Mineral

A mineral is a naturally occurring chemical compound, usually of crystalline form

and abiogenic in origin (not produced by life processes). A mineral has one specific chemical
composition, whereas a rock can be an aggregate of different minerals or mineraloids. The study
of minerals is called mineralogy.
There are over 5,300 known mineral species; as of March 2017, over 5,230 of these had been
approved by the International Mineralogical Association (IMA).[2] The silicate minerals compose
over 90% of the Earth's crust. Silicon and oxygen constitute approximately 75% of the Earth's
crust, which translates directly into the predominance of silicate minerals.
Minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties. Differences in chemical
composition and crystal structure distinguish the various species, which were determined by the
mineral's geological environment when formed. Changes in the temperature, pressure, or bulk
composition of a rock mass cause changes in its minerals.
Minerals can be described by their various physical properties, which are related to their
chemical structure and composition. Common distinguishing characteristics include crystal
structure and habit, hardness, lustre, diaphaneity, colour, streak, tenacity, cleavage, fracture,
parting, specific gravity, magnetism, taste or smell, radioactivity, and reaction to acid.
Minerals are classified by key chemical constituents; the two dominant systems are the Dana
classification and the Strunz classification. The silicate class of minerals is subdivided into six
subclasses by the degree of polymerization in the chemical structure. All silicate minerals have a
base unit of a [SiO4]4− silica tetrahedron—that is, a silicon cation coordinated by four
oxygen anions, which gives the shape of a tetrahedron. These tetrahedra can be polymerized to
give the subclasses: orthosilicates (no polymerization, thus single tetrahedra), disilicates (two
tetrahedra bonded together), cyclosilicates (rings of tetrahedra), inosilicates (chains of
tetrahedra), phyllosilicates (sheets of tetrahedra), and tectosilicates (three-dimensional network
of tetrahedra). Other important mineral groups include the native
elements, sulfides, oxides, halides, carbonates, sulfates, and phosphates.

Definition
Basic definition
One definition of a mineral encompasses the following criteria:[3]

1. Formed by a natural process (anthropogenic compounds are excluded).

2. Stable or metastable at room temperature (25 °C). In the simplest sense, this means the
mineral must be solid. Classical examples of exceptions to this rule include
native mercury, which crystallizes at −39 °C, and water ice, which is solid only below
0 °C; because these two minerals were described before 1959, they were grandfathered
by the International Mineralogical Association (IMA).[4][5] Modern advances have
included extensive study of liquid crystals, which also extensively involve mineralogy.
3. Represented by a chemical formula. Minerals are chemical compounds, and as such they
can be described by fixed or a variable formula. Many mineral groups and species are
composed of a solid solution; pure substances are not usually found because of
contamination or chemical substitution. For example, the olivine group is described by
 the variable formula (Mg, Fe)2SiO4, which is a solid solution of two end-member
species, magnesium-rich forsterite and iron-rich fayalite, which are described by a fixed
chemical formula. Mineral species themselves could have a variable compositions, such
as the sulfide mackinawite, (Fe, Ni)9S8, which is mostly a ferrous sulfide, but has a very
significant nickel impurity that is reflected in its formula.[3][6]
4. Ordered atomic arrangement. This generally means crystalline, however, crystals are also
periodic, so the broader criterion is used instead.[3] An ordered atomic arrangement gives
rise to a variety of macroscopic physical properties, such as crystal form, hardness, and
cleavage.[7] There have been several recent proposals to classify biogenic
or amorphous substances as minerals. The formal definition of a mineral approved by the
IMA in 1995: "A mineral is an element or chemical compound that is normally
crystalline and that has been formed as a result of geological processes."[8]
5. Usually abiogenic (not resulting from the activity of living organisms). Biogenic
substances are explicitly excluded by the IMA: "Biogenic substances are chemical
compounds produced entirely by biological processes without a geological component
(e.g., urinary calculi, oxalate crystals in plant tissues, shells of marine molluscs, etc.) and
are not regarded as minerals. However, if geological processes were involved in the
genesis of the compound, then the product can be accepted as a mineral."[8]
The first three general characteristics are less debated than the last two.[3]
Recent advances
Mineral classification schemes and their definitions are evolving to match recent advances in
mineral science. Recent changes have included the addition of an organic class, in both the new
Dana and the Strunz classification schemes.[9][10] The organic class includes a very rare group of
minerals with hydrocarbons. The IMA Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names
adopted in 2009 a hierarchical scheme for the naming and classification of mineral groups and
group names and established seven commissions and four working groups to review and classify
minerals into an official listing of their published names.[11][12] According to these new rules,
"mineral species can be grouped in a number of different ways, on the basis of chemistry, crystal
structure, occurrence, association, genetic history, or resource, for example, depending on the
purpose to be served by the classification."[11]
The Nickel (1995)[clarification needed] exclusion of biogenic substances was not universally adhered
to. For example, Lowenstam (1981) stated that "organisms are capable of forming a diverse array
of minerals, some of which cannot be formed inorganically in the biosphere."[13] The distinction
is a matter of classification and less to do with the constituents of the minerals themselves.
Skinner (2005) views all solids as potential minerals and includes biominerals in the mineral
kingdom, which are those that are created by the metabolic activities of organisms. Skinner
expanded the previous definition of a mineral to classify "element or compound, amorphous or
crystalline, formed through biogeochemical processes," as a mineral.[14]
Recent advances in high-resolution genetics and X-ray absorption spectroscopy are providing
revelations on the biogeochemical relations between microorganismsand minerals that may make
Nickel's (1995) biogenic mineral exclusion obsolete and Skinner's (2005) biogenic mineral
inclusion a necessity.[8][14] For example, the IMA commissioned "Environmental Mineralogy and
Geochemistry Working Group"[15] deals with minerals in the hydrosphere, atmosphere,
and biosphere. The group's scope includes mineral-forming microorganisms, which exist on
nearly every rock, soil, and particle surface spanning the globe to depths of at least 1600 metres
below the sea floor and 70 kilometres into the stratosphere (possibly entering
the mesosphere).[16][17][18] Biogeochemical cycles have contributed to the formation of minerals
for billions of years. Microorganisms can precipitate metals from solution, contributing to the
formation of ore deposits. They can also catalyze the dissolution of minerals.[19][20][21]
Prior to the International Mineralogical Association's listing, over 60 biominerals had been
discovered, named, and published.[22] These minerals (a sub-set tabulated in Lowenstam
(1981)[13]) are considered minerals proper according to the Skinner (2005) definition.[14] These
biominerals are not listed in the International Mineral Association official list of mineral
names,[23] however, many of these biomineral representatives are distributed amongst the 78
mineral classes listed in the Dana classification scheme.[14] Another rare class of minerals
(primarily biological in origin) include the mineral liquid crystals that have properties of both
liquids and crystals. To date over 80,000 liquid crystalline compounds have been identified.[24][25]
The Skinner (2005) definition of a mineral takes this matter into account by stating that a mineral
can be crystalline or amorphous, the latter group including liquid crystals.[14] Although
biominerals and liquid mineral crystals, are not the most common form of minerals, [26] they help
to define the limits of what constitutes a mineral proper. The formal Nickel (1995) definition
explicitly mentioned crystallinity as a key to defining a substance as a mineral. A 2011 article
defined icosahedrite, an aluminium-iron-copper alloy as mineral; named for its unique
natural icosahedral symmetry, it is a quasicrystal. Unlike a true crystal, quasicrystals are ordered
but not periodic.[27][28]
Rocks, ores, and gems
Minerals are not equivalent to rocks. A rock is either an aggregate of one or more minerals[29] or
mineraloids. Some rocks, such as limestone or quartzite, are composed primarily of one
mineral—calcite or aragonite in the case of limestone, and quartz in the latter case.[30][31] Other
rocks can be defined by relative abundances of key (essential) minerals; a granite is defined by
proportions of quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase feldspar.[32] The other minerals in the rock
are termed accessory, and do not greatly affect the bulk composition of the rock. Rocks can also
be composed entirely of non-mineral material; coal is a sedimentary rock composed primarily of
organically derived carbon.[29][33]
In rocks, some mineral species and groups are much more abundant than others; these are termed
the rock-forming minerals. The major examples of these are quartz, the feldspars, the micas,
the amphiboles, the pyroxenes, the olivines, and calcite; except the last one, all of the minerals
are silicates.[34] Overall, around 150 minerals are considered particularly important, whether in
terms of their abundance or aesthetic value in terms of collecting.[35]
Commercially valuable minerals and rocks are referred to as industrial minerals. For
example, muscovite, a white mica, can be used for windows (sometimes referred to as isinglass),
as a filler, or as an insulator.[36] Ores are minerals that have a high concentration of a certain
element, typically a metal. Examples are cinnabar (HgS), an ore of mercury, sphalerite (ZnS), an
ore of zinc, or cassiterite (SnO2), an ore of tin. Gems are minerals with an ornamental value, and
are distinguished from non-gems by their beauty, durability, and usually, rarity. There are about
20 mineral species that qualify as gem minerals, which constitute about 35 of the most common
gemstones. Gem minerals are often present in several varieties, and so one mineral can account
for several different gemstones; for example, ruby and sapphire are both corundum, Al2O3.[37]
Nomenclature and classification
Minerals are classified by variety, species, series and group, in order of increasing generality.
The basic level of definition is that of mineral species, each of which is distinguished from the
others by unique chemical and physical properties. For example, quartz is defined by its formula,
SiO2, and a specific crystalline structure that distinguishes it from other minerals with the same
chemical formula (termed polymorphs). When there exists a range of composition between two
minerals species, a mineral series is defined. For example, the biotite series is represented by
variable amounts of the endmembers phlogopite, siderophyllite, annite, and eastonite. In contrast,
a mineral group is a grouping of mineral species with some common chemical properties that
share a crystal structure. The pyroxene group has a common formula of XY(Si,Al)2O6, where X
and Y are both cations, with X typically bigger than Y; the pyroxenes are single-chain silicates
that crystallize in either the orthorhombic or monoclinic crystal systems. Finally, a mineral
variety is a specific type of mineral species that differs by some physical characteristic, such as
colour or crystal habit. An example is amethyst, which is a purple variety of quartz.[38]
Two common classifications, Dana and Strunz, are used for minerals; both rely on composition,
specifically with regards to important chemical groups, and structure. James Dwight Dana, a
leading geologist of his time, first published his System of Mineralogy in 1837; as of 1997, it is in
its eighth edition. The Dana classification assigns a four-part number to a mineral species. Its
class number is based on important compositional groups; the type gives the ratio of cations to
anions in the mineral; and the last two numbers group minerals by structural similarity within a
given type or class. The less commonly used Strunz classification, named for German
mineralogist Karl Hugo Strunz, is based on the Dana system, but combines both chemical and
structural criteria, the latter with regards to distribution of chemical bonds.[39]
As of March 2017, 5,237 mineral species are approved by the IMA.[2] They are most commonly
named after a person (45%), followed by discovery location (23%); names based on chemical
composition (14%) and physical properties (8%) are the two other major groups of mineral name
etymologies.[38][40] The common suffix -iteof mineral names descends from the ancient Greek
suffix – ί τ η ς (-ites), meaning "connected with or belonging to".[41]

