Full Teks BIOSTRATIGRAPHY Basics and Biostratigraphic Zones
Full Teks BIOSTRATIGRAPHY Basics and Biostratigraphic Zones
Full Teks BIOSTRATIGRAPHY Basics and Biostratigraphic Zones
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC
BASICS AND
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC ZONES
i
Biostratigraphy: Basics and Biostratigraphic Zones
Penulis: Dr. Ir. Vijaya Isnaniawardhani, M.T.
Editor: Prof. Dr. Ir. Hendarmawan, M.Sc.
Layout: Asep S. Muslim
Desain Sampul: Dino Octavianto
ISBN 978-602-1311-15-8
ISBN 978-602-1311-15-8
ii
PREFACE
Reference book of “Biostratigraphy: Basics and Biostratigraphic
Zones” is published as a part of Module and Online Course Launching
Program Series in Padjadjaran University; and integrated to program of
International Higher Education Accreditation for Geology. Hopefully
this reference provides a useful part of the basic background that
students need to advance into the geologic fields.
This reference book provides concept and analysis of
biostratigraphic studies. Topic I to III introduced concept of fossils
(include major applications of fossils studies to earth sciences research,
samples, analysis methods, macrofossils, microfossils and trace fossils).
Introduction and type of biostratigraphic units are stressed in Topic IV.
Topic V reviewed biostratigraphic zonations (foraminifera, nannofossils
and palynomorph), followed by application to correlation (Topic VI) as
well as interpretation of depositional environment (Topic VII). Topic
VIII and IX concerned the problems and new discoveries in
biostratigraphic studies. Within these topics are reviewing and
summarizing of publication that conducted by funding from
Padjadjaran University research grants as well as four months of
research in Japan by the grant from Higher Education Directorate,
Nations Education Ministry.
The deep appreciation is extended to Rector of Padjadjaran
University and Head of Institute of Learning Development and Quality
Assurance (Lembaga Pengembangan Pembelajaran dan Penjaminan
Mutu/LP3M) for encouragement and supporting in writing this book.
The author is intented to Prof. Dr. Ir. Hendarmawan, M.Sc. as editor for
reading of the manuscript and giving the valuable suggestions. Thanks
also to collegues and staff at Geology Faculty for assistance during
preparation.
Vijaya Isnaniawardhani
iii
Marker species Discoaster asymmetricus Gartner, Discoaster
surculus Martini & Bramlette, Discoaster brouweri Bramlette
& Riedel, Discoaster variabilis Martini & Bramlette Discoaster
pentaradiatus Bramlette & Riedel; from: Mimin K. Adisaputra
and M. Hendrizan, 2008. Hiatus Pada Kala Eosen-Miosen
Tengah di Tiggian Roo, Samudera Hindia, Selatan Jawa
Timur, Berdasarkan Biostratigrafi Nanoplankton. Jurnal
Geologi Kelautan, 2008. Vol. 6 No. 3, p. 154-166.
iv
CONTENT
v
3.5 Nannofossils ........................................................... 50
3.6 Pollen and spores ................................................... 58
3.7 Ostracods................................................................ 60
3.8 Dinoflagellate cysts ................................................ 61
3.9 Silicoflagellates ...................................................... 63
3.10 Radiolaria .............................................................. 64
3.11 Diatoms ................................................................. 65
3.12 Trace of fossils ...................................................... 66
3.12.1 Skolithos ichnofacies ............................... 69
3.12.2 Zoophycos ichnofacies ............................ 69
3.12.3 Nereites ichnofacies ................................. 70
3.12.4 Other ichnofacies ..................................... 71
3.12.5 Significance of trace fossils ..................... 73
References ..................................................................... 76
TOPIC 4 BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC UNIT ................................ 78
4.1 Principle and concepts ........................................... 78
4.1.1 Principle of faunal succession ................. 78
4.1.2 Concept of stage ...................................... 78
4.1.3 Concept of zone ....................................... 78
4.2 Biostratigraphic units ............................................. 79
References ..................................................................... 86
TOPIC 5 FORAMINIFERA, NANNOFOSSILS, AND
PALYNOMORPH BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC
ZONATIONS ..................................................... 87
5.1 Planktic foraminifera biostratigraphic zonations ... 87
