Earth Planets Space, 53, 181–192, 2001

Rock-magnetism and ore microscopy of the magnetite-apatite ore deposit from

Cerro de Mercado, Mexico

L. M. Alva-Valdivia1 , A. Goguitchaichvili1 , J. Urrutia-Fucugauchi1 , C. Caballero-Miranda1 , and W. Vivallo2

1 Instituto de Geofı́sica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Del. Coyoacan 04510 D. F., México
2 Servicio Nacional de Geologı́a y Minerı́a, Chile

(Received July 14, 2000; Revised December 19, 2000; Accepted January 24, 2001)

Rock-magnetic and microscopic studies of the iron ores and associated igneous rocks in the Cerro de Mercado,
Mexico, were carried out to determine the magnetic mineralogy and origin of natural remanent magnetization (NRM),
related to the thermo-chemical processes due to hydrothermalism. Chemical remanent magnetization (CRM) seems
to be present in most of investigated ore and wall rock samples, replacing completely or partially an original
thermoremanent magnetization (TRM). Magnetite (or Ti-poor titanomagnetite) and hematite are commonly found
in the ores. Although hematite may carry a stable CRM, no secondary components are detected above 580◦ , which
probably attests that oxidation occurred soon enough after the extrusion and cooling of the ore-bearing magma.
NRM polarities for most of the studied units are reverse. There is some scatter in the cleaned remanence directions
of the ores, which may result from physical movement of the ores during faulting or mining, or from perturbation of
the ambient field during remanence acquisition by inhomogeneous internal fields within these strongly magnetic ore
deposits. The microscopy study under reflected light shows that the magnetic carriers are mainly titanomagnetite,
with significant amounts of ilmenite-hematite minerals, and goethite-limonite resulting from alteration processes.
Magmatic titanomagnetites, which are found in igneous rocks, show trellis, sandwich, and composite textures,
which are compatible with high temperature (deuteric) oxy-exsolution processes. Hydrothermal alteration in ore
deposits is mainly indicated by martitization in oxide minerals. Grain sizes range from a few microns to >100
µm, and possible magnetic state from single to multidomain, in agreement with hysteresis measurements. Thermal
spectra, continuous susceptibility measurements, and IRM (isothermal remanent magnetization) acquisition suggest
a predominance of spinels as magnetic carriers, most probably titanomagnetites with low-Ti content. For quantitative
modeling of the aeromagnetic anomalies, we used data on bulk susceptibility and natural remanent intensity for
quantifying the relative contributions of induced and remanent magnetization components and allow a better control
of the geometry of source bodies. The position and geometry of this magnetic source are shown as an ENE-striking
tabular body, steeply inclined (75◦ ) to the south.

1. Introduction et al., 1996; Alva-Valdivia and Urrutia-Fucugauchi, 1998) is

Paleomagnetic studies depend directly on the recording notable.
system, which comprises ferrimagnetic minerals, particu- A potential difficulty in applying paleomagnetic tech-
larly Fe-Ti oxides, and Fe hydroxides and sulfides. Rock niques to the study of ore deposits is the susceptibility of
magnetic techniques can characterize the composition, grain ores to chemical alteration. This is especially important for
size, domain state and other properties of the magnetic min- iron ores, owing to the high concentration of reduced iron,
erals that control the paleomagnetic stability and influence and of massive sulphide ores, which are prone to supergene
the paleomagnetic record. Paleomagnetic techniques have oxidation and even to spontaneous combustion. Thus, chem-
not been routinely applied to ore deposits, because it has ical remanent magnetization (CRM) should be a common oc-
been considered that the coarse-grained textures of many currence in ore deposits. Rock-magnetism seems a suitable
ores would be a source of low magnetic stability. On the tool for investigating Mexican ore deposits. Assuming that
other hand, a natural field of research using rock magnetism the ores were initially lava flows of magnetite, they probably
is in exploration and exploitation of iron-ore deposits, where cooled rapidly and acquired a stable thermoremanent mag-
the magnetic methods of exploration are widely applied and netization (TRM). Several kinds of thermo-chemical pro-
of highest resolution in time and space (Grant, 1985). In this cesses, which usually occur after emplacement of volcanic
context, the relatively low number of rock-magnetic studies material, may result in recrystallization of opaque minerals.
in iron-ore deposits (e.g., Ehrlich et al., 1969; Leslie, 1975; Consequently, a TRM may be partially or completely re-
Symons et al., 1981; Clark and Schmidt, 1993; Alva-Valdivia placed by CRM. We carried out a detailed rock-magnetic
study of Cerro de Mercado ore deposits, one of the most im-
Copy right
c The Society of Geomagnetism and Earth, Planetary and Space Sciences
portant Fe-ore deposits in Mexico, in order to define magnetic
(SGEPSS); The Seismological Society of Japan; The Volcanological Society of Japan; mineralogy and remanence characteristics related to post-
The Geodetic Society of Japan; The Japanese Society for Planetary Sciences.
emplacement thermo-chemical processes. Rock-magnetic

