Mark Ansell Personal Training 2008

Personal Training
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Personal Training
Mark Ansell
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To Jenni and Rheya 511
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First published in 2008 by Learning Matters Ltd
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2008 Mark Ansell.
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Contents
Acknowledgements vi
Foreword by Jon Brazier vii
Part 1: Foundations 1
1 Personal training 3
2 Programming essentials 6
3 Adaptations to physiology 28
4 Nutrition 41
5 Motivational psychology 54
Part 2: Practice 67
6 Session planning and recording 69
7 Exercise library 84
8 Fitness testing 109
9 Advanced training techniques 125
Part 3: Contexts 149

10 Home training 151
11 Health fitness trainer 160
12 Business sense 169
References 180
Index 182
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I would like to thank my work colleagues at City and Islington College in London: 511
Alex, Elena, Mark, Claire, Andrew and Preya for their support and advice. I would 6
also like to thank my previous students Daryl and Davinia for the modelling in the 7
exercise library section. Thank you also to Shelley for the help with the manual 8
resistance section. 9
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Foreword
Personal training is fast becoming one of the most popular career choices, with its
scope for flexible work hours, vast potential for earnings and its relaxed, fulfilling
and enjoyable work environment. The industry has become flooded with texts and
courses, all promoted as being the best in their area. However, no book in the UK has
tried to cover all the most important fundamentals of personal training.
Personal Training achieves this, doing so within an easy-to-follow structure. This
book covers in depth the main areas a personal trainer would need to know. Written
by Mark Ansell, a highly regarded lecturer and personal trainer, it takes into account
both his vast experience and research, making it a must-have for any would-be
personal trainers, undergraduate and foundation degree students and current
personal trainers.
This is an ideal book for anyone studying or working in personal training,
particularly from a UK perspective, as there appears to be some confusion as to what
makes a personal trainer in the UK. This book helps resolve this and sets out an
excellent base for up-and-coming personal trainers, helping to provide an exemplary
reference for anyone in, or looking to get into, the fitness industry.
Having worked and lectured in the industry for the last seven years, I know first
hand what an important tool this text will provide for anyone interested in personal
training.
Jon Brazier, BA, CSCS
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PART 1
Foundations
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Chapter 1
Personal training
The number of books devoted to personal training is growing. Most of the current
textbooks have been written and published in the US. Few have been written and
published specifically for readers in the UK. While the American books can certainly
help with scientific aspects of personal training, little information on personal
training in the UK is available in textbooks. This book aims to fill the gap. It is aimed at
students on UK fitness-related degree courses, prospective personal trainers (PTs)
and those already employed, and anyone else with an interest in personal training.
Personal training in the UK has evolved from the traditional gym instructor role
that developed in the early 1980s. The UK has followed the US model for personal
training that developed with the assistance of the National Strength and Conditioning
Association (NSCA) and the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM). These
organisations have striven to make personal training a professional career path for
trainers. It is fortunate that their qualifications are available in the UK, along with
those of other UK-based training providers who have recognised the need for
different levels of fitness certification. Universities and colleges in the UK offer
some excellent sport and exercise degree courses that cover the science of training
to a level that no private training organisation could hope to do and these provide
the best route for prospective trainers career development. Now there are founda-
tion degrees that offer work-based learning as part of the study experience. These
courses encourage students to earn while they learn. This is a fairly new model
for degree learning in the UK and is catching on fast. However, all degree students
will still need to gain industry qualifications in addition in order to work in the
profession.
In the UK trainers will usually start out with a level 2 gym instructor award, which
allows them to perform client inductions, programming and more general gym duties
such as floor walking. (The Starting in the industry section in Chapter 12 gives further
detail on level 2 qualifications.) Gym instructors often soon realise that personal
training work provides opportunities for enhanced status and income. Most gym
instructors will move on to a qualification that will allow them to join the Register of
Exercise Professionals (REPs) as a level 3 PT. Entry on the register shows that the
trainer has a recognised qualification and has demonstrated the basic knowledge
needed to operate as a personal trainer in gyms in the UK. This does not mean,
however, that a PT must complete only REPs-registered courses to practise as a
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1 / Personal training
personal trainer in the UK. Some, but by no means all, gyms in the UK require PTs to be 1
level 3 REPs. Bizarrely, REPs does not currently recognise many American quali- 2
fications that are at least equal to UK counterparts. To ensure compliance with REPs 3
requirements, trainers and prospective trainers will need to search the list of 4
recognised qualifications on the REPs website (www.exerciseregister.org). For a 5
trainer moving into self-employment and home training, or working in a gym that does 6
not stipulate level 3 REPs, however, the American NCSA, ACSM or ACE qualifications 7
may be more applicable. 8
If you are interested in becoming a PT, you will want to find out exactly what PTs 9
do and what roles they fulfil. The role of the personal trainer can be diverse. Working 10
as a PT you will have to motivate your clients to achieve their fitness goals. In some 1
cases you will have to act as a role model for healthy lifestyle choices to be made by 2
your clients. You will be responsible for their well being while you are training them. 3
Youll need to perform health screens and fitness tests, keep up-to-date records on 4
all your clients, provide optimum training programmes, teach exercise techniques, be 511
positive at all times, be flexible with your working hours, empathise with your clients, 6
and be passionate about personal training! The job of PT requires many skills. It can, 7
however, be extremely rewarding, especially when clients meet their goals. 8
As a PT, you will need an in-depth knowledge of how scientific understanding can 9
be applied to everything you do in personal training. This book is designed to help by 20
focusing on the application of knowledge. The hope is that you will develop your 1
scientific knowledge of fitness and exercise alongside your business acumen. This 2
provides the best chance of succeeding in the industry. Within the personal training 3
sector there are the good trainers, the not-so-good trainers and a few downright 4
dangerous trainers! Strive to be an exceptional trainer, using scientifically sound 5
practice and always acting in a professional manner. This will give you an advantage 6
over trainers who think that good is good enough. 7
This textbook has been designed to introduce readers to the science behind 8
personal training and to explore it further. It is also designed to help them build 9
successful careers whether working in gyms (in-house) or in self-employment. It 30
shows the need for synergy between the disciplines that PTs will encounter during 1
their professional career. It is important to remember that personal training uses 2
an holistic approach that is to say, it requires the trainer to bring together 3
understanding drawn from several disciplines. In one way or another, therefore, all 4
the chapters in this book are linked. 5
It is hoped that you will keep this book handy to use as an essential reference 6
text. Each chapter encourages readers to explore topics in greater detail by providing 7
suggestions for further study. It is recommended that you keep a workbook to 8
accompany your reading of this text. This will build into a further resource for you to 9
use during your study. The information entered in your workbook will be driven mainly 40
by the learning activities within each chapter. 1
Two features of the text have been designed to guide you throughout. These are: 2
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reflection boxes these focus on the application of knowledge and draw on the 4
authors own career experience to do so; 5
activity boxes these provide tasks for you to learn from. By attempting these 6
you will learn by doing work that is linked to that chapter. One of the best ways 711
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1 / Personal training
of learning is to produce your own mini assignments from these boxes. It is

highly recommended that you develop the assignments most applicable to you
into full-length reports. These reports will help you to decide which area of
personal training you wish to pursue further.
Further reading
At the end of each chapter you will find a list of books and websites that will help you
to explore further the topic covered by the chapter. If you were to buy one other
textbook in addition to this one, I would recommend the NSCAs Essentials of
strength and conditioning. The book can seem daunting for students new to personal
training, but it does indeed cover essentials and it will lead you into further study.
Many helpful electronic resources consist of general personal training websites
that cover a wide range of topics: some of the most useful are shown below.
www.ptonthenet.com this is a subscription website that contains an excellent

article section along with a huge exercise library; well worth visiting.
www.personaltraining1st.com this site contains further information based on the
chapters in this book. There is also a forum to join and downloads such as record
forms used in this book.
www.exerciseregister.org the Register of Exercise Professionals of the United
Kingdom.
www.nsca-lift.org the National Strength and Conditioning Association main site
gateway.
www.acsm.org the American College of Sports Medicine main site gateway.
www.acefitness.org American Council on Exercise main site gateway.
www.leisureopportunities.co.uk this site has lists of training providers for all levels
of fitness qualifications in the UK.
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/ the journal search engine that allows you to
explore journal abstracts.
www.personaltrainertoday.com a website that includes articles for PTs.
www.sponet.de click on the British flag to gain entry to a search engine for sports
journal articles.
www.pponline.co.uk Peak Performance online gives access to a wealth of training
information.
www.physsportsmed.com/ complete journal articles are available from this
website.
www.sportsci.org lots of sport science articles can be found here.
www.sports-fitness-advisor.com much information is available here on a variety of
sport subjects.
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Chapter 2 1
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Programming essentials 4
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This chapter explains how to produce training programmes. Programming forms the 511
basis for training plans for all clients. A PT has to understand and apply the science 6
behind programming in order to optimise clients physical adaptation. Programming 7
is central to a PTs daily work. If a PT were to train a client without the use of 8
programming, then it is difficult to comprehend why they would be training the client 9
at all! Programming provides PTs with a way of controlling upcoming sessions in order 20
to ensure that clients make progress. The following topics in particular will be 1
covered. 2
Foundations: 3
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training principles; 5
programming building blocks: key terms; 6
client needs analysis; 7
exercise selection; 8
exercise order; 9
frequency and volume; 30
avoiding overtraining. 1
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Approaches: 3
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cardiovascular training modes; 5
methods of resistance training; 6
free weights versus machines; 7
functional training. 8
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Using programming tools: 40
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intensity guidelines; 2
repetition ranges; 3
sets; 4
muscle balance; 5
flexibility. 6
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2 / Programming essentials
The chapter is designed to help you to:
1. understand the need for a scientific basis for exercise programming;

2. begin to produce professional programmes for personal training sessions;
3. explore topics further using other resources.
Introduction to programming
Long gone are the days when personal trainers could base training on hearsay and
fads. Personal trainers today must strive to use scientific training methods wherever
possible. They can benefit from the many years of exercise science research that
have been undertaken. Though science rarely provides absolute proof of the effects
of training methods, there is a wealth of empirical evidence that can be used to
inform practice. Professional organisations such as REPs, the ACSM, NSCA and
YMCA (a major provider of training for the UK fitness industry) all reinforce the need
to be aware of using enlightened programming methods when training clients.
It is important to recognise that clients will come to a PT with many different
goals. A great number will want to lose weight and make aesthetic gains. They may
desire health benefits, to increase their flexibility, or become stronger. There will
also be sport-specific clients wanting to improve their performance through the use
of fitness training.
Foundations
Principles of training
All programming is based on one negative and three positive principles. They are:
reversibility (the negative principle) if you do not use it, you lose it, that is,
physiological systems will revert to a pre-trained state if a client stops training;
specificity all physical training should be specific to the training goals of the
client;
overload physiology requires an overload of the system in order to adapt;
progression all overload should be progressive in order to elicit optimum
gains.
All of these principles relate to Hans Selyes general adaptation syndrome (GAS).
Selye conducted pioneering research into the bodys reaction to stressors. GAS
incorporates these phases:
1. the alarm phase the bodys initial response to overload ;

2. the resistance phase this is where adaptation occurs (generally post-training);
3. the exhaustion phase where the body cannot cope with acute or chronic
overload (and so physical work is compromised).
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Figure 2.1: Aspects of Selyes general adaptation syndrome 1

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Stressor 3
occurs 4
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Resistance 7
to stress 8
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Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
Alarm phase Resistance phase Exhaustion phase 6
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The alarm phase is directly related to the overload and specificity principles: a 9
PT uses a specific training stimulus (e.g. cardiovascular or weight training) to overload 20
the clients physiology. Progression is built in by the PT to increase the adaptation in 1
the physiological system being trained in effect manipulating the resistance phase. 2
Progression is incorporated by altering the exercise variables (for example, the load 3
borne in a weight-training exercise). The exhaustion phase should be avoided by PTs 4
as this can lead to overtraining by the client and performance will actually decrease. 5
Without the instigation of the alarm phase the human body will start to reverse the 6
changes that have occurred (if a client stops training). 7
These principles are the cornerstones of every training session. Here is an 8
example of the various phases in practice. A client performs a heavy weight-training 9
session on a Monday that includes barbell chest press. During this workout the 30
pectoral, tricep and anterior deltoid muscles experience the alarm phase, increasing 1
the activation of the central nervous system (CNS). During the next 2448 hours the 2
body experiences the resistance phase: it adapts to the overload by remodelling the 3
muscle tissue accordingly. This leads to an increased work output. Note that if the 4
client were to train on the Tuesday for an extended period of time, the adaptation 5
would reverse due to inadequate recovery time, leading to exhaustion. 6
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Muscle contractions 8
The following types of muscle contraction will be mentioned in this chapter. 9
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Isometric: where the muscle contracts without movement (e.g. a three-quarter 1
press-up held in position by the client). 2
Isotonic: concentric (muscle-shortening) and eccentric (muscle-lengthening) 3
contractions. For example, a barbell bicep curl (illustrated on page 100 ) 4
employs both contractions of the bicep brachii muscle. Isotonic contractions 5
are the most common type of muscle contraction in physical training. 6
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Isokinetic: the muscle keeps a constant velocity during contraction. This is

usually achieved using specific equipment and is not therefore commonly used
by personal trainers. The nearest example without equipment would be a
muscle contracting underwater the water provides a constant resistance
velocity through the whole range of movement.
Programming building blocks: key terms

The two main forms of training are cardiovascular (CV) training and resistance
training.
CV programming involves using modes of activity to work the heart and vascular
systems, and is used to develop cardiovascular fitness. This is important both for
helping clients perform day-to-day tasks and to increase their aerobic fitness
overall. The term cardiovascular endurance can also be used to describe this compo-
nent of fitness.
Resistance training programmes use weights (providing the load) to develop
power, strength, muscle size (hypertrophy) or local muscular endurance (local effects
are specific to the muscles worked in a particular activity). If the clients primary aim
is improved general fitness, the best programmes will tend to use a mixture of CV
and muscular endurance resistance training.
Each client comes with a resistance training status. This is dependent on the
clients training history. For example, if the client has trained for more than one year
they could be termed an advanced exerciser. The resistance training status will
indicate whether the client is capable of more advanced training techniques such as
power exercises.
The building blocks of resistance training are repetitions (reps) and sets. A single
rep is an exercise performed once. A group of reps is called a set. Questions of rep
ranges, set numbers and rest periods have all been researched scientifically in order
to provide guidance on the best ways to achieve clients goals.
Other important considerations include the rest periods between sets and also
between sessions. We refer here to frequency of training. This is usually discussed
relative to one-week blocks. For example, a client may train three times per week
on, say, a Monday, Wednesday and Friday a frequency of three.
The time it takes the client to perform one rep helps to determine the ultimate
muscular adaptation. Power exercises have a speed component and will therefore be
executed faster than training for hypertrophy. The general guideline is that each rep
should not be rushed and should take around four or five seconds in isotonic con-
tractions. Remember that the client should be controlling the resistance in the
eccentric phase (not just letting drop!).
Muscle balance (described below) concerns the clients healthy balance of muscle
on all sides of their body. If a client exhibits muscular imbalances, this can cause
compensation injuries and long-term damage. These may either be front to back or
side imbalances. For example, if a clients chest is more developed than his back,
there may be a frontal curvature of the spine. This can lead to postural problems.
Flexibility is a fitness component that is allied with possible imbalances and
injury. Here we define flexibility as the ability of a muscle to move through a range
of motion. All clients should have a degree of flexibility training (stretching) within
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their programme. If the client exhibits a lack of flexibility, this may become a primary 1
goal for the programme. 2
Also central is the concept of intensity. This is the level of training stress set for 3
the client. Each client needs to be placed on a low-, medium- or high-intensity 4
programme following careful analysis of what is appropriate for the individual. It is 5
vital to make ongoing checks of the actual intensity level experienced by the client in 6
order to ensure that it is neither too taxing (exhaustion) nor insufficiently taxing (in 7
which case the alarm phase would be inadequately triggered). 8
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Client needs analysis 10
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A needs analysis should be completed at the initial consultation with a client 2
and repeated at intervals during their training year. Examples of a need for a re- 3
evaluation will be goal achievement, an injury or illness, or a change in the clients 4
circumstances. 511
Needs analysis should ascertain the following information: 6
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Goals primary, secondary and tertiary, both client and trainer based (Chapter 8
5 provides more detail on this topic). 9
Training status is the client currently training? If so, it is important to 20
ascertain the type, length of recent participation, level of intensity and the 1
resistance training status. 2
Injuries/illness details need to be recorded (for a discussion of record- 3
keeping, see Chapter 6). 4
Exercise history this can be divided into time frames. For example, the 5
following categories may be used: beginner (<2 months, low training stress, 6
little training experience), transitional (26 months, medium training stress, 7
some training knowledge), and advanced (>6 months, higher-intensity workouts, 8
training knowledge). 9
Protocols does the client require the use of one or more protocol? A protocol 30
is a recommended course of action for a programme, for example, if the client 1
has high blood pressure, certain exercises are recommended. 2
Fitness testing data (for details, see Chapter 8). 3
Sport-specific training does this need to be incorporated in the clients 4
workout? 5
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Once the needs analysis is complete, the PT can begin the exercise selection 7
process. Inexperienced PTs can feel daunted by the sheer number of exercises 8
available. When the range of exercises is combined with the range of equipment 9
available, the task selection can become almost overwhelming. Chapter 7 helps here 40
by showing a methodical approach: how to build exercise depth charts so that 1
different exercises may be used to target the same muscle groups. 2
3
Exercise selection 4
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The essential factors of exercise selection are location, the availability of equipment 6
and the functional capacity of the client. These will vary significantly according to 711
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circumstances. Home training provides particular challenges for the PT, as does the
degree of gym (in-house) training equipment. Time is a further factor in exercise
selection: some clients may only have 30 minutes available for the whole session,
though most sessions will last 45 minutes to 1 hour. The PT also needs to consider in
advance what equipment will be available. It is helpful to consider how one piece of
equipment may substitute for another, if the desired piece is unavailable for some
reason.
Reflection 2.1
One of the often-overlooked factors of exercise selection are the clients

preferences. If clients do not like a particular exercise or piece of equipment,
they will not necessarily tell you so you must ask. I have witnessed a trainer
programme a treadmill session to every one of his clients just because he
himself was a runner! PTs need to remember that it is the clients they are
catering for, not themselves.
Exercise order
The general programming order of exercise should be:
warm-up main body cool-down flexibility.
A further component sometimes used is pre-stretch. Because some research

indicates that a pre-stretch before resistance training may reduce muscular power
output, this has been omitted (see Power et al., 2004 for a starting point). Within
sessions it is entirely permissible to use a pre-main body stretch after the warm-up
as the client may want a passive stretch as part of the service.
After the initial phase, cardiovascular training usually precedes resistance
training if they are used in the same session. This is due to the additional warm-up
aspect of CV training. Resistance training typically has the following exercise
structure:
power core (multi-joint) isolating (single-joint).
Power exercises use momentum at phases of action, for example, power clean
and push press (illustrated in Chapter 7 on pp102 and 103). In multi-joint exercises
more than one joint is moving, e.g. squats (p89), chest press (pp92 and 93) and bent-
over row (p94). Examples of single-joint exercises are bicep curl (p100), tricep
extension (p101) and leg curl.
The PT can manipulate the sequence to some extent. For example, it is possible to
move power exercises pre-CV as they need a high degree of muscular control. It is
also possible to move isolating to pre-core exercises. Pre-fatigue sets would be an
example: the PT pre-fatigues the clients pectorals with flyes before a chest press.
Pre-fatigue is used when the PT wants to ensure that the larger muscles in a
compound activity are fatigued (compound activity is where more than one muscle
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and joint are used to complete the movement). In the case of chest press it is 1
sometimes necessary to pre-fatigue the pectorals as the triceps are smaller muscles 2
and in some clients will fatigue more quickly. This will lead to the pectorals not being 3
fatigued in those sets, unless they are pre-fatigued by means of an isolating exercise. 4
The components that should not be moved are (a) warm-up, (b) power and (c) cool- 5
down as there are safety considerations here. A warm-up is essential to any 6
programme and ideally should last at least five minutes. The intensity can be at the 7
lower end of the target heart rate zone (heart rate measurement is explained below) 8
usually around 120 beats per minute (BPM). This will warm the soft tissues in 9
preparation for the more intense work to come. It also allows the client to prepare 10
psychologically for the tasks ahead. Any equipment mode may be used for the warm- 1
up. An upper-body workout will require rowing or an upper body ergometer, whereas 2
a sprint programme will require a treadmill or jogging. 3
The cool-down is as important for reducing the heart rate slowly to a safe value 4
(typically below 120 BPM). This will normally be achievable in less than five minutes, 511
though the length of time will depend on the intensity of the preceding workout. The 6
client may need to cool down for longer, especially if they are hypertensive (i.e. have 7
high blood pressure). 8
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Frequency and volume 20
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Frequency of training is dependent on the clients goals and programme structure. 2
For example, for a client whose primary goal is improved health, a CV programme 3
over consecutive days may be appropriate because they may be working at a 4
moderate intensity. However, if a client is working on a general resistance pro- 5
gramme (working all muscle groups in a session), then that client will require a rest 6
day in- between sessions and may work out three times per week. A bodybuilding 7
client can be trained six days a week using a split routine (working different muscle 8
groups on different days) and, with careful planning, be trained twice per day. The 9
general guidelines are that there should be one rest day between sessions, but no 30
more than three days if optimum gains are required. 1
The main factor for the PT will be the number of sessions with a PT that the client 2
can afford to fit into a week. Clients may ask to be trained by the PT once a week with 3
other sessions programmed for them to complete on their own. Every programme 4
should have an expiry date provided by the PT. If the programme is adhered to, the 5
adaptation in the client will usually cope with the intensity within approximately 46 6
weeks of the start of the programme. The client can then be given a fresh programme. 7
Programmes with expiry dates have benefits to both parties: they are an aid to 8
motivation for the client and help in client retention for the PT. 9
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Avoiding overtraining 1
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Overtraining occurs when the body enters the resistance phase (described in Selyes 3
GAS model on pp78) and further training occurs before the physiological adaptation 4
has been completed. Athletes and exercise-obsessive clients are the most at risk of 5
overtraining. Athletes need careful programme planning as they are looking for 6
optimum gains. This is where periodisation (an advanced form of programming) is used. 711
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Periodised programmes break sessions down into very specific parts. This usually
means that for every day of an athletes career they know what they are doing in each
training session. This is always the best method to employ when training athletes,
although the periodised plans must be carefully constructed to reduce the likelihood
of overtraining. More information on periodised programmes is given in Chapter 9.
Reflection 2.2
PTs need to be alert to indicators of overtraining. I have trained an obsessive

exerciser and it became obvious that the client was actually going backwards
with respect to training goals. This client was female, 39 years of age and
extremely fit. (In fact, she was also a part-time aerobics instructor.) The
sessions I took with her were always high intensity and if she ever missed a
session she wanted to work twice as hard the next session. Her primary goal
was to increase her aerobic fitness and to this end her overtraining markers
were mood disturbances, decreased aerobic performance and increased
muscle soreness. The immune system is suppressed during overtraining and
this can lead to the client exhibiting an increased incidence of illness, as in
fact she did. An interesting allied marker for this client was her nutritional
intake. Invariably the total calorific intake was never enough to sustain her
workouts. In this case I politely declined to train her further and advised her to
take my counsellor referral recommendation.
Approaches
Cardiovascular training modes
CV training is used to overload the components of the cardio (heart) and vascular
(arteries, capillaries and veins) system. The modes of CV training all achieve similar
outcomes provided that the required intensity is reached. CV training is used to help
lower body fat, increase aerobic fitness and increase the amount of oxygen the body
can utilise. It is therefore ideal for improving specific aerobic fitness for athletes for
competition and also for use in a general health programme. A wide variety of
cardiovascular (CV) equipment is now available. Indoor cycles, rowers, cross-trainers,
climbers, steppers and treadmills are just some of the modes that may be pro-
grammed. Programming should be as client-specific as possible. Programming
detailed treadmill sessions to a cyclist, for example, may not be entirely appropriate.
The science behind CV training relates not so much to the mode of the activity
as to the intensity, duration and rest periods within the programme. All CV pro-
gramming is primarily concerned with energy system utilisation. There are three main
types of CV programmes that may be used with your clients: continuous training,
interval training and fartlek.
Continuous training
This involves using a warm-up followed by sustained intensity (steady state) for a
period of time. This means that the clients heart rate may be increased to a level
13
Figure 2.2: Example of heart rate response to continuous training 1

140
2
3
130
Steady state HR
4
120 5
Heart rate (bpm)
110 6
100
7
8
90
9
80 10
70 1
60 2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 3
4
Time (minutes)
511
6
prescribed by the PT and kept at this level for the duration of the session. One 7
problem that may occur with continuous training is boredom as the client pounds out 8
a monotonous programme. This model may be most appropriate to new exercisers 9
as it does not require changes in heart rate and higher intensities. 20
1
Interval training 2
The theory behind interval training is that, with the implementation of work and rest 3
periods, the client can train for a higher intensity than in continuous training. This 4
allows for greater energy expenditure over the workout time and a greater level of 5
overload. 6
There are specific interval periods that correspond to the energy system being 7
worked. The higher the intensity, the more rest is needed between repetitions. The 8
various energy systems are explained in more detail in Chapter 3. 9
The following heart rate intensity guide figures (maximum heart rate MHR) 30
indicate a range of heart rates that clients may be trained at. Each should be tailored 1
to the individual requirements and to the health status of the individual client. 2
3
4
Figure 2.3: Examples of heart rate response to interval training 5
6
160
150 7
140 8
Heart rate (bpm)
130 9
120 40
110
100
1
90 2
80 3
70 4
60
5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 6
Time (minutes) 711
14
Figure 2.4: Energy system manipulation variables

Energy Work: rest Work Rest Reps in
system duration duration session
ATP-PC 1:3 10 seconds 30 seconds 25
Anaerobic 1:2 30120 seconds 60240 seconds 15
Glycolysis
Aerobic 1:1 120300 seconds 120300 seconds 5
This table is meant to be a guide only and can be manipulated accordingly within sessions.
ATP-PC = >90 per cent.

Anaerobic glycolysis = 8090 per cent.
Aerobic = 6080 per cent.
Reflection 2.3
I trained two clients back-to-back of the same age and with similar health
attributes. They were both male, 28 years old and asymptomatic (i.e. without
symptoms they did not exhibit any health problems). One could work at
around 70 per cent MHR and the other could cope with 85 per cent MHR. The
sessions were tailored to the functional capacity of each client.
Fartlek
Fartlek means speed play. This type of training should be purely random. There
should be no structure to the timings of heart rate changes. Fartlek is especially
applicable for team sports, most of which demonstrate high-intensity activity on an
intermittent and irregular basis.
Figure 2.5: Example of heart rate response to fartlek training

180
160
Heart rate (bpm)
140
120
100
80
60
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time (minutes)
15
Activity 2.1 1
2
Plan three different CV training sessions with warm-up and cool-down using 3
the following guidelines: 4
5
1. Fartlek training on a treadmill, 25 minutes in duration, for a footballer. 6
2. Continuous training on a stepper for 15 minutes for a sedentary client. 7
3. Interval training on a rower for 20 minutes to work the aerobic energy 8
system. 9
10
1
Methods of resistance training 2
3
There are many different methods of resistance training. The main methods are as 4
follows: 511
6
Straight sets: (a) single set one set is performed in each exercise, which is 7
entirely appropriate for beginners; (b) multiple sets, e.g. three sets it is widely 8
recognised that multiple sets elicit greater adaptation in muscle tissue. 9
Pyramid sets: either ascending or descending. For example, three sets 20
performed in ascending order of intensity (or load) 10 reps at 70 kg, 8 reps at 1
80 kg and 6 reps at 90 kg. 2
Super sets: there are two versions of this method. The PT can (a) get their client 3
to perform bicep curls immediately followed by tricep extensions, thereby 4
super setting the agonist (prime contracting muscle in the exercise) and 5
antagonist (secondary counteracting muscle); or (b) use multiple successive 6
exercises for the same muscle group, such as chest press followed by chest 7
flyes followed by press-ups. This will lead to complete fatigue in that muscle 8
group. 9
Negatives: this programme uses eccentric muscle contraction to overload 30
muscle tissue beyond what the client can normally lift. It is therefore a high- 1
intensity tool for use if the client is capable of coping. The PT helps the client 2
with the initial lift and then allows them to control the weight on the downward 3
phase. For example, if a client is incapable of performing body weight chin-ups, 4
the trainer can lift him or her up to the completed position for a chin-up and 5
then get them to lower themselves slowly back down unassisted. 6
Drop sets: with this method the load lifted in a single set is progressively 7
lightened. It is easier using machines. For example, the client will perform 3 8
reps at 30 kg, 3 reps at 25 kg and 3 reps at 20 kg in the same set. It is also 9
possible to lighten the load in subsequent sets if the client is unable to 40
complete the initial weight. In this example the client may start the second set 1
at 3 reps at 25 kg and move down to 3 reps at 20 kg and 3 reps at 15 kg. 2
Forced reps: this is a high-intensity method and should be used only if the client 3
is deemed capable. Once the client has completed the initial set to fatigue, the 4
PT helps them to perform further reps that are beyond their capability to 5
perform by themselves (e.g. a bicep preacher curl is performed to fatigue and 6
the PT then helps lift the dumb-bell for further reps). 711
16
Circuit type: this involves the client performing different exercises in

succession with timings from 30 seconds to 1 minute for each exercise
performed and the same timed rest period between exercises. It is also
possible to use repetitions as designated sets, for example, 15 reps then move
on to the next exercise. The clients move around a circuit of exercises,
repeating each exercise a number of times depending on the length of the
session. Most PTs regard this method as a class type of activity, but it can be
utilised in a gym environment just as well. It is particularly applicable when
working for muscular endurance.
Split routine: the client will work different muscle groups on different days,
such as chest and back on Mondays, legs and shoulders on Tuesdays and arms
and abs (abdominals)/lower back on Wednesdays, then repeat the cycle over
the next three days. This allows the muscle groups to be worked harder in each
available session and allows the client to work out on consecutive days
relatively safely.
Free weights and machines

The decision over whether to use free weights or resistance machines will depend on
the type of client and the availability of equipment. Generally, free weights make a
higher neuromuscular demand as a result of the control element to the movement.
Some exercises can be performed only by using free weights, for example, a barbell
power clean (illustrated on pp1023). A client can also perform multi-plane action
(see below) and everyday activities with free weights. Free weights are not
constrained by having a set movement pattern: you can move in many directions in
the same exercise (for example, a kettlebell one-arm row into shoulder press would
be impossible using resistance machines). Free weights are generally much more
flexible to use than machines.
Resistance machines do offer a safety feature if failure occurs: they will catch
the weight for the client. The use of cams (curved pulleys to maximise work that are
found on most machines) will also benefit resistance through most if not all of the
range of movement (ROM) on a machine. A machine can also offer inexperienced
clients a less intimidating prospect in early sessions, at least until they gain con-
fidence to take your advice and move on to free weight exercises. Cable machines
offer aspects of both resistance machines and free weights. They offer safety and
different planes of movement in one machine, as well as a multitude of exercises with
different attachments.
Planes of movement
The three planes of movement are:
sagittal (a vertical plane passing from front to rear, cutting the body into two
symmetrical halves, i.e. in line with the nose);
frontal (at right angles to the sagittal plane, this cuts the body from the side in
line with the arms);
transverse (horizontal plane cutting the body across the middle).
17
Single plane relates to movement in only one of these planes, for example, a lat 1
pulldown is in the frontal plane. Multi-plane refers to movement in two or more 2
planes, for example, a baseball bat swing is in all three planes. 3
4
Functional training 5
6
The term functional training (FT) is widely used in the fitness industry. Functional 7
training uses exercises to reproduce, and thereby improve, everyday movements. For 8
example, the woodchop cable exercise mimics the chopping of a tree. (The term 9
functional thus relates both to the ability to perform everyday tasks and to an 10
exercise outcome which performs a specific function.) One clear use of functional 1
training is in a rehabilitation context. 2
Some trainers extol the virtues of FT to the extent of disregarding many other 3
training methods. However, problems can occur when trainers use exercise tech- 4
niques and a variety of equipment that train clients in what they deem to be a 511
functional manner. This can include the use of bosu balls, gymnastic balls, foam 6
rollers, wobble boards and all manner of unstable equipment. The idea is that the PT 7
uses multi-plane and unstable exercises to work the core musculature of the client or 8
the session can be manipulated by the PT to provide exercises more applicable to 9
normal life. Indeed, there is a heightened stimulation of the neuromuscular junctions 20
in the muscles used during FT, but is this really necessary? If a clients primary goal is 1
to build muscle for aesthetic reasons, does FT need to be used at all? The answer 2
should be to use FT only to work on muscle balance, rehabilitation activities, to 3
provide variety in some sessions or to target a clients low functional capacity to 4
perform everyday tasks. Always work from the client needs analysis, and think 5
carefully before employing one approach to the exclusion of others. 6
7
8
Reflection 2.4
9
I have seen entire sessions where a trainer has used an unstable surface for 30
the client to train on. The question I have thought at the time is why? How 1
many clients actually walk or play on an unstable surface in everyday tasks? 2
And how many require the use of unstable surfaces in their sport? Not many! 3
Functional exercises should be used only when it will provide adaptation to 4
the clients primary, secondary or tertiary goals. A good example would be a 5
softball player using a cable machine to provide resistance when picking up a 6
ground ball in a gym environment. 7
Note too that there are safety considerations when using unstable 8
surfaces. Gymnastic balls are an example. They have been known to burst 9
under pressure. If this happens when your client is performing chest press with 40
a 20 kg dumb-bell in each hand, the result will be quite nasty. The ability to lift 1
repetition maximums will also be compromised if chest press is performed on 2
a ball, so the question is: why do it at all? 3
4
5
6
711
18
Using programming tools

Intensity guidelines
Experience suggests that many PTs do not measure exercise intensity when training
their clients. How, then, can they possibly know what intensity the client is at? Does
the trainer merely rely on how the client looks? Or does the trainer guess? As
explained in the chapter on session planning (Chapter 6), you should check at various
intervals during the session. There are three main methods for measuring intensity:
heart rate monitors: these are now inexpensive and can be linked to a personal
computer to track intensity in sessions;
heart rate palpation: this involves manually taking the pulse at intervals in the
workout. Use a ten-second count and multiply by six to obtain a beats per
minute (BPM) reading.
rating of perceived exertion (RPE): here the client is asked to describe
subjectively how intense they feel an activity to be. There is a choice of scales
for rating client response. (The scale I prefer is the 620 numbered scale, as it
can be related to the clients heart rate when a zero is added to the figure
given.)
Reflection 2.5
I tailor the intensity measurement to the client and/or the session. Heart rate
monitors are useful for tracking higher-intensity athlete clients. Palpation
can be more appropriate for use with the general population. On rare
occasions I have felt a potentially dangerous arrhythmia and have referred
the client to their GP. RPE is used as a supplement to palpation and is
surprisingly accurate with experienced clients. It is especially relevant when
used with hypertensive clients who are on medication, as their heart rates are
artificially lowered. RPE is also useful when gauging the difficulty experienced
by clients when resistance training. Remember that they should be fatiguing
on every set performed and should be giving you a high RPE number when
checked. There may be a difference between perception and reality when
using RPE charts. There are clients who will give an estimate of 18 when the
heart rate indicates 13. Usually this means that they do not want to work very
hard. Conversely, I have known the male ego client who places himself at 10 on
the scale when he really means 16! You need to try to ensure that the client is
being truthful when using RPE. If you suspect a client of under- or over-
estimating an RPE figure, consider the useful insight this may provide into
their individual thinking and motivation.
The PT should work out the clients intensity heart rate zones during the
initial consultation. These heart rate zones (HRZ) will be determined by the
current status of the client. A low, moderate or high HRZ can be assigned
depending on their functional capacity. The easiest and quickest method is to
use the estimate of the clients maximum heart rate (220 minus age) and then
19
Reflection 2.5 continued 1

2
work out a percentage of that figure. For example, if a client was capable of 3
moderate intensity work, then you will calculate 70 per cent of their estimated 4
maximum heart rate and this will be the ceiling heart rate that you will use in 5
your programme. 6
A more client-specific approach is to use the Karvonen method. You will 7
need to understand resting heart rate for this method. Resting heart rate is 8
exactly that: the beats per minute of the heart at rest. The only issue is the 9
definition of rest. For your purposes, the easiest method is to get your client 10
to sit quietly for five minutes, then take a full minute reading of their pulse. 1
You can then use this figure in the Karvonen method of estimating THRZ 2
(target heart rate zone). Work out the clients maximum heart rate (MHR) as 3
above; then subtract their resting heart rate (RHR); then work out their 4
percentage target heart rate zone (THRZ); and then add the RHR onto those 511
figures. The definitions of THRZ that you can use vary slightly between PTs. I 6
use low, moderate and high heart rate (HR) intensity brackets as follows: 7
8
low: 5065 per cent; 9
moderate: 6575 per cent; 20
high: >75 per cent. 1
2
Here is a worked example. Client 1 is male and 22 years of age with an RHR 3
of 60 BPM. He has an estimated MHR of 198 BPM (220 22 years). If his THRZ 4
was 6585 per cent of MHR, then, using the first method, the calculations 5
would be: 6
7
198 x 0.65 = 129 BPM 8
198 x 0.85 = 168 BPM 9
30
His THRZ, therefore, would equal 129168 BPM in his sessions. Applying 1
the Karvonen method, you record his RHR as 60 BPM. This would produce the 2
following calculation: 3
4
198 BPM 60 BPM = 138 BPM x 0.65 5
198 BPM 60 BPM = 138 BPM x 0.85 6
7
This would result in 90 and 117 BPM. Adding 60 RHR produces a final THRZ 8
of 150 177 BPM. As you can see, this is higher than the previous quick method 9
because the client has a relatively low resting heart rate. 40
1
2
3
4
5
6
711
20
Activity 2.2
Use both of the above methods to calculate the THRZ for the following clients:
1. Female, 46 years of age and an RHR of 75 BPM (moderate intensity,

70 per cent).
2. Male, 19 years of age and an RHR of 57 BPM (high intensity, 85 per cent).
3. Female, 26 years of age and an RHR of 63 BPM (moderate intensity,
65 per cent).
Repetition ranges
Knowledge of repetition ranges is vital. This enables the PT to determine the desired
outcome of training programmes. Fibre type recruitment and energy system
utilisation are both affected by rep ranges. Muscle fibre types are recruited (utilised
by muscle) by manipulating rep ranges. There are three main types of muscle fibres:
type I (aerobic), type IIa (intermediate) and type IIb (anaerobic). Different fibre types
can be recruited using different rep ranges, for example, higher muscular endurance
reps will recruit more aerobic type fibres, whereas lower power reps will recruit more
anaerobic type fibres. One way to understand the effect of rep ranges is to view the
number of reps programmed on a continuum:
Reps 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19*
Effect Power Strength Hypertrophy Endurance

* Even rep numbers are omitted for illustrative purposes only
Note that when using this continuum, each training effect will affect other rep
ranges. For example, if your client trains for hypertrophy, then there will be some
effect on strength and endurance capabilities and, to a lesser extent, power. We
distinguish these terms as follows:
Power = work/time. This is related to muscle size and the ability to generate
muscular velocity.
Strength = the maximum amount that your client can lift in one repetition.
Hypertrophy = increasing muscle fibre size and therefore muscle size.
Endurance = the ability to sustain repetitions.
Rep ranges are related to the load lifted. Obviously, the heavier the weight, the
fewer reps your client can perform. All rep ranges should be viewed as repetition
maximums (RMs). For example, a client who can perform 10 barbell chest presses at
40 kg should not be able to perform a full eleventh rep. Fatigue should occur on
every set.
21
Figure 2.6: Relationship between training variables and effects 1

2
Energy systems exercise duration effects 3
4
Predominant energy systems 5
6
ATP ATP-PC Anaerobic glycolysis Aerobic
7
8
Time
0 secs 10 secs 1 minute 2 minutes 3 minutes 9
10
Javelin 100m Sprint 400m 800m 1500m 1
Discus 200m swim 400m swim
2
Weightlifting
3
Sporting examples
4
511
Muscle fibre type recruitment 6
Type IIB Type IIA Type I 7
White Pink Red 8
Glycolytic Oxidative/glycolytic Oxidative 9
20
Repetitions 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
2
3
Power Strength Hypertrophy Endurance
4
Primary muscle adaption 5
6
7
As Figure 2.6 shows, rep ranges are also interrelated with muscle fibre types, 8
sports and energy systems. This figure is useful as a quick reference guide when 9
programming rep ranges for your clients. If you were to programme reps incorrectly, 30
you could make it harder for your client to reach his or her primary goal. 1
Another method of programming up or down from your clients known rep ranges 2
is to use 1 RM tables. RM (repetition maximum) is the maximum amount of reps that 3
a client can perform with a particular weight before they fatigue. As long as you know 4
a particular RM (for example, a 1 RM weight performed by your client), you can then 5
look up what the client should be performing at 10 RM. An example would be a client 6
who can lift 100 kg for 1 RM on a barbell squat: according to this method, they could 7
perform 75 kg for 10 RM. 8
9
40
Activity 2.3
1
A new male client comes to you and, through your client analysis, you assign 2
hypertrophy and aesthetic gain as the primary goals. Check Figure 2.6 and 3
decide where you are going to focus his training. 4
Now do the same for a second new client, who is female and an 800 m 5
runner for a local athletics club. Is she placed differently on Figure 2.6? 6
711
22
There are limitations to these tables, however: there is inter-client variability;

the tables assume that only one set is being performed; and they do not differentiate
between resistance machines and the use of comparable free weights. There is a web
address at the end of this chapter that will provide 1 RM tables. Try visiting the site
and using the tables to answer the following:
What is the 10 RM if your client can lift 61 kg for 5 reps?