Chemistry
The abundance and diversity of minerals is controlled directly by their chemistry, in turn
dependent on elemental abundances in the Earth. The majority of minerals observed are derived
from the Earth's crust. Eight elements account for most of the key components of minerals, due
to their abundance in the crust. These eight elements, summing to over 98% of the crust by
weight, are, in order of decreasing
abundance: oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium and potassium.
Oxygen and silicon are by far the two most important – oxygen composes 47% of the crust by
weight, and silicon accounts for 28%.[42]
The minerals that form are directly controlled by the bulk chemistry of the parent body. For
example, a magma rich in iron and magnesium will form mafic minerals, such as olivine and the
pyroxenes; in contrast, a more silica-rich magma will crystallize to form minerals that
incorporate more SiO2, such as the feldspars and quartz. In a limestone, calcite or aragonite (both
CaCO3) form because the rock is rich in calcium and carbonate. A corollary is that a mineral will
not be found in a rock whose bulk chemistry does not resemble the bulk chemistry of a given
mineral with the exception of trace minerals. For example, kyanite, Al2SiO5 forms from
the metamorphism of aluminium-rich shales; it would not likely occur in aluminium-poor rock,
such as quartzite.
The chemical composition may vary between end member species of a solid solution series. For
example, the plagioclase feldsparscomprise a continuous series from sodium-rich end
member albite (NaAlSi3O8) to calcium-rich anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8) with four recognized
intermediate varieties between them (given in order from sodium- to calcium-
rich): oligoclase, andesine, labradorite, and bytownite.[43] Other examples of series include the
olivine series of magnesium-rich forsterite and iron-rich fayalite, and the wolframiteseries
of manganese-rich hübnerite and iron-rich ferberite.
Chemical substitution and coordination polyhedra explain this common feature of minerals. In
nature, minerals are not pure substances, and are contaminated by whatever other elements are
present in the given chemical system. As a result, it is possible for one element to be substituted
for another.[44] Chemical substitution will occur between ions of a similar size and charge; for
example, K+ will not substitute for Si4+ because of chemical and structural incompatibilities
caused by a big difference in size and charge. A common example of chemical substitution is
that of Si4+ by Al3+, which are close in charge, size, and abundance in the crust. In the example of
plagioclase, there are three cases of substitution. Feldspars are all framework silicates, which
have a silicon-oxygen ratio of 2:1, and the space for other elements is given by the substitution of
Si4+ by Al3+ to give a base unit of [AlSi3O8]−; without the substitution, the formula would be
charge-balanced as SiO2, giving quartz.[45] The significance of this structural property will be
explained further by coordination polyhedra. The second substitution occurs between Na+ and
Ca2+; however, the difference in charge has to accounted for by making a second substitution of
Si4+ by Al3+.[46]
Coordination polyhedra are geometric representation of how a cation is surrounded by an anion.
In mineralogy, coordination polyhedra are usually considered in terms of oxygen, due its
abundance in the crust. The base unit of silicate minerals is the silica tetrahedron – one
Si4+ surrounded by four O2−. An alternate way of describing the coordination of the silicate is by
a number: in the case of the silica tetrahedron, the silicon is said to have a coordination number
of 4. Various cations have a specific range of possible coordination numbers; for silicon, it is
almost always 4, except for very high-pressure minerals where compound is compressed such
that silicon is in six-fold (octahedral) coordination by oxygen. Bigger cations have a bigger
coordination number because of the increase in relative size as compared to oxygen (the
last orbital subshell of heavier atoms is different too). Changes in coordination numbers between
leads to physical and mineralogical differences; for example, at high pressure such as in
the mantle, many minerals, especially silicates such as olivine and garnet will change to
a perovskite structure, where silicon is in octahedral coordination. Another example are the
aluminosilicates kyanite, andalusite, and sillimanite (polymorphs, as they share the formula
Al2SiO5), which differ by the coordination number of the Al3+; these minerals transition from
one another as a response to changes in pressure and temperature.[42] In the case of silicate
materials, the substitution of Si4+ by Al3+ allows for a variety of minerals because of the need to
balance charges.[47]
Changes in temperature and pressure, and composition alter the mineralogy of a rock sample.
Changes in composition can be caused by processes such
as weathering or metasomatism (hydrothermal alteration). Changes in temperature and pressure
occur when the host rock undergoes tectonic or magmatic movement into differing physical
regimes. Changes in thermodynamic conditions make it favourable for mineral assemblages to
react with each other to produce new minerals; as such, it is possible for two rocks to have an
identical or a very similar bulk rock chemistry without having a similar mineralogy. This process
of mineralogical alteration is related to the rock cycle. An example of a series of mineral
reactions is illustrated as follows.[48]
Orthoclase feldspar (KAlSi3O8) is a mineral commonly found in granite, a plutonic igneous rock.
When exposed to weathering, it reacts to form kaolinite (Al2Si2O5(OH)4, a sedimentary mineral,
and silicic acid):
2 KAlSi3O8 + 5 H2O + 2 H+ → Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + 4 H2SiO3 + 2 K+
Under low-grade metamorphic conditions, kaolinite reacts with quartz to
form pyrophyllite (Al2Si4O10(OH)2):
Al2Si2O5(OH)4 + SiO2 → Al2Si4O10(OH)2 + H2O
As metamorphic grade increases, the pyrophyllite reacts to form kyanite and quartz:
Al2Si4O10(OH)2 → Al2SiO5 + 3 SiO2 + H2O
Alternatively, a mineral may change its crystal structure as a consequence of changes in
temperature and pressure without reacting. For example, quartz will change into a variety of its
SiO2 polymorphs, such as tridymite and cristobalite at high temperatures, and coesite at high
pressures.[49]