181
182 L. M. ALVA-VALDIVIA et al.: PETROMAGNETISM OF IRON-ORE

Fig. 1. Simplified geologic map of the regional study area showing the location of the iron-ore mining district Cerro de Mercado. Modified from Consejo
de Recursos Minerales (1985).

parameters were successfully used for modeling the aero- of the iron ore, along with excellent but rapidly disappearing
magnetic anomaly, by providing adequate control of the ge- exposures, make Cerro de Mercado an ideal Fe-ore deposit to
ometry of source bodies. carry out an interdisciplinary project involving geochemistry,
The Cerro de Mercado iron-ore deposit is located in the stable isotopes, and advanced mineralogy in order to clarify
northern sector of Durango city, Mexico (Fig. 1). Conflicting the controversy about the origin (this is a research project
theories of replacement and magmatic injection for the origin in progress whose results will be published soon). In all
 L. M. ALVA-VALDIVIA et al.: PETROMAGNETISM OF IRON-ORE 183

Fig. 2. Stratigraphic sequence indicating age and geologic formations.

genetic models, the ores are interpreted as having originally possible source bodies as free variables to fit the observed
consisted of magnetite, which has oxidized to martite, i.e., magnetic anomaly.
hematite pseudomorphous after magnetite.
A fluid inclusion study in fluorapatite from oxidized ore 2. Geology and Mineralization
and altered footwall rhyolite indicates that the emplacement Since the 70s several researchers have made efforts to de-
of the apatite accompanied a hydrothermal event of moderate fine the stratigraphy and tectonics of the Durango City area
temperature (greater than 350◦ C) at a crustal depth in excess (Fig. 1) (Swanson, 1974; Lyons, 1975, 1988; McDowell and
of 400 m (Leslie, 1975). The oxidation of the iron ores Keiser, 1977; Labarthe et al., 1990). Below we provide a
and the alteration of the footwall are interpreted as having summary of the mining district based on these works.
taken place during the thermal event. This event implies The iron deposits of this area were formed by subaerial vol-
the presence of CRM developed during oxidation. Thus, canic processes during a hiatus between two major eruptive
Cerro de Mercado affords an opportunity to investigate a cycles emanating from the 30 Ma Chupaderos caldera. The
hydrothermal event and its effects on the magnetic properties first major eruption of the Chupaderos caldera produced the
of the iron ores and host rocks, which is the done in this study. hematitic rhyolitic ash-flow tuffs of the Aguila Formation.
Besides, we investigate the magnetic characteristics which During resurgent doming of the caldera floor, the Cacaria
help to constrain the quantitative interpretation by using mea- Formation filled the moat around the central dome of the
sured magnetic properties, leaving size, shape, and depth of Chupaderos caldera. The lower Cacaria, the Leona mem-
184 L. M. ALVA-VALDIVIA et al.: PETROMAGNETISM OF IRON-ORE