5.1.1 Late Middle Eocene to Recent planktic
foraminiferal biostratigraphy by Blow
(1969, 1979)(1)(2) ...................................... 87
5.1.2 Paleocene-Eocene and Oligocene-
Miocene planktic foraminifera zones by
Postuma (1971)(14) ................................... 99
5.1.3 Cretaceous planktic foraminifera zones
by Caron, (1986)(5) ................................... 100
5.1.4 Paleocene and Eocene planktic
foraminifera zones by Tourmarkine and
Luterbacher (1986)(17) .............................. 107
5.1.5 Oligocene to Holocene low latitude
planktic foraminifera zones by Bolli and
Saunders (1986)(3) .................................... 115
vi
5.1.6. Neogene planktic foraminifera zones in
Indonesian basins (Case Studies)............. 124
5.2 Larger foraminifera biostratigraphic zonations...... 126
5.3 Small benthic / Rotaloid foraminifera
biostratigraphic zonations ...................................... 128
5.4. Nannofossil biostratigraphic zonations .................. 129
5.4.1. Mesozoic nannofossils biostratigraphic
zonations .................................................. 129
5.4.2. Cenozoic nannofossils biostratigraphic
zonations .................................................. 132
5.4.3. Neogene nannoplankton zones in
Indonesia basins (Case Study) ................. 140
5.5 Pollen-Sporabiostratigraphic zonations ................. 145
5.6 Biostratigraphic correlation and
biochronostratigraphy ............................................ 131
References ..................................................................... 149
TOPIC 6 CORRELATION AND STRATIGRAPHIC
MARKER................................................................................... 152
6.1 Introduction ............................................................ 152
6.2 Definition of correlation ........................................ 152
6.3 Types of correlation ............................................... 153
6.4 Lithocorrelation...................................................... 154
6.5 Biocorrelation ........................................................ 157
6.6 Chronocorrelation .................................................. 161
6.7 Key bed or marker bed........................................... 165
References ..................................................................... 166
TOPIC 7 PALEOENVIRONMENT AND BIOFACIES ....... 167
7.1 Delta System .......................................................... 167
7.2 Microfossils assemblages for depositional
environment interpretation ..................................... 169
7.2.1 Supratidal freshwater ............................... 169
7.2.2 Intertidal, freshwater ................................ 171
7.2.3 Marginal marine (intertidal zone and
areas of mixing of fresh and marine
waters), Upper estuarine .......................... 171
7.2.4 Marginal marine (intertidal zone and
areas of mixing of fresh and marine
waters), Lower estuarine, transitional
environment, backish water ..................... 172
vii
7.2.5 Marginal marine (intertidal zone), littoral 173
7.2.6 Shallow marine (inner neritic; low tide
to 30m) ..................................................... 178
7.2.7 Middle neritic, middle shelf, inner
sublittoral ................................................. 181
7.2.8 Outter neritic, outer shelf, outer
sublittoral ................................................. 183
7.2.9 Upper bathyal........................................... 184
7.2.10 Abyssal environments (4000 m and
deeper) ..................................................... 188
7.3 Quantitative analysis .............................................. 188
7.4 Interpretation of depositional environment on
Indonesian basins (Case Studies) ........................... 192
References ..................................................................... 194
Topic 8 BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC PROBLEMS ...................... 195
8.1 Samples containing species introduced from
elsewhere................................................................ 195
8.2 Conclusions not justified by observations ............. 195
8.3 Observed assemblages being atypical or
incomplete .............................................................. 196
8.4 Incomplete recording of microfossil content ......... 196
References ..................................................................... 197
Topic 9 DEVELOPMENTS IN BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC
STUDY ......................................................................... 198
9.1 Age dating, environment interpretation and