Physical properties
Classifying minerals ranges from simple to difficult. A mineral can be identified by several
physical properties, some of them being sufficient for full identification without equivocation.
In other cases, minerals can only be classified by more complex optical, chemical or X-ray
diffraction analysis; these methods, however, can be costly and time-consuming. Physical
properties applied for classification include crystal structure and habit, hardness, lustre,
diaphaneity, colour, streak, cleavage and fracture, and specific gravity. Other less general tests
include fluorescence, phosphorescence, magnetism, radioactivity, tenacity (response to
[50]
mechanical induced changes of shape or form), piezoelectricity and reactivity to dilute acids.
Crystal structure and habit
Crystal structure results from the orderly geometric spatial arrangement of atoms in the internal
structure of a mineral. This crystal structure is based on regular internal atomic
or ionic arrangement that is often expressed in the geometric form that the crystal takes. Even
when the mineral grains are too small to see or are irregularly shaped, the underlying crystal
structure is always periodic and can be determined by X-ray diffraction.[3] Minerals are typically
described by their symmetry content. Crystals are restricted to 32 point groups, which differ by
their symmetry. These groups are classified in turn into more broad categories, the most
encompassing of these being the six crystal families.[51]
These families can be described by the relative lengths of the three crystallographic
axes, and the angles between them; these relationships correspond to the symmetry operations
that define the narrower point groups. They are summarized below; a, b, and c represent the axes,
and α, β, γ represent the angle opposite the respective crystallographic axis (e.g. α is the angle
opposite the a-axis, viz. the angle between the b and c axes):[51]

Crystal family Lengths Angles Common examples

Isometric a=b=c α=β=γ=90° Garnet, halite, pyrite

Tetragonal a=b≠c α=β=γ=90° Rutile, zircon, andalusite

Orthorhombic a≠b≠c α=β=γ=90° Olivine, aragonite, orthopyroxenes

Hexagonal a=b≠c α=β=90°, γ=120° Quartz, calcite, tourmaline

Monoclinic a≠b≠c α=γ=90°, β≠90° Clinopyroxenes, orthoclase, gypsum

Triclinic a≠b≠c α≠β≠γ≠90° Anorthite, albite, kyanite

The hexagonal crystal family is also split into two crystal systems – the trigonal, which has a
three-fold axis of symmetry, and the hexagonal, which has a six-fold axis of symmetry.
Chemistry and crystal structure together define a mineral. With a restriction to 32 point groups,
minerals of different chemistry may have identical crystal structure. For
example, halite (NaCl), galena (PbS), and periclase (MgO) all belong to the hexaoctahedral point
group (isometric family), as they have a similar stoichiometry between their different constituent
elements. In contrast, polymorphs are groupings of minerals that share a chemical formula but
have a different structure. For example, pyriteand marcasite, both iron sulfides, have the formula
FeS2; however, the former is isometric while the latter is orthorhombic. This polymorphism
extends to other sulfides with the generic AX2 formula; these two groups are collectively known
as the pyrite and marcasite groups.[52]
Polymorphism can extend beyond pure symmetry content. The aluminosilicates are a group of
three minerals – kyanite, andalusite, and sillimanite – which share the chemical formula Al2SiO5.
Kyanite is triclinic, while andalusite and sillimanite are both orthorhombic and belong to the
dipyramidal point group. These difference arise correspond to how aluminium is coordinated
within the crystal structure. In all minerals, one aluminium ion is always in six-fold coordination
by oxygen; the silicon, as a general rule is in four-fold coordination in all minerals; an exception
is a case like stishovite (SiO2, an ultra-high pressure quartz polymorph with rutile
structure).[53] In kyanite, the second aluminium is in six-fold coordination; its chemical formula
can be expressed as Al[6]Al[6]SiO5, to reflect its crystal structure. Andalusite has the second
aluminium in five-fold coordination (Al[6]Al[5]SiO5) and sillimanite has it in four-fold
coordination (Al[6]Al[4]SiO5).[54]
Differences in crystal structure and chemistry greatly influence other physical properties of the
mineral. The carbon allotropes diamond and graphite have vastly different properties; diamond is
the hardest natural substance, has an adamantine lustre, and belongs to the isometric crystal
family, whereas as graphite is very soft, has a greasy lustre, and crystallises in the hexagonal
family. This difference is accounted by differences in bonding. In diamond, the carbons are in
sp3 hybrid orbitals, which means they form a framework where each carbon is covalently bonded
to four neighbours in a tetrahedral fashion; on the other hand, graphite is composed of sheets of
carbons in sp2 hybrid orbitals, where each carbon is bonded covalently to only three others.
These sheets are held together by much weaker van der Waals forces, and this discrepancy
translates to big macroscopic differences.[55]
Twinning is the intergrowth of two or more crystal of a single mineral species. The geometry of
the twinning is controlled by the mineral's symmetry. As a result, there are several types of
twins, including contact twins, reticulated twins, geniculated twins, penetration twins, cyclic
twins, and polysynthetic twins. Contact, or simple twins, consist of two crystals joined at a plane;
this type of twinning is common in spinel. Reticulated twins, common in rutile, are interlocking
crystals resembling netting. Geniculated twins have a bend in the middle that is caused by start
of the twin. Penetration twins consist of two single crystals that have grown into each other;
examples of this twinning include cross-shaped staurolite twins and Carlsbad twinning in
orthoclase. Cyclic twins are caused by repeated twinning around a rotation axis. It occurs around
three, four, five, six, or eight-fold axes, and the corresponding patterns are called threelings,
fourlings, fivelings, sixlings, and eightlings. Sixlings are common in aragonite. Polysynthetic
twins are similar to cyclic twinning by the presence of repetitive twinning; however, instead of
occurring around a rotational axis, it occurs along parallel planes, usually on a microscopic
scale.[56][57]
Crystal habit refers to the overall shape of crystal. Several terms are used to describe this
property. Common habits include acicular, which described needlelike crystals like in natrolite,
bladed, dendritic (tree-pattern, common in native copper), equant, which is typical of garnet,
prismatic (elongated in one direction), and tabular, which differs from bladed habit in that the
former is platy whereas the latter has a defined elongation. Related to crystal form, the quality of
crystal faces is diagnostic of some minerals, especially with a petrographic microscope. Euhedral
crystals have a defined external shape, while anhedral crystals do not; those intermediate forms
are termed subhedral.[58][59]
Hardness
The hardness of a mineral defines how much it can resist scratching. This physical property is
controlled by the chemical composition and crystalline structure of a mineral. A mineral's
hardness is not necessarily constant for all sides, which is a function of its structure;
crystallographic weakness renders some directions softer than others.[60] An example of this
property exists in kyanite, which has a Mohs hardness of 5½ parallel to [001] but 7 parallel to
[100].[61]
The most common scale of measurement is the ordinal Mohs hardness scale. Defined by ten
indicators, a mineral with a higher index scratches those below it. The scale ranges from talc,
a phyllosilicate, to diamond, a carbon polymorph that is the hardest natural material. The scale is
provided below:[60]