ber, consists of extensive rhyolite flow domes, flows, and be applicable to many of them. The volcanic environment
volcanoclastic tuffs. The various facies of the Mercado Iron produces a mixture of intrusive, replacement, and sedimen-
Member were deposited on the surface of the Leona Member tary textures, which may explain the heated debates, found
as well as on the resurgently domed Aguila Formation. A in the literature over the origin of many of these deposits.
minor quartz latite extrusive activity was concurrent with the These systems include the Precambrian Kiruna deposits of
eruption of the Mercado Iron Member. Both units preceded Sweden, the central Missouri iron deposits, and the Olympic
the eruption of a second major welded tuff, the Santuario Dam deposit; the Jurassic deposits of northeast Nevada; and
Formation, which incorporated fragments of iron oxides in the Tertiary deposits of Mexico and Chile (e.g., Bookstrom,
its base. The Durango volcanic sequence (Fig. 2) began with 1977; Frietsch, 1978; Nystrom and Henriquez, 1994;
isolated andesitic flows at 51.6 Ma going through ash flow Travisany et al., 1995).
tuffs, rhyolites, quartz-latite flows, olivine basalts, and Qua-
ternary basalts of the Guadiana valley at 0.1 Ma. 3. Sampling and Methods of Study
The Cerro de Mercado iron deposit consists of four fa- We collected 84 drill-core samples from 14 sites of host-
cies: (1) a martite facies—massive to layered, coarsely crys- rocks and Fe-ore from the cut exposures in the Chupaderos
talline, porous martite (hematite pseudomorphous after mag- caldera area and Cerro de Mercado deposit (Fig. 1). Five to
netite) at the base, with dike and pluglike extensions down- nine cores were taken at each site with a portable gasoline-
ward into the underlying rhyolite, (2) a sandy magnetite powered drill, and oriented with an inclinometer and mag-
facies—unconsolidated, laminated, fine grained sandy mag- netic compass (after testing that it was not affected by the
netite above the martite, (3) a blocky facies—unlaminated remanent magnetization of the outcrop).
sandy magnetite matrix, mixed with blocks of the overlying Remanent magnetization was measured with a Molspin
quartz latite flow, and (4) a mixed iron oxide facies—tabular spinner magnetometer. Separation of secondary magneti-
and dikelike bodies of fine-grained magnetite-hematite inter- zation components from the characteristic component was
growths that cut and cap the sequence. accomplished by thermal demagnetization up to 680◦ C us-
Geologic relationships suggest that the iron deposits ing a non-inductive Schonstedt furnace. Room-temperature
formed as a result of a variety of subaerial volcanic pro- low-field magnetic susceptibility k was measured with a MS-
cesses. The main deposit at Cerro de Mercado apparently 2 Bartington susceptibility meter. Continuous susceptibility
resulted from the eruption of an iron-rich magma with abun- measurements (i.e., k-T curves) were obtained using a High-
dant volatiles of fluorine, chlorine, carbon dioxide, and wa- moor and a Bartington instrument. Isothermal remanent
ter. Sheeted flows and flow breccias formed a volcanic dome magnetization (IRM) acquisition curves with 10–12 steps
above an intrusive feeder system. Iron oxides crystallized as to a maximum field of 600 mT were obtained with a pulse
magnetite, with abundant, clear, yellow-green apatite crys- magnetizer in selected samples, and demagnetization of the
tals forming concurrently in gas cavities and open breccias. IRMs were done by step-wise alternating field (AF) using a
Large volumes of halogen-rich gases streamed up through Schonstedt demagnetization apparatus; using 8–14 steps up
the iron oxide flows and oxidized the magnetite to hematite to a maximum field of 230 mT.
(martite) and redeposited the iron leached from the now- Magnetic hysteresis loops were measured with an alternat-
porous martite as laminated sandy magnetite in an extensive ing gradient force magnetometer, ‘MicroMag’. IRM acqui-
fumarolic blanket. During the later stages of the cooling sition and DC back-field demagnetization curves were also
process, a quartz latite dike intruded and flowed out over the acquired with this instrument. Opaque minerals were exam-
deposit. Basal blocky flow breccias of the quartz latite mixed ined under reflected light to determine composition, texture,
with and disrupted the finely laminated texture of much of oxidation state, and degree of alteration.
the sandy magnetite, creating extensive quartz latite brec-
cias with a sandy magnetite matrix. Late-stage hematite- 4. Microscopy
magnetite dikes cut the entire system and fed flows, which 4.1 Background
capped the mound. In the surrounding of Cerro de Mercado Petrographic and opaque mineral study was done with an
large volumes of iron-rich vapor explosively vented into the ore microscope using thin and polished sections, and oil im-
atmosphere and crystallized as fine-grained hematite dust, mersion, for a sample from each site. Direct observation of
which formed an ash-like blanket covering a large area. Flow opaque minerals may assist in estimating the origin of mag-
textures, interlayered with the ash-like hematite, at the base netization, because we still have no clear magnetic evidence
of Peña Morada deposit, suggests actual flows or welded tuff to distinguish between TRM and CRM (Goguitchaichvili et
flows of this material. The occurrence of a maximum thick- al., 2000). Oxidation of titanomagnetite and magnetite is
ness of the ash-like hematite at Peña Morada indicates its an important phenomenon in rock magnetism. Secondary
proximity to a vent. At Cerro de Mercado the volatile-rich CRM may result, and if the oxidation products are the cation-
nature of the system resulted in extensive replacement of the deficient maghemite and titanomaghemite, the CRM may be
underlying pre-mineralization rhyolites by a mixture of mag- intense, but also very unstable (Storevedt, 1970; Nishitani
netite and pyroxene. Post-mineralization tuffs overlying the and Kono, 1989). At high temperatures (greater than 300◦ C),
iron ore contain iron oxide fragments at their bases with no maghemite inverts to hematite and the inversion resembles
alteration. the passage of a magnetic material through its Curie point.
Comparison of Cerro de Mercado with other apatite-bear- However, upon cooling, the magnetization lost during in-
ing, low titanium iron deposits associated with silicic vol- version is not recoverable. On the other hand, inversion of
canic systems suggests that this volcanogenic model may titanomaghemite at high temperature is more complex. In-
 L. M. ALVA-VALDIVIA et al.: PETROMAGNETISM OF IRON-ORE 185