What is the 3 RM if your client can lift 46 kg for 15 reps?
Sets
The number of sets to be programmed also needs to be scientifically based. The basic
guidelines are:
power = 35 sets;
strength = 26 sets;
hypertrophy = 36 sets;
endurance = 23 sets.
As you can see, these guidelines provide a range of sets for use in programming. They
act only as guides: different programme goals will require different set numbers. For
example, a client on a split routine may utilise a higher set number as the time spent
on an exercise will be greater. Another factor that may affect the set number is client
response. Each client responds differently to differing stimuli. As you train your client
you can constantly update the programme accordingly.
Rest periods between sets

These are determined by the training rep range and effect as follows:
power requires 25 minutes;

strength requires 25 minutes;
hypertrophy requires 3090 seconds;
endurance requires <30 seconds.
Reflection 2.6
One fitness trainer approached me and asked, How do I programme rest

periods between sets? This took me aback at first as I assumed that this was
essential knowledge that any trainer would know. I later discovered that the
problem here was the advent of electronic resistance machines programming
the rest periods! While it is fine to use innovative equipment, you need to know
the fundamentals first.
23
Muscle balance 1
2
This is an often neglected aspect of exercise programming. Many clients will train
3
what they can see. For example, men are fond of chest and bicep brachii training,
4
while often neglecting the back and triceps. To reduce agonist (prime contracting
5
muscle in an exercise) and antagonist (secondary counteracting muscle) strength
6
imbalances, use the following muscle balance ratios:
7
8
Chest : back = 2:3
9
Quadriceps : hamstrings = 3:2
10
Abdominals : lower back = 1:1
1
Bicep : tricep = 1:1
2
Gastrocnemius : tibialis anterior = 3:1
3
For example, to promote a strength ratio of chest:back of 2:3, a client performs 4
two sets of ten reps for chest and three sets of ten for the back. These ratios are a 511
guide; some research supports slightly different ratios (see www.brianmac.co.uk/ 6
sambc.htm). The key point is that all body parts should be trained on both sides of 7
the body to promote a balanced muscular system. 8
9
20
Reflection 2.7 1
2
One client I worked with was male and very muscular. He looked like a
3
bodybuilder and trained at a high intensity. It became obvious, however, that
4
his core muscles were inadequate to support his level of aesthetic weight
5
training. One day he injured his back and then spent many weeks rehabilitat-
6
ing and strengthening his core. Personal trainers should promote muscle
7
balancing wherever possible. This can be difficult when a client wants only to
8
train the chest or thighs. In such a case you must do your ethical duty and
9
advise the client to train the other body parts in sessions with you or, at the
30
very least, in their unsupervised sessions.
1
2
Flexibility 3
4
If the client exhibits lack of flexibility, then stretching will take up a large proportion 5
of the session. Training for development or maintenance of flexibility involves the 6
range of motion (ROM) of a joint. Flexibility should be programmed alongside other 7
methods of training. Research into stretching is inconclusive as to whether it actually 8
reduces the incidence of injury. It is prudent to work from a perspective that 9
decreased ROM will increase the risk of injury, especially in sporting activity. 40
Stretching training uses duration and sets in the same way as other training 1
aspects. Some research indicates that the length of time of hold of the stretch has a 2
bearing on the adaptation. The ACSM (2007) recommends that each stretch should be 3
held for 3090 seconds. Some evidence suggests that the stretch should be held for 4
10 seconds for maintenance of ROM. You must use your judgement when pro- 5
gramming stretching, as using 90 seconds for every muscle group in your client would 6
take up a large proportion of their whole session. 711
24
The stretch reflex

This relates to two physiological properties of muscle tissue, namely, muscle spindles
and golgi tendon organs (GTOs). Muscle spindles are within the muscle fibres and are
concerned with muscle length. If the muscle spindle fires a reflex action, the muscle
has been taken past its normal operating length and the reflex is to contract. This is
called the stretch reflex. The GTO measures muscle tension and, unsurprisingly, is
located in the tendon of each muscle. If tension becomes too great, the GTO fires and
the muscle will relax, therefore reducing tension. This is termed muscular inhibition.
Flexibility can be active (the ROM available under muscular contraction, that is,
how far the client can take a stretch) or passive (the ROM available when an external
force pushes the client into a particular stretch).
Different methods of stretching are:
Static (active): the client adopts the stretch position and holds the stretch
themselves for the predetermined length of time. These are most appropriate
when stretching alone.
Dynamic (active): this method usually involves movements that mimic sport
movements that are due to be made in a sporting context. It can also be useful
in warm-ups generally.
Ballistic (active): bouncing of the joint and musculature within a stretch. These
are recommended only for more advanced athlete-type clients as they provide
ROM beyond normal ranges.
Passive: a PT puts the client into the stretch and provides the necessary force
to elicit the stretch in the muscle. Communication between the client and the
PT is paramount, as you only want to take the stretch to a safe limit. The client
should inform you when they can feel a strong stretch no more. Passive
stretching is particularly appropriate in PT sessions as the client is paying for a
service and this method of stretching should be part of it.
Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) (passive/active): this method
usually requires the help of the trainer and is applicable when maximum
adaptation of the clients flexibility is required. An example is a lying hamstring
stretch performed by the trainer (passive in the client), then the client pushes
against the trainer with the hamstrings (active in the client), then the trainer
stretches the client further. It utilises the stretch reflex to allow the GTO to fire
during the active phase which allows the muscle to relax further in the passive
phase, therefore producing a greater ROM. There are other PNF methods: it is
recommended that you read around this method of stretching. A good place to
start for examples is McAtees Facilitated stretching (2007).
Activity 2.4
1. Start by practising actively stretching your quadriceps, hamstrings,

triceps, calves, chest and back.
2. Next move on to dynamic stretching by choosing a sport and mimicking
the main actions. For instance, in football the kicking of an imaginary ball
would be applicable.
25
Activity 2.4 continued 1

2
3. Only practise ballistic stretching if you are capable. 3
4. When you are confident with the concept of stretching, try passive 4
stretching on a willing participant. Tread carefully and only take the 5
stretch to a safe point. See www.personaltraining1st.com for some 6
examples of passive stretching. 7
5. Research PNF stretching and when you have some experience of passive 8
stretching in a professional environment, practise this technique so that 9
you can utilise it when necessary. 10
1
2
3
4
Active learning 511
6
The practical element of this chapter is paramount when applying your programming 7
knowledge. If you are starting out as a PT you need to gain experience through writing 8
programmes. One method is to invent clients to programme for. When you attempt 9
this, try to start with straightforward programmes and progress to more advanced 20
clients. This will boost your confidence when tackling real life programming. Think 1
about the many options when you write these programmes you can use Chapter 7 in 2
this book to help you choose exercises and move on to advanced training techniques 3
information (Chapter 9) when you feel ready. 4
5
6
Reflection 2.8
7
When I was starting out, other trainers were themselves a great resource. I 8
took part in many group discussions about new exercises and effective 9
training methods for a variety of clients. Use the fitness professionals you 30
know as sounding boards for your ideas and soak up their thoughts in order 1
to critique your own practice. 2
3
4
5
Summary 6
7
With the information provided in this chapter, you should now have a good grasp of 8
the importance of basing all fitness programming on sound scientific research. 9
Remember, the purpose of this chapter is to give you an introductory guide to the 40
writing and implementation of professional programmes. There are two main 1
considerations that you will need always to bear in mind. First, research within 2
exercise and fitness is constantly being updated and programming is one of the 3
fastest changing subjects in this area. Personal trainers need to continue reading 4
research to ensure that their programming skills are up to date. Journals such 5
as the ACSMs Health and Fitness and Peak Performance (available online at 6
www.pp-online.co.uk) will provide up-to-date fitness information. The other aspect 711
26
is that scientific understanding needs actually to be applied in practice at every

opportunity. PTs are only as good as their last programmes!
Above all, programmes need to be SPARS:
1. Safe.
2. Prepared using science.
3. Achievable.
4. Recorded.
5. Specific.
Further study
Explore the key NSCA texts: Essentials of strength training and conditioning
(Baechle and Earle, 2000) and Essentials of personal training (Baechle and Earle,
2003). ACSMs resources for the personal trainer (ACSM, 2004) gives in-depth
information on programming for health in the general population.
For more on resistance training, see Designing resistance training programmes

(Fleck and Kraemer, 2003).
For general PT programming information visit: www.personaltraining1st.com
For RPE charts see the ACSM on RPE charts and usage: www.acsm.org/Content/
ContentFolders/Publications/CurrentComment/2001/perceive103101.pdf
Polar HR online software Polar provides a free online service to upload heart rate
monitoring data. Registration is required to access this service: www.polarpersonal
trainer.com/frontend/
1 RM tables www.depauw.edu/ath/strength/Images/Estimating%201RM%20and
%20Training%20Loads.pdf
Stretching guidelines www.pponline.co.uk/encyc/stretching-performance-and-

injury-prevention
For a general summary of stretching research see www.exrx.net/Lists/Directory.

html. This link provides stretches for most muscles; just click on the area to be
stretched.
Periodisation www.brianmac.co.uk/plan.htm has a general guide to periodisation

with other links to specific sports.
www.tennis.se/files/%7B6C0150F2-D618-4568-8F05-D958E682462B%7D.pdf is
an excellent document from the international tennis federation regarding extensive
periodising for tennis players.
27
Chapter 3 1
2
3
Adaptations to physiology 4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
How does physiology apply to training clients? Why should a prospective or current 511
PT be interested in physiology? The answer is simple: as everything a PT does should 6
be based on a scientific approach, physiology is central to everyday training life. In the 7
past, sports coaches and trainers could come from a sports background with little or 8
no scientific knowledge. This is no longer the case. Consider the coaches and trainers 9
you know: how many are still unqualified? PTs today need to understand the link 20
between training programmes and clients physiological adaptation. 1
This chapter provides a concise and accessible introduction to the subject. 2
Obviously, no single chapter on this subject can be comprehensive. However, a wealth 3
of resources is available and a number of these are listed at the end of the chapter for 4
further study. It is important for PTs to focus their study on the application of 5
information to their training of various clients. It is helpful to keep considering how 6
what you learn about physiology may be applied to the training of the two main client 7
categories, namely, health clients and athletes. 8
For the purposes of teaching, physiology is often divided into separate systems. 9
In practice, however, it is important to think holistically to consider how these 30
different systems work together during training. 1
This chapter is designed to help you: 2
3
recognise the direct link between programming and physiology; 4
understand that all physiological systems may be affected by training; 5
become familiar with the relevant physiological systems; 6
appreciate that each client will react differently to training stimulus. 7
8
Physiology is a branch of science that is concerned with the functions of the 9
human body. Often physiology is discussed in a medical context. For the purpose of 40
explaining the adaptation of physiology to training, the following systems will be 1
discussed: 2
3
Energy. 4
Neuromuscular. 5
Cardiovascular. 6
Respiratory. 711
28
3 / Adaptations to physiology
Endocrine (hormones).
Skeletal.
Energy systems
Energy systems influence every aspect of a clients overall fitness. Every training
session will involve the manipulation of energy systems using duration and intensity
to bring about changes and to build these into chronic (long-lasting) adaptations.
Energy supply in the human body can be viewed on a time continuum. This is shown in
Figure 3.1.
Here the first type of energy is provided by adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This
source of energy is used up rapidly (within around two seconds) during exercise. The
second source of energy is the ATP-PC (phosphagen) system. This provides energy
for up to about 810 seconds. Then anaerobic glycolysis will provide energy during
the next stage, from approximately 10 seconds to one minute (anaerobic energy being
that which does not require a release of oxygen). Increasingly, this is supported by
energy from aerobic glycolysis, which will supply energy for up to about three minutes
(aerobic energy being that which requires release of oxygen). Finally, aerobic systems
(i.e. those requiring oxygen) become the predominant provider of energy. A note is
needed on fuel for these energy systems. Anaerobic glycolysis requires carbohydrate
and aerobic energy systems require fat (lipids) with a small amount of protein being
used when needed.
The main point to remember here is that no one energy system is working alone.
(If your aerobic system did not tick over you would be working totally anaerobically
and would, in fact, be dead!) The body utilises oxygen to maintain its metabolism
(metabolism being the chemical processes occurring within the body). Figure 3.1
shows how at various points during a period of continuous activity various energy
systems work in tandem. PTs are interested in the points where energy systems cross
over. The two main points are 10 seconds (with anaerobic glycolysis becoming
predominant) and around one minute (with aerobic systems becoming predominant).
Figure 3.1: Energy system usage relative to time in physical ctivity
Predominant energy system usage in continuous activity lasting more than 3 minutes
Energy system supplying %
Aerobic systems
Anaerobic glycolysis
ATP-PC
10 seconds 1 minute 3 minutes
ATP
Start of activity Continuous activity beyond 3 minutes
29
Figure 3.1 provides the basis of the PTs knowledge for anaerobic and aerobic 1
energy system training. It is helpful to relate this to the continuum illustrated 2
in Figure 2.2 on p14, which shows the impact of various sporting activities. Note 3
that differences in training the two groups of clients (health clients and athletes) 4
are relative to duration and intensity, rather than absolute differences. Workout 5
session record sheets (see pp756) can be used to monitor the energy systems 6
being trained. 7
8
9
10
Activity 3.1
1
First, here are some worked examples. 2
3
Q. Lisa is a health client. Her goal is to improve her overall fitness. There is no 4
need to programme high intensity for this client. Which predominant energy 511
system training would you target for her? 6
7
A. Training should target the aerobic energy system as she has no need for 8
power or sport-specific adaptations. A PT could work her up to around 7085 9
per cent of her maximum heart rate and stay within the necessary aerobic 20
zone. This will increase her overall aerobic fitness as well as having other 1
health benefits. 2
3
Q. Naomi is an amateur 400 m runner. Based on previous test data, her goal is 4
to increase her anaerobic threshold. She will require different intensity 5
guidelines from Lisa. What energy systems would you programme for Naomi? 6
7
A. Anaerobic glycolysis should be the preferred system here. The lactate 8
threshold is the point at which blood lactate starts to increase above baseline 9
levels (known as OBLA onset of blood lactate) and is particularly noticeable 30
in events like the 400 m race. OBLA marks the onset of symptoms such as 1
nausea and muscle fatigue, and will lead to a rapid decrease in performance. A 2
PT will want to keep Naomi working around that anaerobic threshold (8090 3
per cent of maximum heart rate). This will produce high amounts of lactic acid 4
and her body will adapt to cope with higher levels of lactic acid with chronic 5
training. 6
7
Now decide how to train the next two clients. 8
9
1. Jerome is a 100 m sprinter. He needs to overload his energy systems in 40
order to produce adaptation and decrease his overall 100 m time. Use 1
Figure 3.1 to decide how to train him. 2
2. Ebony is a striker in an amateur football team. She wants to increase her 3
speed and overall endurance during a match. Which energy systems need 4
attention through training? (Remember that most team sports are 5
characterised by intermittently high-intensity activity.) 6
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30
There comes a point when graded training necessitates a move out of aerobic
energy system supply and back into the anaerobic systems. This is inevitable in all
human beings. We cannot maintain high-intensity activity indefinitely. How long a
client can produce energy to sustain muscular contraction via aerobic energy systems
will depend on the individuals level of energy system fitness. A good example of the
tipping over into anaerobic systems occurs in the sprint finish shown by athletes in
long-distance running. They have adapted their bodies to start using aerobic energy
systems much more quickly than an average client. This means that they can save
some anaerobic energy until the final part of the race. This anaerobic threshold is
linked to a percentage of MHR and differs in each client according to energy system
fitness.
Training adaptations
Chapter 2 provided a series of training recommendations regarding mode, intensity,
duration and frequency in training programming. Here they may be linked to energy
systems adaptations.
Training for the ATP and ATP-PC systems will:
increase ATP stores;

increase creatine stores (creatine is produced by the body and stored for use
as energy in the phosphocreatine (PC) system);
increase the activity of the creatine kinase and adenosine triphosphatase
(ATPase) enzymes (these enzymes break chemical bonds which produce
energy).
These adaptations will increase overall power capacity of the ATP-PC system.
Training for the anaerobic glycolysis system will:
increase the storage of glucose (glycogen);

increase the activity of anaerobic system enzymes phosphofructokinase (PFK)
and glycogen phosphorolase (GPP) (these enzymes are involved in the
utilisation of glucose for energy);
increase the ability to deal with hydrogen ions via the increased usage of
buffering systems (buffering systems will remove the hydrogen ions from the
system and reduce the acidity of blood; examples of physiological buffers are
bicarbonate and phosphate);
increase glycolytic capacity (the benefit here is that the client will be able to
break down glucose more efficiently);
increase the time to the anaerobic threshold and the onset of blood lactate to
allow longer duration activity at a higher intensity; decrease in the nausea and
dizziness associated with OBLA above.
31
Training for the aerobic energy systems will: 1

2
increase mitochondria in muscle cells (mitochondria are the powerhouses of 3
cells where aerobic metabolism occurs); 4
increase in myoglobin which stores oxygen within the muscle; 5
increase the use of lipids during activity; 6
increase the storage and usage of aerobic system enzymes (e.g. lipoprotein 7
lipase which helps to break down fat (triglycerides)); 8
make delivery of oxygen from haemoglobin to muscle tissues more efficient; 9
decrease percentage body fat; 10
increase capillary density within muscle tissue (capillaries are the smallest part 1
of the vascular system and have walls only one cell thick in order to facilitate 2
oxygen diffusion; by increasing the density of capillaries in muscle tissue, more 3
oxygen will be available for utilisation); 4
maximise the aerobic capacity of muscle fibres. 511
6
7
Training for the neuromuscular system 8
9
The neuromuscular system involves the interaction between the nervous and 20
muscular systems. Understanding this relationship is necessary for a PT as human 1
movement stems from the way the nervous system controls skeletal muscle. 2
Adaptations will depend on the number of repetitions performed. Remember the 3
repetition continuum figure in Chapter 2? The adaptation will occur in the muscle 4
fibre that is being overloaded. The neuromuscular system, therefore, should be 5
considered in endurance and anaerobic terms. 6
7
8
Muscular adaptations using endurance repetitions (>15 reps) 9
30
This type of training uses type IIa and type I fibres and targets aerobic, oxygen- 1
reliant, systems. There will be little hypertrophy evident (i.e. the increase in muscle 2
mass due to an increase in the size of muscle fibres). Imagine a client who works out 3
using only circuit-based sessions. There will be morphological changes, but 4
bodybuilding will not be one of them. Current thinking in exercise physiology is that 5
there may be some changes in type IIb fibres to a more aerobic structure. There will 6
also be an increase in capillary density within muscle tissue to supply the increased 7
need for oxygenated blood. Oxygenated blood (oxygen-rich blood) is needed for the 8
more aerobic muscle fibres to contract, since they use aerobic energy systems. If 9
there is a lack of oxygenated blood, performance will be compromised. These changes 40
will increase aerobic endurance at a moderate intensity. 1
2
Muscular adaptations using hypertrophy, strength and power 3
repetitions (<15 reps) 4
5
Along with some morphological changes to type IIa fibres into more anaerobic fibre 6
types, there will be an increase in: 711
32
muscular strength;
force production, therefore increasing total power output;
total anaerobic power;
muscle fibre size (hypertrophy);
connective tissue strength (tendons and ligaments);
lean body mass, including muscle mass (lean body mass is a persons total mass
minus the fat);
basal metabolic rate (basal metabolic rate (BMR) can be measured in kcal and is
the minimum amount of kcal that a client will expend to maintain their current
mass without moving; the more muscle mass a client has, the higher the BMR
due to muscle tissue being metabolically active);
bone mineral density.
Neurological (nervous system) changes related to the muscle

adaptations
The nervous and muscular systems are interlinked. Consider weightlifting com-
petitions: muscle memory is evident as technique plays an important part of the lift.
Success does not just depend on the strength of the athlete. The athletes motor units
within activated muscles during the lift recall the movement pattern in the same way
that clients muscular systems do when they perform resistance training. After
prolonged training the central nervous system will increase activation when training
and there will be an improvement of the firing of motor units across the neuro-
muscular junction (the point at which the nervous and muscular systems meet). This
leads to an improved co-ordination between the central nervous system and motor
units (essentially between the brain, nerves and the muscle tissue). The clients
muscles will remember the lifting pattern. This is why clients that are new to
resistance training can improve the weight lifted very quickly: their muscles learn the
lifting pattern before there are many strength changes.
Genetic predisposition
The adaptations that occur in the neuromuscular system are dependent on the
fibre type that is predominant in your client. Every client will exhibit fibre types based
on genetic make-up. This is termed their genetic predisposition and cannot be
changed. Adaptation can also be affected by the clients somatotype (body shape).
There are three main types of somatotype. Endomorphs are short and stocky;
mesomorphs are powerful and muscular; and ectomorphs are tall and thin.
Athletes tend to have a certain predominance of particular fibre types. Consider
again Jerome, our 100 m sprinter: what type of fibres would he have an abundance
of? He would have a higher proportion of type IIb anaerobic fibres, as these are
recruited during a 100 m sprint. Compare this to Naomi, who wants to increase her
anaerobic threshold during endurance events. She would probably be less muscular
than Jerome: 400 m running recruits predominately type IIa fibres, similar glycolytic
fibre types and a higher proportion of type I fibres.
While it is amazing what physical training can achieve, the outcomes are limited
by a clients genetic potential. This genetic ceiling will determine the maximum
gains possible with each individual client. Even with elite athlete training, however,
33
that genetic potential is rarely reached, so there is usually plenty of room for 1
improvement for all clients! 2
3
4
Reflection 3.1
5
Having trained many different-shaped clients, I find the changes that can 6
occur if they adhere to training and nutritional guidelines can be amazing. 7
Problems can occur, however, when a client (usually in the minority) chooses to 8
ignore almost all of the PTs recommendations and yet still expects to see 9
significant changes. If you do come across one of these clients, the best 10
course of action may be to try a period of training and, if the client does not 1
progress in any way, then politely drop that client from your client base. This 2
is an ethical course to take. 3
4
511
6
A note on flexibility 7
8
Flexibility training will elicit changes in connective and muscular tissues. Ligaments
9
and tendons will allow a limited increase in range of movement (ROM) due to
20
morphological changes in the soft tissues. The muscle fibres themselves will
1
increase in residual length. This will also increase ROM within the muscle being
2
stretched.
3
The stretch reflex involving muscle spindles will be inhibited to a greater degree.
4
These muscle spindles are located within the muscle tissue itself and monitor muscle
5
length. If the muscle over-lengthens, the muscle spindle will fire and a stretch reflex
6
will occur, thereby contracting the muscle. If this action is inhibited, the muscle can
7
stretch further. Overall, these changes will increase the flexibility of the client,
8
especially if you target the muscles that are in need of improvement.
9
30
1
Training for the cardiovascular (CV) system 2
3
While low-repetition resistance training does also produce some physiological 4
changes to the CV system, this section will focus on endurance CV training 5
adaptations. Endurance activities include rowing, running or swimming. The following 6
changes occur within the heart or vascular systems and greatly enhance the 7
efficiency of the cardiovascular system overall: 8
9
increase in left ventricle hypertrophy (located within the heart); 40
decrease in resting heart rate; 1
increase in cardiac output (increased stroke volume); 2
increase in ejection fraction of the heart (the ejection fraction representing the 3
amount of blood that is pumped out of the left ventricle with each beat of the 4
heart); 5
improved oxygen capacity through increase in red blood cells and increased 6
plasma volume; 711
34
decrease in exercise heart rate at submaximal intensities;

reduction in resting and exercising blood pressure;
increased oxygen utilisation at muscle tissue sites;
decrease in coronary disease risk factors;
decrease in body fat percentage;
increased elasticity of the arteries that helps blood distribution.
The benefits from aerobic training can be significant for both health and athlete
client groups. The general public is aware that physical training is beneficial in a
general way; knowledge of this kind helps to specify benefits more precisely.
Explaining such physiological changes is part of the education process that PTs can
provide to clients.
Training for the respiratory system

The following changes are brought about by aerobic endurance training, such as
rowing, swimming, and cycling:
increased exercise ventilation through an increase in lung volume;

increased VO2 max;
increased oxygen uptake at lung tissue/capillary sites;
decreased ventilation rate during submaximal exercise (ventilation rate is the
amount of breaths a person takes in one minute);
a cleaner respiratory system that results in increased efficiency by utilising
more alveoli;
enhancement of intercostal muscles that help exercise ventilation (intercostals
are the muscles that are found between the ribs; they help with breathing,
especially during exercise).
Training for the endocrine system

The endocrine system is the physiological system that produces and secretes
hormones. These are crucial for maintaining the body in a state of balance
(homeostasis). The various hormone-producing organs in the human body will be
affected by training sessions. They form an often overlooked system that can be
changed through chronic physical exercise. Resistance training in particular increases
the synthesis and storage of hormones that contribute to the building and
remodelling of muscle tissue. Also, receptors within the neuroendocrine systems will
become efficient. An effect of these adaptations is that the number of hormones
needed to perform their functions decreases, thereby increasing the efficiency of
the whole system.
For hypertrophy clients, the fact that anabolic hormones (including the growth
hormones testosterone and insulin) increase after acute and chronic resistance
activity can be useful in training. Hypertrophy clients may also be interested to know
35
that training produces more effective use of catabolic hormone cortisol, thereby 1
reducing catabolic effects (the breaking down of tissue). As long as the programming 2
of exercise is carefully considered, the release of cortisol and catabolism will still 3
occur as part of the process of remodelling tissue, but with a maximal anabolic (i.e. 4
growth) effect. 5
The hormone changes can also be beneficial to weight-loss clients. Decreased 6
low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) and increased high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) will 7
lead to better utilisation of lipids during rest and exercise. Both of these lipoproteins 8
transport fat in the bloodstream, with HDL being responsible for transporting 9
fat away from the arteries. The effects here can help to reduce blood pressure. It 10
should be added that non-insulin dependent diabetics (NIDDMs) can improve their 1
management of glucose using CV exercise. This is brought about by better regulation 2
of the insulin/glucagon system. If glucose is regulated, the client can lose the NIDDM 3
tag completely a great achievement. 4
511
6
Reflection 3.2 7
If you were programming for hypertrophy as a response for your client, what 8
exercises and rep ranges would you choose? 9
The answer from a muscular standpoint is straightforward. Now consider 20
the role of increasing the amount of anabolic hormones in the workout. Power 1
exercises at least one workout a week will increase the levels of these 2
hormones. (Studies indicate that serum testosterone levels increase during 3
power exercises. See Fleck and Kraemer, 2003, pp96113 for a detailed 4
discussion on this subject.) It may, for example, be appropriate to include one 5
power exercise before conducting a hypertrophy session. The more dynamic 6
and major muscle group exercises that are performed, the more anabolic 7
hormones will be released. 8
9
30
1
2
Training for the skeletal system 3
Training can also produce benefits for the skeletal system. In particular, impact 4
activity such as running and jogging will stimulate the following adaptations. 5
Resistance training (weight-bearing activity) is also excellent at producing these 6
results: 7
8
increase in bone mineral density (with load-bearing and impact exercise); 9
increase in strength of connective tissue that binds the skeletal system 40
(ligaments and tendons); 1
decrease in the likelihood of the onset of osteoporosis (a degenerative disease 2
that decreases mineral content in the bones); 3
lower risk of bone fractures in later life. 4
5
6
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36
The link between programming and physiology

The above information will help the PT to understand how changing duration,
frequency, intensity and modes of training as outlined in Chapter 2 can change the
clients physiological systems. A question arising here is over what timescale clients
adapt to training. There are two ways to describe effects over time. There are (a)
acute and (b) chronic effects. Acute effects are those that occur quickly, either during
or just after a session. (An example would be a lowering of blood pressure after CV
exercise due to the arteries being more elastic straight after the workout.) Chronic
effects occur over a longer period of time and tend to last longer. It is chronic effects
that the PT is usually aiming for. The precise duration of the change will obviously
depend on the client, and the form and frequency of training.
Reflection 3.3
Having trained hundreds of clients, the changes I have witnessed are many
and varied. One example that comes to mind is a male client who initially could
not perform body weight chin-ups. I trained this client for three months: within
one month he could perform one chin-up; within three months he could perform
ten. Though the adaptation had taken three months, his goal was realised and
he was extremely pleased, so much so that he continued training towards
other goals for a further nine months.
Detraining
Detraining results from the principle of reversibility that is, if a client discontinues
training at any time they will start to experience a loss in the adaptation that was
gained during their sessions. The degree of loss will depend on the physical status
of the client and the specific physiological variable in question. There is evidence
that positive adaptation can often be reduced significantly within one to two weeks.
Detraining effects apply to resistance training in the same way as endurance training
if weight training is ceased. For an excellent table of detraining changes in strength
and power, see Fleck and Kraemer (2003), p244. Generally, the longer the period of
detraining, the worse the detraining effects will be. Remember that detraining can
also occur when the volume or intensity of training is decreased, even though the
client may still be training. Explaining the need to avoid the effects of detraining can
be a useful tool for maintaining motivation in your clients.
Note that it can be an athletes goal at a particular point in a season to detrain a
particular aspect of their fitness. A periodised programme for an athlete can
decrease the intensity of resistance training at an in-season competition period.
Although there is a detraining effect, this can be restricted by careful planning of
maintenance of a particular variable.
37
Individual adaptation to training 1

2
Clients adapt to training in different ways. Using the same training stimulus with 3
more than one client will elicit different gains. This is another reason why the record 4
forms that you complete for each session are so important. You must look at regular 5
intervals to check that your clients are progressing towards their goals. Physiological 6
adaptation is key to these changes. The particulars that are included on the client 7
tracker will provide a starting point for your programming. The age, gender, training 8
status and physical attributes of your clients will all help to determine the physio- 9
logical changes that are possible. 10
1
2
Reflection 3.4 3
4
The many trackers that I have used when training clients have indicated what 511
adaptations may occur. The effect of training on older clients has usually been 6
less pronounced than on younger clients, due to the effects of ageing. When 7
training athlete clients, I have usually found that progression and adaptation 8
occur in small increments. They will have already been in a trained state when 9
starting their programmes with me, so it is not surprising that they exhibit 20
gains more slowly than do sedentary clients. 1
An important aspect in female clients is the sheer difference in testos- 2
terone levels compared to males. On average, females have approximately 3
10 per cent of the testosterone of males. When that female client comes to 4
you and says she does not want to look like a female bodybuilder, you can 5
assure her that female bodybuilders have to train hard for many years with a 6
strictly controlled diet to get anywhere near that shape! There is no problem 7
over female clients training with free weights they will not accidentally turn 8
into body builders! 9
30
1
2
Learning activities 3
4
You can study the acute effects of physical activity fairly readily using heart rate 5
monitors, blood pressure monitors and more complex fitness-testing equipment (see 6
Chapter 8). The more important chronic adaptation will be evident only after many 7
sessions in some cases after months of personal training. Talk to experienced PTs in 8
order to get a long-term viewpoint as to what changes they have witnessed while 9
training their clients. The great interest in personal training is that each client is 40
different: discussion will provide many different angles on how clients respond to 1
training. 2
Once you have a medium- to long-term client you will start to notice the 3
adaptations that are occurring. Look back over your client record sheets and try to 4
decide what brought about these changes, what worked and what didnt work so 5
well. This will provide invaluable information with which to programme that client 6
in the future. You need to commit to regular fitness testing of your clients where 711
38
Activity 3.2
Using the main categories of age, gender, training status and physical qualities
of your clients, research the possible differences that may be evident when
training these different client groups. To this end, produce a table with each
category in a column. Then list the training modes in rows and complete the
possible differences in adaptation. The first category in the sample table
below has been completed for you as an example:
Age Gender Training Physical

status qualities
Hypertrophy More Females Long-term Clients with
training difficult differ from resistance- predominately
to achieve males owing trained clients type 2 muscle
in older to lower will respond fibres will
clients. testosterone better due to adapt to
levels and muscle memory hypertrophy
lower lean and prior training and
body mass morphological elicit a greater
overall. changes. muscle mass
than clients
with type 1
fibres.
Power
training
Muscular
endurance
training
Aerobic
training
appropriate. Without this regular testing it will be difficult to see progression or to

base goals on quantifiable data. Chapter 8 provides details of methods of testing PT
clients.
Summary
The physiological adaptations that can occur in your clients are varied and can be
complex to study. This chapter has provided a summary of the main changes to
39
physiological systems that PTs can bring about. Without knowledge of this type, a 1
PTs programming will lack direction. 2
It is important too to remember the holistic nature of physiology: no one physio- 3
logical system will adapt in isolation. It is also necessary to record and consider 4
individual differences between clients. 5
6
7
Further reading 8
9
Any exercise physiology textbook will illustrate the adaptations that occur with the 10
onset of physical training. Probably the most widely used is the text by McArdle, 1
Katch and Katch, which outlines the information well in a format that is easy on the 2
eye. Most of my students opt for McArdle when given a choice and if you only procure 3
one exercise physiology textbook, this is probably the best bet. An alternative is 4
Fox, Bowers and Foss. This book will add to your knowledge as it covers exercise 511
physiology from a slightly different perspective and includes some information on 6
the different adaptations in different client groups. 7
8
Fox, E, Bowers, R and Foss, M (1998) The physiological basis for exercise and sport. 9
2nd edition. McGraw-Hill. 20
McArdle, W, Katch, F and Katch, V (2006) Exercise physiology: energy, nutrition, and 1
human performance. 6th edition. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2
Wilmore, J and Costill, D (2005) Physiology of sport and exercise.3rd edition. Human 3
Kinetics. 4
5
www.brianmac.co.uk/physiol.htm a good starting point. 6
www.asep.org/journals/JEPonline the Journal of Exercise Physiology online. 7
www.ausport.gov.au/info/topics/physiology.asp an Australian portal website that 8
will lead you into a wealth of exercise physiology information. 9
30
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
40
1
2
3
4
5
6
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Chapter 4
Nutrition
Within fitness training there is probably no discipline more misunderstood than

nutrition. When PTs ask clients about their views on what they eat, what they think
they should be eating and what constitutes healthy eating, they receive a vast range
of responses. Part of the PTs job is to educate clients regarding fitness, so it falls
to the PT to demystify the relationship between food and exercise.
Most clients naturally ask for some sort of nutritional information. Many will ask
about weight loss, though some will ask about weight gain. PTs can provide nutritional
advice concerning what to eat, how much to eat and what types of food provide
healthy options. However, except when PTs are also qualified dieticians, they should
not actually plan clients meals. It is important for PTs to recognise their limitations
and to avoid the risk of being sued!
PTs require a basic understanding of food groups and how issues of nutrition
relate to personal training sessions. This chapter is designed to help you to:
1. distinguish the three major food groups and understand their functions;
2. include water, vitamins and minerals in your knowledge base;
3. be aware that there are recommended daily allowances for food;
4. be able to disseminate knowledge regarding weight loss and weight gain;
5. acquire an introductory knowledge of nutritional supplements and their uses.
The major food groups