Mohs hardness Mineral Chemical formula

1 Talc Mg3Si4O10(OH)2

2 Gypsum CaSO4·2H2O

3 Calcite CaCO3

4 Fluorite CaF2

5 Apatite Ca5(PO4)3(OH,Cl,F)

6 Orthoclase KAlSi3O8

7 Quartz SiO2

8 Topaz Al2SiO4(OH,F)2

9 Corundum Al2O3

10 Diamond C

Lustre and diaphaneity

Lustre indicates how light reflects from the mineral's surface, with regards to its quality and
intensity. There are numerous qualitative terms used to describe this property, which are split
into metallic and non-metallic categories. Metallic and sub-metallic minerals have high
reflectivity like metal; examples of minerals with this lustre are galena and pyrite. Non-metallic
lustres include: adamantine, such as in diamond; vitreous, which is a glassy lustre very common
in silicate minerals; pearly, such as in talc and apophyllite, resinous, such as members of the
garnet group, silky which common in fibrous minerals such as asbestiform chrysotile.[62]
The diaphaneity of a mineral describes the ability of light to pass through it. Transparent
minerals do not diminish the intensity of light passing through it. An example of such a mineral
is muscovite (potassium mica); some varieties are sufficiently clear to have been used for
windows. Translucent minerals allow some light to pass, but less than those that are
transparent. Jadeiteand nephrite (mineral forms of jade are examples of minerals with this
property). Minerals that do not allow light to pass are called opaque.[63][64]
The diaphaneity of a mineral depends on thickness of the sample. When a mineral is sufficiently
thin (e.g., in a thin section for petrography), it may become transparent even if that property is
not seen in hand sample. In contrast, some minerals, such as hematite or pyrite are opaque even
in thin-section.[64]
Colour and streak
Colour is the most obvious property of a mineral, but it is often non-diagnostic.[65] It is caused
by electromagnetic radiation interacting with electrons (except in the case of incandescence,
which does not apply to minerals).[66] Two broad classes of elements (idiochromatic and
allochromatic) are defined with regards to their contribution to a mineral's colour: Idiochromatic
elements are essential to a mineral's composition; their contribution to a mineral's colour is
diagnostic. Examples of such minerals are malachite (green) and azurite (blue). In contrast,
allochromatic elements in minerals are present in trace amounts as impurities. An example of
such a mineral would be the ruby and sapphire varieties of the mineral corundum.[67] The colours
of pseudochromatic minerals are the result of interference of light waves. Examples
include labradorite and bornite.
In addition to simple body colour, minerals can have various other distinctive optical properties,
such as play of colours, asterism, chatoyancy, iridescence, tarnish, and pleochroism. Several of
these properties involve variability in colour. Play of colour, such as in opal, results in the
sample reflecting different colours as it is turned, while pleochroism describes the change in
colour as light passes through a mineral in a different orientation. Iridescence is a variety of the
play of colours where light scatters off a coating on the surface of crystal, cleavage planes, or off
layers having minor gradations in chemistry.[68] In contrast, the play of colours in opal is caused
by light refracting from ordered microscopic silica spheres within its physical
structure.[69]Chatoyancy ("cat's eye") is the wavy banding of colour that is observed as the
sample is rotated; asterism, a variety of chatoyancy, gives the appearance of a star on the mineral
grain. The latter property is particularly common in gem-quality corundum.[68][69]
The streak of a mineral refers to the colour of a mineral in powdered form, which may or may
not be identical to its body colour.[67] The most common way of testing this property is done with
a streak plate, which is made out of porcelain and coloured either white or black. The streak of a
mineral is independent of trace elements[63]or any weathering surface.[67] A common example of
this property is illustrated with hematite, which is coloured black, silver, or red in hand sample,
but has a cherry-red[63] to reddish-brown streak.[67] Streak is more often distinctive for metallic
minerals, in contrast to non-metallic minerals whose body colour is created by allochromatic
elements.[63] Streak testing is constrained by the hardness of the mineral, as those harder than 7
powder the streak plate instead.[67]
Cleavage, parting, fracture, and tenacity
By definition, minerals have a characteristic atomic arrangement. Weakness in this crystalline
structure causes planes of weakness, and the breakage of a mineral along such planes is termed
cleavage. The quality of cleavage can be described based on how cleanly and easily the mineral
breaks; common descriptors, in order of decreasing quality, are "perfect", "good", "distinct", and
"poor". In particularly transparent mineral, or in thin-section, cleavage can be seen a series of
parallel lines marking the planar surfaces when viewed at a side. Cleavage is not a universal
property among minerals; for example, quartz, consisting of extensively interconnected silica
tetrahedra, does not have a crystallographic weakness which would allow it to cleave. In
contrast, micas, which have perfect basal cleavage, consist of sheets of silica tetrahedra which
are very weakly held together.
As cleavage is a function of crystallography, there are a variety of cleavage types. Cleavage
occurs typically in either one, two, three, four, or six directions. Basal cleavage in one direction
is a distinctive property of the micas. Two-directional cleavage is described as prismatic, and
occurs in minerals such as the amphiboles and pyroxenes. Minerals such as galena or halite have
cubic (or isometric) cleavage in three directions, at 90°; when three directions of cleavage are
present, but not at 90°, such as in calcite or rhodochrosite, it is termed rhombohedral cleavage.
Octahedral cleavage (four directions) is present in fluorite and diamond, and sphalerite has six-
directional dodecahedral cleavage.[70][71]
Minerals with many cleavages might not break equally well in all of the directions; for example,
calcite has good cleavage in three direction, but gypsum has perfect cleavage in one direction,
and poor cleavage in two other directions. Angles between cleavage planes vary between
minerals. For example, as the amphiboles are double-chain silicates and the pyroxenes are
single-chain silicates, the angle between their cleavage planes is different. The pyroxenes cleave
in two directions at approximately 90°, whereas the amphiboles distinctively cleave in two
directions separated by approximately 120° and 60°. The cleavage angles can be measured with a
contact goniometer, which is similar to a protractor.[70][71]
Parting, sometimes called "false cleavage", is similar in appearance to cleavage but is instead
produced by structural defects in the mineral as opposed to systematic weakness. Parting varies
from crystal to crystal of a mineral, whereas all crystals of a given mineral will cleave if the
atomic structure allows for that property. In general, parting is caused by some stress applied to
a crystal. The sources of the stresses include deformation (e.g. an increase in pressure),
exsolution, or twinning. Minerals that often display parting include the pyroxenes, hematite,
magnetite, and corundum.[70][72]