Fig. 3. Photomicrographs representative of the host rocks and iron ores. General scale: 2 cm = 100 microns, except Fig. 3(b) (wide grain size = 350 microns)
and Fig. 3(e) (wide grain size = 150 microns). Labels are as follows: mt = magnetite, hm = hematite, tm = titanomagnetite, th = titanohematite,
apt = apatite, gh = goethite, ilm = ilmenite, pbk = pseudobrookite, mr = martite.

version may produce ilmenite and magnetite, in which case Hydrothermal alteration has played an important role in
magnetization grows during cooling; or it may decompose Cerro de Mercado deposits, producing calcite, epidote, and
into magnetite, hematite, and either rutile or pseudobrookite some mica. The main objective of microscopic observations
(Kobayashi, 1959; Readman and O’Reilly, 1970; Ozdemir was to evaluate how magnetic grains were affected by hy-
and Banerjee, 1984; Ozdemir, 1987). drothermal alteration.
186 L. M. ALVA-VALDIVIA et al.: PETROMAGNETISM OF IRON-ORE

Table 1. Rock magnetic and petrographic results from surficial samples of Cerro de Mercado area.

Site n Dec/Inc K A95 Mo k Q Rock Type

−3
No. (mA/m) (10 SI)
CMBO 3 179.2/−14.6 63 16 2969 195.115 0.42 Mineralized breccia Fe-rich. I, II, III, V.
Pl, fd, pi, hr, qz, ap
CMB 3 151.6/31.1 21 28 387 8.495 1.27 Fe mineralized breccia. IV, V. Pl, py, ap
CMBC 4 166.4/−18.8 81 10 7546 58.027 3.62 Skarn associated breccia. II, V. Py, qz
CMF 4 338.1/45.2 5 46 7692 250.639 0.85 Massive Fe with quartz and apatite veins.
Qz, ap
CMSC 5 207.8/−13.0 13 22 4317 34.314 3.5 Fe-mineralized skarn. IV, V. Py, qz, ap, ca
CMP 3 256.5/−58.3 17 31 7028 190.042 1.03 Massive-Fe. Qz, ap, ca
CMM 4 143.5/−42.5 12 28 2061 250.296 0.229 Massive-Fe. Py, qz, ca
CME 13 152.3/−14.2 1242 1 337 1.334 7.02 Rhyolithic vitreous tuff, partly devitrified.
Pl, fd, hr, qz, ap
CMI 3 186.6/−64.5 27 24 715 0.894 4.67 Quartz-latite with opaques removilized and
partial devitrification. I, IV, V. Pl, py, qz, ap
CMG 5 359.9/−4.9 7 27 39 2.484 0.44 Fe with low-temperature alteration and
devitrification. II. Pl, qz
CMMC 4 254.9/−56.0 92 10 1745 43.979 1.1 Massive-Fe. Qz, ap, ca
CMSO 5 129.9/−65.7 21 17 353 1.387 7.07 Skarn. II, IV, V. Py, qz, ca
CHU 5 162.4/−15.1 79 9 4868 2.457 55.07 Rhyolithic vitreous tuff, partly devitrified.
Pl, fd, qz, ap

Note: n, number of samples used for site mean calculation; Dec/Inc, and Mo , direction and intensity of mean characteristic remanent magneti-
zation; K and A95, confidence parameters; k, initial susceptibility; Q, Koenigsberger factor using H = 0.453 Oe. Rock type determined from thin
sections. Alteration types: I, sericitization; II, silicification; III, argilitization; IV, carbonatitization; V, epidotization. Mineralogy: pl, plagioclase;
fd, feldespar; py, pyroxen; hr, hornblende; qz, quartz; ap, apatite.