The three major food groups are carbohydrate, lipids (commonly referred to as fats)
and protein. These are also known as macronutrients. In contrast, micronutrients
(vitamins and minerals) are so called because they are only needed by the body in tiny
amounts.
Carbohydrates
In PT-speak, carbohydrates are often known as carbs (or as sugar, though not always
in the conventional sense). There is a distinction to be made between simple and
complex carbohydrates. Examples of simple carbohydrates include the sugar that
41
4 / Nutrition
you use in hot drinks and the glucose that you find in chocolate bars. These 1
carbohydrates will be digested and absorbed into the bloodstream very quickly, in a 2
few minutes in some cases. They are sometimes termed a sugar high. Examples of 3
relatively complex carbohydrates include rice, pasta and potatoes. Such starchy 4
foods are called complex because they are composed of longer chains of sugars. 5
6
The glycemic index 7
The glycemic index (GI) is a system that ranks foods based on the rate at which 8
ingested food will increase blood sugar levels. Unfortunately, it is not a case of all 9
simple carbohydrates ranking high on the index and all complex carbohydrates 10
ranking low. For example, if we look at different types of sugars, fructose has a low 1
glycemic index of around 20, sucrose has a medium glycemic index of around 70 and 2
glucose has a high glycemic index of 100. Also, variables can affect the GI of a 3
particular food, such as the method of processing or cooking. 4
High GI carbohydrates are best to ingest during exercise (if applicable) or within 511
a couple of hours after exercise in order to replenish glucose that has been used to 6
fuel the body during the session. Lower GI carbohydrates are generally better to 7
consume before exercise as release is more controlled and so there will be a steady 8
flow of glucose into the bloodstream. Thus, eating lower GI carbohydrates should 9
have an effect on performance during the session. This is why, for example, 20
footballers sometimes eat bowls of pasta a few hours before a game: it increases 1
their energy stores. 2
As GI values of foods vary, different GI tables provide slightly different scores. 3
However, each GI table is useful for comparing the relative values of foods. The table 4
below (adapted from Clark, 2003) provides a starting point for discussing GI with 5
your clients. 6
7
8
Food GI value 9
Glucose 100 30
Baked potato 85 1
Jelly beans 78 2
White bread 73 3
Brown bread 71 4
Sugar 68 5
Mars bar 65 6
Sweet potato 59 7
White rice 56 8
Brown rice 55 9
Pasta 44 40
Apple 38 1
Skimmed milk 32 2
Grapefruit 25 3
4
5
6
711
42
4 / Nutrition
Activity 4.1
Search the Internet for different glycemic index tables. Seek trustworthy,
scientifically reputable sites providing evidence based on peer-reviewed
research (that is, where one scientists research has been reviewed by other
scientists). One good starting point is www.glycemicindex.com/, run by Sydney
University. Another is www.brist.plus.com/dietgi.htm. This site is run by Bristol
Diabetes. Note that organisations concerned with diabetes provide such
information because the regulation of blood glucose is vitally important to
homeostasis in the human body. Diabetics are unable to regulate this blood
glucose properly as the balance of the hormones glucagon and insulin are not
maintained. Insulin will increase storage of glucose as glycogen and glucagon
will trigger the release of glucose into the bloodstream. This is why diabetics
regularly need to check their blood glucose levels using a hand-held machine
into which they put a small blood sample. If their blood glucose is too high,
then insulin-dependent diabetics will need to inject the required insulin direct
into their bloodstream.
Lipids
Found in meat, oils, dairy and some fruit and vegetables, fat is a much misunderstood
food group. For example, contrary to popular belief, cholesterol is not all bad: note
that it serves as a constituent of some hormones and cell membranes among other
roles. Different lipids form slightly different chemical components in the human body.
The most common are stored as triglycerides. Due to their chemical structure, lipids
are not water soluble. (Think about how animal fat floats when it is added to water.) If
the lipid is saturated, it will more likely be solid at room temperature.
An example of a saturated fat is lard (animal fat). This can be stored in the body
after consumption fairly easily. In contrast, clients will also have heard (from
advertisements for margarine) of polyunsaturated fat. Polyunsaturated fat has
fewer hydrogen bonds along its carbon chain and is therefore supposedly better
for clients to eat though it is important that the margarine is not made with
hydrogenated vegetable oil, as this poses further health risks by affecting the levels
of high-density lipoproteins and low-density lipoproteins (both of which concepts
are explained below).
Lipoproteins and cholesterol

How can excess saturated fats and excess cholesterol be harmful to clients? The key
concept here is atherosclerosis. This refers to the clogging of coronary and main
arteries and arterioles, a state that can lead to strokes, myocardial infarction (heart
attacks) and angina.
It can be useful to recommend clients to have a blood cholesterol test at their
GP surgery. The test will usually measure three factors: total cholesterol levels, HDL
(high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL). HDL is good
lipoprotein in the sense that it improves the transport of cholesterol away from the
43
4 / Nutrition
arteries. LDL is bad lipoprotein: it transports the cholesterol towards the arterial 1
wall. The good news for PT clients is that regular exercise will increase HDL levels 2
and decrease overall cholesterol levels. 3
Some PTs perform cholesterol testing as a service to their clients. Beware of 4
offering this service as it is classed as invasive: it is necessary to break the clients 5
skin in order to obtain a small blood sample. If any disease were communicated to 6
the clients blood as a result, the PT could be held liable. It is safer to refer the clients 7
for testing to their GP or to a private health facility. 8
9
Carbohydrates and lipids 10
Carbohydrates and lipids are the preferred fuels for human beings. In exercise the 1
predominant fuel for the first 20 minutes of continuous activity is carbohydrates. 2
After that, lipid utilisation will take over, though not completely. The client will still be 3
utilising carbohydrates as well as lipids beyond 20 minutes because the aerobic 4
energy systems (explained in Chapter 3) rely on lipids to be used in conjunction with 511
carbohydrates. 6
This is where one of the fallacies concerning exercise energy expenditure is to 7
be found. You may have noticed that some cardiovascular machines have training 8
heart rate zone diagrams on them. These supposedly inform the client as to what 9
zone they are working in. One of these zones is termed fat burning and is at the 20
1
lower end of the zones. As a result, the client is likely to believe that if they work out
2
at a low to moderate intensity, they will burn more fat in the same time frame. This is
3
incorrect: what matters most is the total energy expenditure and the lipid utilisation
4
for a whole session, and this is far more dependent on intensity.
5
Consider the following cases:
6
7
Session 1: the client works at 130 BPM continuously for 20 minutes. The
8
percentage of lipid utilisation in this session is 30 per cent of the overall energy
9
expenditure, which is 180 kcal. This would mean that the overall lipid utilisation
30
is 54 kcal.
1
Session 2: the same client works out at an average of 155 BPM in an interval 2
training session for a total of 20 minutes. The percentage of lipid utilisation in 3
this session is 22 per cent of the overall energy expenditure, which is 280 kcal. 4
This would mean that the overall lipid utilisation is 62 kcal. 5
6
Although in the first session the percentage of lipid utilisation is indeed higher (as 7
the diagrams on CV machines would indicate), the second session elicited both a 8
greater energy expenditure and greater lipid utilisation. This was due entirely to the 9
higher intensity, rather than time spent in the fat-burning zone. Clients often need to 40
be educated on the benefits of higher intensity training for weight control. 1
Each food group has a kcal value for 1 gram of that substance. Typical values are: 2
3
carbohydrate = 4 kcal; 4
protein = 4 kcal; 5
alcohol = 7 kcal; 6
lipids = 9 kcal. 711
44
4 / Nutrition
These figures show that lipids are the most energy-dense food group. Due to their
structure, lipids are easier for the human body to store. Thus, lipids need to be
controlled within clients diets, especially those with weight and fat loss goals.
Gluconeogenesis
Eating more carbohydrates can be beneficial when seeking to reduce intake of lipids
but only if the total carbohydrate intake is controlled. If the client eats too many
calories, they will put on weight, even if those calories are in the form of
carbohydrates. The human body can store carbohydrate as lipids and this process is
called gluconeogenesis.
Protein
Protein is used by the body for producing and repairing tissue. All musculature and
organs are essentially protein, which is made up of amino acids as well as carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen. Of the 80 naturally occurring amino acids, only about 20 are
used in proteins. The adult human body can synthesise more than half of these, but
the remainder (the so-called essential amino acids) have to be included in the diet or
your client may suffer a deficiency.
Meat eaters usually experience no problem gaining amino acids when the protein
is digested and absorbed. Meat is a primary source of protein, for obvious reasons
(after all, most meat is, in fact, the muscle of an animal or fish). Vegetarian or vegan
clients need to manage their diets to include essential amino acids, which can be
found, for example, in legumes, nuts and grains. These client groups need to ensure a
sufficient supply of amino acids. One resource to help them is the website provided
by North Dakota State University at: www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/yf/foods/he463w.htm.
Protein bars and drinks

If maximum protein utilisation in the body is around 2 grams per kilogram body
weight, then a 70 kg elite male athlete would require approximately 140 g of protein
per day. That is equivalent to the protein found in one large chicken breast. It is fairly
easy for a meat eater to achieve that intake each day. Now if a protein drink and/or
bar were added to this diet, what do you think the result will be?
Once the protein needed by the body for repair and growth of tissue has been
used, the excess protein will be broken down, with the nitrogen being urinated out
and the remaining constituents used as energy or stored as body fat (in the same way
as gluconeogenesis). Although moderately higher intakes of protein are rarely
harmful, clients using protein products may be literally urinating money away! It is
useful to provide clients with a guide to protein intake based on a scale running from
0.8 g per kg body weight for a sedentary individual to a maximum of 2 g per kg body
weight for an elite athlete.
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4 / Nutrition
Activity 4.2 1
2
Work out the approximate protein requirements for the following clients: 3
4
1. Justin, who works out three times per week and weighs 68 kg.
5
2. Abigail, who is an elite weightlifter, trains six times per week and weighs
6
62 kg.
7
3. Leon, who is sedentary and weighs 80 kg.
8
Research the constituents of protein supplements. Work out the amount 9
of protein per serving and add this figure to a meat-eating clients intake. Note 10
the risk of excess that may be evident when clients take protein supplements. 1
2
3
4
511
Vitamins, minerals and water 6
Vitamins 7
8
There is no calorific value in vitamins: you cannot take vitamin pills and gain kcal 9
intake. Vitamins are needed in the diet because they cannot be synthesised by the 20
human body. They are found in most foods, especially complex carbohydrates, meat, 1
fruit and vegetables. 2
There are two classes of vitamins: (a) water soluble and (b) lipid soluble. The 3
water-soluble vitamins are C, niacin and the B complex vitamins. Excess intake of 4
these can be easily excreted through urine. These vitamins are transported in water- 5
based solutions throughout the body and have wide-ranging effects, from the 6
formation of collagen (by vitamin C) to glycogen breakdown (by vitamin B6). 7
Lipid-soluble vitamins are A, D, K and E. They are transported by fat. Excessive 8
intake can be more problematic: they will be stored in fatty tissues and are more 9
difficult for the body to dispose of. A and D vitamins can be particularly harmful, 30
causing skin problems and kidney damage respectively. So long as clients have a 1
healthy balanced diet, vitamin intake should not be a problem. If clients want to take 2
vitamin supplements, this is unlikely to cause problems the concentration of 3
vitamins in pills is carefully managed by the companies that produce them. 4
A client may ask whether taking vitamins will lead to a better performance in 5
training sessions. The short answer is no, unless the client is actually vitamin 6
deficient. If there is a risk of seriously exceeding the recommended daily allowance 7
(RDA) of a particular vitamin, the client should be referred immediately to a GP. 8
9
Minerals 40
1
These are used in the production of certain tissues of the body. Bone, nails and teeth 2
need calcium in the diet, while haemoglobin in red blood cells requires iron. If there is 3
a deficiency in one or more minerals, this can cause health problems. Osteoporosis 4
can result from a reduction of calcium intake especially in the case of young women 5
when their bones are forming and strengthening. This is why dairy products such as 6
milk are an important dietary component. 711
46
4 / Nutrition
It is fairly common to come across a client who is anaemic (that is, suffering from
an iron deficiency). Iron is important to the oxygen-carrying capacity of your clients
blood. Clients suspected of being anaemic should be referred to their doctor for a
blood test. This will show whether they require iron supplements. Potential signs of
anaemia are low energy levels, a pale complexion and repeatedly feeling faint.
You may well have experienced muscle cramps during intense physical activity.
One cause may be a lack of sodium in the body. As sodium contributes to muscle
contraction via the nervous activation of the muscle, this is thought to contribute to
the cramping seen, for example, towards the end of a 90-minute football match:
sodium may be lost during the match through sweating. This explains why sports
drinks have a sodium constituent.
Finally, the reader should note that there are many additional roles for vitamins
and minerals that are not listed here. The books recommended at the end of this
chapter will provide further guidance.
Water
Water makes up to 60 per cent of the body and is vital to health. The human body can
only survive a few days without water and clients can quickly become dehydrated if
water intake is not properly managed during sessions. Daily recommendations of
water intake vary. The British Dietetic Association recommends 2.5 litres per day, of
which 1.8 litres should be fluid (the other 0.7 litres coming from water contained in
food). Obviously the loss of body water is heightened during exercise as water is a
by-product of aerobic metabolism and will be lost through sweat and through water
vapour from the mouth.
As water has many functions in the body, including the provision of fluid
component of cells and thermoregulation, the dangers of dehydration are not simply
a decrease in performance. A client could suffer heat cramps, heat exhaustion or,
much worse, heat stroke (which may be life threatening). It is important to ensure
that a client is able take regular water breaks throughout their workouts, especially
when exercising in a hot and/or humid environment.
The efficacy of sports drinks

There have been many claims by sports drinks manufacturers about the performance-
enhancing effects of their products. It is important to remember that simply drinking
water may improve performance. It is true, however, that sports drinks contain
electrolytes which replace sodium lost through sweating: this helps to maintain the
electrolyte balance needed in the body. Some sports drinks contain carbohydrates
that will help energy provision in longer duration events. Clients may simply find
sports drinks more palatable than water.
Weight loss and weight gain

While many clients have weight loss as a goal, some especially those who are
training for particular sports or bodybuilding may be seeking weight gain. The topics
of weight loss and weight gain are subject to much public misunderstanding, some of
47
4 / Nutrition
it stimulated by the promotion of commercial weight loss programmes. There is a 1

saying in fitness circles that if one of these weight loss products worked the way they 2
are claimed to, the company that produced it would corner a very lucrative market! 3
The most important point concerning weight loss and gain is, in fact, very simple. 4
Consider Figure 4.1 which shows a set of scales. In other words, if one eats more 5
calories than one expends, one will tend to put on weight, and if one eats fewer 6
calories than one consumes, one tends to lose weight. 7
The only method of energy intake is through the consumption of food and drink. 8
There are, however, four ways in which the body can expend energy: 9
10
the basal metabolic rate (BMR): the total calories required by the body to 1
maintain its current mass without any movement (usually the largest 2
component of energy expenditure); 3
the thermic effect of exercise (TEE), which can be manipulated within training 4
sessions; 511
the thermic effect of food (TEF): the body expends calories digesting and 6
absorbing nutrients; 7
the thermic effect of disease (TED), which PTs will not want to promote! 8
9
Figure 4.1: Energy intake versus energy output scales 20
1
Less energy 2
expenditure = 3
Less food = less calories
fewer calories = 4
expenditure =
weight loss weight gain 5
6
Energy output
Energy BMR 7
intake TEE 8
(food) TEF 9
TED
30
1
2
Too much More energy
3
food = expenditure =
increased weight loss 4
calorie intake = 5
weight gain 6
7
8
Reflection 4.1
9
PTs do not always realise that the best way to achieve an increase in energy 40
expenditure is by changing a clients BMR, since this usually forms the main 1
method of expending energy. A trainer can change a clients BMR by 2
increasing the lean body mass (LBM), which is (for our purposes) their muscle 3
mass. Consider how this may be achieved through programming repetitions. 4
If you answered hypertrophy, you were right. Now consider weight loss 5
clients. How many of them will train for hypertrophy? They may well baulk at 6
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48
4 / Nutrition
Reflection 4.1 continued
the mention of weight training, especially building muscle mass. This is where
there is an educational role for the PT.
Now consider the following two clients:
Client 1: female weighs 60 kg and has 33 per cent body fat.
Client 2: female weighs 60 kg and has 20 per cent body fat.
Client 2 will have a higher BMR and LBM: she will use up more calories than
Client 1 even outside training. This occurs because muscle tissue is meta-
bolically active while fat stores are inert (metabolically inactive). This simple
point may be used to help convince weight-loss clients that increasing their
BMR while performing exercise provides an important method of weight
loss, though there are, of course, questions of the best way to implement this.
For clinically obese clients, it may be best to focus first on weighing scale
measurements and then on measures of body fat.
Though from the point of view of weight change it is the total calorie intake that
is important, there is also the question of the best form in which to consume. The aim
should be for a balanced, healthy diet. It is helpful here to consider the so-called food
pyramid shown below.
Figure 4.2: Food pyramid
Fats
sparse
Milk,
Lean meat,
yogurt
poultry
and
and fish
cheese
23 servings
23 servings
Fruits Vegetables
24 35
servings servings
Carbohydrates such as pasta, bread and rice

should make up 611 servings per day
49
4 / Nutrition
The key point here is that balanced diets are usually the healthiest. Estimates of 1
total RDA vary, but a standard average would be 2,000 kcal for women and 2,500 kcal 2
for men. It is important to remember, however, that individual clients have different 3
requirements. A Tour de France cyclist, for example, will need at least 8,000 kcal per 4
day during competition while a sedentary male who weighs 60 kg will require only 5
around 2,000 kcal. 6
7
8
Reflection 4.2
9
I have worked with many weight-loss clients and have seen for myself the 10
benefits that result from targeting BMR by increasing LBM. The best results 1
usually come when clients agree to manage their diet as well as training 2
regularly. I have known clients who have tried the Atkins diet, the cabbage 3
diet, the GI diet and many more. The bottom line is that one cannot buck the 4
total calorific expenditure/intake model. 511
Now ask yourself what you think is a safe lower limit to calorific intake. 6
Clients daily intakes should not fall more than 500 kcal below their RDA. If 7
they do, their bodies can suffer from the yo-yo diet syndrome. This is where a 8
period of fasting will immediately be followed by the urge to binge eat. This is 9
a natural response of the body and the net result can actually be weight gain. 20
It is better to target a gradual long-term weight loss (say, half a kilogram per 1
week), which is more likely to work. 2
3
4
5
6
Rapid weight loss 7
This is possible only through losing fluid. The process is very different from long-term 8
loss of fat. PTs sometimes encounter sweat suit clients running on the treadmill. The 9
suit makes the client sweat profusely and they will dehydrate very quickly. This 30
should not be common practice because of the dehydration effects discussed above. 1
It is not an advisable method for losing weight (except when controlled for sports 2
performance). If a client arrives wearing a sweat suit, it is important for the PT to 3
educate them about the effects compared to other methods of weight loss. 4
5
Weight gain 6
Now ask yourself what you would do with a client who wants to gain weight. The client 7
may be doing so for aesthetic reasons or to increase LBM for performance purposes. 8
The PT needs to programme two aspects an increase in the total kcal consumed on 9
a daily basis and a hypertrophy, strength or power resistance programme. The 40
increase in kcal will depend on the client but will often be around 500 per day. Such an 1
increase may require extra meals (or increased portion size) and protein intake 2
towards the higher end of the scale (nearer 2 g per kg body weight). 3
4
Food diaries 5
There are different types of food diaries which can be very useful tools to use 6
with clients. The easiest to use are the 24 recall and weekly portion size diaries. The 711
50
4 / Nutrition
24 recall is exactly that: the client is asked to recall everything they have consumed
over the last 24 hours. The information is recorded and used to assess the clients
diet.
A superior method is the seven-day weekly portion diary. The PT must sit down
with the client and discuss the appropriate portion size for various types of food.
With this information in mind, the client keeps a record of everything consumed over
a period of seven days. The record can then be analysed using a printed calorie
calculator or nutrition software. (Some programmes can also be used to compare
energy expenditure with calorific intake.)
Dietary supplements
The use of supplements may be very different from drug abuse, but the PTs moral
compass still needs to be in operation. If a PT business sells dietary supplements, it
should advocate only those known to be safe and also appropriate for the client. (In
fact, most of the good gyms I know do not either sell or provide advice on supple-
ments.) The following points provide a brief guide to the relevant considerations
concerning client use of supplements:
1. Creatine: the efficacy of creatine supplements (in the form of creatine

monohydrate) is still being researched and the jury is out. Many studies that
indicate that creatine supplements, by boosting creatine levels in muscles, may
enhance short-burst activities (such as rowing, sprinting and weight-lifting),
though only in some participants. The method, temperature and timing of
ingestion of creatine supplements are also in question. There is a review of the
evidence on the following university website: www.rice.edu/~jenky/sports/
creatine.html.
2. Caffeine: this is a stimulant that will increase RHR and can make your client
more alert. There is some evidence that ingestion by trained athletes can
improve the utilisation of lipids over carbohydrates and delay fatigue. The
benefits will have to be weighed against the diuretic properties of caffeine,
which contribute to dehydration. For a review of the evidence, visit
www.vanderbilt.edu/AnS/psychology/health_psychology/caffeine_sports.htm.
3. Carbohydrate loading: there is some evidence concerning the benefits. By
ingesting larger portions of complex carbohydrates before competition clients
may improve performance, especially in longer duration events. For a guide to
how to use carbohydrates in a clients diet visit: http://sportsci.org/news/
compeat/grams.html.
4. L-carnitine: although this substance is known to transport lipids to the
mitochondria for energy purposes, there is currently no evidence that supplying
extra L-carnitine in a diet will improve this system.
5. Ephedrine: another stimulant that is available in some sports supplements. This
substance is banned by the International Olympic Committee and therefore
should be viewed with caution. Ephedrine will stimulate heart rate and make the
client nervous. The best advice is not to recommend this supplement to your
clients.
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4 / Nutrition
Other supplements to research are androstenedione, growth hormone releasers, 1

ginseng and amino acid concoctions. Remember that position statements from 2
professional bodies can change over time. It is helpful to visit the following 3
sites: www.acsmlearning.org/acsm/managepdf.do, www.nsca-lift.org/Publications/ 4
posstatements.shtml and www.uksport.gov.uk/assets/File/Generic_Template_ 5
Documents/Drug_Free_Sport/supplements_and_risks_050906.pdf. 6
7
8
Activity 4.3
9
Consider what recommendation you would give in the following scenarios: 10
1
1. Ellisha wants to lose weight for her wedding in five months time. She has 2
hired you, has had four successful sessions and seems to working 3
towards her goal. In the fifth session she mentions a TV advertisement 4
she has seen for weight loss pills that say they burn body fat without any 511
physical activity and she is thinking of purchasing a months supply for 6
75. How would you respond? 7
2. Dominic is training for what he calls beach protocol a slang term 8
meaning he wants to look good on his forthcoming beach holiday. When 9
you started training Dominic for hypertrophy he was already taking a 20
protein drink costing 30 per month. You have advised him that, as a 1
meat eater, he does not need extra protein, though he is welcome to 2
ingest this product as there is little risk. After three months training 3
three times per week, he approaches you because he trusts you and asks 4
for advice about taking an illegal steroid that he has been offered by a 5
work colleague. What do you advise him to do? 6
3. Fay has just hired you and is in her initial consultation. She seems to be 7
highly motivated. She then asks about sports supplements. She asks 8
whether there is anything that can help her with her primary goal of 9
decreasing her time for her 10,000 m races she competes in three times 30
per year. Is there any supplement you would recommend and if so, why? 1
2
3
4
5
Summary 6
This chapter has outlined the three major food groups, as well as the micronutrients, 7
especially the main vitamins and minerals. It has also shown that recommended 8
daily intakes of calories may vary but that the central consideration for each client is 9
the balance of calorific intake and expenditure. Finally, the topic of nutritional 40
supplements has been introduced with advice on how to research the topic in detail. 1
Nutrition is a central topic in personal training and one that PTs need to be able to 2
advise clients on, with the support of a knowledge of the underlying science. 3
4
5
6
711
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4 / Nutrition
Further study
McArdle, W, Katch, F and Katch, V (2006) Exercise physiology: energy, nutrition, and
human performance. 6th edition. This book contains helpful sections on nutrition
applied to sport.
In addition, the following books are recommended.

Clark, N (2003) Nancy Clarks sports nutrition guidebook. 3rd edition. Human Kinetics.
Brouns, F (2002) Essentials of sports nutrition. 2nd edition. John Wiley & Sons.
McArdle, W, Katch, F and Katch, V (2005) Sports and exercise nutrition. 2nd edition.
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Maclaren, D (2007) Nutrition and sport: advances in sport and exercise science.
Churchill Livingston.
The following websites may prove useful.

www.gssiweb.com/ this is the official site for the Gatorade Sport Science Institute
that includes many sports nutrition articles.
www-rohan.sdsu.edu/dept/coachsci/mastable.htm this site provides coaching
science abstracts on various topics including nutritional supplements.
www.sportsci.org/ an excellent site for all sport science articles. Follow the link for
sport nutrition for related articles.
www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/ a detailed search engine that includes
most food groups and their constituent breakdown.
www.coach.ca/eng/nutrition/resources.cfm some excellent sports nutrition
resources are available from this Canadian website.
www.personaltraining1st.com this site has links to sports supplement companies.
www.bellaonline.com/subjects/7420.asp some good links to example food diaries
that you can try with your clients.
53
Chapter 5 1
2
3
Motivational psychology 4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
The psychology of personal training forms an interesting aspect of a trainers working 511
life. Even when working in niche markets, a PT will still encounter many different 6
personalities and client motivations for engaging the services of a PT. Understanding 7
client motivation can help to improve exercise adherence and, indeed, for selling 8
services. A grasp of the psychology of training can help PTs to influence client 9
behaviour. 20
This chapter is designed to help you to: 1
2
1. recognise that every client is psychologically individual; 3
2. understand that motivational psychology can be used to influence behaviour 4
change; 5
3. comprehend how exercise adherence can be influenced by PTs; 6
4. use goal setting in training programmes; 7
5. apply psychology to business aspects of training. 8
9
Each client is an individual. We have already seen that each client is physio- 30
logically individual; the same is true psychologically. The factors that need to be taken 1
into account here include: 2
3
personality; 4
anxiety; 5
motivation. 6
7
8
Personality 9
40
One approach to understanding personality is to consider two main types, namely, 1
extroverts and introverts. These types may be viewed on a continuum: 2
3
Introvert Extrovert 4
5
Each individual client may be placed at some point on this continuum. The most 6
important time for a PT to ascertain information on a client is during the initial 711
54
5 / Motivational psychology
consultation. This provides an opportunity to gain insights into a clients personality

while completing a health and lifestyle questionnaire and discussing the clients goals.
It may well become apparent during the meeting where, at least approximately, the
client stands on the above continuum.
There is no need for personality questionnaires: a clients manner provides plenty
of clues. A client who is quiet and difficult to get to open up is probably introverted;
one who is lively and talks openly is more likely to be extroverted. It is important that
PTs attempt to tailor sessions appropriately, adjusting their own roles according to
clients personalities.
An important factor is the clients self-efficacy. We are concerned here with
clients own impressions of their training abilities. This is affected by their degree of
self-confidence. A clients self-efficacy and self-confidence can be influenced by the
PTs demeanour. The PT needs to look for opportunities to exert a positive influence.
During training sessions PTs need to be able to assume the following roles:
1. Leader. The PT needs to lead by example, so that the client can follow, and also
to convince the client that their advice or instructions will be beneficial.
2. Listener. This role is often overlooked by students. The PT needs to ascertain
the clients preferences and wishes so that they can be incorporated into the
planning of sessions. This requires the PT both to listen to the clients input and
to act upon it.
3. Questioner. Feedback is crucial for ascertaining whether a client is capable of
an exercise or whether the intensity is correct. Asking the client is one method
of obtaining this information.
4. Motivator. This can be tricky with some clients. The PT needs to try to target
each clients primary motivation for training. For example, if a client wants to
lose body fat, then the PT can use that motivation to encourage them through
an interval session.
5. Training guide. The PT is likely to have greater knowledge than the client of the
science of training. The PT is the clients guide to the principles that are applied
to training sessions. Such guidance will often need to be subtle and always
individualised.
6. Setter of quantifiable goals. The trainer needs to convert the clients aims into
goals that are measurable.
The importance of each training role will vary from client to client. The trainer
needs to read each client on a session-by-session basis and adjust accordingly. The
trainers persona will need to adjust from client to client. This is not to say that
trainers should not be themselves; rather, their manner will need to vary.
Reflection 5.1
Of the many different client personalities I have encountered as a trainer,

there are two who fit particularly clearly into the extrovert/introvert
framework. Probably the most extroverted client was a middle-aged American
guy who used to fly in to the UK from the US and within a couple of hours
55
Reflection 5.1 continued 1

2
would turn up at the gym in a heightened state of readiness. He would 3
invariably try to get a session without an appointment and when asked what 4
type of session he wanted would always answer, Tough! On most occasions I 5
would administer a boxing workout at a high intensity. The session would be 6
heard throughout the gym. After the session he would shout, Great workout! 7
and be gone as quickly as hed arrived. Compare this to another client who 8
would turn up at the gym and quietly start a warm-up. I would have to 9
approach the client myself. During the workout this client would quietly 10
perform the exercises I gave him with polite conversation and a friendly 1
handshake at the end. You can imagine that if I had not tailored the two 2
sessions to their personalities there would have been significant problems! 3
The first client expected a loud and intense workout, while the second client 4
would have been embarrassed and confused by this type of treatment. 511
6
7
Activity 5.1 8
9
Ask a friend to role-play the part of a prospective client. Arrange a mock initial 20
consultation. Ask them to role-play a client from a certain point on the 1
personality continuum above and try to discern where they think they are on 2
the scale. This dialogue should provide useful practice for conducting 3
consultations in general as well as the psychological aspects. In addition, if 4
you work in a gym, ask to shadow a PT on his or her consultations. During each 5
consultation, try to assess the balance of roles required for training the client. 6
7
8
9
Anxiety 30
1
Many clients will be anxious during the initial sessions and especially during the 2
consultation. This can affect both performance during the sessions and exercise 3
adherence, so the trainer needs where possible to try to reduce client anxiety. 4
It is helpful at this point to understand that there are two categories of anxiety: 5
trait anxiety and state anxiety. Trait anxiety is found within the client and will 6
manifest itself regardless of the place and time the client finds him- or herself in. 7
Some clients are anxious over any form of training and believe themselves to be ill- 8
equipped to perform physical activity. This type of client provides a particular 9
challenge for the PT. Such clients need reassurance and positive feedback during 40
their sessions. 1
State anxiety is situation-specific and can manifest itself in different environ- 2
ments. A client may hire your services as the thought of the alternative group 3
physical activity in a public place may be abhorrent and create extreme anxiety. A 4
one-to-one session in a safe home environment may be perfect for such a client. 5
Psychological research indicates that anxiety is usually a combination of the two 6
states and results in an interactional viewpoint. The PT must try to reduce both 711
56
forms of anxiety through careful session planning and execution. The overriding
direction for the PT to pursue is that of positivity and achievement throughout your
sessions as this will naturally reduce anxiety in your client.
Reflection 5.2
One home client that I trained seemed anxious when performing any exercise
that required co-ordination. She would say, Im a motor moron when it comes
to co-ordination. I later found out that this state anxiety stemmed from a gym
class session that she had attended where the instructor had gone through
the session ignoring her inability to perform the routine. I had to reassure
her over a number of sessions that she was capable of performing those
exercises. I broke each exercise down into parts and let her explore the
movement pattern, with only positive feedback being provided by me. Over
the course of two months she gained self-efficacy and eventually followed a
complete home fitness video full of complex moves!
Motivational psychology
PTs need always to consider clients motivation. Without motivation clients will not
exercise (or continue to hire a PT). Motivation can be either intrinsic or extrinsic.
Often the training programme can be designed to appeal to both. Intrinsic motivation
is found within the client, as it were: such clients exercise for the love of it and will
continue to hire a PT as long as they think they need to. Extrinsic motivation is linked
to other rewards for example, the client may wish to drop a dress size or may have
decided to reward themselves with a present if they complete a certain number of
sessions. This extrinsic motivation can be used by the PT to create alternative goals
that may work as well as intrinsic motivation if chosen carefully. Again, the PT has to
read each client to decide what will provide the greatest motivation.
Activity 5.2
How do you discover your clients intrinsic motivation? You need to ascertain
your clients base values. Draw up a brief questionnaire that will provide an
answer. Questions could include general background motivational questions,
such as what their top priorities are in their life. Include specific fitness
questions also, such as what the client wants out of their sessions. Try the
questionnaire out on a colleague. Now see how you can link sessions to the
clients answers. It is surprising what links you can create! For example, a client
may identify as a priority that they want to enjoy the free time they have with
their young family. You can link this easily into the training sessions: training
enables increased energy and fitness for enjoying time with their children now
and in the future. Overall, the questionnaire can help you to form links with the
clients own reasons for behavioural change and their motivations.
57
Reflection 5.3 1
2
I have trained the wedding client who wants to fit into a smaller dress size on 3
her special day, as well as clients whose main motivation is to reduce their 4
blood pressure and improve their overall health. I firmly believe that if some of 5
these clients did not have such motivation, then they would not train. 6
Sometimes I am surprised by a clients motivation for hiring me. The most 7
surprising motivation that I have heard of came from a client who wanted to 8
treat themselves to a new car and allied this to a goal to lose 2 stones in 9
weight. When they lost the weight, they bought the new car and discontinued 10
their training sessions! I have seen two city types who were extremely 1
competitive with each other and this was very evident in their sessions. On 2
one occasion I was stretching one of them and my trainer colleague happened 3
to be stretching the other. The clients then persisted to get us to stretch their 4
hamstrings to see which one was more flexible. Clearly their motivation was 511
based on competition and the desire to establish superiority. 6
7
8
Motivation: trait and state 9
20
Just as anxiety motivation can be either trait or state in nature, so too can motivation. 1
You will probably have heard of well-motivated clients who will be highly motivated 2
regardless of the activity asked of them. Such clients will have high trait motiva- 3
tion. Some clients, on the other hand, will perform well in a class or group environ- 4
ment, but then lose motivation when on their own. Such clients demonstrate state 5
motivation. They probably need a social aspect to their training. There is also an 6
interactional viewpoint where clients have a degree of both types of motivation. 7
A PT can affect motivation by considering both trait and state motivation when 8
training clients. In particular, motivation for training needs to be taken into account in 9
goal setting. One-to-one sessions provide a huge benefit here, enabling the PT to 30
create individualised programmes and focus on client motivation. 1
The following is a list of some typical general motivations for performing physical 2
activity: 3
4
1. Aesthetic. This concerns clients perception of how they look. This is not to be 5
confused with how they actually look! Perception and reality can be very 6
different. Most clients will have an aesthetic motive at least to some extent. 7
2. Weight loss. This is very common in the health client group. The PT needs to 8
extol the virtues of fat loss rather than just weight loss. This is where fitness 9
testing skills come to the fore: they provide body fat data at regular intervals in 40
the clients programme and can act as a powerful motivator. 1
3. Physical health. With GP referral clients (see Chapter 11) this will be the primary 2
goal. The aim could be to reduce blood pressure, de-stress, manage diabetes or 3
provide rehabilitation from injury. 4
4. Performance. This is the athlete client groups primary goal. Examples of aims 5
include increasing VO2 max, reducing personal best times, increasing weight 6
lifted or improving team-sport agility. 711
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5. Psychological health. This is often either missed or underestimated by personal