When a mineral is broken in a direction that does not correspond to a plane of cleavage, it is
termed to have been fractured. There are several types of uneven fracture. The classic example is
conchoidal fracture, like that of quartz; rounded surfaces are created, which are marked by
smooth curved lines. This type of fracture occurs only in very homogeneous minerals. Other
types of fracture are fibrous, splintery, and hackly. The latter describes a break along a rough,
jagged surface; an example of this property is found in native copper.[73]
Tenacity is related to both cleavage and fracture. Whereas fracture and cleavage describes the
surfaces that are created when a mineral is broken, tenacity describes how resistant a mineral is
to such breaking. Minerals can be described as brittle, ductile, malleable, sectile, flexible, or
elastic.[74]
Specific gravity
Specific gravity numerically describes the density of a mineral. The dimensions of density are
mass divided by volume with units: kg/m3 or g/cm3. Specific gravity measures how much water a
mineral sample displaces. Defined as the quotient of the mass of the sample and difference
between the weight of the sample in air and its corresponding weight in water, specific gravity is
a unitless ratio. Among most minerals, this property is not diagnostic. Rock forming minerals –
typically silicates or occasionally carbonates – have a specific gravity of 2.5–3.5.[75]
High specific gravity is a diagnostic property of a mineral. A variation in chemistry (and
consequently, mineral class) correlates to a change in specific gravity. Among more common
minerals, oxides and sulfides tend to have a higher specific gravity as they include elements with
higher atomic mass. A generalization is that minerals with metallic or adamantine lustre tend to
have higher specific gravities than those having a non-metallic to dull lustre. For example,
hematite, Fe2O3, has a specific gravity of 5.26[76] while galena, PbS, has a specific gravity of 7.2–
7.6,[77] which is a result of their high iron and lead content, respectively. A very high specific
gravity becomes very pronounced in native metals; kamacite, an iron-nickel alloy common
in iron meteorites has a specific gravity of 7.9,[78] and gold has an observed specific gravity
between 15 and 19.3.[75][79]
Other properties
Other properties can be used to diagnose minerals. These are less general, and apply to specific
minerals.
Dropping dilute acid (often 10% HCl) aids in distinguishing carbonates from other mineral
classes. The acid reacts with the carbonate ([CO3]2−) group, which causes the affected area
to effervesce, giving off carbon dioxide gas. This test can be further expanded to test the mineral
in its original crystal form or powdered. An example of this test is done when distinguish calcite
from dolomite, especially within rocks (limestone and dolostone respectively). Calcite
immediately effervesces in acid, whereas acid must be applied to powdered dolomite (often to a
scratched surface in a rock), for it to effervesce.[80] Zeolite minerals will not effervesce in acid;
instead, they become frosted after 5–10 minutes, and if left in acid for a day, they dissolve or
become a silica gel.[81]
When tested, magnetism is a very conspicuous property of minerals. Among common
minerals, magnetite exhibits this property strongly, and it is also present, albeit not as strongly,
in pyrrhotite and ilmenite.[80] Some minerals exhibit electrical properties – for example, quartz is
piezoelectric – but electrical properties are rarely used as diagnostic criteria for minerals because
of incomplete data and natural variation.[82]
Minerals can also be tested for taste or smell. Halite, NaCl, is table salt; its potassium-bearing
counterpart, sylvite, has a pronounced bitter taste. Sulfides have a characteristic smell, especially
as samples are fractured, reacting, or powdered.[80]
Radioactivity is a rare property; minerals may be composed of radioactive elements. They could
be a defining constituent, such as uranium in uraninite, autunite, and carnotite, or as trace
impurities. In the latter case, the decay of a radioactive element damages the mineral crystal; the
result, termed a radioactive halo or pleochroic halo, is observable by various techniques, such as
thin-section petrography.[80]
Classification
As the composition of the Earth's crust is dominated by silicon and oxygen, silicate elements are
by far the most important class of minerals in terms of rock formation and diversity. However,
non-silicate minerals are of great economic importance, especially as ores.
Non-silicate minerals are subdivided into several other classes by their dominant chemistry,
which included native elements, sulfides, halides, oxides and hydroxides, carbonates and nitrates,
borates, sulfates, phosphates, and organic compounds. Most non-silicate mineral species are rare
(constituting in total 8% of the Earth's crust), although some are relatively common, such as
calcite, pyrite, magnetite, and hematite. There are two major structural styles observed in non-
silicates: close-packing and silicate-like linked tetrahedra. The close-packed structures, which is
a way to densely pack atoms while minimizing interstitial space. Hexagonal close-packing
involves stacking layers where every other layer is the same ("ababab"), whereas cubic close-
packing involves stacking groups of three layers ("abcabcabc"). Analogues to linked silica
tetrahedra include SO4 (sulfate), PO4 (phosphate), AsO4 (arsenate), and VO4 (vanadate). The
non-silicates have great economic importance, as they concentrate elements more than the
silicate minerals do.
The largest grouping of minerals by far are the silicates; most rocks are composed of greater than
95% silicate minerals, and over 90% of the Earth's crust is composed of these minerals. The two
main constituents of silicates are silicon and oxygen, which are the two most abundant elements
in the Earth's crust. Other common elements in silicate minerals correspond to other common
elements in the Earth's crust, such aluminium, magnesium, iron, calcium, sodium, and
potassium. Some important rock-forming silicates include the feldspars,
quartz, olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, garnets, and micas.
Silicates
The base of unit of a silicate mineral is the [SiO4]4− tetrahedron. In the vast majority of cases,
silicon is in four-fold or tetrahedral coordination with oxygen. In very high-pressure situations,
silicon will be six-fold or octahedral coordination, such as in the perovskite structure or the
quartz polymorph stishovite (SiO2). In the latter case, the mineral no longer has a silicate
structure, but that of rutile (TiO2), and its associated group, which are simple oxides. These silica
tetrahedra are then polymerized to some degree to create various structures, such as one-
dimensional chains, two-dimensional sheets, and three-dimensional frameworks. The basic
silicate mineral where no polymerization of the tetrahedra has occurred requires other elements
to balance out the base 4- charge. In other silicate structures, different combinations of elements
are required to balance out the resultant negative charge. It is common for the Si 4+ to be
substituted by Al3+ because of similarity in ionic radius and charge; in those case, the
[AlO4]5− tetrahedra form the same structures as do the unsubstituted tetrahedra, but their charge-