4.2 Sample description and several alteration processes are detected (sericitization,
In general, the studied samples exhibit two generations of silicification, and epidotization; a hexagonal apatite crystal
Fe-Ti oxides. The larger crystals (more than 30 µm), that appears completely replaced, Fig. 3(c)). Sample CMBO-1 is
can be easily observed are rare, whereas small crystals (3 µm a brecciated ore Fe-rich (Fig. 3(c); magnetite, light grey;
and less) are abundant in all studied samples. hematite, white). CMBO-4 (Fig. 3(d)) shows a massive
Massive Fe-martite-ores (sample CMM-5) are composed hematite with a few relicts of titanomagnetite on the right
of silicified magnetite and hematite and show grain-sizes side, and goethite developed in fractures and pores (hematite,
up to 100 µm in the quartz matrix. Regular oxidation to light grey; titanomagnetite, medium grey; and goethite, dark
hematite (martitization of euhedral magnetite crystals) along grey).
both crystal margins and (111) planes indicates that hematite Rhyolitic tuffs (sample CHU-1) show evidence for il-
is not exsolving from magnetite (Fig. 3(a)). This paragenesis menite, exsolved along (111) planes of the titanomagnetite
generally occurs at low/moderate temperatures (Haggerty, host, which has since oxidized to (titano)hematite (dark grey,
1976), below the Curie point of magnetite and hematite. ilmenite; white, (titano)hematite, Fig. 3(e)). The ilmenite
Thus, observed magnetic grains most probably carry a CRM. occurs as sheets or exsolution lenses, and has a light-grey
In a few cases (e.g., sample CMMC-3, Fig. 3(f)) pseudo- color, with pinkish-light tones, but in the presence of mag-
brookite (dark grey) is intergrown with martite (medium netite it has a white color, with trellis-type textures predom-
grey) and hematite (light grey-white). inantly. Sandwich and composite textures were also ob-
In a skarn sample (CMBC-5, Fig. 3(b)) a single grain served (Haggerty, 1976). These intergrowths develop typi-
of hematite, pseudomorphous after magnetite, could be ob- cally above 600◦ C; consequently, the NRM carried by these
served in the silicified matrix. Less than 5% of magnetite samples is a TRM.
remains, which indicates a higher intensity alteration. Fig-
ures 3(c) to 3(f) demonstrate the progressive oxidation of 5. Magnetic Measurements
massive magnetite. Note the relationships between incipient In order to identify the magnetic carriers responsible for
martitization and crystallographic directions and fractures the remanent magnetization and obtain information about
in the magnetite; the red internal reflections in some areas their magnetic stability, several rock-magnetic experiments
of hematite; and the reflection pleochroism of the hematite. were carried out. These experiments include: a) NRM and
Incipient to medium oxidation of magnetite along fractures initial susceptibility measurements, b) Viscosity index mea-
 L. M. ALVA-VALDIVIA et al.: PETROMAGNETISM OF IRON-ORE 187

surements, c) Stepwise thermal demagnetization of NRM, d)

Continuous susceptibility measurements, e) IRM acquisition
and AF demagnetization of saturation IRM (SIRM), and f)
Hysteresis experiments.
5.1 NRM intensity, susceptibility, and Koenigsberger
ratio (Q)
Table 1 shows the NRM intensity (Mo ) and susceptibility
(k) at room temperature, and the Koenigsberger ratio Q =
Mo /k H (calculated for the present geomagnetic field in the
study area). Q indicates the relative importance of remanent
and induced magnetization, with remanence dominant for
Q > 1. The variations in Mo and k are due to two factors,
different volume contents of magnetite, and occurrence of
weakly magnetic or non-magnetic phases generated at the
expense of titanomagnetites during oxidation or alteration of
the rocks.
Magnetic carriers in the rhyolitic tuffs present moderate
to relatively high Q values, indicating a predominance of
pseudo-single-domain (PSD) to single-domain (SD) carri-
ers. High Q ratios may also indirectly indicate a TRM origin
for the magnetization (Goguitchaichvili, 1995). As noted in
the last section, the dominant carriers are Ti-poor titanomag-
netites, with some deuteric oxy-exsolution products. The
above observations are also valid for the skarn samples with
no Fe-ore associations.
Site CMI (quartz-latite) has the lowest susceptibilities
(0.894 × 10−3 SI), related to the relatively low NRM inten-
sities, but fairly high Q ratios. Its NRMs have intermediate
to high coercivity and high directional stability under AF
demagnetization.
The Fe-skarn and massive iron ore samples have the high-
est NRM values among the various lithologies (7.692 A/m,
site CMF) and highest susceptibilities (up to 250.6 × 10−3
SI, site CMF), with low Q ratio, indicating a wide range of
magnetite grain sizes carrying NRM. Bulk properties like
IRM acquisition, which saturates in low fields (Fig. 4), de-
tect only the coarse multi-domain (MD) grains, but finer PSD Fig. 4. a) Isothermal remanent magnetization (IRM) acquisition curves.
to SD grains must also contribute to the NRM. These finer IRM intensity values are normalized to the saturating or the last value.
grains probably account for the moderate coercivity, detected b) Normalized intensity diagram for AF demagnetization of the IRM for
different groups of rocks. 1, CMB; 2, CME; 3, CMM; 4, CMSO; 5, CMI.
during AF demagnetization of IRM (Fig. 4). Although (ti-
tano) hematite was directly observed under reflected light
microscopy, its magnetic signal seems to be minor.
5.2 Viscosity index Most of the units show reverse polarity directions with high
Determination of the viscosity index (Prévot et al., 1983) within-site angular dispersion, and the site-mean directions
allows to estimate the capacity of a sample to acquire a vis- are rather scattered. Some intermediate polarity directions
cous remanent magnetization (VRM). The viscosity index (Table 1) were also found, which we attribute to chemical
was determined for pilot samples by measuring the rema- remagnetization, with an unblocking temperature spectrum
nent magnetization, first after a two-week storage with the that strongly overlaps that of the primary TRM, and not to
ambient field parallel to the cylindrical axis of each speci- variation of Earth’s magnetic field. Alternatively, anoma-
men, and then after another two-week storage in field-free lous directions may result from physical movement of the
space. Most of the samples showed relatively small viscosity ores during faulting or mining.
indixes, varying between 0 and 5%. The Cerro de Mercado Vector plots (so-called Zijderveld diagrams) show differ-
samples show therefore a low capacity for acquiring VRM. ent behaviour for each rock type. In general, two magnetiza-
5.3 Thermal demagnetizations tion component were recognized (Figs. 5(a)–(b), skarn sam-
62 samples were thermally demagnetized using a Schonst- ples). The low temperature component (poorly defined) is
edt furnace. In general 14 temperature steps were distributed probably due to hydrothermal alteration. The characteristic
between room temperature and 680◦ C (Fig. 5). We formally remanence is defined above 500◦ C. Judging from unblock-
calculated the directions of characteristic magnetization by ing temperature spectra it seems that both (titano)magnetite
means of principal component analysis (Kirschvink, 1980). and (titano)hematite coexist. No deviation of directions was
These directions for the sampled sites are shown in Table 1. found above 580◦ , which probably attests that oxidation oc-
188 L. M. ALVA-VALDIVIA et al.: PETROMAGNETISM OF IRON-ORE