trainers. There have been many studies that point to the psychological benefits
of exercise. A good start for researching this area is Penedo and Dahns (2005)
article Exercise and well-being: a review of mental and physical health benefits
associated with physical activity in the journal Current Opinion in Psychiatry.
6. Enjoyment. This is an intrinsic motivator. There are some clients who train
purely for the enjoyment of being physically active. They often respond to the
fact that PT sessions are dedicated time for themselves.
7. Competition. This can be the case even if the client is not an athlete. Clients
with a competitive nature may be trying to beat themselves or have goals
related to their friends or colleagues.
8. Social. Some clients appreciate the opportunity to talk to someone who is not
associated with them more personally. If they train in groups they may value
the sessions as part of their social life.
A client may have multiple motives for entering into exercise. The first four motives
on the above list are likely to apply to the majority of the clients you will train.
It is useful for PTs to have a grasp of the main theories that seek to explain
clients motivations for exercising. One theory that is particularly useful is need
achievement theory (NAT). NAT considers the relation between a persons personality
and the situation that he or she is in. It involves a consideration of the client
personality through focusing on what the client needs to achieve relative to their
need to avoid failure. Combined with the situation in which the client finds him- or
herself, these needs produce a resultant tendency which, when combined with the
clients emotional state (e.g. pride or shame), will determine success or failure when
performing in sessions. For example, a client with a lack of a need to achieve a
lowering of blood pressure, combined with a dislike for physical activity and an overall
low self-esteem, is unlikely even to make the decision to start the programme in the
first place.
A second useful theory is achievement goal theory (AGT). This theory is designed
to help ascertain clients motivation through focusing on their desire to complete
their goals, their belief in their ability to achieve, and their achievement behaviour
(e.g. commitment and degree of focus). It is the relationship between the nature of
the clients goals and their belief that they are capable of achieving them which can
determine whether the achievement behaviour will be evident. For instance, a client
who demonstrates a strong desire to complete a goal of running a marathon in less
than three hours, combined with an unshakeable belief that this is possible and with
a commitment to training, will have a good chance of succeeding. Positive feedback
on performance in relation to goals can be effective here. Where there is negative
feedback to be imparted, the PT can use the sandwich method, i.e. placing the
negative feedback comment in between two positive comments (You performed the
squat well with regard to the positioning of the bar. You could have gone a little
deeper with your thighs, but overall it was a good attempt.). The PT needs to provide
ability-centred feedback and not attribute success to luck or the fact that an exercise
was easy. It is important above all to ensure that feedback is honest, so that it does
not come back to haunt the PT in the light of fitness-testing results.
59
Goal setting 1
2
Goals are useful both for the client and the trainer. Though the clients goals may be 3
subjective, the trainer needs to convert them into objective ones. There are three 4
types of goals: outcome, process and performance. 5
Outcome goals are concerned with competition. For example, there may be an 6
inter-departmental five-a-side football tournament at work that the client wants to 7
win. Process goals relate to stages within the exercise performance. For example, a 8
client who wants to perform handstand presses may have a goal to keep his or her 9
back straight in order to allow the proper execution of this exercise. Performance 10
goals are specified irrespective of competitors. For example, a client may wish to 1
row 2,000 m on an indoor rowing machine in under eight minutes. With each client it is 2
important to decide which goals to prioritise. The PT can do this by using primary, 3
secondary and tertiary goal setting. 4
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6
Activity 5.3 7
8
Janice is a client who tells you in her consultation that she wants to lose
9
weight, improve her fitness, and look like Madonna. Her primary trainer goal
20
will be to lose a certain percentage of body fat. Her secondary goal will be to
1
increase her VO2 max to a specified level. While her first two goals may easily
2
be converted into trainer goals, the tertiary goal may be more of a challenge.
3
You can discuss aspects of Madonnas look and work towards the leanness
4
that she exhibits through the clients primary goal.
5
Now consider what trainer goals might be appropriate for clients who have
6
the following goals:
7
8
Paul wants to look like David Beckham and is currently overweight and
9
unfit.
30
Danielle wants to be able to move like Lara Croft (as in the film Tomb
1
Raider). She is currently inflexible and relatively unfit.
2
Patricia would like to put on muscle mass and maybe start to compete as
3
an amateur bodybuilder. She is an ectomorph and finds putting on muscle
4
mass a hard task.
5
6
7
Recommendations for goal setting 8
9
Goals need to be challenging, but attainable. Unattainable goals demotivate clients in 40
the long run. All goals should be SMART, that is: 1
2
S = specific; 3
M = measurable; 4
A = achievable; 5
R = recordable; 6
T = timed. 711
60
Note that the need for goals to be timed can relate to various timescales short,
medium, and long. Generally, short-term goals should be achievable within one month,
medium-term goals within six months and long-term goals between six months to a
year. Do not rely purely on long-term goals: clients are likely to lose interest.
Goal setting needs to grow out of needs analysis and once again the initial
consultation provides an excellent opportunity to begin this process. The client must
have their wishes respected when goal setting. Unless the client buys into the
programme there will be significant motivational problems. Once the PT has
converted the client goals into trainer goals, adherence can be increased through the
use of an agreement with the client based on the goals. Research has shown that the
use of these tools can increase motivation in some client groups. The document will
detail the commitment needed by your client to achieve the goals that have been
agreed. By signing this agreement the client is promising to deliver. Of course, if the
client does not deliver, the agreement will need to be adjusted in due course. This is
quite separate from any commercial contract you may have with the client.
Before each session the PT should check with the client which aspects of their
goals they wish to work on. The client is paying for the service and will feel
empowered by being asked for an opinion. It is important, though, to avoid training
for only one aspect of a clients goals within sessions, unless the PT can be sure that
the client is working on the other aspects outside sessions.
Reflection 5.4
I had a male client whose primary goal was to increase hypertrophy of his
musculature. When it came to the sessions, he asked only for chest and bicep
workouts. I initially trained him according to his wishes with the proviso that
he completed back, leg and shoulder exercises in his own time. It soon became
apparent that this was not happening at all, so I sat and explained the effects
of muscle imbalance. Fortunately, the client took the lesson on board and
allowed me to train other muscle groups within his sessions.
The goals that a PT sets for clients need to be implemented at the right time and
evaluated on a regular basis to see whether the training programme is working or not.
There should be encouragement to achieve their goals throughout sessions and re-
adjustment either when goals are met or when it is clear that the client is not making
sufficient progress towards them. The process of evaluating progress also needs to
be individualised. Over-monitoring can demotivate a client by giving the impression
of a lack of progress. Some clients will not react well if their goals are readjusted
due to non-achievement. Readjustments need to be discussed subtly.
Another, often overlooked, way to augment goals is to involve a clients signifi-
cant others (that is, the people around them who matter most). These people can
become powerful allies. An example would be a clients spouse, who can provide
excellent motivation to do something that will enhance the prospect of achieving the
goal. With GP referral clients, the significant other may be the doctor though GPs
are not always keen to work in partnership with personal trainers, it is a possibility
worth exploring.
61
Activity 5.4 1
2
Try to convert the following client goals into trainer goals: 3
4
Paul wants to reduce his blood pressure and stress levels, and be able to 5
run for the bus if he needs to. 6
Shelley would like to increase her aerobic fitness for her step class that 7
she attends once per week and drop a dress size by her summer holidays. 8
Candice has said that she wants to lose weight for her wedding in nine 9
months and be able to win a tennis match against a work colleague in five 10
months time. 1
2
Carefully consider what types of goals are required. For each client, draw 3
up a draft agreement. 4
511
6
7
Psychological research has indicated that goal setting works well with many
8
clients. Locke and Lathams study (2002) brings together 35 years of goal setting
9
research and looks at new directions. Strecher (1995) looks at goal setting from a
20
general health perspective.
1
2
3
Exercise adherence and how to increase retention 4
5
An application of psychological understanding can benefit both the client, in terms of 6
fitness, and also the trainer in commercial terms. For example, enhanced exercise 7
adherence is in both parties interests. In general, exercise adherence can be 8
improved by focusing on the clients psychological (as well as physical) make-up; 9
empowering the client through their own goal setting; ensuring that the programme is 30
designed at the correct intensity; and promoting regular exercise. Below are some 1
models that are useful to apply when addressing exercise adherence. 2
The health belief model applies to clients who believe that by exercising they will 3
decrease the likelihood of disease. For them, the benefits of training with a PT 4
outweigh the negative ideas that they may have about PT sessions. It may be that a 5
majority of a PTs clients are of this type. This model is a powerful motivator because 6
it relates directly to life expectancy. If someone genuinely recognises this benefit, 7
then once they have committed to physical activity adherence is likely to be strong. 8
(See, for example, Haase, 2004, a study which examined this model in relation to 9
19,000 students from 23 countries.) 40
Social cognitive theory suggests that behaviour change is built on three different 1
sets of factors: environmental, personal and attributes of the behaviour itself. The 2
concept of self-efficacy plays a pivotal role. The client must believe themselves 3
capable of performing the behaviour, must perceive an incentive to do and must value 4
the expected outcomes. Outcomes may have immediate benefits (such as feeling 5
energised following a workout) or long-term ones (e.g. improved health). This 6
approach is thus linked to the clients self-esteem (the value that one places on 711
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oneself and ones abilities). Clients with high self-esteem are more likely to believe
that they are able to achieve goals and to strive towards making their lives better.
Clients who already possess strong self-esteem are more likely to enter into personal
training agreements. They often make good clients.
Planned behaviour theory proposes that a behaviour intent is influenced by (a)
the clients attitude towards that behaviour, (b) social pressure as perceived by the
client, and (c) client perception of how easy or difficult performing the behaviour will
be. This model is clearly applicable with clients for whom the perception of
themselves by significant others is a key factor. For example, a clients spouse may
provide the impetus for the client to seek to become healthier and more energetic.
The spouse can be involved in goal setting and act as a helper who can keep an eye on
what the client is eating, what exercise he or she is doing, and so on. The danger, of
course, is that the client may rebel against what they may see as control or coercive
behaviour. For a list of research papers dealing with the planned behaviour model,
see www-unix.oit.umass.edu/~aizen/tpbrefstxt.html.
Some psychologists believe that the process of exercise adherence is more
complex and that it is helpful to consider clients as each being at a particular stage of
exercise participation (the transtheoretical model). Typical stages are as follows:
1. Pre-contemplation stage the client has not yet contacted a PT (and may not
do so).
2. Contemplation this is the stage where the PT first comes into contact with a
prospective client. The client has made an initial commitment to an exercise
programme.
3. Preparation when the first PT session has been booked.
4. Action when the PT has trained this client at least once.
5. Maintenance the client has rebooked for a certain number of sessions (say,
ten).
6. Termination either the client has re-entered the pre-contemplation stage (not
exercising) or they have booked the PT in the long term, engraining training into
their life.
For a personal training business, the contemplation stage is a very important one.
It is useful at this point especially for PTs to use the health benefit model, extolling
the benefits of physical activity. PTs can emphasise that regular physical activity will
tend to:
reduce cardiac disease risk factors;

improve skeletal structure;
decrease the likelihood of illness;
provide weight management;
make the client look better;
increase self-esteem and confidence.
In addition, it is helpful to explain the ways in which one-to-one training can

provide a higher level of service. One barrier that often requires attention is a clients
sense of fatigue. A client may believe that they lack the energy required for PT
63
sessions. The point to emphasise here is that an increase in physical activity will 1
actually improve energy levels. 2
3
4
Activity 5.5
5
Draw up a sample decision balance sheet for a prospective client to use when 6
considering whether to hire a PT. You can do this by drawing a large weighing 7
scale in which factors can be weighed by the client. Complete a form yourself 8
to help you to help the client complete theirs. It is amazing the effect that such 9
a sheet can have on clients! 10
1
2
3
Other methods to increase exercise adherence 4
511
A PT can provide cues to exercise. These can include posters, notes or, as previously 6
discussed, support from significant others. Prompts can be verbal for example, Ill 7
book you in for the same time every week then. If the client has achieved certain goals 8
already, this achievement should be highlighted to help maintain impetus. Prompts 9
may also be symbolic. For example, if a client invests in workout equipment at home, 20
this will keep them thinking about rebooking sessions with the PT. 1
The use of record forms and client trackers (discussed in Chapter 6) will help 2
to provide reinforcement. Another incentive might be to provide free stuff 3
for example, branded items or a discount when a client has achieved a certain 4
threshold. It is also good for PTs to promote the idea that exercise should be 5
conducted for its own sake and for sessions to be made as enjoyable and convenient 6
as possible for the client and with as much client input as possible, thereby helping to 7
grow the clients intrinsic motivation. 8
9
Activity 5.6 30
1
Develop a points reward system for your clients. Work out how many bank of 2
PT points a client needs to accumulate before they receive something in 3
return. It may be that you relate this to, for example, achievement of goals, 4
number of sessions completed or referral of one of the clients friends. 5
6
7
One final idea that may be applied to the question of exercise adherence is the 8
future self model. This brings together behavioural change, outcome goals and client 9
motivators. The PT discusses with the client a significant change and works with them 40
to achieve a long-term goal to realise a future self. The client will have an idea in their 1
minds eye as to how they will look and feel when they have met this goal. This is an 2
image of the clients future self. Problems can occur, however, if the client then fails to 3
achieve the future self envisaged, for example, by falling short of one of their training 4
goals. The notion of the future self can be a powerful motivator, but should be used 5
only with those clients who: 6
711
64
will envisage themselves realistically after their goals have been reached
(some clients are apt instead to use images of famous people as models for
what they want to look like for example, Brad Pitt in the film Fight Club; or
will not be too discouraged if they fail to achieve all their targets (note that it is
usually better to set goals on the low side rather than on the high side if a
client outperforms, this is likely to encourage adherence).
Summary
Personal training needs to be individualised for each client. The PT needs to
understand a clients motivation and to set appropriate goals. Psychological under-
standing can be used to enhance exercise adherence, bringing both health benefits
to the client and business benefits to the PT. PTs can help clients to appreciate the
value of training programmes and to change their behaviours. It should be added,
however, that change must ultimately be self-change: a PT cannot force a client to
change!
Further study
ACSM (2007) ACSMs resources for the personal trainer. 2nd edition. Lippincott
Williams & Wilkins
Baechle, T and Earle, R (2000) Essentials of strength training and conditioning.
2nd edition. Human Kinetics
Marcus, B and Forsyth, L (2003) Motivating people to be physically active. Human
Kinetics.
Weinberg, R and Gould, D (2007) Foundations of sport and exercise psychology.
4th edition. Human Kinetics.
www.exrx.net/Psychology/AdherenceTips.html some general tips on exercise

adherence.
http://sportsmedicine.about.com/od/tipsandtricks/a/gettingstarted.htm more
general information on adherence and includes: http://z.about.com/f/p/440/
graphics/pdf/en/20000.pdf, a sample sheet to use to try and ascertain your
clients motives for exercising.
www.bangor.ac.uk/~pes004/exercise_motivation/scales.htm for those interested in
researching the reasons people exercise this will provide an academic starting
point.
www.topendsports.com/psychology/motivation-moving.htm tips you can use with
clients on how to get moving.
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Chapter 6
Session planning and recording
In order to achieve clients goals, PTs need to ensure that every session is properly
planned. Each session requires goals based on the clients overall programme, and
the clients progress towards those goals needs to be carefully recorded and
reviewed. Each detail of each session contributes to the fabric of the clients
achievements. This chapter outlines four key components: client trackers, record
keeping, self-evaluation and professionalism. In addition, the chapter signposts the
code of conduct advocated by the Register of Exercise Professionals for the United
Kingdom (REPs).
Conducting one-to-one personal training sessions requires many different skills.
The ways in which two different trainers might train the same client can vary hugely.
The self-evaluation scheme given in this chapter provides a tool for you to use to
examine the appropriateness of various approaches.
This chapter is designed to help you to:
1. plan training sessions;

2. understand the need to keep medically related records;
3. be able to record an array of workouts;
4. evaluate sessions;
5. recognise the need for PTs to be professional at all times.
Introduction to planning
Personal training session planning and recording should be viewed as a cyclical
process. A PT will plan a session based on the goals of a client; administer the session;
record the session; evaluate the session and then review the programme, and plan
the next session. It is helpful, then, to see this process as a cycle (see Figure 6.1).
Taking a professional approach of this type has two benefits: it improves the
quality of service for the client and it enhances the PTs own professional
development. In outlining PTs professional practice, this chapter will cover a number
of timescales from short-term, session-by-session issues, to long-term develop-
mental issues.
69
6 / Session planning and recording
Figure 6.1: Cycle of session planning 1

2
3
Plan the Administer 4
session the session 5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
Review the Record the
clients session
3
programme contents 4
511
6
7
Evaluate
8
the session 9
20
1
2
The single most important point when planning sessions is to keep asking why? 3
A PT should ask this question about every aspect of every session. For example: 4
5
Why did I choose those exercises? 6
Why did I put them in that order? 7
Why did I take the clients pulse at that point in the workout? 8
Why did I stretch those muscles? and so on. 9
30
It is often said in personal training that youre only as good as your last session. It 1
does not matter if you trained your client perfectly in a session last month; every 2
session should be as good as possible. PTs need to examine their practice critically 3
and always to be able to justify to themselves and their peers the decisions taken 4
over each session. A PT needs to ask at each stage of a session, Would this stand up 5
to professional scrutiny? 6
In part, this is a question of ensuring that sessions are based on scientific 7
understanding, as discussed elsewhere in this book. It is also a question of how the 8
client is managed. In the UK, the REPs code of conduct covers most eventualities. 9
You are strongly recommended to read and adhere to this code. The document, which 40
is available at www.exerciseregister.org/InfoDocs.htm, covers questions of rights, 1
relationships, personal responsibilities and professional standards. 2
A PT needs to be attentive to the client at all times during the session. The client 3
is paying for the PT to train them, not to be distracted by extraneous stimuli! A PT has 4
a duty of care for each client during each session; this means that the PT is 5
responsible for the reasonable safety of the client and the quality of training at all 6
times. 711
70
At this point you may well be thinking, What happens if things do go wrong? A PT
cannot be expected to be totally responsible for every client action! Suppose, for
example, a client ignores the PTs advice and attempts a lift that the client is not
capable of. Is the PT liable for negligence? It is in order to cover such events that
every PT needs to take out insurance. A PT must be insured. Third-party liability
policies often provide cover of up to 2 million and some provide more than that. This
provides protection to the PT in the event of a client suing them.
Reflection 6.1
Most trainers look after their clients attentively. On the other hand, I have
witnessed trainers arriving late, answering mobile phone calls during a
session, or wandering off to chat to colleagues! I also remember one trainer
training a client at far too high an intensity. The client was overweight and not
able to complete the exercise he was doing at the time, let alone what the
trainer asked him to do subsequently. The client looked nauseous and
unhappy. Apart from the fact that the trainer probably lost that client, the
situation was dangerous as the client was obviously training anaerobically.
Luckily for the trainer, he was not part of my team, otherwise he would have
found himself in severe trouble!
Attentiveness during a session can take many forms. A polite greeting and
goodbye are, of course, essential. Taking perceptual signs (heart rates and
RPE) also forms part of the trainers focus on the client. In addition, a PT needs
to consider questions of timing, such as when to provide a workout towel,
when to allow water breaks and when to provide feedback to the client. Each
session will require different answers to these questions, so the PT needs to
be able to work on the fly, reacting to each session as it progresses. Overall,
it is commitment to the client that lies at the heart of successful personal
training.
The tracker
The client tracker is a tool that allows trainers to view the record of any client on one
side of A4 paper. The information included on the tracker will cover the health status
of the client, training programme and test results. The record needs to cover the
background and the workouts of the client. Trackers enable PTs to keep health- or
medical-related records something very few trainers manage to do. Two examples
of trackers are provided at the end of this chapter. One is a blank version with
headings explained and the other is a sample of a completed tracker showing how
recorded information looks. In addition, an Excel worksheet version is freely
downloadable from www.personaltraining1st.com.
Each client should have a separate file containing an up-to-date tracker and
copies of charted workouts. In theory, by having this information to hand, any
competent trainer would be able to train any client with little further background
71
research. Trackers also allow information to be updated as and when a clients training 1
or health status changes. 2
The method used for filing matters as PTs are responsible for keeping sensitive 3
information regarding clients. Cardboard folders work well for this purpose: the 4
tracker may be stapled to the inside of the folder with updated sheets attached as 5
needed. The clients name may be written on the outside of the folder, which should 6
then be filed alphabetically. It is advisable to keep the files in a locked metal filing 7
cabinet. A clients billing information can be kept in this file for added security. An 8
alternative is to use palm-held computers. These allow the files to be recorded 9
electronically while training the client and then saved with an electronic version of 10
the tracker that can be updated instantly. This has the advantage of saving paper and 1
filing space, but again, careful attention must be paid to security issues if you use 2
this method. 3
4
511
Reflection 6.2
6
When I have witnessed PT sessions without any recording sheets in use, I have 7
always wondered how the PT can expect to remember all of the relevant 8
information. Some trainers seem merely to work on an exercise-by-exercise 9
basis without any real plan or even any detailed knowledge of what they did 20
with clients before the current workout. Or, worse, a client may turn up with a 1
change in their status and the PT may not know or bother to find out! 2
3
4
5
Recording workouts 6
7
Whereas the tracker is invaluable for the big picture, the PT also needs a method of 8
recording each PT session. It is helpful to look at the example of the completed 9
record sheet to be found on p83. Note that in the top left-hand corner it gives the 30
clients name, target heart rate zone and body weight. Each sheet contains a record of 1
three workouts. For each session there is a record of: 2
3
the date; 4
the clients feelings; 5
the PTs observations; 6
the aim of the session; 7
the session number; 8
the main body of the workout (recorded in a shorthand notation); 9
additional notes. 40
1
Though it is not easy to make records of a workout while it is in progress, this is a 2
skill that can be learnt. It is important to do so, as it is all too easy to forget details of 3
a session once it has finished. At the end, the record of each session should be signed 4
by the PT. 5
These sheets provide an invaluable resource for the PT. Ideally, they will provide 6
evidence of progression over time. They will certainly help the trainer to review the 711
72
programme. If, for example, a PT has trained a client for three months and has 12
completed sessions on your record forms, this will provide information on, for
example, intensity at different workloads on CV equipment and weight lifted for RMs
during resistance activity. If, say, a client has increased a lift by 10 per cent over three
months, it may be appropriate to set an additional 10 per cent as a goal for the next
three months. Sharing such information with the client is an excellent way to provide
motivation. If the client knows that the PT is recording each workout, it shows that
the PT is professional and interested in the clients progression.
Activity 6.1
Jonathon has been training with you for one month. In that time he lifted
60 kg for 10 RM chest press, 80 kg for 10 RM leg press and 30 kg for 10 RM for
shoulder press. How would you assess what increases of each of these weights
to implement over the next month of training?
Planning training sessions

The detail that a PT includes in the main body of a session will vary, as every session
will be different in some manner. The schedule for an hour session might be:
1. complete the first five sections of the record sheet;

2. warm-up (minimum 4 minutes);
3. if necessary perform a passive stretch on the client;
4. the main body (approximately 40 minutes in an hour session);
5. cool-down (minimum 3 minutes);
6. perform a passive stretch on the client (approximately 5 minutes);
7. complete record form and sign off.
It is important to ensure a punctual start and then to monitor the running time so as
not to overrun.
Shorthand notation for records

During the workout it can be difficult to keep up with the recording of the exercises.
You may well be wondering, How does a PT maintain these records at the same time
as thinking about the next exercise? One tool that helps is learning trainer shorthand.
This gives the PT the ability to write fast and record in detail. Examples of trainer
shorthand are given in the tables on p74.
You can adapt the shorthand to include other exercises. Each gym has particular
kinds of CV and resistance equipment. These may be differentiated by adding an
initial for example, a finesse machine calf raise could be represented by FCR.
73
Exercises 1
2
CP Chest press DL Dead lift SROW Seated row
3
LP Leg press SN Snatch LADD Leg adduction 4
5
LPD Lat pulldown CL Cleans LABD Leg abduction
6
SP Shoulder press PP Push press STUPS Step-ups on a bench 7
8
LE Leg extension POP Power pull BC Bicep curl
9
LC Leg curl PUPS Press-ups TE Tricep extension 10
1
LR Lateral raise ABS Abdominals T BAR T bar row
2
FR Front raise SQ Squat INT ROT Internal rotation 3
4
BOR Bent-over row CR Calf raise EXT ROT External rotation
511
OAR One-arm row SCR Seated calf raise TIB ANT Tibialis anterior 6
7
8
Equipment 9
20
BB Barbell MED Medicine ball ROPE Skipping rope
1
OBB Olympic barbell Gym (Swiss) ball BAND Resistance band 2
3
DB Dumb-bell EZ EZ barbell BBar Body bar
4
BAR
5
ROW Rowing X Cross trainer BIKE Gym cycle 6
trainer 7
8
TM Treadmill STEP Stepper SPIN Spin bike
9
30
1
Modifications/others
2
DEC Decline ISO Isometric WG Wide grip 3
4
INC Incline Heart rate ALT Alternate grip
5
JUMP Jumping RPE (number 10x12x3 Weight x reps 6
in circle) x sets 7
8
DY Dynamic CG Close grip STR Stretch
9
40
1
2
3
4
5
6
711
74
Self-evaluation
Once the first few record forms have been completed, the PT is in a good position to
self-evaluate. Workout sessions may be divided into 12 separate areas. The PT can
award him- or herself a mark out of 10 for each section. Where possible, another
trainer may be used to provide evaluation marks instead. Here is a suggested format
for a scoresheet.
Component Best practice Score

/10
The warm-up This should be around 5 minutes, performed relative to
the clients goals, low THRZ, appropriate to the tracker.
HR/RPE should be checked to make sure that a warm-up
is occurring.
Selection of Appropriate to the aim of the session; equipment
exercises available to the trainer; related to the tracker
information; consideration taken of clients training
status on that day.
Utilisation Safe replacement of equipment used; equipment
and replace- used that is specific to the session aims; innovation
ment of in usage of the equipment (if applicable).
equipment
Tracker The trainer must be aware of this during the entire
adherence workout, if there is deviation or inappropriate
exercises are chosen, you lose marks.
Recording of Correct shorthand is used and the complete record
the session of the workout is available straight after the end
of the session.
Session is Everything the trainer prescribes during the session
based on is based on the programming essentials chapter.
science No fad exercises or bad advice.
HR and RPE Should be taken at appropriate times and ideally a
minimum of four to five times in the session. This
section can also include pre- and post-session BP
measurement for hypertensive clients.
Commitment How committed to your client were you? You should
have been attentive and shown modification of the
session where necessary. You should also include
pertinent feedback to your client.
Trainer Correct placement of you and the client when
spotting performing resistance exercises. Observation and
intervention by the trainer when necessary (see
75
Chapter 7). Another description of this activity is 1

appropriate hands on by the trainer during the workout. 2
3
Stretching Performed by the client at some stage during the
4
workout. The trainer would normally perform assisted
5
stretching on the client with appropriate choice and
6
execution of the stretch. This should also be related to
7
the client training notes on the tracker.
8
Progression The workout should flow seamlessly between sections 9
and flow and exercises, without the client hanging about to 10
allow the trainer to record or think about what 1
activity should be completed next. The session should 2
include some progression based on the previous 3
workout, even if it is slight. 4
511
The cool- Ideally should be a minimum of three to four minutes
6
down and should allow the client to reduce HR to <120 BPM.
7
This should be monitored by the trainer to ensure a
8
safe response has occurred by the client.
9
Total /120 20
1
2
3
The total score here will be out of 120 possible points. The PT should aim to score
4
over 100 and never to fall below 80. This is not easy, but complacency is unacceptable.
5
(After all, just one dissatisfied customer can be very bad for business!)
6
If another trainer is used to perform the evaluation, that person should have at
7
least as much experience as the PT being observed, otherwise the scores recorded
8
will have little or no value. The evaluator should also try to remain impartial and totally
9
objective when scoring each section. Ideally, each PT should be evaluated every two
30
months. The PT should keep a record of scores and review them periodically.
1
2
Reflection 6.3 3
4
I was fortunate to work for an employer who encouraged personal develop-
5
ment. I had regular unknown evaluations. This stimulated in me a desire to
6
be the best trainer I could be. If your gym does not provide this facility, provide
7
it yourself. Or, if your PT manager is willing, implement your own form of
8
evaluation for your team.
9
40
1
2
Activity 6.2
3
Draw up your own self-evaluation sheet. Reflect on the thinking you put into (a) 4
designing the component sequence and (b) describing the best practice that 5
you are aiming at. What does this process teach you? 6
711
76
Guidelines
The following table provides a checklist for each training session. It is particularly
useful for a PTs first few workouts, before decisions over session order become
second nature.
Each session
1. Client to complete payment agreement form if this is the first session.
2. Meet your client at reception.
3. Consult tracker sheet for the clients goals and/or any protocols.
4. Fill in the date of the session.
5. Ask how they are feeling today (physiologically and/or psychologically).
6. Observe how they look and fill in record sheet.
7. Ask if the client would like to concentrate on any aspect of their goals today.
8. Fill in the aim of this session on the record sheet very important.
9. Fill in consecutive workout number.
10. Warm up client.
11. Assisted stretch.
12. Main session, including recording of the workout and recording of perceptual
responses using shorthand.
13. Cool-down.
14. Assisted stretch.
15. Ask how the client found this session and update the tracker accordingly.
General guidelines for every session

Be professional:
Be aware of progression and continuity.
Tailor the session relative to the clients functional capacity.
Adhere to the tracker specifics.
Attend to the clients needs, e.g. a towel or a water break.
Monitor manual heart rate during the warm-up, main session and cool-down. Use
RPE chart for client feedback.
77
Be aware of your exercise selection and order. 1

2
Spot correctly and safely.
3
Innovate where possible. 4
5
Replace any equipment used.
6
7
8
Summary 9
10
This chapter has provided the guidance for professional planning and recording of 1
workouts. The tracker provided may be used to keep clients details to hand and help 2
complete individual records of each workout with the PT. The resulting records build 3
into a library of previous sessions, providing information for a review of the training 4
programme and for session-by-session training decisions. The programme of 511
sessions should develop cyclically and take into account any changes in a clients 6
status. All trainers should use a self-evaluation system. Professional practice of this 7
type is paramount to a PTs success. 8
9
20
Further study 1
2
Few texts deal with detailed personal training session planning. One text that does is 3
ACSM (2007) ACSMs resources for the personal trainer. This book discusses in more 4
depth some of the areas covered by this chapter. 5
Useful websites include the following: 6
7
www.personaltraining1st.com blank trackers and record forms are available 8
to download from here; 9
www.exerciseregister.org/ the Register of Exercise Professionals for the 30
United Kingdom; 1
www.fitnessstandards.org/Practitioners/ethics.html an alternative code of 2
ethics for personal trainers to follow. 3
4
5
6
7
8
9
40
1
2
3
4
5
6
711
78
Appendix: Tracker and record forms
Figure 6.2: Tracker explained
PERSONAL TRAINER
CLIENT TRACKER
W W W. P E R S O N A LT R A I N I N G 1 ST. C O M
CLIENT NAME TRAINER DATE NEXT TEST DATE

Trainer 1
Pregnancy Hypertensive Functional Other metabolic
Special
considerations Knee Shoulder Back IDDM NIDDM
Clients goals Trainers quantifiable goals

1. 1.
Goals 2. 2.
3. 3.
Obesity Smokes Age Diabetes

Sedentary High LDL Hypertension Family history
Coronary artery Total risk factors Is this client a GP
disease risk referral?
factors Intensity Low Moderate High
recommendations
<60% <75% <90%
1.
Client workout 2.
guide 3.
1.
Client training 2.
notes 3.
Age DOB RBP BW THRZ BF% VO2 max BMI WHR

Testing results (kgs)
79
1
Functional:
Coronary: 2
Medical notes
Others: 3
4
CV intensity Bike Row TM Step X Trainer VC
5
notes (10 mins)
6
Resistance CP LP LPD SP SPCP SPSQ LE LC SQ 7
notes (10RM) 8
1. 9
10
Personal
information 1
and notes, e.g. 2
sports/interest 3
4
511
6
Notes 7
8
1. Next fitness test. 9
2. Vitally important that you are aware of special considerations. 20
3. Trainers goals should be worked out using measurable variables. For example, 1
the client may refer to aerobic fitness you can use VO2 max. 2
4. Percentage of maximum heart rate that is recommended for this client. 3
5. The normal structure of the workouts. 4
6. Client likes/dislikes can go here. 5
7. GP medical notes. 6
8. Notes on the intensity setting on CV equipment and on the weight that the 7
client is capable of lifting. 8
9
30
1
Key 2
3
BF% body fat % 4
BMI body mass index 5
BW body weight 6
DOB date of birth 7
IDDM insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus 8
LDL low-density lipoprotein 9
NIDDM non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus 40
RBP resting blood pressure 1
THRZ target heart rate zone 2
VO2 max aerobic fitness 3
WHR waist to hip ratio 4
5
6
711
80
Figure 6.3: Example of completed tracker
PERSONAL TRAINER
CLIENT TRACKER
W W W. P E R S O N A LT R A I N I N G 1 ST. C O M
CLIENT NAME TRAINER DATE NEXT TEST DATE

Client 1 Trainer 1 02/03/08 12/05/08
Pregnancy Hypertensive Functional Other Metabolic
Special
considerations Knee Shoulder Back IDDM NIDDM
Clients goals Trainers quantifiable goals

1. Get fitter 1. Increase VO2 max to 40 ml/kg/min
Goals 2. Lose weight 2. Decrease BF% to 26%
3. Destress 3. Decrease RBP to 135/80
Obesity Smokes Age Diabetes

Sedentary High LDL Hypertension Family history
Coronary artery Total risk factors Is this client a GP
2 referral?
disease risk
factors Intensity Low Moderate High
recommendations
<60% <75% <90%
1. Circuit type workouts

Client workout 2. Increase LBM through resistance training
guide 3.
1. Client enjoys circuits that work all muscle groups in one session
Client training 2. No split routines
notes 3. No isometric exercises
Age DOB RBP BW THRZ BF% V02max BMI WHR

Testing results (kgs)
35 14/3/73 142/86 74 120-139 33% 37 31 0.90
Functional: Knee operation arthroscopy two years ago; no problems

Medical notes Coronary: Slight systolic hypertension exercise intervention only
Others:
CV intensity Bike Row TM Step X Trainer VC

notes (10 mins) L4 2.80/500m 7 kph L3 L3
Resistance CP LP LPD SP SPCP SPSQ LE LC SQ

notes (10RM) 30 kg 40 kg 25 kg 15 kg 40 kg 20 kg 15 kg 38 kg
1. This female client has a young daughter called Evie. She wants to be more
active with her and has decided to hire a PT to help.
Personal 2. She also watches tennis and is a fan of Serena Williams.
information
and notes, e.g.
sports/interests
81
Figure 6.4: Blank record form 1

2
Client name: ____________________________ 3
THRZ: ____________________________ 4
BW: ____________________________ 5
W W W. P E R S O N A LT R A I N I N G 1 ST. C O M 6
Date of session: Date of session: Date of session: 7
8
Client report: Client report: Client report:
9
10
1
Trainer report: Trainer report: Trainer report: 2
3
4
511
Aim of session: Aim of session: Aim of session: 6
7
8
Session no. Session no. Session no.
9
20
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
30
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
40
Session notes: Session notes: Session notes: 1
2
3
4
5
Trainer sig: Mark Ansell Trainer sig: Mark Ansell Trainer sig: 6
711
82
Figure 6.5: Example record form
Client name: Client 1

THRZ: 120139 bpm
BW 74 kg W W W. P E R S O N A LT R A I N I N G 1 ST. C O M
Date of session: 3/4/08 Date of session: 5/4/08 Date of session:

Client report: Client report: Client report:
Feels a little tired, but OK Feels good
Trainer report: Trainer report: Trainer report:

Looks OK Looks rested
Aim of session: Circuit-based Aim of session: Increase LBM Aim of session:

muscular endurance RBP through use of resistance
taken at 138/84 training RBP taken at 134/84
Session no. 7 Session no. 8 Session no.
W/U [warm-up] W/U

X-trainer 8 122 Row 2.80/500m 8 124
Str Hams/Quads Str Quads/calves
BWSQ x15 LP 40x10x3

Mod PUPS x15
BW lunge x15 each on
1st circuit BBDL 30x10x3
SROW 15x15x1
DBCR 15x15x1 FCR 20x10x3
STEP UPS x15
STAR JUMPS x15 133 on
2nd circuit 136 on
3rd circuit FCP 30x10x3
ABS x15 DBOAR 12x10x3
BEXT x15
DBSP 7.5x10x3
Repeat all above circuit x3
ABS x30
C/D [cool-down] SMANS x30
Bike 5 118 at 4
C/D
Str Bike 5 116 at 4
Traps/quads/hams
Str
Chest/quads/hams/lats
RBP taken at 130/82 RBP taken at 132/84
Session notes: Client Session notes: Should Session notes:

enjoyed workout increase DBSP to 9kg next
w/o
Trainer sig: Mark Ansell Trainer sig: Mark Ansell Trainer sig:
83
Chapter 7 1
2
3
Exercise library 4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
One of the main issues I have identified during my personal training career is the need 511
for a mental exercise library. A professional PT should be able to train a clients 6
muscle groups with an array of equipment. He or she will need to be flexible and 7
creative when training in either a gym or a home environment. PTs need to have in 8
their heads a number of different exercises for each muscle group. 9
The sheer number of exercises combined with equipment options makes for 20
almost infinite possibilities. Example exercises for the chest include machine chest 1
press, barbell/dumb-bell chest press, resistance band press, dumb-bell flyes, pec 2
deck machine, cable flyes, smith press chest press, cable cross-over, press-ups and 3
manual resistance chest press. Many different body part exercises may be combined 4
with methods of execution and variables such as incline (an upward slant), decline (a 5
downward slant), flat (horizontal), isometric, isokinetic, isotonic, plyometric and 6
eccentric. It is the PTs job to convert the various possibilities into actual training 7
sessions. 8
9
This chapter is designed to help you:
30
1
1. be aware of the possibilities when choosing exercises;
2
2. develop personal training depth charts;
3
3. build creativity into your sessions;
4
4. be aware of when and how spotting is conducted.
5
6
7
Depth charts 8
9
The term depth chart has been borrowed from professional sport. In team sports, 40
the coach or manager may use depth charts showing all the combinations in which 1
their players can be used. This means that if, for example, a certain player is injured, 2
the coach knows what options exist for replacements. The deeper the chart, the 3
more possibilities the coach has for covering each position. 4
PTs can work on the same principle with exercises by generating a list to show 5
the range of the possible exercises for each muscle group. This chapter provides 6
below some sample lists as starting points. The more familiar the PT is with each 711
84
7 / Exercise library
chart, the more this way of thinking becomes second nature and the PT will be able to
switch between exercises without hesitation.
It is important to recognise that such depth charts are more than just lists,
because they put exercises into rank order (just as a team coach will have a first,
second and third choice, say, for each position in the team). For example, if you were
training a clients quadriceps muscle group, your depth chart may be as follows:
1. Barbell squat (closed chain, i.e. in contact with the ground, compound muscle,
free movement).
2. Smith press squat (closed chain, compound muscle, fixed movement).
3. Dumb-bell squat (closed chain, compound muscle, free movement).
4. Leg press (closed chain, compound muscle, fixed movement).
5. Leg extension (open chain, i.e. not in contact with the ground, isolating muscle,
fixed movement).
6. Medicine ball squat (closed chain, compound muscle, light resistance).
7. Body weight squat (closed chain, compound muscle, very light resistance).
8. Wall squats (closed chain, isometric contraction).
9. Manual resistance leg press (closed chain, compound muscle, resistance
dependent on PT).
10. Manual resistance leg extension (open chain, isolating muscle, resistance
dependent on PT).
The most desirable exercises for the client will be placed at the top of the list. If,
however, numbers 1, 2 and 3 are unavailable because, say, the equipment is already in
use, then the PT can move on to the next item on the list instead. The order of items
on the list will depend on the clients training goals.
Activity 7.1
Try to add five more exercises to the above list to start your quadriceps depth
chart.
Reflection 7.1
One of the best trainers I have watched had the ability to train their clients in
an almost effortless manner. The trainer could walk into an extremely busy
gym and conduct whatever session was necessary, even if most equipment
was being used. All of his sessions could be put under scrutiny afterwards and
could be shown to have been aimed at clients specific goals. This was
achieved by having a detailed knowledge of his gym environment and by
having excellent depth charts for each muscle group.
85
Activity 7.2 1
2
When you next walk into a gym, think of a muscle group and then visualise each 3
possible piece of equipment that can be used to train that muscle group. You 4
will be surprised to find how much is on offer in even the sparsest gym. 5
6
7
8
Muscle groups 9
10
The major muscle groups that are covered in this chapter are legs, chest, back, 1
shoulders, arms and abdominals/lower back. Beyond these major groups PTs talk in 2
minor muscle groups: quads, hamstrings, glutes, hip flexors, adductors, abductors, 3
gastrocnemius, soleus, tibialis anterior (legs), pecs, serratus anterior (chest), 4
latissimus dorsi, rhomboids (back), deltoids, traps, rotator cuff (shoulders), biceps, 511
triceps, forearm flexors/extensors (arms), abdominals, erector spinae, obliques (abs 6
and lower back). Beyond this are the actual proper names and functions for each one 7
of these minor groups. You should be well versed in these muscle names, as you will 8
need to consider exercise effects, for example, whether a dumb-bell raise relates to 9
anterior, medial or posterior deltoids. 20
1
2
Equipment 3
There are three main categories of equipment available: 4
5
1. Free weights barbells, dumb-bells, kettle bells, body bars. 6
7
2. Machines each working muscle groups slightly differently.
8
3. Others resistance bands, dyna bands, medicine balls, sandbags, manual
9
resistance, gym balls, weighted vests, steps and ropes are just some examples.
30
1
This chapter could not hope to include every exercise available. We focus on free
2
weight exercises here because machines are mostly straightforward and in any case
3
vary with different manufacturers. As you explore this list, it will become apparent
4
that you will need to research further and build beyond what is shown here. The
5
Internet provides an array of exercises for free or a small fee. A good place to start is 6
www.exrx.net this website has a muscle directory with video demonstrations for 7
many exercises. www.ptonthenet.com also provides an excellent resource in this 8
regard. The exercises that you learn and select will help to define your personal style 9
as a PT. 40
One can utilise different methods of execution within exercises. An example is 1
press-ups, where the methods are numerous including incline, decline, unilateral 2
(one arm), negative, close grip, wide grip, jumping, walking, clapping, one leg up, on 3
knees, box, fist, weighted . . . the list goes on! 4
A word of warning: when researching new exercises to use, always consider the 5
safety of using them with your clients. You should try them first on yourself or 6
colleagues to assess how viable they are. The exercises may look good, but actual 711
86
execution may be contraindicated in the case of some clients. (Contraindicated here

refers to an exercise, the execution of which is inadvisable to a particular client due to
high risk of injury or illness.)
Exercise depth charts