balancing requirements are different.
The degree of polymerization can be described by both the structure formed and how many
tetrahedral corners (or coordinating oxygens) are shared (for aluminium and silicon in tetrahedral
sites). Orthosilicates (or nesosilicates) have no linking of polyhedra, thus tetrahedra share no
corners. Disilicates (or sorosilicates) have two tetrahedra sharing one oxygen atom. Inosilicates
are chain silicates; single-chain silicates have two shared corners, whereas double-chain silicates
have two or three shared corners. In phyllosilicates, a sheet structure is formed which requires
three shared oxygens; in the case of double-chain silicates, some tetrahedra must share two
corners instead of three as otherwise a sheet structure would result. Framework silicates, or
tectosilicates, have tetrahedra that share all four corners. The ring silicates, or cyclosilicates, only
need tetrahedra to share two corners to form the cyclical structure.
The silicate subclasses are described below in order of decreasing polymerization.
Tectosilicates
Tectosilicates, also known as framework silicates, have the highest degree of polymerization.
With all corners of a tetrahedra shared, the silicon:oxygen ratio becomes 1:2. Examples are
quartz, the feldspars, feldspathoids, and the zeolites. Framework silicates tend to be particularly
chemically stable as a result of strong covalent bonds.
Forming 12% of the Earth's crust, quartz (SiO2) is the most abundant mineral species. It is
characterized by its high chemical and physical resistivity. Quartz has several polymorphs,
including tridymite and cristobalite at high temperatures, high-pressure coesite, and ultra-high
pressure stishovite. The latter mineral can only be formed on Earth by meteorite impacts, and its
structure has been composed so much that it had changed from a silicate structure to that
of rutile (TiO2). The silica polymorph that is most stable at the Earth's surface is α-quartz. Its
counterpart, β-quartz, is present only at high temperatures and pressures (changes to α-quartz
below 573 °C at 1 bar). These two polymorphs differ by a "kinking" of bonds; this change in
structure gives β-quartz greater symmetry than α-quartz, and they are thus also called high quartz
(β) and low quartz (α).
Feldspars are the most abundant group in the Earth's crust, at about 50%. In the feldspars,
Al3+ substitutes for Si4+, which creates a charge imbalance that must be accounted for by the
addition of cations. The base structure becomes either [AlSi3O8]− or [Al2Si2O8]2− There are 22
mineral species of feldspars, subdivided into two major subgroups – alkali and plagioclase – and
two less common groups – celsian and banalsite. The alkali feldspars are most commonly in a
series between potassium-rich orthoclase and sodium-rich albite; in the case of plagioclase, the
most common series ranges from albite to calcium-rich anorthite. Crystal twinning is common in
feldspars, especially polysynthetic twins in plagioclase and Carlsbad twins in alkali feldspars. If
the latter subgroup cools slowly from a melt, it forms exsolution lamellae because the two
components – orthoclase and albite – are unstable in solid solution. Exsolution can be on a scale
from microscopic to readily observable in hand-sample; perthitic texture forms when Na-rich
feldspar exsolve in a K-rich host. The opposite texture (antiperthitic), where K-rich feldspar
exsolves in a Na-rich host, is very rare.[93]
Feldspathoids are structurally similar to feldspar, but differ in that they form in Si-deficient
conditions which allows for further substitution by Al3+. As a result, feldsapthoids cannot be
associated with quartz. A common example of a feldsapthoid is nepheline ((Na, K)AlSiO4);
compared to alkali feldspar, nepheline has an Al2O3:SiO2 ratio of 1:2, as opposed to 1:6 in the
feldspar.[94] Zeolites often have distinctive crystal habits, occurring in needles, plates, or blocky
masses. They form in the presence of water at low temperatures and pressures, and have
channels and voids in their structure. Zeolites have several industrial applications, especially in
waste water treatment.[95]
Phyllosilicates
Phyllosilicates consist of sheets of polymerized tetrahedra. They are bound at three oxygen sites,
which gives a characteristic silicon:oxygen ratio of 2:5. Important examples include
the mica, chlorite, and the kaolinite-serpentinegroups. The sheets are weakly bound by van der
Waals forces or hydrogen bonds, which causes a crystallographic weakness, in turn leading to a
prominent basal cleavage among the phyllosilicates.[96] In addition to the tetrahedra,
phyllosilicates have a sheet of octahedra (elements in six-fold coordination by oxygen) that
balanced out the basic tetrahedra, which have a negative charge (e.g. [Si4O10]4−) These tetrahedra
(T) and octahedra (O) sheets are stacked in a variety of combinations to create phyllosilicate
groups. Within an octahedral sheet, there are three octahedral sites in a unit structure; however,
not all of the sites may be occupied. In that case, the mineral is termed dioctahedral, whereas in
other case it is termed trioctahedral.[97]
The kaolinite-serpentine group consists of T-O stacks (the 1:1 clay minerals); their hardness
ranges from 2 to 4, as the sheets are held by hydrogen bonds. The 2:1 clay minerals
(pyrophyllite-talc) consist of T-O-T stacks, but they are softer (hardness from 1 to 2), as they are
instead held together by van der Waals forces. These two groups of minerals are subgrouped by
octahedral occupation; specifically, kaolinite and pyrophyllite are dioctahedral whereas
serpentine and talc trioctahedral.[98]
Micas are also T-O-T-stacked phyllosilicates, but differ from the other T-O-T and T-O-stacked
subclass members in that they incorporate aluminium into the tetrahedral sheets (clay minerals
have Al3+ in octahedral sites). Common examples of micas are muscovite, and the biotite series.
The chlorite group is related to mica group, but a brucite-like (Mg(OH)2) layer between the T-O-
T stacks.[99]
Because of their chemical structure, phyllosilicates typically have flexible, elastic, transparent
layers that are electrical insulators and can be split into very thin flakes. Micas can be used in
electronics as insulators, in construction, as optical filler, or even cosmetics. Chrysotile, a species
of serpentine, is the most common mineral species in industrial asbestos, as it is less dangerous
in terms of health than the amphibole asbestos.[100]
Inosilicates
Inosilicates consist of tetrahedra repeatedly bonded in chains. These chains can be single, where
a tetrahedron is bound to two others to form a continuous chain; alternatively, two chains can be
merged to create double-chain silicates. Single-chain silicates have a silicon:oxygen ratio of 1:3
(e.g. [Si2O6]4−), whereas the double-chain variety has a ratio of 4:11, e.g. [Si8O22]12−. Inosilicates
contain two important rock-forming mineral groups; single-chain silicates are most
commonly pyroxenes, while double-chain silicates are often amphiboles.[101] Higher-order chains
exist (e.g. three-member, four-member, five-member chains, etc.) but they are rare.[102]
The pyroxene group consists of 21 mineral species.[103] Pyroxenes have a general structure
formula of XY(Si2O6), where X is an octahedral site, while Y can vary in coordination number
from six to eight. Most varieties of pyroxene consist of permutations of Ca2+, Fe2+ and Mg2+ to