Fig. 5. Orthogonal vector plots of remanent magnetization (Zijderveld, 1967) for representative samples and corresponding NRM decay curves. The
numbers refer to the temperatures in ◦ C. O, projections into the horizontal plane; X, projections into the vertical plane.

curred during or soon after extrusion and cooling of the ore- susceptibility just below the Curie temperature (the Hopkin-
bearing magma. The low temperature (200◦ –500◦ C) com- son peak), before dropping to relatively small values (Fig. 6,
ponent is well defined for massive-Fe samples (Fig. 5(d)), sample CMF-4). This behavior probably corresponds to SD
and may also correspond to chemical overprint. Alterna- or small PSD magnetic grains (Dunlop and Ozdemir, 1997).
tively, some partial thermoremanence (pTRM) could be ac- The Curie point is 580 ± 5◦ C, which indicates nearly pure
quired from about 300◦ C (the approximate temperature of magnetite as a magnetic carrier. This sample has high suscep-
hydrothermalism) to ambient temperature. This pTRM may tibility, so the contribution of hematite, relative to magnetite,
only be completely removed at higher temperatures (about should be negligible. The curves suggest thermal drift of the
500◦ C) if magnetization is carried by PSD or MD particles zero level of susceptibility. Skarn samples (Fig. 6, sample
(Shcherbakova et al., 1996; Goguitchaichvili et al., 1997). CMSC-3) show also evidence of magnetite with only a minor
Rhyolitic tuffs yield reasonably linear and stable magnetic Hopkinson peak just below the Curie point. This form is char-
components (Fig. 5(c)). A major part of magnetization is re- acteristic of coarse-grained PSD to MD grains. Here, again,
moved above 580◦ C, which probably points to the presence hematite may coexist judging from susceptibility curves but
of magmatic (titano)magnetite as well as (titano)hematite as its contribution is not significant (could be thermal drift).
observed under reflected light microscopy. Rhyolites yielded very noisy curves (not shown). However,
5.4 Continuous susceptibility measurements it can be inferred from thermal demagnetization data that
To study the thermal behavior of susceptibility (k-T nearly pure magnetite carries a major part of magnetization.
curves) in an 80 µT magnetic field, one sample from each 5.5 IRM acquisition and alternating field demagnetiza-
site was progressively heated up to 650◦ C and subsequently tion of SIRM
cooled down. Curie temperatures were determined follow- To determine the isothermal remanent magnetization
ing the method described by Grommé et al. (1969). Rep- curves, previously AF demagnetized samples from all sites
resentative curves are shown in Fig. 6. In some cases k-T were subjected to magnetic fields along one axis. The curves
curves could not be obtained due to weak initial magnetic were found quite similar in all cases (Fig. 4). Saturation is
susceptibilities. Massive-Fe samples show an increase in reached at relatively low field (about 200 mT), which points
 L. M. ALVA-VALDIVIA et al.: PETROMAGNETISM OF IRON-ORE 189

(Js ), and coercive force (Hc ) were calculated after correc-

tion for the paramagnetic contribution. The coercivity of
remanence (Hcr ) was determined by applying progressively
increasing backfield after saturation. Some typical hystere-
sis plots are reported in Fig. 7. Near the origin, no potbellied
and wasp-waisted behaviors (Tauxe et al., 1996) were ob-
served, except the samples from Fe-ores. This may suggest
co-existence of two magnetic phases (probably magnetite
and hematite) in these units. Judging from the ratios of hys-
teresis parameters, it seems that almost all samples fall in
PSD grain size region (Day et al., 1977). The Hcr /Hc ratio
ranges from 1.6 to 4.4 and Mr s /Ms varies between 0.06 and
0.67.