Items italicised in the lists below are shown pictorially (Figures 7.17.58).
Do remember that the lists below are not comprehensive lists showing all
possible exercises: they are to be used as a starting point for your own depth charts.
Legs depth chart

Barbell squat
Barbell lunge
Barbell step-up
Barbell calf raise
Barbell dead lift
Romanian dead lift
Machine: leg curl, leg extension, leg press, adduction, abduction, seated calf raise,
cable tibialis anterior
Chest depth chart

Barbell chest press
Dumb-bell chest press
Dumb-bell chest flyes
Press-ups
Machine: chest press, pec deck, cable cross-over
Back depth chart

Barbell bent-over row
Dumb-bell one-arm row
Cable seated row
Dumb-bell pull over
Dumb-bell reverse flyes
Machine: seated row, lat pull down, reverse flyes, chin-ups
Shoulder depth chart

Barbell shoulder press
Dumb-bell shoulder press
Barbell upright row
Dumb-bell lateral raise
Dumb-bell shrugs
Cable lateral raise
Dumb-bell arnies
Machine: shoulder press, cable internal/external rotation
87
Arms depth chart 1

Barbell bicep curl 2
Dumb-bell tricep extension 3
Cable bicep curl 4
Dumb-bell hammer curl 5
Dips 6
Reverse curls 7
French press 8
Preacher curls 9
Dumb-bell bicep curls 10
Forearm barbell/dumb-bell wrist extension/flexion 2
Machine: bicep curl, tricep extension 3
4
Power depth chart 511
6
Barbell power clean
7
Barbell push press
8
Snatch
9
Power pull
20
1
Abdominal/lower back depth chart
2
Crunch
3
Back extensions
4
Superman 5
Plank 6
Extended leg crunch 7
Knee rolls 8
Bridges 9
Cat backs 30
Mackenzies 1
Bicycles 2
3
Manual resistance depth chart 4
Chest press* 5
One-arm row* 6
Leg extension* 7
Leg curl* 8
Bicep curl* 9
Tricep extension* 40
1
* Illustrated in Chapter 9. 2
3
4
5
6
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Legs depth chart exercise examples
Barbell squat
Start position (A) knees slightly wider than shoulder width apart and not locked,
bar evenly rested on the shoulders.
End position (B) straight back, knees at no more than 90 degrees, head up, knees not
over toes.
Figure 7.1: Barbell squat (A) Figure 7.2: Barbell squat (B)
Barbell lunge
Start position (A) knees slightly wider than shoulder width, barbell evenly dis-
tributed on the shoulder.
End position (B) both knees to 90 degrees, head up, back straight, creating a lunge.
Barbell step-up
Start position (A) feet slightly wider than shoulder width, head up, bar evenly
distributed on shoulders.
Middle position (B) step up with right leg with foot fully on step.
End position (not illustrated) bring up left leg on to the step, pause, then reverse
the process, stepping down with the left leg first, then right leg to start position.
89
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
511
6
7
8
9
20
1
Figure 7.3: Barbell lunge (A) Figure 7.4: Barbell lunge (B) 2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
30
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
40
1
2
3
4
5
6
Figure 7.5: Barbell step-up (A) Figure 7.6: Barbell step-up (B) 711
90
Barbell calf raise

Start position (A) barbell rested on shoulders evenly weighted, balls of feet rested
on step, knees straight but not locked, head up.
End position (B) raise the heels of the feet together, keeping all other body parts
stationary, head up, isolate the gastrocnemius muscle.
Figure 7.7: Barbell calf raise (A) Figure 7.8: Barbell calf raise (B)
Barbell dead lift

Start position (A) feet shoulder width apart, keeping the back absolutely straight,
pick the bar up off the floor, keep the head up.
End position (B) extend the hips and knees, keep back straight at all times, keep
the bar close to the body, stand up straight.
Chest depth chart
Barbell chest press

(Using eccentric contraction, normally starting from a weight rack.)
Start position (A) five-point contact: head, shoulders, lower back, two feet; grip
slightly wider than chest, bar held above the chest.
End position (B) extend arms, dont lock elbows, bar staying above the chest line.
91
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
511
6
7
8
9
20
1
2
Figure 7.9: Barbell dead lift (A) Figure 7.10: Barbell dead lift (B) 3
4
5
6
7
8
9
30
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
40
1
2
Figure 7.11: Barbell chest press (A) Figure 7.12: Barbell chest press (B)
3
4
5
6
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Dumb-bell chest press

Start position (A) five-point contact: head, shoulders, lower back, two feet; hold
dumb-bells just above chest.
End position (B) extend the arms so that the dumb-bells are above the chest and
arms are straight but not locked.
Figure 7.13: Dumb-bell chest press (A) Figure 7.14: Dumb-bell chest press (B)
Dumb-bell chest flyes

Start position (A) five-point contact, head, shoulders, lower back, two feet; arms
slightly bent out to the side, controlling the dumb-bells.
End position (B) keeping the arms in the same position, move the dumb-bells up
over the chest meeting at the mid-point.
Figure 7.15: Dumb-bell chest flyes (A) Figure 7.16: Dumb-bell chest
flyes (B)
93
Back depth chart 1

2
Barbell bent-over row 3
Start position (A) arms straight, even grip, back straight, legs slightly bent. 4
5
End position (B) be very careful that the lower back does not move, flex the elbows 6
and bring the bar to the chest, head up at all times. 7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
511
6
7
8
9
20
1
2
3
Figure 7.17: Barbell bent-over row (A) Figure 7.18: Barbell bent-over row (B) 4
5
Dumb-bell one-arm row 6
7
Start position (A) one knee rested on the bench, other leg slightly bent, back 8
straight, arms slightly bent. 9
End position (B) keeping all other body parts still, flex the elbow and lift the dumb- 30
bell up to the chest making sure that the elbow stays tucked in near the body. 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
40
1
2
3
4
5
6
Figure 7.19: Dumb-bell one-arm row (A) Figure 7.20: Dumb-bell one-arm row (B) 711
94
Cable seated row

Start position (A) feet placed on the foot rests, legs straight but not locked, back
and arms straight.
End position (B) keeping the upper body totally still, pull the V bar towards the
sternum, making sure that the arms are kept by the sides.
Figure 7.21:
Cable seated
row (A)
Figure 7.22:
Cable seated
row (B)
95
Dumb-bell pull over 1

Start position (A) five-point position, head, shoulders, lower back, two feet; hold 2
the dumb-bell above the head with slightly bent arms. 3
4
End position (B) pull the dumb-bell up and over the head keeping the arms in the 5
same position. 6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
511
6
7
8
Figure 7.23: Dumb-bell pull over (A) Figure 7.24: Dumb-bell pull over (B) 9
20
Shoulder depth chart 1
2
Barbell shoulder press 3
4
Start position (A) feet shoulder width apart, grip wider than shoulders, knees
5
slightly bent.
6
End position (B) push the bar upwards, keeping the body in one position, dont lock 7
the elbows. 8
9
30
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
40
1
2
3
4
5
6
Figure 7.25: Barbell shoulder press (A) Figure 7.26: Barbell shoulder press (B) 711
96
Dumb-bell shoulder press

Start position (A) back rested against the seat, dumb-bells held at shoulder height,
feet on the floor.
End position (B) push the dumb-bells upwards until the arms are nearly straight but
not locked.
Figure 7.27: Dumb-bell shoulder press (A) Figure 7.28: Dumb-bell shoulder press (B)
Barbell upright row

Start position (A) feet at shoulder width, knees not locked, arms in close grip.
End position (B) keeping elbows high, pull bar up to just below the chin, making sure
all other body parts are kept still.
Figure 7.29: Barbell upright row (A) Figure 7.30: Barbell upright row (B)
97
Dumb-bell lateral raise 1

Start position (A) knees slightly bent, feet shoulder width apart, back straight, 2
dumb-bells held by the sides, arms slightly bent. 3
4
End position (B) raise the dumb-bells up to be level with the shoulders, making sure 5
that all other body parts are completely still. 6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
511
6
7
8
9
20
1
2
3
4
Figure 7.31: Dumb-bell Figure 7.32: Dumb-bell lateral raise (B)
5
lateral raise (A) 6
7
8
Dumb-bell shrugs 9
Start position (A) knees slightly bent, back straight, hold the dumb-bells by the 30
sides. 1
2
End position (B) raising the shoulders only, bring the dumb-bells up to hip height, 3
keeping the rest of the body completely still. 4
Cable lateral raise 5
6
Start position (A) feet shoulder width apart, knees slightly bent, cable held across 7
the body. 8
End position (B) pull the cable across the body up to shoulder height, keeping the 9
rest of the body still. 40
1
2
3
4
5
6
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98
Figure 7.33: Dumb-bell shrugs (A) Figure 7.34: Dumb-bell shrugs (B)
Figure 7.35: Cable lateral raise (A) Figure 7.36: Cable lateral raise (B)
99
Arms depth chart 1

2
Barbell bicep curl 3
Start position (A) knees slightly bent, EZ bar held with elbows close to the body. 4
5
End position (B) keeping the body position still (especially the lower back), raise 6
the bar up to the chest, make sure that the elbows are locked into the sides of the 7
body. 8
9
10
1
2
3
4
511
6
7
8
9
20
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Figure 7.37: Barbell bicep curl (A) Figure 7.38: Barbell bicep curl (B) 30
1
2
Start position (A) knees slightly bent, back straight, support one arm with the hand 4
of the other. Bend the arm with the dumb-bell over the shoulder keeping all other 5
body parts still. 6
7
End position (B) extend the arm and, only bending at the elbow, bring the weight up 8
over the head. Remember that there should be no movement apart from the elbow. 9
Cable bicep curl 40
1
Start position (A) feet shoulder width apart, arms by the sides, knees slightly bent. 2
End position (B) keeping all body parts completely still (especially the lower back) 3
raise the bar to the chest using the full range of movement in the biceps. 4
5
6
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Figure 7.39: Dumb-bell Figure 7.40: Dumb-bell

tricep extension (A) tricep extension (B)
Figure 7.41: Cable bicep Figure 7.42: Cable bicep

curl (A) curl (B)
101
Power exercises depth chart 1

2
Barbell power clean 3
Position (A) back straight, hands wider than shoulder width, head up, feet shoulder 4
width apart. 5
6
Position (B) draw the bar upwards keeping the head up, back straight, bar near the 7
shin area, completed at speed. 8
Position (C) scoop the bar upward 9
keeping it near the body, extend the 10
knees and hips. Start to use the momen- 1
tum created by the legs into the bar. 2
Do not attempt a reverse the curl at this 3
point. 4
511
Position (D) bring the bar sharply up 6
and catch it near the shoulders using the
7
momentum created by the legs. Flex the
8
knees at the catch.
9
Position (E) extend the knees and 20
hips, bringing the bar to rest at shoulder 1
height. 2
3
4
5
Figure 7.43: Barbell power clean (A)
6
7
8
9
30
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
40
1
2
3
4
5
Figure 7.44: Barbell power Figure 7.45: Barbell power 6
clean (B) clean (C) 711
102
Figure 7.46: Barbell power Figure 7.47: Barbell power

clean (D) clean (E)
Push press
Start position (A) feet shoulder width apart, back straight, grip shoulder width
apart, bend the knees into a quarter squat position.
End position (B) using the momentum provided by the legs, push forcefully upwards
until the bar is in a shoulder press position. Do not lock the knees.
Figure 7.48: Push press (A) Figure 7.49: Push press (B)
103
Abdominal/lower back depth chart 1

2
Crunch 3
Start position (A) lie on back with knees bent. Feet flat on the floor, hold the 4
abdominal muscles. 5
6
Middle position (B) raise torso, slide hands up thighs, raise shoulders off the 7
floor. 8
End position (not illustrated) return to the starting position. 9
10
1
2
3
4
511
6
7
8
9
20
1
2
Figure 7.50: Crunch (A) Figure 7.51: Crunch (B) 3
4
5
Back extension 6
7
Start position (A) lie on front with hands on lower back. 8
Middle position (B) raise torso up, keeping neck relaxed. 9
30
End position (not illustrated) return to the starting position. 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
40
Figure 7.52: Back extension (A) Figure 7.53: Back extension (B) 1
2
3
4
5
6
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104
Supermans
Start position (A) lie on front with hands and legs extended. Raise right arm and
left leg, then return to the floor.
End position (B) repeat with the left arm and right leg.
Figure 7.54: Supermans (A) Figure 7.55: Supermans (B)
Plank
Lie on front, come up onto the elbows
keeping the back absolutely straight.
Maintain this position statically by con-
tracting abdominals and lower back
muscles. Hold this position for 30
seconds to one minute.
Figure 7.56: Plank
Extended leg crunch
Start position (A) lie on back, raise the legs up and then contract the abdominal
muscles. (Extra resistance can be provided using a medicine ball or powerbag.)
Middle position (B) raise the shoulders off the floor keeping the arms straight,
pushing the hands towards the feet.
End position (not illustrated) lower slowly back to the start position.
Figure 7.57: Extended leg crunch (A) Figure 7.58: Extended leg crunch (B)
105
Spotting 1
2
Spotting is when you assist your client in the safe lifting of a weight. As well as 3
providing greater safety, the spotter can help to motivate the client by providing 4
verbal encouragement during each set. Spotting also provides the PT with the perfect 5
opportunity to check the technique of each lift and to provide the client with 6
feedback as needed. One often overlooked benefit to spotting is the kinaesthetic 7
feedback available to the trainer, who can feel the client lifting the weight through a 8
bar or the clients limbs. This allows the PT to provide assistance only when it is 9
required. The PT can learn through practice how much help to provide for each lift 10
attempt. Obviously it is important to allow the client to lift as much as they can rather 1
than provide the trainer with the workout! 2
One aspect for new personal trainers to consider is the personal space factor 3
when spotting their clients. The PT must overcome the fear of getting near to the 4
client the PT needs to be in the right place to provide assistance. This involves 511
getting in there with the client and invariably means physical contact. 6
It is also important to make sure that the PT is in a safe body position in order to 7
remain focused when spotting. That means not responding to external stimulus until 8
the lift is complete. For example, if ones mobile phone rings, it clearly needs to be 9
ignored. It is also possible to spot machine exercises, so long as the PT is fully aware 20
that weight stacks can trap fingers if care is not taken. 1
Communication is vital when spotting. The client requires clear commands when 2
taking and receiving weights. My bar is a common phrase that can be used to indicate 3
that either of you has the weight under control. It should also be made clear how many 4
reps are to be attempted in a spotted set; this allows both parties to understand 5
when fatigue is likely to occur. 6
Below are some spotting techniques for selected exercises: 7
8
Dumb-bell chest press and flyes hold the wrists of the client, not the elbows, 9
as the client can fail and drop the dumb-bell into their face. 30
Barbell chest press make sure that your lower back is in the correct position 1
to take the weight if needed. Two hands under the bar, alternate grip (this is 2
where one hand is in an open grip, palm up and the other is closed, palm down). 3
Shoulder press you are behind the client and then hand the weights to the 4
client with their hands at shoulder height. Again, the clients wrists should be 5
held for safety. 6
Barbell upright row you are in front of the client, your hands in an alternate 7
grip on the barbell. 8
Barbell squat contrary to popular belief, you can spot squats by being 9
positioned behind the client with your hands on the clients lower rib area. As 40
the client performs the squat you should follow the movement pattern to 1
provide assistance if needed. Step-ups and lunges are spotted in a similar 2
manner. You must remember to move with your client in all three of these 3
exercises. If a power rack is being used by the client, it is better to use two 4
spotters. One spotter should be positioned each side of the barbell with their 5
hands cupped under the ends of the bar, following the movement of the barbell 6
and providing assistance simultaneously if needed. 711
106
Dumb-bell lateral raises you are behind the client and your hands should
follow the movement of the clients elbows.
Warning
You must be aware of your own safety, the clients and that of other gym users when
spotting. If at any point the client fails on standing exercises and the weight is
descending, remember to get out of the way! Also remember that power exercises
are never spotted. That includes cleans, push press and power pulls, the reason being
that they include a momentum phase where it is too dangerous for a spotter to be in
close proximity.
Reflection 7.2
I find it amazing that even placing my hands below a barbell on a chest press
can make the client think that I am providing assistance when in fact I am not.
Most clients will believe that they can lift more with extra help, even when Im
not actually providing it!
Pulse raisers
Other exercises that you can utilise within your sessions are called pulse raisers.
These are good for warming up and circuit-based workouts. Here is a range of
examples, some unilateral (using one limb at a time, e.g. when running) some bilateral
(using limbs simultaneously, e.g. feet-together jumping):
skipping (using a rope);

star jumps (jumping with legs spread to the sides and bringing the arms up
simultaneously to shoulder height);
compass jumps (feet move bilaterally to all points of the compass);
boxing (includes variations of punches);
bunny jumps (good for ski training);
astrides (on a bench, bilaterally jumping onto and off);
ski jumps (unilateral wide-leg hops);
slalom jumps (bunny jumps that mimic ski movement);
burpee (squat thrust followed by star jump);
sprint starts (squat thrust position, but unilateral leg movement);
shuttle runs (between two cones);
spotty dogs (splitting the feet alternately as in a lunge and bringing the same
arm up to level with the shoulder during the movement);
dumb-bell punch (using light dumb-bells to punch out with);
running arms (as in running, just forget the legs);
high knees (bring the knees up in front to level with the hips).
These exercises are useful with home training clients, as little equipment is required.
107
Active learning 1
2
With a training partner, try any exercise that you havent experienced. Then, once you 3
have mastered each movement, try spotting each exercise for your partner. When 4
you see or research a new exercise, attempt it in a safe environment and, if you think 5
that it can be used, add it to your mental library. It may help to keep a pocket book 6
that contains details of your known exercises. Add to this as your personal training 7
career develops. 8
9
10
1
Summary 2
3
You should now start to realise the potential number of exercises that are available 4
for each muscle group and therefore the possibilities when choosing exercises. This 511
will lead you nicely into the development of your own depth charts, which are an 6
essential part of your PT persona. The creativity aspect comes to the fore when you 7
start to add to your depth charts with new variations of exercises and innovative 8
ways of using equipment. 9
This chapter has also given you some clear guidelines on how to use spotting 20
techniques. You need to develop these techniques alongside your depth charts to 1
make sure that your exercises are performed in a safe manner by your clients. 2
A good start for your depth charts is when you have approximately 20 exercises 3
per muscle group. With this you should be able to train your client in almost any 4
gym environment. The real test comes when you have little or no equipment as in 5
home training. When you can conduct a 45-minute session using only a towel and a 6
3x2 metre mat space, you have developed your exercise knowledge and built your 7
depth charts. 8
9
30
Further study 1
2
Example exercises are available from a variety of texts and, as mentioned above, the 3
Internet is a good place to start building your exercise library. 4
5
www.exrx.net an excellent starting point. 6
www.ptonthenet.com this site contains a large exercise library, although this is a 7
subscription service. 8
www.brianmac.co.uk some descriptions of dumb-bell exercises. 9
40
One text that covers 300 exercise examples is The Golds Gym training encyclo- 1
paedia: 2
Grymkowski, P, Connors, E, Kimber, T and Reynolds, B (1984) The Golds Gym training 3
encyclopaedia. McGraw-Hill. 4
5
The weight training and body building press is another good resource. These 6
magazines carry example exercises every month for different muscle groups. 711
108
Chapter 8
Fitness testing
Fitness testing is a general term for physical testing both of athletes and the general
population. Fitness testing can be used to help determine health status as well
as providing base-line levels of fitness. From the 1950s, coaches and athletes
have recognised that data from tests could be applied to the design of training
programmes and subsequent goal setting. The development of sport and exercise
science has refined fitness and sport professionals understanding and use of data.
Personal trainers have been offering fitness tests for many years, both within
fitness facilities and at clients homes. Testing is now an accepted skill for a PT to
possess. If a PT knows a clients fitness status, this will enhance the clients training
experience and sense of PT professionalism.
This chapter has been designed to help you:
1. understand the relative benefits of field versus laboratory based fitness

testing;
2. recognise the importance of health screening;
3. individualise the choice of testing;
4. be able to administer a series of tests;
5. know how to use testing to enhance motivation with a view to your client
achieving their goals.
Principles of fitness testing

All fitness testing must be scientific in nature. The PT should strive to make testing as
accurate and scientific as possible. This requires correct and safe administration of
tests related to the clients individual needs. Data from tests will need to be
compared to gender and age-related tables. This process is termed interpretation
of data and is required in order to grade the client. This will indicate the degree of
fitness and identify which elements of fitness need to be improved.
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8 / Fitness testing
Rationale of fitness testing 1

2
All fitness trainers, personal trainers, sport scientists and coaches use fitness testing
3
in one form or another. It is so ingrained in physical training that you need to be aware
4
of at least the minimum requirements for health screening clients. For most clients,
5
testing should be used at regular intervals for example, monthly for body fat
6
percentage and bi-annually for aerobic fitness tests.
7
Common purposes include:
8
essential health screens; 9
client needs analysis; 10
goal setting; 1
programme effectiveness; 2
sport-specific testing. 3
4
Fitness testing is an important tool in the personal trainers repertoire. This 511
chapter will provide you with some initial protocols. It is recommended that you also 6
use the research resources mentioned in order to increase the battery of tests that 7
you can use. 8
Ideally, testing should first be done at the start of a clients training, to help the 9
PT to ascertain the needs of that client. During the programme, or during periodised 20
cycles, clients should be retested in order to measure the effectiveness of training. 1
If the client has sport-specific goals, it is useful to research and apply tests that are 2
specific to their sport. This may even involve liaising with a sports coach to maximise 3
the clients progress. 4
Performing fitness tests well provides an opportunity to demonstrate pro- 5
fessionalism. It also allows the PT to discuss the clients goals in the light of the 6
results. The results can be used to educate clients when discussing the physiological 7
adaptations outlined in Chapter 3. In some respects, education of the client is as 8
important as the physical training in sessions as it allows the client to achieve their 9
goals more readily. Test data can be used to motivate the client. 30
1
2
Reflection 8.1
3
The use of test results has proved valuable in setting goals for many clients I 4
have trained in the past. I would recommend tailoring testing for each 5
individual and setting the goals accordingly, otherwise the process can 6
backfire and demotivate the client! Be careful to take into consideration 7
the clients goals and not to veer off track with irrelevant needs analysis. 8
An example of careful goal setting was when I was training a particular 9
hypertensive client. The lowering of his blood pressure was the primary goal, 40
but he also wanted to train to increase his muscle mass. This posed me with a 1
tricky problem. I had to focus on the primary goal by testing his blood pressure 2
both before and after the workout, while also providing endurance repetitions 3
so as to work towards a secondary goal of improving his aesthetics. The trick 4
was to work within the protocol for hypertensives, but also cater for his 5
secondary goal within sessions. 6
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8 / Fitness testing
All tests need to be valid and reliable. To be valid, tests must be rooted in sound
and justifiable research. In this context, validity relates to whether the test actually
indicates what it does. For example, a bleep test (described later in the chapter)
indicates that it tests a clients aerobic fitness. Because it provides a score for VO2
max (the maximum amount of oxygen a client can utilise in one minute), this can be
termed a valid test. Reliability refers to test/retest data. For example, if you had a
client perform the bleep test with the correctly administered protocol two days apart
with the same regime prior to each test, the result would be the same. Similarly, the
result should not vary according to who is administering the test.
It is important for personal trainers to understand the differences between field
and laboratory-based testing. Most personal trainers do not have access to such
fitness-testing equipment as cycle ergometers or treadmills. Gas analysis is even
less likely to be used by trainers. Therefore, the protocols discussed in this chapter
will focus on field-based testing with indications as to the contemporary laboratory
tests. There will also be an indication of the industry-recognised gold standard test
for each aspect of fitness that is being tested.
The five main categories of fitness that can be tested are:
aerobic (including cardiovascular fitness);

anaerobic (including strength tests);
muscular endurance;
flexibility;
body composition.
Reflection 8.2
I have used both laboratory and field-based tests for a variety of clients and
have found that the results from field-based tests can be valid and reliable. It
is, however, always essential to implement protocols properly.
Each client will have specific goals that the trainer should be working
towards and a test or tests should be chosen relative to the client. There is no
point in testing using a predetermined list of tests; these may not be relevant
to the client and could even prove detrimental to their motivation. Use
empathy when choosing tests for clients. It may not be entirely appropriate to
attempt a fat calliper test on a client who is obviously clinically obese!
Testing sequences
The order of each test should follow this pattern:
Explanation.
Demonstration.
Administration.
Interpretation.
Feedback.
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8 / Fitness testing
If many tests are to be administered in one session, note that the recommended 1
order is as follows: 2
3
1. Resting pulse. 4
2. Resting blood pressure. 5
3. Any body-composition testing. 6
4. Strength tests. 7
5. Anaerobic capacity. 8
6. Muscular endurance. 9
7. Aerobic capacity. 10
8. Flexibility. 1
2
The reasons for using this order are found within the test results themselves: you 3
could not hope to gain a resting pulse after an aerobic test. Testing for strength using 4
1 RM testing is unsafe if it is done after muscular endurance due to muscular fatigue. 511
Flexibility is best tested at the end of the testing regime as the tissues are warmer 6
and the process can form part of a cool-down for the session. 7
8
9
Health screening 20
1
Health screening is vital to the consultation session with every client and should be
2
used on a retest basis depending on the clients health status. It cannot be stressed
3
enough that screening must be administered to every client in order to protect the
4
client and the trainer. Screening can provide information on the exercise and injury
5
history of the client and indicate potential risks. For example, hypertensive clients
6
will need pre- and post-blood pressure readings every session in order to ensure
7
that they are within acceptable ranges for training. Without this screening, the
8
PT can be liable for duty of care breaches and in extreme cases be sued for damages.
9
All reputable fitness organisations such as the ACSM and NSCA recommend
30
unreservedly the use of health screening for all clients. 1
A PAR-Q (physical activity readiness questionnaire) form should be used as the 2
absolute minimum standard of screening. Examples of PAR-Q forms are readily 3
available to download from the Internet; the Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology 4
produces an excellent PAR-Q and, provided it is not altered, can be photocopied for 5
use at www.csep.ca/communities/c574/files/hidden/pdfs/par-q.pdf. 6
If your client answers yes to any of the questions, this will require a referral to 7
their GP with a letter from the trainer. 8
9
Health and lifestyle questionnaires 40
1
Questionnaires provide a useful means for finding out background information about 2
clients in a short space of time. They should be used in the initial consultation session. 3
They expand on the PAR-Q and allow the trainer to ask the client a predetermined 4
series of questions about them, to ascertain information from their eating habits to 5
their training status. An example of a health and lifestyle questionnaire can be found 6
at the end of this chapter. 711
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8 / Fitness testing
Informed consent
Prior to all testing the client should complete an informed consent form which lists
and gives the opportunity to delete as appropriate the tests that are being
administered in that session. This informed consent form will help to cover the
personal trainer as it gives the client an opportunity to disclose any clinical conditions
that would affect the safety of the test on that particular day. The personal trainer
must keep all forms (PAR-Q, health and lifestyle, and informed consent) on file
permanently in case of future legal issues.
Reflection 8.3
I keep all the completed client forms in a locked metal filing cabinet at home. If
there is a need to refer back to any form for any client, it is a simple process as
they are stored alphabetically by surname. You can also keep records that are
colour-coded according to the clients medical status. I have used different
coloured folders for high-risk metabolic problems, functional problems and
asymptomatic clients in order to see at a glance who is most at risk.
A question you may ask when reading and implementing the following protocols is
why should you use these methods over others? The answer is that each protocol
described has been used by coaches and personal trainers many times. All tests are
tried and tested methods of fitness testing with particular reference to personal
trainers.
Protocols
Field-based protocols are particularly relevant to the personal trainer because of
their ease of use, the portability of the equipment and the relatively low cost. Field-
based tests are outlined here in order to help you administer them to your clients,
along with other alternatives.
Blood pressure
This is used as an essential health screen at the start of any consultation, as well
as a periodical screen for asymptomatic clients and pre- and post-workout for
hypertensive clients. It is widely recognised that manual sphygmomanometers
(sphyg) with a stethoscope are superior to automatic models so long as the personal
trainer is well versed in the method of usage. An aneroid (dial) sphyg is probably the
best bet for a personal trainer to acquire as they are light and will not take up much
room in a kit bag. For the protocol regarding taking a manual blood pressure reading,
see ACSM (2005).
The two measurements of blood pressure are systolic and diastolic (expressed as
a fraction). The systolic pressure is the pressure of blood in the vessels when the
heart contracts (i.e. the maximum pressure); diastolic pressure is the pressure of the
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8 / Fitness testing
blood between heartbeats when the heart is at rest (i.e. the minimum pressure). 1
Healthy values in adults are around 120/80. 2
It is essential to remember that if the reading is above 159 systolic and/or 99 3
diastolic the PT must refer the client to their GP for medical clearance before any 4
physical activity programme commences. 5
6
Resting pulse 7
Using the radial artery (wrist) palpate the pulse and count the beats for 30 seconds, 8
then double for a beats per minute figure. 9
10
Body composition 1
2
Body mass index (BMI) 3
4
BMI is the most basic tool in trying to ascertain a clients body composition. The
511
equation takes into account a clients height and weight. The result can then be
6
related to normative data.
7
BMI is calculated by the following equation:
8
9
BMI = weight (kg) / height (m)2
20
1
Consider the following example:
2
3
Clients weight = 70 kg.
4
Height = 1.74 m.
5
1.742 = 3.03
6
70/3.03 = 23
7
A BMI of 23 is in the normal, healthy range.
8
9
BMI normative data:
30
1
<20 underweight;
2
2025 healthy weight;
3
2630 overweight;
4
>30 obese.
5
You must be aware that BMI has limitations; the calculation does not take into 6
account muscle mass, so a bodybuilder would score very high, even though they would 7
be extremely lean. 8
9
40
Activity 8.1
1
Work out and interpret BMI scores using the following data: 2
3
Client 1: weight = 91 kg, height = 1.76 m. 4
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8 / Fitness testing
Waist to hip ratio (WHR)

Another important health test is to ascertain where body fat is stored. Using girth
measurements we can compare a clients waist circumference against their hip
circumference. WHR is calculated using waist circumference (cm) / hip circumference
(cm). Use a tape measure to gain your data (both readings are taken with the client
standing). At the narrowest point between the umbilical point (belly button) and
bottom tip of the sternum, measure the waist circumference. The hip circumference
is the widest point around the hips with the client standing with their legs together
and their buttocks relaxed.
Data suggests that a figure exceeding 0.95 for males and 0.86 for females would
be a significant health risk due to the storage of fat near their major organs. For
example, your male client has a waist circumference of 123 cm and a hip circum-
ference of 115 cm; 123/115 = WHR ratio of 1.07. This indicates that your client is at high
risk of disease.
Girth measurements
Girth measurements can be used in goal setting for your clients. Those who wish to
increase their muscle mass would be ideal subjects in girth measurement assess-
ment. Goals could be based on realistic size increases across their bodies.
Other girth site measurements you can use with your clients are bicep, thigh,
calves, chest and forearm. These are particularly useful with clients who want to build
muscle; you can measure these sites once a month to check progression.
Skinfold callipers
This is the preferred method of body composition analysis. The error of estimate is
less than bio electrical impedance (see later in this section for details) and it is fairly
cheap to buy the plastic variety of callipers. There are various methods using a
different number of skinfold sites to calculate body fat percentage. Here the four
site sum method will be outlined (ACSM, 2005).
You need a set of callipers, a tape measure and a pen. The callipers can be around
20 for the plastic type or 180 for the superior Harpenden type.
1. Mark on the right side of the body the location of each of the four skinfolds: the
suprailiac, tricep, thigh and abdomen.
2. Pinch the skin diagonally at the suprailiac site so that 1 cm of fat is visible, then
put the calliper on and allow the tension to release for no more than two
seconds. Read the value in mm. Do not pull the callipers off it hurts!
3. The tricep is taken vertically in the same manner.
4. The thigh is slightly more tricky and is a vertical fold.
5. The abdomen reading is taken vertically.
6. Once all measurements are taken, you should retake them twice in sequence.
This provides a total of three readings for each site. This allows the
subcutaneous fat (i.e. the fat deposited beneath the skin) time to reform,
whereas if you take three readings at the same site in immediate succession,
the fat just under the skin that you are measuring will not have re-formed back
to a normal state and may provide an incorrect reading.
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8 / Fitness testing
7. All readings should be within 2 mm of the others for that site. An average 1
reading of the three should be used. 2
8. Once you have average readings for all four sites, add them together (sum 4) 3
and put the result into one of the following equations. 4
5
For women: 6
7
0.29669 (sum 4) 0.00043 (sum 4 squared) + 0.02963 (age) + 8
1.4072 = percentage body fat 9
10
For men: 1
2
0.29669 (sum 4) 0.005 (sum 4 squared) + 0.15845 (age) 3
5.76377 = percentage body fat 4
511
Consider the following example: 6
7
The client is a 34-year-old man and the sum of the four skinfolds is 85 mm. 8
9
85 mm 0.29669 (85) = 25.22 20
0.005 (7225) = 3.61 [7225 is 85 squared] 1
0.15845 (34) = 5.39 2
(25.22 3.61) + (5.39 5.76377) = 21.23623 3
4
which, when rounded to the nearest figure, gives us a body fat of 21 per cent. 5
6
Site definitions: 7
8
Suprailiac get your client to find the top of their iliac crest (the bony 9
prominence at the top of the pelvis) this saves you prodding about their 30
abdominal area! The mark should be immediately above the iliac crest with a 1
diagonal line. 2
Tricep exactly halfway between the elbow and shoulder joints in the midline of 3
the belly of the tricep a vertical fold. 4
Thigh on the front of the thigh midway between the line of the groin and the 5
top of the kneecap (patella) a vertical fold. 6
Abdomen a vertical fold 2 cm just to the side of the umbilicus (belly button). 7
8
9
40
Activity 8.2
1
Insert the following results into the above equation: 2
3
22-year-old male with sum of skinfolds of 102 mm. 4
45-year-old female with sum of skinfolds of 91 mm. 5
19-year-old female with sum of skinfolds of 98 mm. 6
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8 / Fitness testing
Other methods of working out skinfold body composition involve more or fewer
body sites, tables and other equations. If you find the skinfolds described here to be
problematic, try other site methods. It is highly recommended that you practise on
as many volunteers as possible to become proficient, as administrator variability can
be a factor in inaccurate measurement.
Reflection 8.4
Skinfold callipers are an absolute must. I carry the plastic callipers in my kit
bag as they are light and accurate enough for body fat measurement at any
time. With any test, the time it takes you to gain reliable data will decrease
as you get used to the methods of testing.
Bio electrical impedance and hydrostatic weighing

Bio electrical impedance (BEI) is an alternative method to estimate body fat, which
can be fairly inexpensive if you use the handheld or scales method of testing. The
machine will pass a small electrical current around your clients body, measuring the
difference between body tissues that obstruct (impede) the current and those
tissues that conduct the current, then calculating body fat from this reading. The
problem with these machines is that a specific protocol must be followed by the
client before testing. Not all machines are very accurate.
Hydrostatic weighing is the gold standard of body composition testing. It involves
weighing the client in and out of a water tank something that is highly unlikely to
be used by a personal trainer!
Strength tests
Hand grip dynamometer

Dynamometers can give you a method of ascertaining your clients strength with one
piece of portable equipment. This piece of equipment is not essential, nor necessarily
the cheapest or best way of gaining strength data. If you have access to a hand grip
dynamometer, the protocol is straightforward: get the client to adjust the hand grip
to the size of their hand and then ask them to grip as tightly as possible while
lowering their arm to the side of their body. This will give a reading of the strength of
the hand and forearm muscles there is a link between this reading and overall body
strength.
1 RMs
An alternative method is to use repetition maximums (1 RMs). This is a superior
method of determining your clients strength (the amount that a client can lift once,
i.e. one repetition), usually using barbells in maximum bench press and squat
exercises to gauge all-over body strength.
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8 / Fitness testing
Reflection 8.5 1
2
I have found 1 RM strength tests to be the more practical method when trying 3
to gain strength data. This methods obvious disadvantage is the need for 4
access to the barbells and weights, but if you can use 1 RMs to test for 5
strength, I recommend that you do so. 6
7
8
9
Anaerobic capacity 10
1
Stair run test 2
This test can be easily administered on any staircase and although there is scant 3
normative data, it does supply a measure of the clients anaerobic capacity. Using 4
this test periodically will monitor the effect of power training over time. You must 511
measure the height of the stairs in metres (the number of steps multiplied by the 6
height of one step) and weigh the client in kilograms. The client should run as fast as 7
possible up the stairs (stepping on each step) while you record the time in seconds. 8
Use the following equation to calculate the energy used: 9
20
Energy = distance x force (using weight x 10: the constant used for gravity) = 1
X joules 2
3
Here: distance = height of the stairs in metres and
4
weight = client weight in kilograms
5
Power (measured in watts) = energy/time. 6
7
The energy in joules is divided by the time it takes for the client to run up the 8
stairs to give the total power output. This figure can be improved over time and so 9
can be used in goal setting. The fact that weight is taken into account can be linked 30
with body composition figures, and power outputs will increase with an increase in 1
muscle mass. 2
3
4
5
Activity 8.3
6
Example: step height is 2.3 m, the client weighs 70 kg and the time taken is 2.5 7
seconds. 8
9
Energy = 2.3 x (70 x 10) = 1610 40
Power = 1610 / 2.5 seconds = 644 1
The client uses 644 watts of power in running up the stairs. 2
Now calculate the power used in the following examples: 3
4
Client 1 weighs 54 kg, step height is 2 m and the time taken is 2.5 seconds. 5
6
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8 / Fitness testing
Activity 8.3 continued
Client 2 weighs 79 kg, step height is 2.9 m and the time taken is
4.1 seconds.
Client 3 weighs 92 kg, step height is 3.4 m and the time taken is
5.5 seconds.
Wingate cycle ergometer

