
Man overboard . rescuing survivors from the sea ............................................................................. 226
Managing dry dock maintenance ......................................................................................................... 153
Managng information technology at sea ............................................................................................ 136
Managing people on board ...................................................................................................................
129
Managng shipboard maintenance ....................................................................................................... 132
Managng social relationships with multi-cultural crews .............................................................166
COMMAND 359
Chapter Subject Page
Marine insurance and the mariner .....................................................................................................48

Marine paint technology .......................................................................................................................
297
Master. distress responsibilities ...............................................................................................................
87
Master. letter to a new .................................................................................................................................
Master's standing orders .......................................................................................................................
229
Nautical Institute. The. Command Diploma - the road to promotion ..................................................

Nautical Institute. The. on command ..................................................................................................... 11
Nautical Institute. The. Command Partnership and Diploma Scheme ............................................348
Navigation in pilotage waters ................................................................................................................
189
Newbuilding. standing by a ...................................................................................................................
307
Oil pollution prevention and emergency response . the shipmaster's responsibilities .................334
O n board training and development ................................................................................................278
O n your own .....................................................................................................................................175
Pilot. picking up ......................................................................................................................................

187
Planning a dry-dock ............................................................................................................................... 148
Port procedures .......................................................................................................................................
183
Port state control and the U S A . ............................................................................................................ 80
h s k . managng on board ...................................................................................................................... 142

Running costs ..........................................................................................................................................
121
Safety. managng on board ....................................................................................................................

114
Safety on deck in rough weather .......................................................................................................... 266
Salvage - contracts and the master .................................................................................................89
Salvage tug, what it will want to know in the event of damage ......................................................194
Seafarers and welfare support ...............................................................................................................
289
Secondment, working on .......................................................................................................................
320
Ship owner, what is required from a master ...................................................................................... 15
Ship structures inspection and maintenance ....................................................................................... 311
Shipboard computer based maintenance systems, using ................................................................... 245
Shiphandling and berthing with tugs ................................................................................................... 200
Ship management, a guide to the 'Crewman' standard agreement .................................................163
Surveys and the shipmaster ....................................................................................................................
59
Towing .receiving the tug and making fast ........................................................................................

197
Waste management on ships .................................................................................................................

324
Weather routeing and voyage planning ............................................................................................... 340

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The Nautical Institute

13 Salvage - contracts and the master .......................................................................................................

16 Measures of economic efficiency in shipping .....................................................................................

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36 Man overboard - rescuing survivors from the sea .............................................................................

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Senior Vice President, The Nautical Institute

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10 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE ON COMMAND

Nature of command Management decisions relating to the best use of

Authority is a more ambiguous word since at one Definitions

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IN THE EVENT OF AN INCIDENT

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WHAT A SHIP OWNER REQUIRES FROM A MASTER

Introduction a port state control inspector, the terminal

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6 Analytical thinking 10. Administrative skills/reports writing

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allast water contamination

Eigurc 2.1 All irr u duyd wwk!

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TRAINING FOR COMMAND

As you gain more experience on the bridge, you Personnel management

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26 THE NAUTICAL INSTITUTE

THE MASTER'S RESPONSIBILITIES IN LAW

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Ship operation and safety management Insurance

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Bills of lading Pollution prevention

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THE ISM CODE AND THE MASTER

management is total commitment from the top in all

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The third subsection of section 6 requires that new Emergency preparedness

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\ Are you responsible for the paint locker?

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HEALTH MANAGEMENT ON BOARD

Introduction Weight control

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INTERNATIONAL OIL POLLUTION LEGISLATION

Note I will now briefly outline the various legslation

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MARINE INSURANCE AND THE MASTER

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Hull and machinery (H&M)

ship can have devastating financial consequences.

Hull and machinery

Fgure 8.3 Tyibical inczlrancesfor a sh$b owner

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Section 39(5) basically means that, if the insurer

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