6. Quantitative Interpretation of the Magnetic

Anomaly
The anomaly in the area corresponds to a large normally
polarized dipole oriented almost north-south (strike = 161◦ )
that is centered over the major mineralized bodies (Fig. 8).
For modeling of the anomaly, we selected one profile (A–A’)
oriented almost north-south. The dipolar anomaly is charac-
terized by a marked low and has a peak-to-peak amplitude
of about 1700 nT. Quantitative interpretation was completed
using a Talwani-type modeling algorithm for 2D polygonal
bodies (Talwani, 1965).
We used the measured magnetic properties of the collected
samples to constrain the modeling. This process was per-
formed using several polygonal models with various combi-
nations of magnetic properties and the best fit corresponds
to a big tabular body located beneath the magnetic low to-
gether with a small body that help to fit the southern part
of the profile (Fig. 9). The magnetic parameters, within the
requirements for the geometry given from the borehole in-
formation and geological sections, were within the range of
those measured in samples. The model (that produced an
acceptable fit) required a higher susceptibility, in the order
of 8 (0.5) SI, than those measured in our samples, and a low
to medium remanent intensity of 0.6 (1.2) A/m, and direction
of remanence of Dec = 260◦ (180◦ ), Inc = −37◦ (−60◦ ),
for body 1 (body 2). The values of susceptibility assumed are
higher than those measured in our samples, because normally
Fig. 6. k-low T curves showing Curie temperatures close to 580◦ C. These it increases with depth (lower alteration). This suggest that
suggest that the main carrier of magnetization is almost pure magnetite
which is consistent with microscopic observations. The arrows indicate the anomaly is generated by a major (minor) contribution of
the heating and cooling curves. induced magnetization (remanent magnetization). The am-
biguity of this process has been constrained, remaining an
small degree of uncertainty in the size, depth, and form of
the proposed bodies. The fitted curve show slight deviation
to spinels as remanence carriers. Hematite, although ob- of that observed, which is normal considering that there are
served directly, seems to be masked by a strong ferrimagnetic many small outcrops of Fe-ore. So, we consider that our
phase. approach is representative of the main source bodies that
AF demagnetization curves of SIRM yield median destruc- produce the magnetic anomaly.
tive fields (MDF) in the range 20–25 mT for rhyolites, which
is compatible with the coercivity of PSD particles (Dunlop, 7. Discussion and Conclusion
1981). Skarns seem to have slightly higher coercivity. Fe- The study of Cerro de Mercado deposits provides evidence
ores show the highest MDFs (about 50 mT), which corre- that the iron ore was neither purely hydrothermal, nor purely
spond to SD or ‘small’ PSD magnetic grains. volcanic in origin, as previous workers have proposed. While
5.6 Hysteresis experiments the ores were, magnetite-rich lava flows, they have been
Hysteresis measurements at room temperature were per- hydrothermally altered and intruded at an indicated crustal
formed on all studied units in fields up to 1 T. The saturation depth in excess of 400 meters. Thus, a rather complex se-
remanent magnetization (Jr s ), the saturation magnetization quence of events has occurred to produce the modern deposit
190 L. M. ALVA-VALDIVIA et al.: PETROMAGNETISM OF IRON-ORE

Fig. 7. Hysteresis loops (corrected for paramagnetism) for representative samples from Cerro de Mercado. Rock samples and corresponding sites are:
volcanics (CHU), Quartz-monzonite (CMI), Rhyolitic ignimbrite (CME), Mineralized breccia (CMBO), Fe-ore (CMM), and Fe-skarn (CMBC).

of Cerro de Mercado. ples, which probably implies that the ores were oxidized at
Microscopic examination of the Cerro de Mercado ore temperatures above 300◦ C.
samples indicate that they are composed basically of mag- Although observed directly, (titano)hematite does not
netite and (titano)hematite, with minor amounts of goethite, seem to represent a major contributor to total remanence.
apatite, and quartz. Hematite results from partial martiti- In most cases, magnetic signal belong to ‘near magnetite’
zation of original magnetite, which probably occurred dur- phase, which seems to have a wide range of PSD magnetic
ing the hydrothermal event. Generally speaking, no signif- structure. Thus, the dominant magnetic carriers in studied
icant differences were found in the directions of remanence ores correspond to magnetite characterized by highest values
carried by magnetite and hematite, which suggests that the of rock magnetic properties observed in the various litholo-
hydrothermal event occurred soon after the extrusion and gies examined (7.7 A/m), high magnetic susceptibilities (0.25
cooling. Rhyolitic samples seem not have been affected by SI), 0.4 to 55.1 Q coefficients, and low to medium coercivity
hydrothermal alteration, since magnetic grains present ev- under AF demagnetization.
idence for high temperature deuteric oxy-exsolution. (Ti- Figure 9 summarizes the quantitative interpretation of the
tano)maghemite seems to be absent from all studied sam- observed magnetic anomaly. We used the intensity and direc-
 L. M. ALVA-VALDIVIA et al.: PETROMAGNETISM OF IRON-ORE 191