This anaerobic test requires a cycle ergometer usually a Monark bike will be used in
a laboratory setting. The test is a 30-second maximal effort cycle by the client in
order to estimate their maximum power output and ultimately to indicate their
anaerobic capacity. The clients body weight determines the resistance on the cycles
flywheel and they are instructed to put 100 per cent effort in from the start of the
test. The results are given in watts. This is the recommended test when working with
athletes who have a need for anaerobic testing.
Muscular endurance
Press-ups and curl-ups

These two tests provide the easiest administration protocols within personal
training. The press-up test involves getting the client into the full press-up position
for males and the modified (knee) press-up position for females, then getting them
to perform the full press-up exercise until exhaustion occurs. The numbers of
full, completed press-ups are then compared to normative data (see, for example.
www.brianmac.co.uk/pressuptst.htm) to indicate how good their upper body
muscular endurance is.
The curl-up test involves the client lying on their back in a curl position with their
arms out straight, knees bent and palms down on their thighs. The client must
perform repetitions where the hands reach the top of the knee on the up phase and
the head does not quite touch the floor on the down phase. Again, the number of
completed repetitions may be compared to normative tables to indicate muscular
endurance of the abdominals (see www.brianmac.co.uk/curluptst.htm).
Alternative muscle group muscular endurance tests are given below.
Chin-ups
Chin-ups require the use of a chin bar. You can utilise the home variety of chin bars
which fit into door frames for this purpose, though a gym-based chin station would
be preferable. The client will perform full chin-ups until fatigue occurs and the number
of completed chin-ups compared to normative tables (e.g. www.brianmac.co.uk/
chinstst.htm).
Free weight tests

Free weight tests can be used, for example, for testing for bicep brachii muscular
endurance. Using light dumb-bells, get the client to perform as many repetitions as
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8 / Fitness testing
possible. Usually, these tests will only be used for individual goal-setting purposes as 1
the normative data is less readily available. 2
3
Aerobic capacity 4
5
Bleep test 6
7
The infamous bleep test is a maximal test. It will take a client up to the maximum
8
capacity they can take, i.e. their maximum heart rate. There are, therefore, serious
9
safety considerations, especially relating to heart problems. Only use this test with
10
asymptomatic clients, to be on the safe side.
1
The test estimates VO2 max, that is, the maximum amount of oxygen that an
2
individual can utilise in one minute. This is the best figure for ascertaining a clients
3
aerobic capacity as it relates directly to oxygen usage. It is expressed in millilitres.
4
You will need two cones, a CD player, a CD with the test protocol, a 20 m tape
511
measure and the interpretation tables. Measure 20 m in a straight line and put a cone
6
at either end of the 20 m, explain to the client that they must jog up to the cones to
7
the sound of a bleep. If they miss more than 2 cones in a row, the test is terminated.
8
You must also explain that there are health risks to this test and they are in control
9
during the test. The test will gradually increase in rate and repetitions in ascending
20
levels until the client can no longer maintain that pace. You must record the level and
1
shuttle when the client became fatigued and look up their VO2 max score from tables
2
that are usually supplied with the CD.
3
The bleep test has a good validity and reliability rating. The main concern for you
4
may be finding a safe 20 m area local parks are ideal for this test.
5
6
Reflection 8.6 7
8
When I have used the bleep test I have found that the motivation of the client
9
is the single most important factor in gaining a good VO2 max reading. You
30
must make sure that your client has the will and determination to complete
1
the test to exhaustion.
2
3
4
Tecumseh step test 5
This test uses recovery heart rate to gauge how fit your client is and is not as accurate 6
as VO2 max tests. You can use a clients staircase or a box for this test. Step tests are 7
generally the method used by personal trainers as they need little space and 8
equipment. You will need a step of 20.3 cm (8 in) in height, a stopwatch and a 9
metronome (this produces a beat at a constant pace). Explain to the client that this 40
test is submaximal and will require them to step in time to the metronome at 96 beats 1
per minute, i.e. in right foot up, left foot up, right foot down, left foot down cycles for 2
three minutes continuously. A demonstration by you will generally help the client 3
understand what is required. After they have stepped for the three minutes, get them 4
to sit down while you find their radial pulse; 30 seconds after they have completed 5
the test, take their pulse for another 30 seconds. This figure should then be put into a 6
gender and age-related table to find out the aerobic fitness of that client. 711
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8 / Fitness testing
VO2 max cycle ergometer tests

Various protocols are available for testing clients on bikes those from YMCA, ACSM
and WHO are just a few. They are accurate when using submaximal protocols and
extremely accurate when using maximal heart rate protocols. If gas analyses of
oxygen, carbon dioxide and air volumes are monitored, they become a definitive
indication of your clients aerobic fitness. The problem for the personal trainer is one of
laboratory equipment usage. However, if you get the chance to perform or study any of
the laboratory tests mentioned in this chapter, it is recommended that you do so.
Treadmill tests
Again, the personal trainer will only have access to treadmill tests within a gym or
testing laboratory. They are usually a very good method of testing aerobic fitness.
All VO2 max tests should try to replicate the main mode of activity of the client. The
treadmill should be used for runners, the cycle ergometer for cyclists. Tests for
rowers usually take place on a Concept2 rower (see www.concept2.co.uk/).
Flexibility
Goniometer
Flexibility testing is important for some clients, mainly those who have limited range of
movement at certain joints. A classic example is that of office workers having tight
hamstrings due to sitting for long periods of time. A goniometer is an inexpensive and
light piece of equipment that can be kept in your kitbag to measure joint angles. You
need to align two arms of the goniometer to meet the two bones around the joint to be
measured. The protractor part should be set at zero at the point of full extension and
the client should move their body part to their full range. You can then take the reading.
Activity 8.4
The hamstring should be measured with one end of the goniometer aligned
with the spine and the other with the femur; the protractor should be over the
hip joint. The client will be lying on their back for this and you may have to
assist the leg up to a point when the client will tell you that they feel a strong
stretch. At this point read the value on the protractor. A potential safe range
for the hamstring would be around 60120 degrees.
Safe ranges of flexibility for the hamstring are shown in Figure 8.1. If a client has
restricted range of movement or hyperflexibility (excessive flexibility), this may lead
to an increased risk of injury.
Sit and reach box

A sit and reach box is an alternative method used in gyms to estimate the lower back
and hamstring flexibility. The client sits on the floor facing the box with their legs
straight and their feet touching the box, then stretches forward with one hand on top
of the other to reach as far as they can along a scale in centimetres on the top
(horizontal surface) of the box.
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8 / Fitness testing
Figure 8.1: Potential safe and increased risk ranges for hamstring flexibility 1
2
SAFE range
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Increased risk Increased risk
of injury of injury 10
1
2
3
4
511
6
Reflection 8.7
7
The least flexible client I have trained came out at around 35 degrees for a 8
hamstring reading. This obviously needed careful session planning as the 9
mans hamstring muscle group was extremely tight. There was significant 20
flexibility training incorporated into his workouts as a direct consequence of 1
the results from this test. 2
3
4
Fitness testing kit 5
6
A summary of the ideal kit to build up to for fitness testing (in order of necessity): 7
8
Manual aneroid sphyg and stethoscope. 9
Stopwatch. 30
Calculator. 1
Small tape measure. 2
Plastic callipers. 3
Metronome. 4
Goniometer. 5
Handgrip dynamometer. 6
7
Subsequent purchases can upgrade your equipment. For example, a set of 8
Harpenden callipers will last a lifetime if they are looked after properly. 9
40
Practical activities and exercises 1
2
Administer all the recommended tests, in the order given, on asymptomatic friends or 3
colleagues. Record your experiences throughout each test. This will allow you to 4
achieve two things: you will get more proficient at those tests and it will point you in 5
the direction of researching further tests if you do not gel with a particular testing 6
protocol. For example, you may prefer other skinfold sites to the ones listed here. 711
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8 / Fitness testing
Activity 8.5
Consider which fitness tests may be appropriate and which inappropriate for
the following clients:
Bill is 63 years old and needs a hip transplant.

Jim is 19 and wants to focus on fitness for soccer.
Marie is 27 years old, clinically obese and gets out of breath quickly.
Hannah is 20 years old and seems nervous when in the fitness facility.
Tasha is 30 and wants to lose body fat and get fitter.
Graham is 39 years old and does not seem to understand technical
jargon.
Alesha is 23 years old and indicates that she is not interested in any
testing.
Marcus is 33 years old and wants to know exactly how generally fit he is.
The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) produces invaluable

guidelines when administering fitness tests. www.acsm.org is a highly recom-
mended website to visit.
Summary
You should now be aware of the importance of health screening before administering
any physical test on your clients. It cannot be stressed enough that this aspect of
fitness testing is mandatory in order to protect you and the client. Once you have
decided that it is safe to proceed, you need to consider which tests are appropriate
for that client testing for health, fitness or sport must be individualised. When you
have acquired the data and interpreted the values, they can be used to motivate your
clients. It is still important to remember that not all clients will respond well to
constant goal setting and numerical data. The PT must use common sense! Overall,
fitness testing offers the personal trainer and fitness coach an excellent tool to
enhance the clients training experience and motivation.
Further study
NSCA (2000) Essentials of strength and conditioning 2nd edition. Human Kinetics.
YMCA (2000) YMCA fitness testing and assessment manual. 4th edition. Human
Kinetics.
The following websites give protocols to various tests and further reading ideas:
www.topendsports.com/testing/
www.exrx.net/Testing.html
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8 / Fitness testing
Figure 8.2: Health and life style questionnaire 1

2
Health and lifestyle questionnaire
Instructor name:
3
Date: 4
Personal details
5
Name: 6
Date of birth:
Age:
7
Sex: 8
Tel:
Mobile:
9
Occupation: 10
Emergency contact:
Height: Weight: 1
Medical history 2
Please tick if you have experienced any of the following medical conditions:
Tick Date 3
Pregnancy
4
Lung problem
Heart problems (e.g. angina) 511
Arthritis
Stroke
6
Allergy 7
Diabetes
Asthma
8
High blood pressure 9
Epilepsy
Cancer
20
Osteoporosis 1
High cholesterol
Other (please specify)
2
3
Is there an immediate family member who has a history of heart disease before the age of 55 years?
Please circle: Yes No 4
5
Do you have any functional problems (e.g. shoulder, knee or hip problems)?
Please specify: 6
7
Are you taking any medication?
8
9
Your exercise history 30
Do you currently exercise? Yes No
If so, how many days per week on average?
1
2
If you used to perform exercise why did you stop?
3
Do you currently smoke? Yes No 4
Do you drink alcohol? Yes No 5
If so, how many units per week approximately?
6
Exercise expectations 7
Is there any specific goals for your exercise programme (e.g. weight loss, muscle mass or toning)?
8
9
40
1
Usage
How many times a week will you be using the gym? 2
3
Personal preferences 4
Is there any type of training or piece of equipment that you want/do not want to use? 5
6
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Chapter 9
Advanced training techniques
There are many advanced training techniques (ATT) that can be used by the personal
trainer, some originating from sports training, others from health-related fitness.
The sport techniques can be utilised both in-house and externally to offer new and
varied workouts. The health-related techniques may be mandatory when working
with client groups drawn from special populations. This chapter will outline some
examples of both types of advanced techniques.
The more training techniques PTs are familiar with, the more varied the type of
clients they can work with. If a team sport player comes to a PT for training, then
speed agility quickness (SAQ) training will provide a starting point. If working with a
hypertensive client, on the other hand, the PT needs to follow the specific training
guidelines for such clients in order to ensure that their health is not put at risk.
This chapter is designed to help you to:
1. use SAQ training in PT sessions;

2. understand the science and implementation of plyometric training;
3. know how to use manual resistance training in PT effectively;
4. recognise that there is an array of equipment that can be used in ATT;
5. gain an introductory understanding of periodisation;
6. apply knowledge of special population training when dealing with health clients.
Speed agility quickness

SAQ training dates back to the ancient world. The Romans understood the need for
specific agility training for their fighters in the gladiatorial arena. Although athletes
today do not have to worry about dodging weapons of war, the same principles have
been honed and developed during the twentieth and into the twenty-first century. If an
athlete can combine speed with direction changes and quickness of feet, this will
provide a competitive edge. Even for non-athletes, SAQ can provide welcome variety
in training and help clients to work towards non-sport goals such as aerobic fitness.
Starting SAQ training

The client receiving SAQ training needs to understand the need for quick feet. This
can be achieved by getting the client to walk on their toes, then their heels, and then
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9 / Advanced training techniques
the balls of their feet. It should become apparent that the most stable and ready 1
walk is provided by the balls of the feet. This is where the client should focus during 2
SAQ training. 3
SAQ drills need to be implemented in ascending order of difficulty, thereby 4
allowing the client to learn the feel of SAQ training. The following tables provide a 5
starting point for an SAQ training exercise library. 6
7
1. Single plane (forwards and backwards) movement, on the balls of the feet 8
throughout. 9
10
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 1
2
Walking Skipping, Feet to High knee Elbow High
3
on the balls moving backside walk punch with walking
4
of the feet forwards trainer skip
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Keep toes up Make sure Pull heel Bring the The client There 6
and heels of minimal to buttock. knee to the stands in should be 7
off the floor. floor chest and front of minimal 8
contact. bounce. the trainer. floor 9
contact. 20
1
This Small skips Use speed Keeping the The trainer Arms
2
improves only. in this drill. hip flexors holds their should be
3
ankle working hands out used in a
4
stability. throughout. and the pumping
5
client pumps action.
6
the arms
7
to punch
8
the trainers
9
hands.
30
1
2
2. Multi-plane movement (if training for sport, this should mimic the movement
3
pattern).
4
5
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4
6
Side-step Lateral skips Side-step Backwards 7
skip-overs skip running skip 8
9
Utilising the learnt Keep high knees These include Should be
40
skipping movement. throughout. step-overs. performed with
1
wide legs.
2
Make sure that Build speed into Make sure the This prepares 3
the client builds these. leading foot crosses the client for 4
speed into this drill. in front of the body. back pedalling. 5
6
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3. Ladder drills using a ladder specially made for this type of training that rolls
up for easy transport. It is laid horizontally on the ground and has either plastic
or nylon rungs. All drills should build in speed once the drill is learnt.
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6 Level 7

Quick Straight Two-foot Lateral Run in, Moving Run in,
feet run run runs run out star run out
jumps frontal
On balls Place one Make sure Both feet Facing the Perform As two-
of feet, foot on the that both to touch side of one star foot run,
learning ground feet touch the ground the ladder, jump in but with
how to between the ground between move between added
miss the each between each rung, laterally each rung complica-
rungs. rung. each rung. side-on while while tion of
running. putting moving stepping
both feet forwards. outside
in each the ladder,
rung and on alter-
out again. nate sides.
4. Mini hurdle drills these hurdles range from 10 to 50 cm in height depending on

the functional capacity of your client.
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5 Level 6

One-foot Straight Two-footed Two-footed Random Hurdle
walk run walk run lateral compass
changes jumps
These can One foot Both feet Both feet The client Place four
be bilateral contacts have to contact, performs hurdles in
(both feet between contact done at lateral a square,
walk over hurdles. between speed, running the client
the hurdle) hurdles. build a while you jumps over
or unilateral sprint in shout a one hurdle
(one foot to at the end verbal cue and returns
the side of of the for them to the
the hurdle). hurdles. to change middle.
direction. Each
hurdle is
jumped in
succession.
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The work to rest ratios should follow general energy system training guidelines. If 1
the client is working at a higher intensity, they will need more rest between sets. 2
Repetitions will depend on the energy system being trained or sport-specific timings. 3
4
5
Activity 9.1 6
1. Try the drills above yourself. This will give you an idea of how they feel 7
when a client attempts them. After you have attempted them, find a 8
volunteer to try the training points on. This will allow you to gain 9
confidence when using these drills with your clients. 10
2. Write an SAQ programme for a client named John who has hired you to 1
train him for his amateur rugby team. Use a sample of all levels of drills 2
and a mixture of the exercises. 3
4
Interest can be added to SAQ programming by using different scenarios 511
for clients to visualise. A good example is provided by the historical example 6
above: the client can be programmed as a gladiator for a session. This is not 7
too difficult as the exercises above can be modified for the purpose. Another 8
scenario would be American football, where SAQ is used widely in almost all 9
positions within the sport. An American football can be provided as a specific 20
cue for the client at the start of such a session. 1
2
3
4
Extension SAQ information 5
6
SAQ sessions can utilise sports movements and timings. Football players, for 7
example, can perform SAQ work from a rolling start. One can recreate lane training, 8
where the client can start with a slow acceleration and then sprint just before a 9
change in direction signalled by a verbal cue. 30
To increase speed alone, various methods of sprint training may be used. 1
Overspeed sprint work can be implemented using a decline of 310 per cent to allow 2
the client to improve stride frequency, one of the components of speed. Alternatively, 3
resistance may be used to slow the client down. This can be achieved by using 4
resistance cords held by the PT. If there is a sled available, this can be loaded with 5
weight (usually no more than 10 per cent of the clients body weight) for the client to 6
drag. This resistance will improve the length of the clients stride and the strength of 7
the running movement pattern. 8
Read and react drills are another method for improving clients reaction and 9
agility. Reaction balls may be used. These may be thrown by the PT; when they land, 40
they bounce at random and the client must chase them. It is essential to ensure that 1
there is plenty of space during this exercise. Alternatively, the PT can provide the 2
sport-specific movements needed for read and react drills; the client has to move 3
whenever the PT moves. 4
5
6
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Plyometrics
Plyometrics uses pre-stretching of the muscles to create an increase in the resultant
force production during the execution of the exercise being performed. The term
plyometrics was not used until the mid 1970s when it really began to take off in
Western countries. Some people use the term jump training for plyometrics. It was in
Eastern Europe that bounding and jumping were first utilised to great effect in
athletics. If you have an opportunity to watch film of East European athletes using
plyometrics during the late 1960s to early 1970s, I would strongly recommend it.
Some of the training sequences are amazing and were well ahead of their time.
The outcome of plyometrics is primarily concerned with an increase in power
output. Therefore, the nature of plyometric training is intense, with varying degree of
difficulty in the exercises. Only conditioned clients should train in this way. There are
different criteria for deciding which clients meet this requirement. One of the
simplest methods is to see whether the client can perform a 1 RM squat at 75 per cent
body weight, a 5 RM squat with 60 per cent of body weight in under five seconds, and
at least five clapping press-ups. If so, they might well be ready to start a plyometric
programme. Consideration must be given to floor type: the flooring must absorb
some of the force produced by the client. Grass, a mat or carpet will suffice; concrete
will not! The clients footwear must also be inspected for suitability. The training
shoes must have some bounce as provided by cross-training shoes. The client should
not use squash trainers for this type of training.
Physiological aspects
Plyometric training allows clients to use the stretch reflex, initiated by the muscle
spindle when the muscle is stretched, to increase the force production of the muscle.
The increased force production is directly related to the degree of stretch experienced
by the muscle the more stretch, the more intense the reflex. One of the properties of
muscle tissue is elasticity (the ability of the muscle to return to its original length after
being stretched). Plyometric training manipulates the muscles elastic property.
There are three phases to all plyometric exercises:
1. The landing (or eccentric contraction).

2. Amortisation.
3. The take-off (or concentric contraction).
The idea is that, when the client lands, the muscle stretches and the muscle spindle
instigates the stretch reflex. The amortisation phase is the time spent on contact with
the floor and is crucial: too long and the client will lose the stretch reflex. The take-
off uses the elastic energy stored in the landing phase, thereby increasing the force of
the muscular contraction. This is otherwise known as the stretch shortening cycle.
The following exercises provide a platform from which to launch plyometric
programmes. Equipment can be used for some of these exercises for instance,
cones, boxes (or platforms), hurdles and medicine balls. It is important before
beginning to ensure that the client knows how to land properly with bent knees that
are just over the toes and leaning forwards with a straight spine after landing.
129
Category Jumps Standing Multiple Platform Upper Bounding 1

in place jumps jumps jumps body 2
3
Level 1 Hopping Standing Hexagon Single- Jumping High-leg
4
between long drill leg press-ups skips
5
cones jump jumps
6
Simple Also a You need One foot A small Bounding 7
hops (not fitness to mark on the distance skips 8
over test. out a ground, off the with 9
cones). hexagon one on the floor arms out 10
(rubber box, then between in front 1
markers jump. reps. and full 2
are good hip 3
for this). flexion 4
evident. 511
6
Level 2 Dynamic Take-off Lateral Lateral Rebounding Dynamic
7
lunges drills cone box medicine walking
8
jumps jumps ball drills lunges
9
Jumping Three Usually To the side These will Lunges 20
lunges, bouncing three of the box, need a with a 1
can be steps and cones that then jump wall or bound. 2
switching a jump. the client on the box angled 3
legs in mid will jump and off, trampet. 4
air. over and repeat. 5
back again. 6
7
Level 3 Standing Standing Stair two- Multiple Clapping Single-
8
pike jump long jump foot hops box jumps press-ups leg
9
and lateral (hands bounding
30
runs on head)
1
The classic Can be in Make sure Using two Full claps in Can lead 2
pike posi- any direc- not to use or more between with one 3
tion on the tion as concrete boxes in too easy? leg 4
spot this needed. steps. a line, Do them through- 5
is hard! jump up behind out or 6
and down. your back! changing 7
legs. 8
9
40
The use of medicine balls is particularly useful in upper-body and platform drills. 1
Upper-body medicine ball work includes chest passes, seated twists, overhead 2
throws and caber tossing. Medicine balls can add resistance in platform drills, though 3
holding the ball makes the client less able to balance. A weighted barbell can also be 4
used to good effect in plyometrics. The jump squat and dynamic lunges are lots of 5
fun with the added weight of a barbell! The resistance in jumping can be provided by 6
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130
jump mats that have resistance bands attached to the client and the mat. As the
client gains height, the resistance increases, providing a great workout.
Manual resistance
One measure of a PT is the ability to train almost any client with almost any goal with
a minimum of equipment. The following guide will help with this. Manual resistance
(MR) is where the personal trainer provides the resistance for the client to work
against. In effect, the PT takes the place of free weights, machines and fitness
equipment. The minimum equipment needed is a gym towel. MR is ideal for home-
training clients and provides gym-based clients with variety in their workouts. MR
was first used in the ancient world, much like SAQ. The armed forces have more
recently used MR due to the lack of equipment available in the field. With creativity
they have found that most exercises can be performed with a partner for this
reason MR is sometimes called partner-assisted resistance.
The advantages of MR are that:
it needs little equipment;

it is inexpensive;
it can be performed anywhere;
eccentric contractions by the client can be felt by the trainer (there is no
cheating!);
the trainer can control the speed and level of resistance;
it can provide variety in your workouts;
it allows the trainer to track range of movement and exercise technique.
The disadvantages are that:
the resistance lifted cannot be measured;

if the client is capable of heavy lifting, the PT needs to be able to provide
sufficient resistance.
Some trainers have questioned the effectiveness of MR when fatiguing their

clients; this attitude usually lasts only until they try it for themselves! The resistance
that even smaller trainers can exert is usually more than enough to tire clients,
especially in isolating exercises. Part of the reason for this is that there is no cheating
within reps. When training with weights the client can release the weight on the
controlling, or eccentric phase. This is not possible in MR as the trainer can feel both
the concentric and eccentric phases. As the client gets into position to perform each
exercise, the PT must make it clear that the muscle contraction made by the client
must include both the creating (concentric) and the controlling (eccentric). (The
easiest way to achieve this is to get the client either to push or pull depending on
the exercise against you in the controlling phase.) Anyone who has been through a
full MR workout will tell you that this element of eccentric force provides ample
resistance.
General programming guidelines should still be followed when using MR. The
resistance goals should not be changed. For example, for hypertrophy goals the client
131
should still be working at 812 reps to fatigue for 35 sets. The difference is that the 1
PT gets a workout too! 2
MR exercises include: 3
4
Upper body: chest press; seated row; one-arm row; chest flyes; bicep curls; 5
tricep extension; press-ups; dips; shoulder press; lateral raises; front raises; 6
upright row. 7
Lower body: leg press; leg curl; leg extension; calf raise; adduction; abduction; 8
tibialis anterior. 9
Abs: crunch; back extension; plank. 10
1
Some MR exercise illustrations 2
3
Chest press 4
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Link palms with your clients and track the chest press movement while providing the
6
resistance.
7
8
9
20
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
30
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
40
Figure 9.1:
1
Manual-
2
resistance
3
chest press
4
5
6
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132
One-arm row
Make sure that the clients arm tracks near to their body.
Figure 9.2:
Manual-
resistance
one-arm row
Shoulder press
You may need to get your client to sit on the floor in order to provide enough
resistance.
Figure 9.3:
Manual-resistance
shoulder press
133
Bicep curl 1
This can be unilateral or bilateral as needed. 2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
511
6
7
8
9
20
1
2
Figure 9.4: 3
Manual-resistance 4
bicep curl 5
6
7
Lateral raise 8
This can be unilateral or bilateral as needed. 9
30
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
40
1
2
3
4
Figure 9.5: 5
Manual-resistance 6
lateral raise 711
134
Leg curl
This is surprisingly effective in fatiguing the hamstring muscle group.
Figure 9.6:
Manual-
resistance
leg curl
Leg extension
You need to put one of your arms under the clients leg to stabilise the knee joint.
Figure 9.7:
Manual-
resistance leg
extension
135
Leg press 1
If the PT finds it difficult to provide the necessary resistance when using this exercise 2
with stronger clients (due to the major muscle groups being used), then pre-fatigue 3
the legs using the two lower body exercises above. 4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
511
6
7
8
9
20
Figure 9.8: 1
Manual-resistance 2
leg press 3
4
5
Bar bent-over row 6
This shows the advantage of using a bar that breaks down to fit in your kitbag. The bar 7
allows the client to perform extra exercises that are difficult to perform with a towel. 8
9
30
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
40
1
2
3
4
Figure 9.9: 5
Manual-resistance 6
bar bent-over row 711
136
Bar tricep extension

Make sure that the client does not move the shoulder joint during this bar exercise.
Figure 9.10:
Manual-resistance
bar tricep extension
Activity 9.2
Now that you have some sample exercises, you need to go out and try them on
your clients or a willing volunteer. When you have exhausted the list above, try
other exercises that traditionally use weights for resistance. You will be
surprised how many exercises can be performed using manual resistance.
Next, write three sessions where you are only allowing yourself to use MR
and pulse raisers and you have no equipment to hand apart from a towel. Make
one session circuit based, one aimed at a hypertrophy client, and the last for a
muscular endurance lower body and abs workout. When you have finished
them, go over your notes and MR exercise depth charts to see how you can
improve them.
Reflection 9.1
I use manual resistance predominantly with home clients where I have found it
extremely effective. Sometimes I incorporate MR into gym sessions as it
provides a change from traditional equipment and some clients respond well
to this type of training. A word of warning, though: make sure that your client
is OK with the increased amount of physical contact between you both. I have
had a couple of clients who have not said directly that they found MR intru-
sive, but I have read the signs and discontinued MR when I felt it necessary.
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Equipment and future trends 1

2
As mentioned, you can use medicine balls, cones, mats, towels, hurdles and platforms 3
in your ATT sessions. There are other pieces of equipment available too. They include: 4
5
1. Weighted vest this is worn by the client to provide added resistance during 6
any weight-bearing activity and is especially useful when performing 7
plyometrics. The vest is vastly superior to ankle and wrist weights as these 8
place added strain on those joints. 9
2. Boxing gloves and mitts boxing workouts provide excellent cardiovascular 10
and muscular endurance workouts. Practise punches such as straights, hooks, 1
crosses, uppercuts and body with a partner. Remember that as a PT you will be 2
exclusively on the mitts providing a target for the client to hit, so practise this 3
predominantly. 4
3. Weighted bags the twenty-first century version of boulders and sand bags. 511
Get your clients to hold these or use them as weights to complete traditional 6
exercises. 7
4. Kettle bells a Russian export that has been used for physical training for 8
many years. Some trainers use these in many of their sessions. They are meant 9
to be used in multi-plane, multi-joint activity and therefore are deemed 20
functional. With any functional training, be sure that you are working towards 1
your clients primary goal at all times. Kettle bells may not be suitable for all 2
clients. 3
5. Swiss, or gymnastic balls not only used in ATT, but generally too. There is 4
some more advanced training that can be performed using a Swiss ball. Leg 5
curls are fun, along with impact bouncing and using the ball for press-ups. All 6
Swiss ball training should be carefully monitored to ensure that the client is 7
capable of advanced work as they can be dangerous in the wrong hands. 8
9
30
Reflection 9.2
1
I visit a trade exhibition at least once a year to inform myself about the 2
industry and to have a go with new kit. One piece of kit that I have recently 3
used is a system that uses two discs that look like Frisbees. These discs are 4
stood on by the client and can be used in CV or body weight exercises. They 5
are relatively cheap, light for your kitbag and can provide something different 6
for your clients to try. Although this is one new piece of kit that I have 7
integrated into my sessions, I give all new kit a thorough try for myself to 8
make sure that it is appropriate and safe before I let my clients loose on it. 9
40
1
2
Periodisation 3
4
Periodisation is literally a training programme that uses periods of different 5
activities. There are changes in intensity, volume and modes of training depending 6
on the sport or goal of your client. In Chapter 2 we outlined the general adaptation 711
138
syndrome proposed by Selye. Periodisation puts this idea into practice, using
supercompensation to achieve optimum adaptation within the clients physiology.
(Supercompensation is a period of reaction by the human body to training overload
above resting levels.)
So why do personal trainers use periodised programmes?
1. It promotes progression within a programme.

2. It can decrease the likelihood of overtraining syndrome (or overstress).
3. Such programmes allow optimal use of time.
4. The programmes can be sport specific for athlete clients.
5. Periodisation has been used extensively by sports coaches and is a valid
method of programming.
The periods in such programmes have cycles of time frames. The smallest is a
microcycle, which lasts about one week. A mesocycle is medium term and can last
from weeks to months. A macrocycle lasts a year or more. An Olympic athlete will
have a four-year periodised programme that will indicate what training they will be
doing (even down to the day).
How difficult do you think it would be for you to construct this type of pro-
gramme?
As long as you build the programme carefully from micro through to macrocycles,
you will end up with a sound programme. Though programmes vary between sports,
the periodised programme will generally have four periods:
1. Preparatory this period will deal with the athletes base conditioning training.
Hypertrophy, endurance, strength and power will be concentrated here
depending on the primary goal.
2. Transition 1 this is a short break period and will allow the athlete time to
concentrate on the upcoming competition.
3. Competition peaking occurs here, as you want your athlete client to be at
their best. Both volume and intensity of training will drop here and the athlete
will focus on technique and strategy training aspects.
4. Transition 2 this is post-competition and will involve active and fun activity to
keep the athlete ticking over before they re-enter the programme at period 1.
Period 3, that of competition, will vary considerably between sports. Think about
a Premiership footballer and, in contrast, a 110 m hurdler in track athletics. Consider
the differences in the number of competitions and the duration of a competitive
season. In fact, the four periods above can be termed pre-season, season, post-
season and off-season. This should highlight the importance of periodising athlete
(and some of your health clients) programmes.
Periodised programmes may be represented graphically (see Figure 9.11).
Periodised programmes can also be represented graphically to highlight changes
in intensity, volume and technique training. An example can be found in Figure 9.12.
As you can see, intensity, volume and technique training all have different values
at different time periods within the periodised programme. The PT needs to decide
where these three elements should peak, depending solely on the goals of the client.
139
Figure 9.11: Elements of a periodised yearly programme
A yearly periodised programme
Period Preparatory period Competition period
Transition 1
Transition 2
Sub- General conditioning Specific conditioning Pre-comp Main competitive season Active recovery
period
Macro
cycle
Micro
cycle
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6
5
4
3
2
1
40
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
30
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
20
9
8
7
6
511
4
3
2
1
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Figure 9.12: Example of volume, intensity and technique changes within a periodised programme
Volume, intensity
Volume
and technique
Technique
Intensity
Period Preparatory period Competition period
Transition 1
Sub- General conditioning Specific conditioning Pre-comp Main competitive season
period
Periodised programmes for some athlete clients can be very complicated, so it is 1

important to practise writing some smaller programmes before attempting a large- 2
scale yearly version. Periodised programmes can promote exercise adherence and 3
client retention: they enable clients to see the big picture. It is important to 4
remember that all such programmes must be based on client goals, needs analysis 5
and fitness testing. 6
7
Activity 9.3 8
9
1. Research different periodised programmes for a variety of sports that 10
professional coaches have constructed. You will see that they can vary 1
considerably between sports and even coaches within those sports. 2
Some of these periodised charts are extremely detailed and you should 3
strive to understand each element within them. 4
2. Using the sample table in this chapter, construct a periodised 511
programme for a client of your choice. It can be any sport, but should 6
include the training regime right down to the individual day. Once 7
completed, construct an intensity, volume and technique diagram that 8
represents where your client should be concentrating their efforts at a 9
particular timeframe. This will give you practice for the construction of 20
real periodised programmes for your clients. 1
2
3
4
5
Special populations 6
7
Clients who suffer from a diagnosed health problem require special treatment. It is 8
important to apply the information given here and regularly to seek out new and 9
revised guidelines for any clients from special populations. Such careful attention is 30
required by the PTs duty of care. 1
2
Hypertension 3
4
A clients high blood pressure may be highlighted during the initial health screen. If so, 5
the PT must refer the client to their GP before any physical training activity takes 6
place. Professional associations have slightly different definitions of high blood 7
pressure. The threshold which seems the most sensible is 159/99 mmHg. If your client 8
is above in both or either of these readings, the PT must write a referral letter to their 9
GP detailing when and where the reading took place and requesting a letter back that 40
will clear the client for physical activity. Ideally, the GPs letter will also include 1
intensity guidelines. Most hypertensives will have a 70 per cent MHR ceiling placed on 2
their training intensity. This can be increased if their blood pressure lowers naturally 3
over a period of training. It is important to ask hypertensive clients whether they are 4
on any current medication, as this will artificially lower their blood pressure. Where 5
the client is on medication, heart rate cannot be used as an indicator for intensity; 6
RPE must be used instead. Hypertensives must not use the valsalva (breath holding) 711
142
manoeuvre as this will cause an exponential rise in blood pressure, putting the client
at risk.
Cardiovascular exercise is especially applicable for hypertensive clients as
the evidence for a positive effect is overwhelming. Due to chronic vasodilation, the
resistance to blood flow lowers and blood pressure will drop. Isometric activity
must not be performed with this client group as the blood pressure increases
seen in this type of training would be dangerously high and could cause a coronary
event. Resistance exercises should focus on major muscle groups and promote
muscular endurance repetitions. For hypertensives the ACSM recommends a
frequency of 37 days for 3060 minutes and an aim of 7002000 total kcal weekly
expenditure.
It is essential to take a hypertensive clients blood pressure both pre- and post-
workout to make sure that the client is capable of training. If the reading is more than
200/115 mmHg in either systolic or diastolic, the client should not be trained.
Pregnancy
It has long been known that exercising while pregnant tends to be beneficial for both
mother and baby. Mothers have reported better weight control, improved recovery
from the labour and less back pain.
The main concern for the PT is their combined safety. There are guidelines
available for the PT to follow. If the mother is not a current exerciser when she first
approaches the PT, she should first be referred to her GP. After GP clearance, low-
intensity workouts should be provided. The PT needs to have a clear idea of what each
trimester during the pregnancy will entail. The most obvious consideration is that the
baby is constantly growing! This means that the PT does not need to get the client to
lift a lot of weight: body weight exercises wherever possible as the woman will be
gaining weight anyway.
During the first trimester (the first three months) most of the programme that
the woman would normally be following can be used (as long as it is not plyometrics!).
There should be no stretching at all administered to a pregnant client, as a hormone
called relaxin is released into the body to facilitate the stretching of the abdomen.
The hormone does not affect only the abdomen; it affects the joints too, so they can
go beyond a safe ROM.
Trimester 2 needs more consideration as the woman will not be able to perform
prone exercises and will not be able to perform any abdominal work. This does mean,
however, that she should do pelvic floor work, continue body weight exercises using
higher repetitions (1220) and use compound exercises. The use of RPE should be
used to gauge intensity, as the clients heart rate will be affected by the presence of
the baby. The ceiling should be an RPE of 1213 (on the 620 scale recommended in
Chapter 2), which is a moderate intensity.
The third trimester will almost certainly involve a shorter time in training as most
women will find physical training sessions more difficult towards the due date. You
should implement quad position activity with a limited standing lying change during
the workout. Swiss ball squats, high incline press-ups and the pelvic floor exercises
are some examples of training that should be used at this late stage. More general
guidelines include the following:
143
The client must keep well hydrated during the session. 1