balance the negative charge on the backbone. Pyroxenes are common in the Earth's crust (about
10%) and are a key constituent of mafic igneous rocks.[104]
Amphiboles have great variability in chemistry, described variously as a "mineralogical garbage
can" or a "mineralogical shark swimming a sea of elements". The backbone of the amphiboles is
the [Si8O22]12−; it is balanced by cations in three possible positions, although the third position is
not always used, and one element can occupy both remaining ones. Finally, the amphiboles are
usually hydrated, that is, they have a hydroxyl group ([OH] −), although it can be replaced by a
fluoride, a chloride, or an oxide ion.[105] Because of the variable chemistry, there are over 80
species of amphibole, although variations, as in the pyroxenes, most commonly involve mixtures
of Ca2+, Fe2+ and Mg2+.[103] Several amphibole mineral species can have an asbestiform crystal
habit. These asbestos minerals form long, thin, flexible, and strong fibres, which are electrical
insulators, chemically inert and heat-resistant; as such, they have several applications, especially
in construction materials. However, asbestos are known carcinogens, and cause various other
illnesses, such as asbestosis; amphibole asbestos (anthophyllite, tremolite, actinolite, grunerite,
and riebeckite) are considered more dangerous than chrysotile serpentine asbestos.[106]
Cyclosilicates
Cyclosilicates, or ring silicates, have a ratio of silicon to oxygen of 1:3. Six-member rings are
most common, with a base structure of [Si6O18]12−; examples include the tourmaline group
and beryl. Other ring structures exist, with 3, 4, 8, 9, 12 having been described.[107] Cyclosilicates
tend to be strong, with elongated, striated crystals.[108]
Tourmalines have a very complex chemistry that can be described by a general formula
XY3Z6(BO3)3T6O18V3W. The T6O18 is the basic ring structure, where T is usually Si4+, but
substitutable by Al3+ or B3+. Tourmalines can be subgrouped by the occupancy of the X site, and
from there further subdivided by the chemistry of the W site. The Y and Z sites can
accommodate a variety of cations, especially various transition metals; this variability in
structural transition metal content gives the tourmaline group greater variability in colour. Other
cyclosilicates include beryl, Al2Be3Si6O18, whose varieties include the gemstones emerald
(green) and aquamarine (bluish). Cordierite is structurally similar to beryl, and is a common
metamorphic mineral.[109]
Sorosilicates
Sorosilicates, also termed disilicates, have tetrahedron-tetrahedron bonding at one oxygen, which
results in a 2:7 ratio of silicon to oxygen. The resultant common structural element is the
[Si2O7]6− group. The most common disilicates by far are members of the epidote group. Epidotes
are found in variety of geologic settings, ranging from mid-ocean ridge to granites to metapelites.
Epidotes are built around the structure [(SiO4)(Si2O7)]10−structure; for example, the
mineral species epidote has calcium, aluminium, and ferric iron to charge balance: Ca2Al2(Fe3+,
Al)(SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH). The presence of iron as Fe3+ and Fe2+ helps understand
oxygen fugacity, which in turn is a significant factor in petrogenesis.[110]
Other examples of sorosilicates include lawsonite, a metamorphic mineral forming in
the blueschist facies (subduction zone setting with low temperature and high
pressure), vesuvianite, which takes up a significant amount of calcium in its chemical
structure.[110][111]
Orthosilicates
Orthosilicates consist of isolated tetrahedra that are charge-balanced by other cations.[112] Also
termed nesosilicates, this type of silicate has a silicon:oxygen ratio of 1:4 (e.g. SiO 4). Typical
orthosilicates tend to form blocky equant crystals, and are fairly hard.[113] Several rock-forming
minerals are part of this subclass, such as the aluminosilicates, the olivine group, and the garnet
group.
The aluminosilicates –bkyanite, andalusite, and sillimanite, all Al2SiO5 – are structurally
composed of one [SiO4]4− tetrahedron, and one Al3+ in octahedral coordination. The remaining
Al3+ can be in six-fold coordination (kyanite), five-fold (andalusite) or four-fold (sillimanite);
which mineral forms in a given environment is depend on pressure and temperature conditions.
In the olivine structure, the main olivine series of (Mg, Fe)2SiO4 consist of magnesium-rich
forsterite and iron-rich fayalite. Both iron and magnesium are in octahedral by oxygen. Other
mineral species having this structure exist, such as tephroite, Mn2SiO4.[114]The garnet group has a
general formula of X3Y2(SiO4)3, where X is a large eight-fold coordinated cation, and Y is a
smaller six-fold coordinated cation. There are six ideal endmembers of garnet, split into two
group. The pyralspite garnets have Al3+ in the Y
position: pyrope (Mg3Al2(SiO4)3), almandine (Fe3Al2(SiO4)3), and spessartine (Mn3Al2(SiO4)3).
The ugrandite garnets have Ca2+ in the X
position: uvarovite (Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3), grossular (Ca3Al2(SiO4)3) and andradite (Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3).
While there are two subgroups of garnet, solid solutions exist between all six end-members.[112]
Other orthosilicates include zircon, staurolite, and topaz. Zircon (ZrSiO4) is useful in
geochronology as the Zr4+ can be substituted by U6+; furthermore, because of its very resistant
structure, it is difficult to reset it as a chronometer. Staurolite is a common metamorphic
intermediate-grade index mineral. It has a particularly complicated crystal structure that was only
fully described in 1986. Topaz (Al2SiO4(F, OH)2, often found in granitic pegmatites associated
with tourmaline, is a common gemstone mineral.[115]
Non-silicates
Native elements
Native elements are those that are not chemically bonded to other elements. This mineral group
includes native metals, semi-metals, and non-metals, and various alloys and solid solutions. The
metals are held together by metallic bonding, which confers distinctive physical properties such
as their shiny metallic lustre, ductility and malleability, and electrical conductivity. Native
elements are subdivided into groups by their structure or chemical attributes.
The gold group, with a cubic close-packed structure, includes metals such as gold, silver, and
copper. The platinum group is similar in structure to the gold group. The iron-nickel group is
characterized by several iron-nickel alloy species. Two examples are kamacite and taenite, which
are found in iron meteorites; these species differ by the amount of Ni in the alloy; kamacite has
less than 5–7% nickel and is a variety of native iron, whereas the nickel content of taenite ranges
from 7–37%. Arsenic group minerals consist of semi-metals, which have only some metallic; for
example, they lack the malleability of metals. Native carbon occurs in two allotropes, graphite
and diamond; the latter forms at very high pressure in the mantle, which gives it a much stronger
structure than graphite.[116]
Sulfides
The sulfide minerals are chemical compounds of one or more metals or semimetals with a sulfur;
tellurium, arsenic, or selenium can substitute for the sulfur. Sulfides tend to be soft, brittle
minerals with a high specific gravity. Many powdered sulfides, such as pyrite, have a sulfurous
smell when powdered. Sulfides are susceptible to weathering, and many readily dissolve in