Fig. 8. Aeromagnetic anomaly map. Note the presence of a large dipolar anomaly located over the mineralized area. Location of the modeled profile is
shown. Values are given in nanoteslas.

Fig. 9. Magnetic profile and quantitative model. Local geomagnetic field parameters are: declination D = 9.1◦ , inclination I = 51.5◦ , and total magnetic
intensity F = 45300 nT. We used profile stike = 161◦ and 2D bodies that extend infinitely along-strike perpendicular to this profile. Magnetic data for
the large body are: NRM declination = 260◦ , NRM inclination = −37◦ , remanent intensity = 0.6 A/m; magnetic susceptibility = 8 SI; for the small
body: NRM declination = 180◦ , NRM inclination = −60◦ , remanent intensity = 1.2 A/m; and magnetic susceptibility = 0.5 SI.

tion of the NRM, and the induced intensity, for the calculated of the main magnetic source body is shown as a long body
anomaly. The remanence component is greater than the in- being steeply inclined (75◦ ) to the south.
duced component, corresponding to Q coefficients (1.3 < The intensity of remanence contribution is significant in
Q < 4.0) greater than unity. The position and the geometry the interpretation of magnetometric anomalies, particularly
192 L. M. ALVA-VALDIVIA et al.: PETROMAGNETISM OF IRON-ORE

for cases where the remanent component has a direction con- ploration, vol. 23, pp. 303–333, 1985.
siderably different from that of the present-day earth’s mag- Grommé, C. S., T. L. Wright, and D. L. Peck, Magnetic properties and
ixidation of iron-titanium oxide minerals in Alae makaupuki lava lakes,
netic field and a high intensity (Alva-Valdivia et al., 1991; Hawaii, J. Geophys. Res., 74, 5277–5293, 1969.
Alva-Valdivia and Urrutia-Fucugauchi, 1995, 1998). For Haggerty, S. E., Oxidation of opaque mineral oxides in basalts, in Oxide
highly magnetic rocks and mineral deposits its influence is Minerals (Short Course Notes), edited by D. Rumble, Mineral. Soc. Am.,
stronger, such as igneous rocks and iron-ores. The dipo- 3, 1–100, 1976.
Kirschvink, J. L., The least-square line and plane and analysis of palaeo-
lar anomaly can be largely modeled by a prismatic body magnetic data, Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc., 62, 699–718, 1980.
that closely follows the general attitude of the rock units. Kobayashi, K., Chemical remanent magnetization of ferromagnetic minerals
The proposed body is magnetite-rich with a large amplitude and its application to rock magnetism, J. Geomag. Geoelectr., 10, 99–117,
magnetometric anomaly. 1959.
Labarthe, G., J. L. Carreon, and A. Aguillon, Cerro de Mercado, in Minas
Mexicanas Tomo 5, edited by J. Ordoñez, pp. 69–91, C. AIME-SEG,
Acknowledgments. We are grateful for the kind cooperation of 1990.
the engineering staff Exploration Division of the Cerro de Mer- Leslie, S. L., Chemical remanent magnetization in iron ores and wall rocks
cado Company. Rock magnetic measurements were carried out of Cerro de Mercado, Durango, Mexico, Unpublished MSc Thesis, Univ.
by J. C. Cruz-Ocampo. This research was funded by the Insti- of Minnesota, 1975.
tuto Panamericano de Geografia e Historia (IPGH) and CONACyT Lyons, J. I., Volcanogenic iron ore of Cerro de Mercado and its setting within
project No. 32756-T. AG gratefully acknowledges the support the Chupaderos Caldera, Durango, Mexico, M.A. Thesis, Austin, Univ.
given by CONACyT project No. J-32727-T. JU thanks support Texas, 119 pp., 1975.
from DGAPA project IN-102897. Lyons, J. I., Volcanogenic iron oxide deposits, Cerro de Mercado and vicin-
ity, Durango, Mexico, Econ. Geol., 83, 1886–1906, 1988.
McDowell, F. W. and R. P. Keizer, Timing of mid-Tertiary volcanism in the
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