Concentration on client posture should be evident in sessions. 2
Listen to the client at all times and ask how she finds a particular activity. 3
No fatigue should be evident (in contrast to normal workouts). 4
The cool-down should be longer, with 515 minutes to be used as a guide. 5
Be aware of ambient temperature and do not run the session in periods of high 6
humidity and temperature. 7
8
Some examples of contraindications for exercising during pregnancy are: 9
10
pregnancy causing hypertension; 1
any history of pre-term labour; 2
multiple births (twins or above); 3
consistent bleeding during the second and third trimesters. 4
511
6
It is highly recommended that if you have a pregnant client, you research this
7
client group further through the ACSM.
8
9
Diabetes 20
1
There are two forms of diabetes: non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM)
2
and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM). Insulin-dependent diabetics need
3
regular injections of insulin as their bodies do not regulate the production of this
4
hormone correctly. PTs need to be aware of both types.
5
IDDM clients must be referred to their GP for advice and can then train with the
6
following guidelines: 7
8
The client must be able to easily monitor their blood glucose levels, ideally just 9
before and after exercise. 30
Carbohydrate intake may be necessary if blood glucose level is below 100 mg/dl 1
(5.5 mmol/l). 2
Ensure that the client is aware of the footwear issues surrounding diabetics. 3
Diabetics exhibit circulation problems, nervous tissue degradation, increased 4
risk of infection and a decrease in the ability to heal blisters. All of these 5
problems will especially affect the feet. 6
If blood glucose level is more than 300 mg/dl (16.5 mmol/l), do not train the 7
client at all. 8
9
NIDDM clients are similar to the above with the following differences: 40
1
Most of these clients will be NIDDM through being obese and therefore weight 2
and fat loss is usually a primary goal. 3
Physical activity enhances the regulation of insulin and glucagon hormones, and 4
therefore can reverse the condition with chronic training good news! 5
6
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Obesity
If an obese client is unused to performing physical activity, training sessions must
be of low intensity to begin with until an aerobic base is evident. The use of exercise
in conjunction with a calorie-controlled diet is paramount in tackling the problem
from two directions. General guidelines include the following when working with
obese clients:
They should be exercising 57 days per week, for 4060 minutes per day.
Intensity should be a maximum of 70 per cent MHR with new clients.
Low-impact exercises are preferable.
Overall weekly exercise kcal expenditure should be between 1,000 and 2,000 kcal.
A mixture of CV and resistance activity is appropriate (circuit type).
Respiratory disease, including asthma

Most respiratory disease clients encountered will be asthmatics. They must have
their medication with them at all times during a workout. This will normally be in the
form of an inhaler. The PT should check every session to ensure that the client has
the inhaler to hand. There are no intensity recommendations currently for respiratory
disease clients. The PT does, however, need to be aware of exercise-induced asthma
(EIA) clients, as they are obviously more prone to an asthma episode during your
sessions. Exercise overall has been shown to improve lung function and have a
positive effect on this client group. CV activity is particularly recommended.
Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a bone degenerative disease. These clients will usually be older
people. Above all else the PT must take the clients functional capacity into con-
sideration when training this client group. Weight-bearing activity is recommended,
along with walking and jogging, although high-impact exercise is contraindicated. The
PT can also implement balance training to improve the clients neuromuscular system;
along with postural training this will benefit the client greatly.
Functional problems
Functional problems are anything that prevents the client from performing a
particular movement or range of movement. If the client has an injury that has not
been diagnosed by a physiotherapist, the PT must refer them before training them
in order to ensure that the correct exercises are then programmed. Often clients
who have functional problems will have notes from a physiotherapist as to what exer-
cises are appropriate. These exercises can then be integrated into sessions in order
to work towards a normal functional capacity. Liaison with physiotherapists
is commonplace in personal training and is mutually beneficial. The PT can even
approach a physiotherapist to form a working partnership with a two-way referral
system.
Some general guidelines to follow for a sample of function problems are as
follows:
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Lower back 1
Hyperlordosis: concentrate on pelvic tilts, abs and transverse abs work. Make sure 2
that the client performs checks on their posture every day. Stretching the iliopsoas is 3
also advised. 4
5
Muscle strains: the most common complaint that you will encounter, usually brought 6
on by incorrect execution of daily activities. Avoid high-impact exercises and get 7
regular feedback from the client regarding pain thresholds. You can stretch the lower 8
back only after an appropriate warm-up. 9
Overall, with back problems be aware of correct posture at all times. If there is an 10
imbalance, then you and the client can work together to correct this. 1
2
Knee 3
This group of conditions includes shin splints. These are actually micro fractures 4
along the tibia and can be very painful. You should condition the tibialis anterior 511
muscle and use plenty of stretching around the lower muscles, i.e. the gastrocnemius, 6
soleus and tibialis anterior itself. 7
You may come across anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries, which are the 8
most common in footballers and players of other sports where rotation pressure is 9
placed on the knee joint. You will need to strengthen all the muscles around the knee 20
joint using closed chain exercises only. Depending on the degree of this injury and 1
the stage of rehabilitation, there will probably need to be some liaison with a 2
physiotherapist, or at least recommended exercises at hand. 3
4
Shoulder 5
Shoulder injuries often involve the rotator cuff muscles around the shoulder joint. 6
You can strengthen this muscle group by using exercises such as internal and external 7
rotation. If the client suffers from impingement at the shoulder, be wary of overhead 8
movements and lateral raises. Focus on rhomboids, scapular and latissimus dorsi 9
work to strengthen the whole area. 30
1
Activity 9.4 2
3
There is a wealth of information available regarding special populations. The 4
first port of call should be the ACSM. This organisation constantly updates 5
their position regarding each client group that you are likely to train. 6
Pick a random special population group and research what the ACSM 7
recommends for training them, then seek out an alternative source that covers 8
the same client group. There may be slight variation, but this will give you an 9
insight into how to deal with these types of training situations. 40
1
2
In the case of uncertainty over special population protocols, clients need to be 3
referred to a GP or physiotherapist, whichever is more appropriate. It is important 4
not to proceed by trying to second guess the doctors or physiotherapists advice. 5
6
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Reflection 9.3
Having trained many, if not all, of the client groups above, I can say that the
first-hand evidence that I have witnessed is 100 per cent positive. I have
trained hypertensive clients over many months and seen them lower their
blood pressure and in some cases actually come off medication. My pregnant
clients have all reported a positive response to training even to the extent of
most coming back post-partum to train with me further jogging with a pram
is good exercise! Weight loss clients have been amazed by what is possible
from hiring a PT: significant aesthetic changes result from chronic exercising.
You can have a profoundly positive affect on people who hire you.
Summary
The guidelines given in this chapter provide the basics for starting to prepare for
advanced training programmes, including SAQ, plyometrics and MR. If you have a
chance, explore the training equipment listed and incorporate items into your
workouts in order to introduce fresh exercises. The above advice on periodisation
provides a taste of what is possible in this area. Periodising programmes requires
practice and patience from the PT, but the end results can be impressive for clients.
Finally, taking account of special population requirements is vital to ensure safe
workouts with these types of clients. If clients manifest any symptoms, it is
important to seek medical advice before training them.
Further reading
Essentials of strength training and conditioning (NSCA) has been my training bible
for many years and you cannot go far wrong if you adhere to the science and exercise
descriptions within this book. It covers SAQ, plyometric and periodised training, and
is well worth getting hold of. The ACSM text ACSMs guidelines for exercise testing
and prescription should be an automatic purchase if you train any special population
clients. It is regularly updated and contains current thinking regarding training
recommendations.
ACSM (2002) Exercise management for persons with chronic diseases and
disabilities. 2nd edition. Human Kinetics a must-buy if you work with GP referral
clients.
ACSM (2005) ACSMs guidelines for exercise testing and prescription. 7th edition.
Baechle, T, Earle, R (2000) Essentials of strength training and conditioning.
2nd edition. Human Kinetics.
Bompa, T (1994) Theory and methodology of training: the key to athletic performance.
3rd edition. Kendall Hunt.
147
Chu, D (1998) Jumping into plyometrics. 2nd edition. Human Kinetics. 1

Chu, D. (2003) Plyometric exercises with the medicine ball. 2nd edition. Bittersweet 2
Publishing. 3
Potvin, A and Jesperson, M (2004) The great medicine ball handbook. 3rd edition. 4
Productive Fitness. 5
6
www.exrx.net/ExInfo/Sprint.html general SAQ training guidelines. 7
www.brianmac.co.uk/plymo.htm plyometric exercise information. 8
www.spinalhealth.net/plyometrics.html this site includes links to example plyo- 9
metric exercises. 10
www.bodyweightculture.com/ an interesting site that advocates the use of body 1
weight exercises. 2
www.pponline.co.uk/encyc/periodisation.html a starting guide to periodising 3
programmes. 4
www.brettsmith.co.nz/rugby/period.htm a guide to periodising for rugby. 511
www.acsm-msse.org/ click on the position stands link on the left to access all of 6
the ACSMs position stands on special populations. 7
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PART 3
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711
Chapter 10
Home training
The typical impression of home fitness training is of people jumping around to a

1980s Jane Fonda video. Huge numbers of fitness DVDs are sold to the general public
some well made, some downright dangerous. For PTs the benefit of these videos is
that they make people aware that they can train in their own homes and there is
now also widespread awareness of the availability of PTs for home visits.
In many ways, the growth of interest in home training is a positive development
for PTs: it provides opportunities for additional income and introduces variety.
However, because the cost to the client of home training is greater than gym
membership, by no means everyone can afford such a service.
When starting out in the profession, PTs often view the home training of clients as
a daunting prospect. With only someones living room or garden to work in, without
the machines, free weights and purpose-built environment that a gym provides, what
can a PT do? Clients training at home, after all, pay good money for the service, and so
expect to work to the same goals and to receive the same quality of experience as in
a gym. How can a PT satisfy these expectations? Until now, PTs have had to consult
numerous resources textbooks, websites, and so on without any kind of one-stop
resource. This chapter is designed to make good that lack by collating information
and providing advice and creative ideas for PTs working in home settings. The chapter
will therefore help you:
1. understand clients motivations for hiring PTs to train them at home;

2. be aware of the range of equipment that is available and useful for home
training;
3. make effective use of equipment;
4. understand the application of personal training codes of conduct to home
training;
5. be creative in designing home training programmes.
Clients motivations
It is useful to consider clients motivations for hiring a PT to provide home training.
These will, of course, include the general motivation to exercise. The decision
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specifically to hire a home trainer, however, differs in several ways from that of 1
joining a gym. The motivation is likely to include one or more of the following factors: 2
3
1. Anxiety: a client may well be anxious, perhaps because of low self-esteem, 4
about exercising publicly. 5
2. Money: if a client wants to exercise and can readily afford home training, the 6
question for them might be, Why not? rather than, Why? 7
3. Status: having a trainer visit the clients home may be a means to display the 8
clients disposable income. 9
4. Time: by removing the journey time to the gym, the total time commitment on 10
the part of the client is reduced. The clients time can be used optimally. 1
2
In addition, clients may have experienced a lack of motivation to visit a gym 3
regularly. 4
The sources of motivation differ between clients. Working out a clients 511
motivation can help a PT to retain that clients custom. 6
7
8
Reflection 10.1
9
Home training clients can be quite different from gym-based clients. In some 20
cases, Ive trained clients who have never been to a gym. During the initial 1
consultation I ask open-ended questions and encourage clients to describe 2
what they think the sessions will entail. Within scientific guidelines, I then 3
tailor the sessions to meet or preferably exceed the clients expectations. 4
All session planning will be linked to the clients goals and will have client input 5
and ownership. Guide rather than coerce! 6
7
8
9
Equipment 30
1
Usually, home training does not provide the range of equipment that is available in a 2
gym. The following, however, normally are available: chairs; walls; stairs; tins of food; 3
water (yes water!); a sofa; and doors. The question then is how to make use of these, 4
in combination with items in the PTs own kitbag, to provide sessions that will enable 5
clients to work towards their goals. A chair can be used for tricep dips, incline or 6
decline press-ups, body weight squats, incline or decline lunges, or as a platform for 7
bridges. Walls can be used for wall sits, pelvic tilts or handstand presses. Stairs have 8
a multitude of uses, including step-ups, step-downs, cardiovascular work and calf 9
raises. 40
A problem for PTs is how to transport free weights to clients homes. A kitbag 1
will contain light resistance equipment such as resistance bands. In addition, a 2
number of useful items will be available in a clients house already. Tins of food may 3
be combined inside a padded bag to provide a substitute for free weights. These may 4
be used for almost all free weight exercises so long as safety requirements are 5
adhered to. Tins may also be used singly as dumb-bells. A water carrier with an 6
integral handle in the clients house or a 5-litre water bottle, once filled, can be used 711
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to provide resistance for weight training. A sofa can be used to provide a lower-leg
rest for abdominal exercises. Doors can be used for chin-ups and can anchor bands
for resistance exercises.
Clients gardens can also provide a good environment. They can be useful, for
example, for cardiovascular work in the warmer months of the year. Gardens may be
used for shuttle runs and circuit training, with garden benches substituting for chairs.
Body weight training

A multitude of body weight exercises can be used in the home training repertoire.
The following are examples:
press-ups and all of the different methods of performing press-ups;

lying pull ups you need a bar for this (use a free bar if you are strong enough to
hold it in place for a client);
squats;
calf raises (including bilateral and unilateral);
wall squats (these are isometric with the knees at 90 degrees);
lunges (pulse, jumping or lateral);
chin-ups you need a bar for this which can be bought fairly cheaply to fit
across a door frame;
tricep dips;
step-downs (one leg balances while the other steps down from a chair);
handstand press (for the more athletic clients!);
virtually all abdominal exercises;
back extensions;
supermans;
plank and side planks;
astrides across a step.
If you consider the range of equipment and exercises available, youll see that a
wide repertoire is possible. Indeed, with careful planning, there are even more
possibilities. The PTs kitbag is important here: it provides a lightweight gym in itself;
it makes the PT look professional, and also, with a logo on the side, provides a medium
for marketing the service. If the PT is travelling by public transport, the kitbag and
its contents obviously need to be kept light.
Activity 10.1
First, make a list of everything needed in a kitbag to run a varied home PT

session. Then put them in order of priority. Finally, compare your list to that
in the appendix at the end of this chapter.
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Activity 10.2 1
2
Draw up a list of exercises that the equipment contained in a kitbag enables 3
the PT to add to the kind of repertoire already discussed above. Note that you 4
will find that there are hundreds! Almost any resistance activity can be 5
mimicked using either latex or resistance bands, which are cheap to purchase. 6
7
8
9
PTs equipment: rationale 10
1
Look again at the contents listed in the appendix to this chapter. They are lightweight 2
and will fit into a medium-sized bag. The BP monitor is essential for initial health 3
screens and provides a necessary check when training hypertensive clients. A 4
stopwatch and/or timer is essential, both for working to time frames within a session 511
and for measuring total session time. The small towel is used to provide a barrier 6
when stretching clients and in manual resistance exercises (described in Chapter 9). 7
A training mat is necessary to keep the client comfortable when performing floor 8
exercises. 9
Resistance bands provide an excellent means of resistance training for home 20
clients. Different intensities of band tubing are available and will provide more than 1
enough resistance for most clients (though there is the disadvantage here that the PT 2
cannot measure the intensity). 3
The list of exercises for these bands is almost endless, especially if a door (DA) is 4
used. A sample list of exercises includes: 5
6
squats the band is stood on by the client and the handles held by the hands in 7
a shoulder-press position while the squat is being performed; 8
wood chop (DA); 9
internal/external rotation for the shoulder (DA); 30
one-arm row (DA); 1
tricep pulldown and extension (DA); 2
bicep curl (the band is under one foot while the exercise is being performed); 3
seated row (DA); 4
cable cross-over (DA); 5
shoulder press (again the band is under the feet while the client presses); 6
lateral raises; 7
front raises; 8
chest flyes unilateral (DA); 9
chest press unilateral (DA). 40
1
Resources providing further information on resistance band exercises are listed 2
at the end of the chapter. 3
A training bar can be used to provide focus when using resistance bands or 4
performing manual resistance. Some manufacturers provide bars that break down 5
for easy storage, though it is also possible to improvise by using, for example, a sawn- 6
off broom. Boxing gloves are lightweight and can provide a good CV workout. (Many 711
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clients enjoy some sort of boxing training during at least some sessions some may
well want this kind of training in every session.) Skipping also provides a good CV
training mode, though care needs to be taken to ensure that there is ample space.
Cones can be used for various activities, including circuits and SAQ drills (see Chapter
9). The same is true of the rubber markers, which may be purchased from sports
equipment suppliers. Callipers are useful for providing clients with an update on their
body fat percentage. A heart rate monitor is useful during dynamic movement as it is
difficult to keep palpating heart rates repeatedly though it is advisable always to
palpate at least one heart rate during a workout as a health screen for arrhythmias.
If a PT owns a car, this increases the range of equipment that may be carried
(though it is important not to carry so much equipment that too much time is spent
loading and unloading). It is useful to carry a step that includes a deck for conversion
into a lightweight incline bench. Adding a couple of medicine balls of different
weights and a couple of body bars provides a range of light resistance equipment. A
gym stability ball is also useful for a multitude of exercises. Kettle bells and
resistance bags are also options. It is useful to experiment by varying the range of
equipment carried.
Equipment purchased by the client

If a client wishes to purchase equipment, this can add to the range of what is available
for the training sessions. The client may well ask the PTs opinion on what to buy and
how to design the use of home space. This can provide a PT with an opportunity for
secondary earning (for example, by ordering through the PT website, as discussed in
Chapter 12). However, the PT does need to give careful consideration before providing
advice. PTs have an ethical obligation not to overstretch clients financially or
recommend equipment that is not appropriate to that client. The amount of space
available and the clients training goals are important criteria.
Activity 10.3
Using graph paper, plan a gym for the largest room in your home. Try using at
least (a) two pieces of cardiovascular kit, (b) a bench and (c) a basic free weight
set-up. Then add the smaller items such as a gym ball. Remember to include
measurements of the dimensions of the room and to place the equipment with
reference to the dimensions of the machines. Finally, calculate the budget
required. (The fitness supplier websites listed at the end of this chapter
provide information on prices.)
Ambience and space

Clients who are trained in their home have the choice of background music if they
wish. It is best not to use television music channels, since television can distract
clients during exercises.
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It is important for the clients safety to ensure that there is sufficient light and 1
space. It may be necessary to move furniture (with the clients consent) to provide 2
the latter. Ceiling height is restricted in private dwellings and can cause an injury risk 3
during jumping activities, especially with tall clients. Exercises that the PT deems 4
too risky in the space available should never be attempted. Remember also the 5
danger of damaging valuable objects in the clients home. 6
It is advisable for the PT to make a risk assessment in relation to every 7
home training client covering all potential hazards. An example of a blank risk 8
assessment sheet is available from www.sahw.co.uk/main-section/workplace-topics/ 9
risk-assessment.cfm. 10
If an accident does occur, the risk assessment sheet can be used to provide 1
evidence that the PT considered the hazards. An example of potential hazards is a 2
lack of space to perform dynamic exercises such as plyometrics. Risk assessments 3
are vital to the safety of clients and PTs. Because of the complexities of this subject, 4
it is important to seek professional advice. 511
6
Activity 10.4 7
8
Draw up a risk assessment table with the following columns and complete it 9
for your own home: 20
1
Hazard Probability Severity Control measures 2
3
Detail here Indicate the Indicate how Explain how to 4
what could likelihood of the serious the minimise the risk 5
go wrong hazard occurring accident could be 6
7
8
9
Professionalism 30
1
The personal trainer code of conduct is especially relevant to home training. The fact 2
that a PT can be alone with a client in a house makes it especially important for the PT 3
to ensure that the code of conduct is adhered to. The REPs code states, for example: 4
Ensure that physical contact is appropriate and necessary and is carried out within 5
recommended guidelines and with the participants full consent and approval. 6
Demonstrate proper personal behaviour and conduct at all times. 7
PTs can receive unwanted advances from clients and need to protect themselves 8
from this kind of attention. Though it may seem flattering, the consequences can 9
be serious especially if the client is attached or overly needy (or both!). As a 40
professional, the PT must either drop the person from the list of clients or be sure 1
to manage the situation carefully. The REPs code states: Avoid sexual intimacy with 2
clients while instructing, or immediately after a training session, and . . . arrange to 3
transfer the client to another professional if it is clear that an intimate relationship is 4
developing. Care is required because the PT has a legal duty of care. If a relationship 5
is developing in an unhealthy manner, the PT needs to cease providing the client with 6
a service. 711
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It is important to have a dress code for PT and client. The PT needs always to look
professional, wearing, for example, a clean polo shirt with logo and either long shorts
or loose-fitting trousers. The client should be dressed appropriately in gym wear or
loose-fitting clothing and training shoes.
Creativity
The key to home training is creativity. PTs must use their exercise depth charts to
maximum effect. Home training is an art that requires numerous sessions to perfect.
The initial consultation with the client provides an opportunity to work out which
exercises will and will not be possible. The PT can explore the space available and
also find out which home items are available for use as equipment, as discussed
above. Collecting this information before the first training session will save time and
also emphasise the PTs professionalism. Combining the home equipment with body
weight exercises, plyometrics, SAQ training, circuit training, manual resistance and
exercises using kitbag equipment provides a vast array of possibilities.
Reflection 10.2
One piece of equipment that is inexpensive and lightweight, and that may be
utilised in a home environment consists of two discs that slide across surfaces
with your client standing on them. These can be used to good effect during
body weight exercises and even some cardiovascular workouts. Another recent
development, particularly popular in the USA, is called suspension training. The
kit involves a strap with either a door or wall anchor combined with handles
and foot straps. The client uses their body weight to perform many different
exercises it really is a home gym and may well take home PT by storm in the
UK. It is light, portable and adaptable. See www.personaltraining1st.com for
further information on this piece of kit and UK availability.
Activity 10.5
Draw up two programmes for a client as if you were going to train them in your
home. Try something straightforward initially, such as 10 body weight exercises
in a circuit session. Then try working on a programme for a client who wants
hypertrophy using a split routine over three days per week. Note that the
second programme will be more challenging, but you should be able to use
manual resistance here effectively. Once you have your programmes, ask a
friend or family member to volunteer to be trained by you so that you can try
the exercises in the order you have programmed.
If you are an experienced PT, you need to think laterally and explore
new and innovative equipment or different ways of using this equipment.
Remember the importance of keeping your client interested and motivated,
which can be more difficult in their home surroundings.
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Activity 10.6 1
2
Assemble all your kit together with the typical home items used in training. As 3
in Chapter 7, develop a written list of all the home exercises that you use. Try 4
then to research and develop some additional exercises and surf the Internet 5
to see what new equipment is available. Practise the exercises yourself. This 6
activity should be conducted at least twice per year to ensure that you keep 7
developing your home training repertoire. 8
9
10
1
2
3
Summary 4
511
This chapter has emphasised that there is usually a wealth of equipment in clients
6
homes that may, with a little creativity, be used for personal training. A PT who begins
7
to acquire home clients needs also to develop a kitbag with equipment for a variety of
8
exercises. PTs should practise exercises themselves in order to learn how to use the
9
equipment effectively and to develop their creativity. PTs involved in home training
20
must adhere to the code of conduct for PTs and protect themselves from litigation
1
wherever possible. Home training clients are often the best source of income for
2
most PTs: building a home client-base and continuing to develop professionally can
3
lead to career success.
4
5
6
Further study 7
8
Few PT texts deal with home training at all, although you may find some of the home 9
training books aimed at the general public useful. One example is: 30
1
Wolff, R (2002) Home bodybuilding: three easy steps to building your body and 2
changing your life. Adams Media Corp. This book explores home training from 3
the clients point of view. 4
5
The best advice is to build your exercise lists from this chapter and then explore the 6
links below to enhance your knowledge base: 7
8
http://exercise.about.com/od/resistancebandworkouts/Resistance_Band_Workouts. 9
htm this website covers many resistance band exercises with many illustrations; 40
www.performbetter.com/catalog/assets/Exercisesheets/PDF/MedBall%20Handou 1
t.pdf examples of medicine ball exercises; 2
www.exerciseregister.org/custom/REPsInformationGuidance.htm the REPs 3
website that includes documents such as the code of conduct mentioned in this 4
chapter; 5
www.personaltraining1st.com this site will provide links for various UK equipment 6
suppliers for sourcing equipment for your kitbags and clients homes. 711
158
Appendix: Contents list for kitbag
for home training
Blood pressure monitor

Stopwatch/timer (can be on a wristwatch)
Small towel
Training mat
Resistance bands
Latex bands
Suspension training straps
Training bar
Boxing gloves and mitts
Skipping rope
Cones
Rubber markers
Callipers (percentage BF)
Heart rate monitor
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Chapter 11 1
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3
Health fitness trainer 4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
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4
In this chapter we consider the role of health trainers with regard to the National 511
Health Service (NHS) in the UK. Encouraging physical activity has, along with healthy 6
eating, become a key objective of health policy. For prospective PTs, the hope is that 7
future UK governments will invest properly in physical activity schemes that employ 8
or hire fitness professionals to help tackle health problems. 9
This chapter focuses in particular on the problem of obesity. The campaign 20
against obesity has come to the forefront of health policy. This is for good reasons: 1
obesity is associated with increased risk of a wide array of health problems. 2
Initiatives designed to counter the rise of obesity have therefore become high profile. 3
The author considers the development of links between PTs and the general 4
populace through GP referral schemes and future government directives to be 5
paramount in the fight against obesity. If such initiatives develop, the personal 6
training sector will grow and new entrants to the profession will be well placed to 7
benefit. 8
This chapter is designed to help you to: 9
30
1. acquire knowledge about health problems in the UK, especially obesity; 1
2. understand the role of the health trainer; 2
3. recognise that there are GP referral schemes that provide work opportunities 3
already; 4
4. be aware of what qualifications are required to work in this sector; 5
5. formulate a view on future trends and how to benefit from them as a PT. 6
7
8
The case of obesity 9
40
In the UK obesity levels are staggering. Official statistics indicate that obesity has 1
risen by 38 per cent in the general population since 2003 and that by 2010, on current 2
trends, one-third of men will be obese, as will 19 per cent of boys and 22 per cent of 3
girls aged 215. In contrast, in the 1980s only 6 per cent of the UK population was 4
classed as obese (see, for example, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/5277350.stm). 5
At current rates of growth, by 2050, 50 per cent of women and 60 per cent of men 6
will be obese. Obesity is associated with health risks diabetes, coronary disease 711
160
11 / Health fitness trainer
and strokes in particular. On these figures, by 2050 the incidence of type 2 diabetes
would rise by 70 per cent, coronary disease by 20 per cent and strokes by 30 per cent.
The cost
In 2002, the NHS in the UK spent 7 billion on treating health problems that were
experienced by overweight or obese patients. Cost projections are unsustainable: by
2047 the cost of obesity will rise to 46 billion (at current UK prices). The NHS will not
be able to cope with costs of this magnitude. There is, of course, also a human cost.
An obese person has an average life expectancy of nearly nine years less than
someone with normal weight and body fat. In 2004, the Department of Health
estimated that people who take regular physical activity are 2030 per cent less
likely to exhibit premature mortality and 50 per cent less at risk of experiencing heart
disease, strokes, diabetes and cancer.
This is a sobering thought for the huge numbers of sedentary people in the UK
0r so you would think. In fact, most people know that physical activity leads to health,
yet according to government statistics, 70 per cent of adults, 30 per cent of boys and
40 per cent of girls miss the five exercise periods per week target recommended by
the UKs Chief Medical Officer (CMO). (See www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsand
statistics/Publications/PublicationsPolicyAndGuidance/DH_4080994.) Figure 11.1
shows a graphical representation of the situation.
As is clear from the diagram, there is a large group of adults who do not commit to
regular physical activity those who do not, but can. This group needs targeting
through increased intervention from fitness professionals. We need to remember the
Figure 11.1: Individual activity levels in the UK (based on CMO data, 2004)
Physically active individuals in the UK
Those people who are not physically active enough
Individuals who find physical activity almost impossible
161
adage that prevention is better than cure. This section of the population requires 1
intervention before they exhibit symptoms of disease. Just think of all the GP 2
referrals and potential clients that could result from preventative policies! 3
Why does this section of the population not take regular exercise? Many people 4
do not exercise regularly because they either do not wish to or have lacked an 5
impetus to want to start. Therefore, this do not, but can section of the population 6
can be subdivided, with those people who are more willing to exercise placed in the 7
impetus category. It is not possible to say exactly how many people fall into each 8
subdivision, but the sheer overall numbers involved over 60 million people live in 9
the UK must make this group worth targeting. 10
1
2
The NHS health trainer 3
4
In 2006, the first cohort of health trainers were dispatched by the NHS to help tackle 511
the growing health problems within lower socio-economic communities in the UK. The 6
initial 88 primary care trusts that hired and trained these health trainers were to be 7
followed in 2007 by the rest of the country. The health trainers primary goals are to 8
advise, motivate and provide practical support to those individuals who would like 9
to adopt healthier lifestyles. 20
Trainers were to be recruited from the local community to appeal to the target 1
audience. They were encouraged to work one-to-one with their clients in a similar 2
way to PTs. Their remit is to tackle the key areas for actions outlined in the 3
government white paper entitled Choosing Health (2004). These include smoking, 4
sexual health, drinking, obesity and general overall health. Health trainers work with 5
health promotion strategies and psychological interventions that target these 6
problem areas. 7
The training that health trainers receive in some NHS trusts lasts a minimum of 8
three months, after which they take modules to acquire specific knowledge regarding 9
the particular needs of their community. Another route into the health trainer 30
discipline is via the City & Guilds level 3 Certificate for Health Trainers qualification, 1
which is available in increasing numbers of training centres across the UK. 2
The concept of health trainers has been adopted too by the UK armed forces, 3
with the army training their PT instructors in the health promotion techniques needed 4
to increase soldiers general health. Hopefully, then, the occupation of health trainer 5
is gaining acceptance in the UK. The link between health trainers and personal 6
trainers could be developed to allow specialist Health Fitness Trainers (HFT) to be 7
created. If you are interested in pursuing this, you are recommended to contact local 8
GP surgery exercise referral schemes. 9
40
1
2
Activity 11.1
3
Perform an Internet search to see if there are health trainer initiatives being 4
run in your area. Research the salaries offered and consider the possibility of 5
adding this area of expertise to your own PT skill base. 6
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162
GP referral schemes
The practice of GPs referring patients to local leisure centres for exercise
programmes has been developing over the last decade. This reflects GPs greater
awareness of the benefits of physical activity and use of exercise as prescriptive
medicine to treat a number of conditions. The health areas that feature prominently
here are hypertension, diabetes, cancer, mental health, physical rehabilitation and
obesity. There are two obstacles that slow the rate of growth of these schemes: first,
a lack of sufficient trust or understanding of the fitness industry and, second, the
influence of drug companies and their sales reps (if a patient is referred to a gym,
the demand for drugs will fall). Nevertheless, it seems inevitable that the referral
system will continue to grow: the government will not increase its funding of the NHS
indefinitely and the drugs often treat only symptoms rather than cure the underlying
disease. An example is hypertension: beta-blockers will lower a patients heart rate
and therefore lower their blood pressure (with side effects) as long as the patient
takes the drug; if, on the other hand, patients lowered their blood pressure by means
of chronic exercise, their blood pressure would be lower due to the reduction of fatty
deposits in the vascular system, thus lowering the total peripheral resistance to the
blood being pumped by the heart. The benefit would remain so long as the patients
continued to exercise. An additional benefit is that the side effects from exercise
are positive. They include the reduced risk of other diseases developing and the
increased functional capacity of the patient.
How is a GP referral scheme structured? A typical model would follow the
sequence below:
1. The patient visits a GP with a health problem.

2. The GP refers the patient for exercise prescription (usually at a local leisure
facility).
3. The patients first visit to the leisure centre involves an initial consultation,
fitness testing and motivational advice.
4. The sessions themselves typically number up to 20 over two months.
5. After these sessions have been monitored, the patient will receive an exit
fitness test and exercise counselling.
6. The patient revisits the GP for evaluation.
7. Where appropriate, the patient is redirected to the leisure centre (at a reduced
membership rate) in order to increase exercise adherence.
8. There is a further, less regular, monitoring to ensure long-term adherence.
Activity 11.2
What do you think are the potential problems with the model above? Critique
each step in the patients journey and then propose ways to improve the
process with reference to the use of exercise professionals.
163
Activity 11.3 1
2
1. Research the ways in which regular chronic exercise can positively affect 3
patients at risk from coronary disease, diabetes, hypertension and obesity. 4
2. Research the number of local GP surgeries near you that use exercise 5
referral schemes. This could be done by visiting the surgeries and 6
explaining that you are a student who is researching the likelihood of local 7
patients being referred to a fitness facility. 8
9
10
Evaluation of exercise referral schemes 1
2
In March 2007, the Department of Health (DH) issued best practice guidance to 3
primary care trusts on the use of exercise referral schemes (DH Statement on 4
exercise referral). It recommended: 511
6
targeting type 2 diabetes, obesity and osteoporosis; 7
adherence for such schemes to the National Quality Assurance Framework for 8
exercise referral in England; 9
that GPs should promote the minimum of 30 minutes of moderate activity on at 20
least five days per week as a preventative measure for the general population; 1
promoting schemes to asymptomatic people only when these are part of a 2
properly designed and controlled research study to determine effectiveness. 3
4
The DH commissioned the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence 5
(NICE) to research the effectiveness of exercise referral schemes. Results suggested 6
a positive effect on physical activity rates in the short term (612 weeks of 7
adherence), though problems arose with lower adherence rates over longer time 8
periods. (The author suggests that this fall in adherence rates over the longer term 9
may be associated with insufficient investment in PT involvement after the first 30
twelve weeks of patient attendance.) 1
2
Activity 11.4 3
4
It is useful here to consider what more can be done to stem the rising tide of 5
obesity and the impact of sedentary lifestyles on the populations health. As a 6
potential participant in the solution, what strategies could you suggest? 7
8
1. Construct a list of three goals that you believe the DH should focus on 9
over the next 10 years. Make them simple. They could relate to obesity, 40
heart disease or diabetes. 1
2. Brainstorm two of these strategies to involve PTs that could be 2
implemented to help achieve these UK health goals, bearing in mind 3
budgetary constraints. 4
3. Now choose one of your strategies and develop this into a brief plan for 5
implementation. Compare this to, and critique, the authors ideas below. 6
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164
Reflection 11.1
I have visited various NHS departments in the south east of England and
studied many physical activity health promotion strategies. Such strategies
are not determined by the opinions of fitness professionals. Rather, they are
determined by financial constraints and the opinions of other professionals.
The NHS published a document Learning from Local Exercise Action Pilots
(LEAP) that summarised conclusions drawn from data from 10 different
exercise intervention projects delivered by NHS trusts, GPs, local authorities,
schools, community groups and sports clubs during 20032005. The report
looked at short-term changes in 10,433 participants activity levels in four
activity level categories and found an overall median increase in brisk walking
of 75 minutes per week. It concluded that LEAP interventions were cost
effective to implement and demonstrated that the potential cost savings to
the National Health Service exceeded the costs per participant of imple-
menting the intervention. Two of the reports main recommendations were to
use trained and skilled staff and a tailored approach, i.e. an individual
approach to exercise prescription.
At the time of the LEAP pilots, a report by the CMO At least five a week:
Evidence on the impact of physical activity and its relationship to health (DH,
2004) looked at evidence from strategies that promote moderate intensity
activity, and found that walking, in particular, increased physical activity
adherence.
Two questions arise from these studies. First, where are the commercial
PTs in the set up? The commercial PT sector is virtually ignored in government
discussion of health promotion. Second, is brisk walking the term most
applicable to the search for optimum health gains? Walking can certainly
improve the health of totally sedentary people, but any talk of walking as
some sort of health panacea is problematic. (Consider, for example, target
heart rate zones when programming exercise for PT clients.) There needs to be
clarification of the role and terminology concerning moderate intensity and
brisk walking. In the PT arena we usually talk about moderate intensity as
equating to around 70 per cent MHR (for example, a 30-year-old client might
have to work at 133 BPM to achieve that low-end THRZ). Would brisk walking
elicit that response in most 30-year-olds? I think it would not. So is brisk
walking a good indicator for producing health-related fitness gains? You
decide.
Skills for working with clients with health issues

What skills are required to enter and work effectively in the health sector in the UK?
A minimum requirement is the level 2 gym instructor award (NVQ or VRQ see
Chapter 12). This will allow the holder to work in any UK fitness facility as a gym
instructor. Currently in the UK there is no health and fitness qualification to match
the ACSM Health Fitness Instructor (HFI). The ACSM are the world specialists when
165
it comes to health and the implementation of exercise to decrease disease and 1

increase prevention of disease. The NHS in the UK would do well either to take the 2
ACSM as a standard or to base a UK health fitness trainer on the ACSM model. The 3
HFI qualification does at least demonstrate that the holder has acquired knowledge 4
to deal with the health sector. There are level 3 PT courses run by various training 5
providers. It is best to pick one that is internationally recognised. All these courses 6
can be studied alongside degree courses and provide students with a head start after 7
graduation. For people who already have a level 3 REPs qualification, there are private 8
training companies that offer level 4 REPs qualifications covering work with clients 9
with health issues such as obesity, ageing, mental health, low back pain and heart 10
disease. There are other requisites for this level 4 status and it is worth visiting 1
www.exerciseregister.org/custom/documents/L4QualificationArrangementFinal.pdf 2
for an up-to-date description of the requirements of this level 4 status. 3
PTs who gain experience in working with special population clients will make 4
themselves more marketable, especially in the health sector. It is possible, for 511
example, to offer your services for short work experience periods with specialist 6
NHS units such as local cardiac rehab units. It is also possible to qualify as a level 3 7
health trainer through City & Guilds, which provides specific health promotion 8
knowledge. A trainer with ACSM HFI and a City & Guilds Certificate for Health 9
Trainers would be an asset in any physical activity government strategy. 20
1
2
Future trends and opportunities for PTs 3
4
The UK government needs to invest in professional health fitness trainers to augment 5
the work of health trainers. This may well provide a career path offering a salary 6
above the level currently earned by health trainers. Imagine the potential impact of a 7
team of professional health fitness trainers in the local community targeting the can 8
do, but will not section of the population. The governments own evidence has 9
indicated that exercise adherence only lasts around 23 months and that one of the 30
categories for best practice in the UK is the targeted individual approach, which PTs 1
could provide by working on a one-to-one basis with clients who exhibit specific 2
health issues. The PT sector in the UK is growing at a fast rate, so there is a supply of 3
trainers available. Although the NHS could not afford to pay trainers the commer- 4
cial single session rate for a client, PTs could be prepared to provide a block of 5
sessions at a lower rate, especially in quieter periods in their schedule. All sides 6
might benefit: the community would gain a service provided by professional PTs and 7
the PT would gain opportunities to market their own services (through, for example, 8
word-of-mouth publicity). This model would also allow the NHS and PT sectors to 9
communicate effectively in the pursuit of the same goal, namely, an increase in the 40
number of people in the UK who exercise regularly. 1
You may have altruistic feelings towards the community you live and work in. 2
Remember that there are GP referral schemes running in local leisure centres and 3
other community exercise initiatives, so there are already opportunities to make a 4
contribution that you can research to see what is taking place in your local area. The 5
health area is a growing market that will need future investment by the government if 6
the targets for reducing obesity and levels of disease are to be met. Nobody can be 711
166
sure how this sector will develop, but it is sensible for PTs to consider possible career
paths.
Activity 11.5
Draw up a list of the potential advantages and disadvantages to the PT of

working with GP referrals. Plan a career path, including (a) qualifications and
(b) experience that would allow you to take advantage of opportunities in this
area.
Summary
Having studied this chapter you should be in no doubt over the seriousness of the
problem of obesity and related health problems in the UK. The UKs health bodies are
in agreement concerning the benefits of exercise for the population as a whole. The
benefits of intervention in the area of physical activity and exercise are well
documented. The development of the health trainer role in the NHS is a relatively new
initiative designed to reduce the incidence of disease in local communities. If this
role is professionally developed and supported with investment, intervention may
have a greater impact on the nations health. This chapter has outlined the
development of GP referral schemes and examined how they relate to the role of PTs
in the community and also the potential impact on the market for PTs. The
qualifications needed to work in the health sector can be wide-ranging and PTs must
gain relevant certification in order to work safely with special populations and health
clients. The precise future of the role of health fitness trainers is uncertain. Much
depends on the extent to which the government recognises the need to include
professional, well remunerated, PTs in its exercise strategies. Without that, the
figures for effective intervention are likely to remain modest. If, however, the health
service trusts the fitness industrys experience in the health arena, the possibilities
for future intervention are bright.
Further reading
At the time of writing there is no textbook written specifically for health trainers in
the UK. The following ACSM publications provide the definitive guides to training
health clients and are must-haves for prospective PTs in this field:
ACSM (2005) ACSMs guidelines for exercise testing and prescription. 7th edition.
ACSM (2007) Resources for the personal trainer. 2nd edition. Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins.
167
In addition, the following books and websites provide helpful information: 1