water; these dissolved minerals can be later redeposited, which creates enriched secondary ore
deposits.[117] Sulfides are classified by the ratio of the metal or semimetal to the sulfur, such as
M:S equal to 2:1, or 1:1.[118] Many sulfide minerals are economically important as metal ores;
examples include sphalerite (ZnS), an ore of zinc, galena (PbS), an ore of lead, cinnabar (HgS),
an ore of mercury, and molybdenite(MoS2, an ore of molybdenum.[119] Pyrite (FeS2), is the most
commonly occurring sulfide, and can be found in most geological environments. It is not,
however, an ore of iron, but can be instead oxidized to produce sulfuric acid.[120] Related to the
sulfides are the rare sulfosalts, in which a metallic element is bonded to sulfur and a semimetal
such as antimony, arsenic, or bismuth. Like the sulfides, sulfosalts are typically soft, heavy, and
brittle minerals.[121]
Oxides
Oxide minerals are divided into three categories: simple oxides, hydroxides, and multiple oxides.
Simple oxides are characterized by O2− as the main anion and primarily ionic bonding. They can
be further subdivided by the ratio of oxygen to the cations. The periclase group consists of
minerals with a 1:1 ratio. Oxides with a 2:1 ratio include cuprite (Cu2O) and water ice.
Corundum group minerals have a 2:3 ratio, and includes minerals such as corundum (Al2O3),
and hematite (Fe2O3). Rutile group minerals have a ratio of 1:2; the eponymous species, rutile
(TiO2) is the chief ore of titanium; other examples include cassiterite (SnO2; ore of tin),
and pyrolusite(MnO2; ore of manganese).[122][123] In hydroxides, the dominant anion is the
hydroxyl ion, OH−. Bauxites are the chief aluminium ore, and are a heterogeneous mixture of the
hydroxide minerals diaspore, gibbsite, and bohmite; they form in areas with a very high rate of
chemical weathering (mainly tropical conditions).[124] Finally, multiple oxides are compounds of
two metals with oxygen. A major group within this class are the spinels, with a general formula
of X2+Y3+2O4. Examples of species include spinel (MgAl2O4), chromite (FeCr2O4),
and magnetite (Fe3O4). The latter is readily distinguishable by its strong magnetism, which
occurs as it has iron in two oxidation states (Fe2+Fe3+2O4), which makes it a multiple oxide
instead of a single oxide.[125]
Halides
The halide minerals are compounds where a halogen (fluorine, chlorine, iodine, and bromine) is
the main anion. These minerals tend to be soft, weak, brittle, and water-soluble. Common
examples of halides include halite (NaCl, table salt), sylvite(KCl), fluorite (CaF2). Halite and
sylvite commonly form as evaporites, and can be dominant minerals in chemical sedimentary
rocks. Cryolite, Na3AlF6, is a key mineral in the extraction of aluminium from bauxites;
however, as the only significant occurrence at Ivittuut, Greenland, in a granitic pegmatite, was
depleted, synthetic cryolite can be made from fluorite.[126]
Carbonates
The carbonate minerals are those were the main anionic group is carbonate, [CO3]2−. Carbonates
tend to be brittle, many have rhombohedral cleavage, and all react with acid.[127] Due to the last
characteristic, field geologists often carry dilute hydrochloric acid to distinguish carbonates from
non-carbonates. The reaction of acid with carbonates, most commonly found as the polymorph
calcite and aragonite (CaCO3), relates to the dissolution and precipitation of the mineral, which is
a key in the formation of limestone caves, features within them such as stalactite and stalagmites,
and karst landforms. Carbonates are most often formed as biogenic or chemical sediments in
marine environments. The carbonate group is structurally a triangle, where a central C4+ cation is
surrounded by three O2− anions; different groups of minerals form from different arrangements
of these triangles.[128] The most common carbonate mineral is calcite, and is the primary
constituent of sedimentary limestone and metamorphic marble. Calcite, CaCO3, can have a high
magnesium impurity; under high-Mg conditions, its polymorph aragonite will form instead; the
marine geochemistry in this regard can be described as an aragonite or calcite sea, depending on
which mineral preferentially forms. Dolomite is a double carbonate, with the formula
CaMg(CO3)2. Secondary dolomitization of limestone is common, where calcite or aragonite are
converted to dolomite; this reaction increases pore space (the unit cell volume of dolomite is
88% that of calcite), which can create a reservoir for oil and gas. These two minerals species are
members of eponymous mineral groups: the calcite group includes carbonates with the general
formula XCO3, and the dolomite group constitutes minerals with general formula XY(CO3)2.[129]
Sulfates
The sulfate minerals all contain the sulfate anion, [SO4]2−. They tend to be transparent to
translucent, soft, and many are fragile.[130] Sulfate minerals commonly form as evaporites, where
they precipitate out of evaporating saline waters; alternative, sulfates can also be found in
hydrothermal vein systems associated with sulfides,[131] or as oxidation products of
sulfides.[132] Sulfates can be subdivided into anhydrous and hydrous minerals. The most common
hydrous sulfate by far is gypsum, CaSO4⋅2H2O. It forms as an evaporite, and is associated with
other evaporites such as calcite and halite; if it incorporates sand grains as it crystallizes, gypsum
can form desert roses. Gypsum has very low thermal conductivity and maintains a low
temperature when heated as it loses that heat by dehydrating; as such, gypsum is used as an
insulator in materials such as plaster and drywall. The anhydrous equivalent of gypsum
is anhydrite; it can form directly from seawater in highly arid conditions. The barite group has
the general formula XSO4, where the X is a large 12-coordinated cation. Examples
include barite (BaSO4), celestine (SrSO4), and anglesite (PbSO4); anhydrite is not part of the
barite group, as the smaller Ca2+ is only in eight-fold coordination.[133]
Phosphates
The phosphate minerals are characterized by the tetrahedral [PO4]3− unit, although the structure
can be generalized, and phosphorus is replaced by antimony, arsenic, or vanadium. The most
common phosphate is the apatite group; common species within this group are fluorapatite
(Ca5(PO4)3F), chlorapatite (Ca5(PO4)3Cl) and hydroxylapatite (Ca5(PO4)3(OH)). Minerals in this
group are the main crystalline constituents of teeth and bones in vertebrates. The relatively
abundant monazite group has a general structure of ATO4, where T is phosphorus or arsenic, and
A is often a rare-earth element (REE). Monazite is important in two ways: first, as a REE "sink",
it can sufficiently concentrate these elements to become an ore; secondly, monazite group
elements can incorporate relatively large amounts of uranium and thorium, which can be used
in monazite geochronology to date the rock based on the decay of the U and Th to lead.[134]
Organic minerals
Main article: Organic mineral
The Strunz classification includes a class for organic minerals. These rare compounds
contain organic carbon, but can be formed by a geologic process. For example, whewellite,
CaC2O4⋅H2O is an oxalate that can be deposited in hydrothermal ore veins. While hydrated
calcium oxalate can be found in coal seams and other sedimentary deposits involving organic
matter, the hydrothermal occurrence is not considered to be related to biological activity.[84]