2
Howley, F (2007) Fitness professionals handbook. 5th edition. Human Kinetics. 3
Lawrence, D (2006) GP referral schemes, working with referred clients. A & C Black. 4
5
www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/PH002_physical_activity.pdf is the report from NICE 6
that outlines the recommendations mentioned in the chapter. The document also 7
contains links to other resources. 8
www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publichealth/Healthimprovement/Healthyliving/LocalExerciseAc 9
tionPilotsLEAP/index.htm accesses the DH publication Learning from LEAP. This 10
summary document is based on the final report by Leeds Metropolitan University 1
on the LEAP programme pilots: The national evaluation of LEAP (2007), which can 2
be found at 3
www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/PublicationsPolicyAndGu 4
idance/DH_073600 511
www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/PublicationsPolicyAndGu 6
idance/DH_4080994 for the CMOs 2004 report At least five a week: Evidence on 7
the impact of physical activity and its relationship to health. 8
www.networks.nhs.uk/uploads/06/03/health_trainers_aug05.pdf is a review of the 9
first cohort of health trainers. 20
www.bradfordairedale-pct.nhs.uk/Our+Services/health+trainers/ is an example of 1
a successful health trainer initiative. 2
www.city-and-guilds.co.uk/cps/rde/xchg/cgonline/hs.xsl/18743.html gives details 3
of the City & Guilds health trainer qualification. 4
www.networks.nhs.uk/networks.php?pid=29 is the NHS health trainer resource page. 5
www.nwph.net/champs/Publications/Forms/DispForm.aspx?ID=27 6
A health trainers training pack is available from this site. 7
8
9
30
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
40
1
2
3
4
5
6
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Chapter 12
Business sense
People entering the fitness industry sometimes forget that it is a business like any
other. You may well seek a job in the industry because you enjoy being involved with
fitness, health and sport. That should not, however, deflect your attention from the
business factors involved. PTs need to understand not only training techniques and
the science that underlies them, but also business practice. Commercially successful
PTs will have developed strong business acumen themselves or have a strong team
behind them to develop the business.
The most usual route is to begin working in house (employed by a gym) and then,
as your skills develop, to start training external clients. In this case, the PT needs to
develop entrepreneurial and sales skills as well as training skills.
This chapter is designed to help you understand:
1. how to break into the industry;

2. how the industry operates;
3. how to develop personal training client bases;
4. the need to target niche client markets;
5. how to market a personal training business;
6. how to begin business planning.
Starting in the industry

How do you start personal training? The first step is certification: you must be
qualified in order to train your clients safely. In the UK, the usual way to become a PT
is to get a job as a gym instructor and work your way into PT at your gym. This is a tried
and tested method that works in many ways. You get experience of training clients as
well as networking with other PTs to gain knowledge of the industry. In order to gain
employment as a gym instructor you will need to complete at least a VRQ or NVQ
qualification at level 2 in order to apply for entry on the Register of Exercise
Professionals. NVQs (National Vocational Qualification) involve on the job training
with teaching and assessment in the workplace, while VRQs (Vocationally Related
Qualification) are designed as workplace preparation (and may include some work
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12 / Business sense
experience). Qualifications are designed by a number of awarding bodies, for example, 1

CYQ (Central YMCA Qualifications). The website www.leisureopportunities.co.uk is 2
well worth exploring. It provides a list of training providers in the UK. There is likely to 3
be a training provider near you. You may also consult your local colleges about their 4
courses. 5
Once you have achieved your level 2 qualification you can start to think about 6
other certification pathways into personal training. Make the most of any in-house 7
training courses supplied by the gym where you work, as these are usually provided 8
free of charge. If a course is offered, take it: even if you will not use the information 9
soon, you may benefit in the future. Various training organisations offer level 3 or 10
higher degree courses in fitness and in some cases specific personal training courses. 1
2
The personal training business in the UK 3
4
Lets start with some facts and figures. In 2006 the UK health and fitness sector was 511
valued at 2.5 billion, having grown by 4 per cent in the preceding year. Some 90 per 6
cent of the UK population lives within 2 miles of a fitness facility. There are 7
approximately 40,000 trained fitness professionals in the industry. In 2006 the 8
National Fitness Audit found that: 9
20
there were 1,671,451 members in UK gyms; 1
53 per cent were female and 47 per cent male; 2
almost half were less than 35 years old; 3
a significant number were high achievers in full-time employment; 4
66 per cent did not have children. 5
6
These figures provide a snapshot of the industry. There seems to be plenty of 7
opportunity and growth, but there are also limitations because of the difficulty of 8
attracting new exercisers. There may also be a downturn in numbers if the economy 9
experiences recession. Nevertheless, the UK fitness industry is well worth exploring 30
as a career path. 1
Overall in the UK, fitness facilities fall into four sectors: (a) commercial (large 2
gym chains), (b) corporate (in-house business gyms), (c) local authority (pre- 3
dominately leisure centres) and (d) stand-alone (small, privately owned) health clubs. 4
The differences between these can be stark: gym fees can vary from 30 per month in 5
some local authority gyms to over 100 for a basic service in flagship commercial 6
gyms. Service levels vary accordingly. In flagship gyms, for example, clients will 7
receive a complimentary towel and be able to use spa facilities and a frequently 8
updated range of equipment. A local authority centre, on the other hand, may provide 9
little more than a basic gym plus shower facilities. Corporate gyms are less well 40
known. The gym may be incorporated into the building where their employees work. 1
The corporate sector has grown significantly in recent years and is worth exploring as 2
a potential employer. Due to the consolidation of the fitness industry in the UK there 3
are fewer stand-alone gyms operating. These find it difficult to compete with the 4
large chains. They usually try to do so by providing a distinctive service, usually based 5
on a social model. They can operate on a more personal basis as they tend to have 6
smaller client bases to manage. Stand-alone gyms often try to make the experience 711
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12 / Business sense
they offer more of a social event by promoting friendly, approachable staff and
member interaction.
Reflection 12.1
I started in a small hospital gym, then moved to a very large urban gym that
had many thousands of members, and then went into the corporate sector,
training high earners in Canary Wharf in central London. I then moved within
the same company to another site in the City of London where I was a fitness
manager, providing personal training in-house and externally. Experience has
taught me that each type of gym has its pros and cons.
I recommend attending as many interviews as possible when you are starting out.
The healthiest way to approach interviews is to remember that you are interviewing
the gym as well as the gym finding out about you! Find out:
what training do they offer?

what promotion possibilities might there be?
how can you increase your salary?
what remuneration method do they use?
what budget, if any, is there for external training courses?
If there is a limited number of gyms where you live, you could always ask to visit
them rather than waiting to apply for a job opportunity. Many gyms will be happy to
show you around if you say you are thinking of entering the industry and some may
even offer a couple of days work experience. Interviews and visits will prove
invaluable when deciding who to work for.
There are many employment and remuneration models in the UK personal training
industry. Methods vary between even the large players, such as Virgin Active, Fitness
First, LA Fitness and Cannons. Examples of in-house methods include the following:
1. Salaried the PT gets paid a fixed salary no matter how many sessions they
commit to.
2. 50:50 the trainer works as a gym instructor for a set time (say, 20 hours per
week) and then uses the rest of the time to provide personal training. The PT
receives a pro rata salary for the 20 hours of gym instructing and then gets paid
per PT session on top of this.
3. Contracted the gym allows an external PT company to train clients in their
gym. The contractor pays a fixed fee to the gym for the privilege.
4. Individual renting external PTs can rent gym space per client. This is a
favoured method in the hotel gym industry.
5. In-house PT the trainer works for the gym and take a percentage per session
conducted.
The best advice when seeking employment is to shop around to find the best
offers. Basic salaries for gym instructors in the UK are low. Most gym instructors
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12 / Business sense
quickly decide that the area in which to make money is personal training. Many head 1
into this arena, while some leave the industry altogether. 2
3
4
Starting your own business 5
6
This section is designed to provide a starting point for setting up your own personal 7
training business. Please note that it focuses on aspects relating specifically to 8
personal training businesses. Clearly, it is not possible here to provide a more 9
comprehensive guide to setting up businesses in general. You are strongly advised, 10
therefore, to use the material below in conjunction with other resources. One 1
particularly helpful, informative and wide-ranging resource is Business Link 2
(www.businesslink.gov.uk). It provides a one-stop resource covering such areas as 3
insurance, taxation, financial issues, health and safety requirements, data protection, 4
general legal matters and business structure. 511
Here we focus on market research, business planning and marketing. 6
7
8
Market research 9
Consider what you need to discover about your potential clients. It is useful to 20
research their likely income levels and their demographic profile. It is a fact that more 1
affluent areas will have a higher concentration of potential clients though of course 2
there is likely to be more competition from other PTs in those areas. Competition 3
is not necessarily a problem: you just need to be better than your competitors! 4
Remember that word-of-mouth communication between clients and potential 5
clients is still a very powerful form of marketing. If you offer something different 6
in a professional manner, you can start to establish yourself as an external self- 7
employed PT. 8
You can begin to research an area simply by walking around, observing the types 9
of housing and people. It is useful then to access some online statistics. The 30
government provides statistics at www.statistics.gov.uk/ Click on the neighbourhood 1
link at the top and enter the postcode and size of area you want data for and you will 2
find you can access a wide range of datasets. The sorts of data that will prove useful 3
include socio-economic status and occupational groups, which will indicate the overall 4
potential for higher earners in your catchment area. 5
When you have decided on a suitable area, it is important to look at the type of 6
clients involved. Factors such as their age, gender and parental status will all be 7
important. 8
9
40
Activity 12.1 1
2
Make a list of some potential client groups that you can identify in your local 3
area. Examples might include: seniors; families; pregnant women; sport- 4
specific clients; and wedding clients. Remember not to discount specialist 5
client groups. There can be untapped markets in certain areas. For example, 6
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12 / Business sense
Activity 12.1 continued
white collar boxing is popular among city workers. If you have experience of
boxing, you could market yourself as a specialist boxing PT. There may be an
opportunity among post-natal groups, where you could train small groups of
women with their prams and buggies in the local park a great idea to get
them back into shape! This would provide a great marketing tool, combining
primary goals with the social aspect of training in groups.
You could even aim for the highest profile clients of all celebrities.
Though this market is difficult to break into, sometimes all that is needed is to
be associated with one celebrity client and business will grow from there. The
key is not to ignore potential income streams. Your marketing efforts, however,
must be targeted towards specific client groups and you may want to use
different strategies for different client groups.
Competitors
Once you have an idea of where you want to build your business and the list of PTs
operating in that area, it is useful to find out:
the types of service they offer;

their prices;
the size and locations of the businesses for example, are they operating out
of a plush health club or training home clients?
The easiest way to find this out is simply to phone them.
Activity 12.2
Visit www.statistics.gov.uk/, go to neighbourhood and type in your postcode

to research the area in which you live. If you think that there are not enough
high earners in this district, try a postcode for what you consider to be a
promising area. Next, research the competition using www.yell.com (where you
can search for personal trainers by postcode) or www.exerciseregister.org/
Also try performing a general Internet search for PTs websites using a search
engine such as www.google.co.uk.
Business planning
Whether you are already serious about starting a business at some point or
would just like to explore the idea, it is helpful to start to draft a business plan,
accompanied by a checklist of actions required. A properly thought-out business plan
would, of course, be needed if you were applying to a bank or other lender for start-up
finance.
173
12 / Business sense
Activity 12.3 1
2
Building on your business ideas so far in this chapter, start to develop a 3
business plan. Follow these guidelines. More detailed notes on some of the 4
following points are provided later in this section. 5
6
1. Acquire a project book (any book or file that can be divided into 7
sections). 8
2. On the first page, enter your business name and logo design. 9
3. On the next page, write your mission statement. 10
4. Include a SWOT analysis, i.e. an analysis of the strengths, weaknesses, 1
opportunities and threats relating to your proposed business. An 2
excellent free template for this sheet is available from 3
www.businessballs.com/freematerialsinword/free_SWOT_analysis_temp 4
late.doc. 511
5. Next, define and explain your specific market. A couple of pages should 6
suffice. The explanation should include PT sector trends, current 7
industry position and prospective customer profiles. Your client 8
demographic and PT competition searches can go here. 9
6. Use the next section to explain what services you will be offering and 20
how they sit within the current market in your chosen catchment area. 1
Explain why your business has a good chance of success. 2
7. Include a financial projection, showing projected revenue, costs and 3
profits/losses. Costs will include equipment (including depreciation), 4
clothing, transport, marketing, insurance, stationery and IT resources, 5
accountancy and legal services. 6
8. Use the next section for information and ideas about marketing. For 7
example, place your draft brochures, newsletters, press releases and 8
website ideas here. 9
9. The final section is for appendices such as reports, statistics or 30
documents that are relevant to your business plan. 1
2
3
4
Though the above exercise does not provide a fully fledged business plan, it does 5
provide the starting point for such a plan. This can be converted into a professional 6
plan using advice and formats available from a number of sources, including Business 7
Link, your local banks and websites such as www.bplans.co.uk. Remember that a 8
business plan needs constantly to be reviewed and updated. 9
40
Name and logo 1
Avoid using words in your business name that will limit your potential client bases, 2
as you may want to expand your base in the future to include other client groups. 3
Look for something recognisable but not cheesy. The most commonly used words 4
include body, fitness, health and training. 5
6
711
174
12 / Business sense
Activity 12.4
Brainstorm a new business name for your PT company. The best method is to
get a few friends together and ask them to help. It can be surprising how
people who do not know the industry will have ideas that are catchy. Then
design a logo using your business name at www.logomaker.com/. Ensure the
design is simple and will not date quickly.
Mission statements
Write a statement based on who you are, what you will do and who you will do it for.
The statement should be brief and easily understood by your potential customers.
Keep it flexible and use it to make your business stand out from the crowd. Guidance
is available from www.mystrategicplan.com/strategic-planning-topics/mission-
statements.shtml, which provides advice on how to start your mission statement
using single words and then build the statement from there.
Involving other people

Networking is extremely important, both for telling other people about the business
and for finding people who may be able to contribute one way or another.
Reflection 12.2
Sometimes the best networking opportunity comes from a chance meeting

with another professional. It may not be another PT or fitness industry
professional; it may be an accountant or local business person. Treat everyone
you meet in a professional manner and exchange business cards with them
for future reference. Trade fairs are excellent places to chat with suppliers of
equipment and meet other trainers. Seminars and conferences are great for
networking as you can strike up conversations with other PTs and other people
in the industry and discover mutual business interests. Always be prepared
for networking opportunities and carry some business cards with you.
Activity 12.5
Online networking can be very rewarding. Try joining a discussion board or PT

website and then post questions or general PT threads in order to build up a
list of contacts. For example, you can visit http://pt1st.proboards105.com/
index.cgi and post your details to allow other PTs to discuss possible PT
problems and solutions with you.
You may also wish to find a mentor, for example, an experienced PT.
Sometimes it is possible to reward them by providing some form of help
175
12 / Business sense
Activity 12.5 continued 1

2
for their business. Some local business networks even provide free mentoring. 3
Try http://shell-livewire.org/mentor/ and if you are aged 1830 try www. 4
princes-trust.org.uk for help. 5
6
7
8
Marketing your business 9
10
Marketing is a discipline in its own right. This section can deal with the basics with 1
specific regard to personal training. It is important to know which groups you are 2
going to target in your marketing. Different groups respond to different cues. The 3
nature of the group you are targeting will affect everything about your marketing 4
campaign the use of language, choice of brand colours, and so on. Also bear in mind 511
the importance of referrals from personal acquaintances of yours friends, work 6
colleagues and family. Word of mouth will usually bring more clients than any other 7
method. 8
9
20
Activity 12.6
1
Choose a potential target client group. Produce a draft A4 brochure that can 2
be folded in three to give you six panels of information (back and front). Use 3
the type of images, colours and text that you think will target this group. If you 4
find that you struggle for inspiration, try looking at some websites not 5
necessarily PT websites aimed at the client group. Consider their use of 6
images, language, design and so forth. Remember that clients perception is 7
all-important here. 8
9
30
1
Marketing on a budget 2
It is important not to overstretch your marketing budget. Advertising may be costly 3
and will not necessarily bring much return. There are many other ways to market your 4
business. Here is a selection. 5
6
1. Offer trial sessions (perhaps shorter than the usual session time); be careful 7
not to offer more than one free session. 8
2. Using web marketing. A PT in the UK needs a website. This may not be for 9
primary marketing, but when a potential client hears of your services, it does 40
provide a means of looking you up. 1
3. Produce a newsletter. These can be more effective than brochures if they have 2
articles that the potential client wants to read. Make sure to have your contact 3
details written large and clear on these. 4
4. Provide a free seminar. You can give the seminar an attractive title such as 5
build a six pack and drop a dress size. 6
711
176
12 / Business sense
5. Guerrilla marketing: this involves making use of anything that has your brand or
particularly your website printed on it. A host of promotional items is available
for you to get printed with your business name on them. Be sure you choose
something relevant, such as a gym bag, t-shirt, pedometer or gym towel. Be
aware that many companies have minimum orders for these items.
6. Issue a press release. This is a news story that you send to a news editor of a
local publication. This provides free advertising for your business, but only if
the editor is convinced that your story is newsworthy. You can increase the
chances of this by focusing the story on a topical subject such as obesity. For
instance, if you started training GP referral patients from a local GP surgery,
this would be applicable. Press releases should follow a set format. You can
look up an example at www.bizhelp24.com/marketing/press-release-
example.html.
7. Provide testing offers: you offer to give a free fitness test of a particular
aspect of a potential clients fitness. (If you are offering a body fat percentage
test, do not use callipers as this would take too long. Use body fat scales
instead.) Use the opportunity to inform the client about your services.
8. Gain referrals: link yourself to another business and have a two-way referral
process. These businesses can include physiotherapists, health food stores,
weight loss clubs and beauty salons.
You may also want to produce printed marketing materials. Collect examples of
printed material from other PTs in your area. Use any brochures you produce to back
up your business by supporting marketing and sales contacts you have made, rather
than being sent out cold to all and sundry. Flyers can be useful too, especially if they
are vibrant, use laymens language and are used to promote special offers.
With all forms of marketing you should keep a record of what works best and
concentrate on that form of marketing with your business. The best marketing should
use a mixture of rational and irrational appeal (rational approaches appeal to
peoples logic and provide information; irrational forms are aimed at their feelings
and emotions).
Activity 12.7
1. Produce a newsletter that targets your client group. Use articles that will
appeal to them. Include your contact details.
2. Write a sample press release for your local paper. Make it relevant to a
current news story or to a new initiative you are launching that will
benefit the local community. Use a standard press release format.
Web marketing
You will need to have a website and email address if you want to be taken seriously as
a business. Many potential clients will want to look up information on your business
before deciding whether to hire you. The great thing about web-based marketing is
that you are open 24 hours a day, seven days a week for information.
177
12 / Business sense
Unless you have a good knowledge base regarding the building of websites, 1
website development can be costly. Note that you have a choice between hiring a web 2
designer, which provides you with flexibility to produce a purpose-designed site, or 3
using an online website builder, which tends to cost less, but involves design 4
constraints. 5
6
7
Activity 12.8 8
Check out other PTs websites by performing an Internet search for your local 9
area. You will find variations in the tone, design and depth of PT websites. 10
Decide which ones you think have the right balance of selling services and 1
providing information. It is a good idea to make your website a source of 2
information on fitness as well as on your business. After all, if a potential client 3
adds your site to their favourite websites then they may well keep coming back 4
to it which is an excellent way to sell your services. 511
Within your website you could have the following pages: 6
7
A welcome page this will include your mission statement, your contact 8
details and what you offer. 9
An about me/us page this will introduce you and your qualifications. 20
A feedback/contact page this should be linked to your email address. 1
Preferably your email address should be info@(your website address), 2
not (name)@email service provider, such as Yahoo or Google. This will 3
look more professional. 4
Details of affiliates these are a source of secondary income. You sign 5
up to be a link to a business through your website. Then every time 6
someone purchases from your affiliate you earn a commission. 7
A useful links page this will provide visitors to your website with a 8
handy resource to revisit. 9
Testimonies previous and current testimonies from your clients. Use 30
real names only if you have explicit permission in writing. 1
2
3
4
5
Summary 6
Once you have started to work in the industry, you can start to use the development 7
of in-house PT client bases to make yourself more marketable and employable. When 8
you are established in-house, you may well be considering taking external clients to 9
supplement your income, or as a basis for moving into self-employment. If you decide 40
to set up your own business, use market research and a business plan to help 1
formulate your ideas and take advantage of professional advice on offer. Remember 2
that nothing comes easy: you will need to work hard and not allow setbacks to stop 3
you from achieving your goals. Learning from your mistakes and persevering will give 4
you the best chance of having a long-term successful business. Good luck! 5
6
711
178
12 / Business sense
Further study
The following books are recommended:
DTI (2006) The no-nonsense guide to starting a business. Department of Trade and
Industry.
Lynn, J (2003) Start your own personal training business. Entrepreneur Press.
St Michael, M (2004) Becoming a personal trainer for dummies. Wiley Publishing.
Helpful websites include:
www.fitnessmanagement.com/ a good source of business-related articles on

subjects such as retention of PT clients.
www.ptonthenet.com/ subscription-based resource provider for PTs.
www.workout-uk.co.uk/ UK fitness industry news.
www.fitpro.com/fitpro/magazines.cfm UK fitness industry magazine providers.
www.fitnessbusinesspro.com/ more fitness industry articles are available from this
US website.
Job opportunities are advertised on various websites. Try:
www.leisurejobs.co.uk
www.4leisurerecruitment.co.uk
www.redhotcareers.co.uk/vacancies.php
179
1
2
3
References 4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
2
3
4
ACSM (2002) Exercise management for persons with chronic diseases and 511
disabilities. 2nd edition. Human Kinetics. 6
ACSM (2004) ACSMs resources for the personal trainer. Lippincott Williams & 7
Wilkins. 8
ACSM (2005) ACSMs guidelines for exercise testing and prescription. 7th edition. 9
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 20
ACSM (2007) ACSMs resources for the personal trainer. 2nd edition. Lippincott 1
Williams & Wilkins. 2
Baechle, T and Earle, R (2000) Essentials of strength training and conditioning. 3
2nd edition. Human Kinetics. 4
Baechle, T and Earle, R (2003) NSCAs essentials of personal training. Human Kinetics. 5
Bompa, T (1994) Theory and methodology of training: the key to athletic 6
performance. 3rd edition. Kendall Hunt. 7
Brouns, F (2002) Essentials of sports nutrition. 2nd edition. John Wiley & Sons. 8
Chu, D (1998) Jumping into plyometrics. 2nd edition. Human Kinetics. 9
Chu, D (2003) Plyometric exercises with the medicine ball. 2nd edition. Bittersweet 30
Publishing. 1
Clark, N (2003) Nancy Clarks sports nutrition guidebook. 3rd edition. Human Kinetics. 2
Dick, F (2007) Sports training principles. 5th edition. A & C Black. 3
DTI (2006) The no-nonsense guide to starting a business. Department of Trade and 4
Industry. 5
Fleck, S and Kraemer, W (2003) Designing resistance training programs. 3rd edition. 6
Human Kinetics. 7
Fox, E, Bowers, R and Foss, M (1998) The physiological basis for exercise and sport. 8
2nd edition. McGraw-Hill. 9
Haase, A (2004) Leisure-time physical activity in university students from 23 40
countries: associations with health beliefs, risk awareness, and national economic 1
development. Preventive Medicine 39: 18290. 2
Howley, F (2007) Fitness professionals handbook. 5th edition. Human Kinetics. 3
Lawrence, D (2006) GP referral schemes, working with referred clients. A & C Black. 4
Locke, E and Latham, G (2002) Building a practically useful theory of goal setting 5
and task motivation. American Psychologist, 57(9): 70517. 6
Lynn, J (2003) Start your own personal training business. Entrepreneur Press. 711
180
References
McArdle, W, Katch, F and Katch, V (2005) Sports and exercise nutrition. 2nd edition.
McArdle, W, Katch, F and Katch, V (2006) Exercise physiology: energy, nutrition, and
human performance. 6th edition. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
McAtee, R (2007) Facilitated stretching. 3rd edition. Human Kinetics.
Maclaren, D (2007) Nutrition and sport: advances in sport and exercise science.
Churchill Livingston.
Marcus, B and Forsyth, L (2003) Motivating people to be physically active. Human
Kinetics.
Penedo, F and Dahn, J (2005) Exercise and well-being: a review of mental and physical
health benefits associated with physical activity. Current Opinion in Psychiatry,
18(2): 18993.
Power, K, Behm, D, Cahill, F, Carroll, M and Young, W (2004) An acute bout of static
stretching: effects on force and jumping performance. Medicine & Science in
Sports & Exercise, 36(8): 138996.
Potvin, A and Jesperson, M (2004) The great medicine ball handbook. 3rd edition.
Productive Fitness.
St Michael, M (2004) Becoming a personal trainer for dummies. Wiley Publishing.
Siff, M (2003) Supertraining. 6th edition. Supertraining Institute.
Strecher, V (1995) Goal setting as a strategy for health behavior change. Health
Education & Behavior, 22 (2): 190200.
Weinberg, R and Gould, D (2007) Foundations of sport and exercise psychology.
4th edition. Human Kinetics.
Wilmore, J and Costill, D (2005) Physiology of sport and exercise. 3rd edition. Human
Kinetics.
Wolff, R (2002) Home bodybuilding: three easy steps to building your body and
changing your life. Adams Media Corp.
YMCA (2000) YMCA fitness testing and assessment manual. 4th edition. Human
Kinetics.
181
1
2
3
Index 4
5
6
7
8
9
10
A central nervous system (CNS) 8, 324
achievement goal theory (AGT) 59 chin-up tests 119 1
activity levels, population 1612 cholesterol 434 2
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) system 15, 29, 31 circuit training 17 3
advanced training techniques (ATT) 125, 1478 client needs analysis 10
equipment 138 competitors, business 173 4
manual resistance 1317 consent forms 113 511
periodisation 13842 continuous training 1314
plyometrics 12931 cool-downs 12
6
SAQ 1259 creatine 31, 51 7
special populations 1427 curl-up tests 119 8
aerobic capacity tests 1201 cycle ergometer tests 119, 121
aerobic energy systems 15, 2930, 32 9
American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) D 20
3, 26, 146, 147, 1656 dehydration 47, 50 1
amino acids 45 Department of Health (DH) best practice 164
anaemia 47 depth charts see exercises 2
anaerobic capacity tests 11819 detraining 37 3
anaerobic glycolysis system 15, 2930, 31 diabetes 36, 43, 144
anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries 146 dietary supplements 512
4
anxiety 567 drop sets 16 5
asthma 145 dynamic stretching 25 6
atherosclerosis 434 dynamometers 117
ATP/ATP-PCr systems 29, 31 7
E 8
B endocrine system 356 9
back problems 146 endurance tests 11920
ballistic stretching 25 endurance training 212, 32, 345 30
basal metabolic rate (BMR) 33, 489, 50 energy intake/output scales 48 1
behavioural theories 623 energy systems 15, 212, 2931 2
bio electrical impedance (BEI) 117 adaptations 312
bleep tests 111, 120 enzymes 31, 32 3
blood pressure 11314, 1423 ephedrine 51 4
body composition 11417 equipment 867
body mass index (BMI) 114 advanced training techniques (ATT) 138
5
body shapes 334 fitness testing 122 6
body weight training 1534 home training 1523, 1535, 1578, 159 7
bone density 36 resistance training 17
boxing gloves/mitts 138 exercise adherence 625 8
business factors 16972, 1789 exercise programming 913 9
market research 1723 exercises 84, 108 40
marketing 1768 depth chart examples 84105
planning 1736 pulse raisers 107 1
spotting 1067 2
C see also advanced training techniques (ATT)
caffeine 51
3
callipers 11517 F 4
calorie intake 4850 fartlek 15 5
carbohydrates 413, 445, 51 fat measurement 11417
cardiovascular (CV) training 9, 1316, 32, 345 fats (lipids) 435 6
see also heart rates fitness industry see business factors 711
182
Index
fitness testing 109, 1234 J

principles 10913 jump training see plyometrics
protocols 11323
flexibility 910, 246, 34 K
flexibility tests 1212 Karvonen method, heart rate zones 20
food diaries 501 kettle bells 138
food groups 416 knee injuries 146
food pyramid 49
forced reps 16 L
forms, recording 7983 lactate threshold 30
free weights see weights L-carnitine 51
frequency of training 9, 12 lean body mass (LBM) 489, 50
functional problems 1456 Learning from Local Exercise Action Pilots
functional training (FT) 18 (LEAP) 165
future self model 645 lifestyle questionnaires 112, 124
lipids 435
G lipoproteins (LDLs/HDLs) 36, 434
general adaptation syndrome (GAS) 78,
1389 M
genetics, muscle fibre types 334 manual resistance (MR) 88, 1317
girth measurements 115 market research 1723
gluconeogenesis 45 marketing 1768
glucose (glycogen) 31, 43 measurements, body 11317
glycemic index (GI) 423 medicine balls 130
goal setting 602, 110 minerals 467
goniometers 121, 122 mission statements 175
GP referral schemes 1634 motivation
gyms 1702 home training 1512
trait/state 589
H motivational psychology 54, 579, 65
hamstring flexibility 1212 anxiety 567
hand grip tests 117 exercise adherence 625
health belief model 62 goal setting 602, 110
health problems 1427, 1656 personality 546
diabetes 36, 43, 144 movement
obesity 145, 1602, 1645 planes of 1718
see also nutrition range of (ROM) 17, 245, 34
health questionnaires 112, 124 muscle balance 9, 24
health screening 112 muscles 323, 86, 12930
health trainers 160, 162, 1668 contractions 89
GP referral schemes 1634 cramps 47
and obesity 1602, 1645 fibres 212, 334
skills required 1656 spindles/GTOs 25
heart rate zones (HRZs) 1921 strains 146
heart rates 12, 19, 114 muscular endurance tests 11920
responses to training 1315
home training 151, 1578 N
ambience and space 1556 National Health Service (NHS) 160, 161,
body weight training 1534 165, 166
clients motivations 1512 GP referral schemes 1634
equipment 1523, 1535, 1578, 159 health trainers 162
professionalism 1567 National Strength and Conditioning
hormones 356 Association (NSCA), US 3, 5, 27,
hydrostatic weighing 117 147
hyperlordosis 146 need achievement theory (NAT) 59
hypertension 1423 negatives 16
hypertrophy training 212, 323, 356, 489 networking 1756
neuromuscular system 8, 324
I see also muscles
impact training 36 nutrition 41, 523
insulin 36, 43, 144 dietary supplements 512
insurance 71 food groups 416
intensity of training 10, 1921 vitamins, minerals, water 467
interval training 1415 weight loss/gain 4751
183
Index
O rest periods 23 1
obesity 145, 1602, 1645 risk assessments, home training 156
1 RMs 223, 11718
2
osteoporosis 46, 145 S 3
overtraining 1213 self-confidence/efficacy/esteem 55, 623 4
self-evaluation 756
P session planning/recording 6971, 78, 823 5
PAR-Qs (physical activity readiness guidelines 778 6
questionnaires) 112 recording workouts 724 7
partner-assisted resistance see manual self-evaluation 756
resistance (MR) trackers 712, 7981 8
passive stretching 25 see also programming 9
periodisation 13842 sets 9, 1617, 23 10
personality 546 shin splints 146
phosphagen (ATP-PCr) system 29, 31 shoulder injuries 146 1
physiology 28, 3740 sit and reach boxes 121 2
cardiovascular (CV) system 9, 1316, 32, skeletal system 36
345, 434 skinfold callipers 11517
3
endocrine system 356 social cognitive theory 623 4
energy systems 212, 2932 somatotypes (body shapes) 334 511
neuromuscular system 8, 324 speed agility quickness (SAQ) training
and plyometrics 12931 1259 6
respiratory system 35 sphygmomanometers 113 7
skeletal system 36 split routines 17 8
planes of movement 1718 sports drinks 45, 47
planned behaviour theory 63 spotting 1067 9
plyometrics 12931 stair run tests 11819 20
power training 212, 323 static stretching 25
pre-fatigue 1112
1
step tests 120
pregnancy 1434 straight sets 16 2
press-up tests 119 strength training 212, 323 3
pre-stretches 11 strength tests 11718
professionalism, home training 1567 stretch reflex 25, 34 4
programming 67, 267, 37 stretching 246 5
approaches 1318 super sets 16 6
foundations 713 suspension training 157
proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation Swiss balls 138 7
(PNF) 25 8
protein 456 T 9
psychology see motivational psychology testing see fitness testing
pulse 114 thermic effects (TED/TEE/TEF) 48 30
pulse raisers 107 trackers 712, 7981 1
pyramid sets 16 trainers see health trainers
trait/state anxiety 567
2
Q trait/state motivation 589 3
qualifications 1656, 16970 transtheoretical model, adherence 63 4
questionnaires, health/lifestyle 112, 124 treadmill tests 121
5
R V 6
range of movement (ROM) 17, 245, 34 vegetarian/vegan diets 45 7
rating of perceived exertion (RPE) 19 vitamins 46
recording see session planning/recording VO2 max tests 1201 8
Register of Exercise Professionals (REPs) 34, 9
69, 70, 156, 166 W
waist to hip ratio (WHR) 115
40
repetition maximums (RMs) 223, 11718
repetitions (reps) 9, 16 walking 165 1
ranges 213 warm-ups 12 2
resistance bands 154 water intake 47
resistance machines 17 weight loss/gain 4751 3
resistance training 9, 11, 356, 36 weight tests 11920 4
methods 1617 weights 17, 138, 1523 5
respiratory disease 145 spotting 1067
respiratory system 35 workouts see session planning/recording 6
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Personal Training

Active Learning in Sport titles in the series 1

Part 3: Contexts 149

Jon Brazier, BA, CSCS

of learning is to produce your own mini assignments from these boxes. It is

www.ptonthenet.com this is a subscription website that contains an excellent

The chapter is designed to help you to:

1. understand the need for a scientific basis for exercise programming;

1. the alarm phase the bodys initial response to overload ;

Figure 2.1: Aspects of Selyes general adaptation syndrome 1

Isokinetic: the muscle keeps a constant velocity during contraction. This is

Programming building blocks: key terms

One of the often-overlooked factors of exercise selection are the clients

warm-up main body cool-down flexibility.

A further component sometimes used is pre-stretch. Because some research

power core (multi-joint) isolating (single-joint).

PTs need to be alert to indicators of overtraining. I have trained an obsessive

Figure 2.2: Example of heart rate response to continuous training 1

Figure 2.4: Energy system manipulation variables

ATP-PC = >90 per cent.

Figure 2.5: Example of heart rate response to fartlek training

Circuit type: this involves the client performing different exercises in

Free weights and machines

Using programming tools

Reflection 2.5 continued 1

1. Female, 46 years of age and an RHR of 75 BPM (moderate intensity,

Effect Power Strength Hypertrophy Endurance

Figure 2.6: Relationship between training variables and effects 1

There are limitations to these tables, however: there is inter-client variability;

What is the 10 RM if your client can lift 61 kg for 5 reps?

Rest periods between sets

power requires 25 minutes;

One fitness trainer approached me and asked, How do I programme rest

The stretch reflex

1. Start by practising actively stretching your quadriceps, hamstrings,

Activity 2.4 continued 1

is that scientific understanding needs actually to be applied in practice at every

For more on resistance training, see Designing resistance training programmes

For general PT programming information visit: www.personaltraining1st.com

Stretching guidelines www.pponline.co.uk/encyc/stretching-performance-and-

For a general summary of stretching research see www.exrx.net/Lists/Directory.

Periodisation www.brianmac.co.uk/plan.htm has a general guide to periodisation

Figure 3.1: Energy system usage relative to time in physical ctivity

Start of activity Continuous activity beyond 3 minutes

increase ATP stores;

increase the storage of glucose (glycogen);

Training for the aerobic energy systems will: 1

Neurological (nervous system) changes related to the muscle

decrease in exercise heart rate at submaximal intensities;

Training for the respiratory system

increased exercise ventilation through an increase in lung volume;

Training for the endocrine system

The link between programming and physiology

Individual adaptation to training 1

Age Gender Training Physical

appropriate. Without this regular testing it will be difficult to see progression or to

Within fitness training there is probably no discipline more misunderstood than

The major food groups

Lipoproteins and cholesterol

Protein bars and drinks