correlations............................................................. 198
9.2 Biostratigraphy on integrated stratigraphic studies 200
References ..................................................................... 207
viii
LIST OF TABLES
ix
Biozonation, of Martini (1971), Okada and Bukry
(1980) and Blow (1969) (1)(12)(2)................................ 138
Table 5.8 Modified coccolith zones and subzones and
corresponding code numbers (Okada and Bukry,
1980) (12) ................................................................... 139
Table 5.9 Nannofossil Events, Biostratigraphic Zones in East
Java and Its Correlation with Martini's (1971) and
Okada and Bukry (1980) (10)..................................... 145
Table 5.10 Biostratigraphyc Correlation in Indonesia (18) .......... 147 1
Table 5.11 Neogene Biochronostratigraphy ............................... 149
Table 7.1 Deltaic environment classification based on
vegetation (Morley, 1977), Allen and Chambers
(1998) ....................................................................... 169
Table 7.2 Dominant foraminifera in shallow marine facies as
a function of salinity and substrate(6)........................ 176
Table 7.3 Relationship between % Pelagic Benthic Ratio,
Depht and Environment Grimshale and Van
Markoven (1955) (1) .................................................. 178
Table 7.4 Nannoplankton taxa as bathimetric marker in
Madura
Waters (2) .................................................................. 194
Table 9.1 Typical distribution of foraminifera in a Middle
Miocene depostional sequence (hypothetical well
section; for approximate position in model(1) ........... 207
x
LIST OF FIGURES
xi
Figure 3.14 Cynophyte sedimentary structure (a) Stromalite
type of vertical section, (b) Girvanella tubes in
skeletal oncolite, (c) Ortonella tubes in skeletal
oncolite, (d) section through endolithic
cyanophyte boring and skeletal envelopes (3) ...... 49
Figure 3.15 (a) and (b) Microscopycally limestone features
consists algae (9) ................................................... 50
Figure 3.16 Coccolith (a) Recent coccolithosphore
Cycloccolithina with coccolith shields, (b) side
view of Cyclococcolithina coccolith with cross
section, (c) Pseudoemiliania distal view, (d)
same from proximal shield, (e)
Helicopontosphaera, (f) Zygodiscus, (g)
Prediscosphaera proximal and side view, (h)
Braadosphaera, (i) Rhabdosphaera side view,
(j) Discoaster (3) ................................................... 51
Figure 3.17 Calcareous nannofossils zonal marker of the
Pliocene and Pleistocene (14) ................................ 53
Figure 3.18 Calcareous nannofossils zonal marker of the
Miocene and Pliocene (14) .................................... 54
Figure 3.19 Morphology and terminology of trilete spores (3) 59
Figure 3.20 Morphology and terminology of monolete
spores (3) ............................................................... 59
Figure 3.21 Morphology and terminology of tricolpate and
related pollen grains (3) ....................................... 60
Figure 3.22 Dinoflagellates (a) Dinogymmium, a fossil
gymnodinialean cyst, (b) motile cell of Recent
Peridinium, (c) cavate cyst of Deflandrea, (d)
motile cell of Recent Gonyaulax, (e)
proximochorate cyst of fossil Spiniferites, (f)
proximate cyst of fosil Gonyaulacysta, (g)
chlorate cyst of fossil Hystrichospharidium, (h)
Nannoceratopsis, a fossil dinophysialean cyst(3) . 62
Figure 3.23 Silicoflagellates (a) living cell and skeleton of
Distephanus, (b) side view of Distephanus, (c)
Mesocena, (d) Dictyocha, (e) Corbisena, (f)
Vallacerta, (g) Cannopilus, (h) Navicupolis (3) ... 63
Figure 3.24 Radiolaria are found as zooplankton in the
upper layers of all oceans (9) ................................ 65
xii
Figure 3.25 Pennate diatoms (a) Pinnularia, (b) Fragilaria,
(c) Achanthes (3) ................................................... 66
Figure 3.26 Centric diatoms (a) Melosira, (b)
Coscinodiscus, (c) Actinoptychus, (d)
Thalassiosira (3) ................................................... 66
Figure 3.27 Trace fossil association characteristic of the
Skolithos ichnofacies: Ophiomorpha, 2.
Diplocraterion, 3. Skolithos, 4. Moncraterion(2) . 69
Figure 3.28 Trace fossil association characteristic of the
Zoophycos ichnofacies: 1. Phycosiphon, 2.
Zoophycos, 3. Spirophyton (2) .............................. 70
Figure 3.29 Trace fossil association characteristic of the
Nereites ichnofacies 1. Spirorhaphe, 2.
Uroheiminthoidea, 3. Lorenzinia, 4.
Megagrapton, 5. Paleodictyon, 6. Nereites, 7.
Cosmorhaphe (2) ................................................... 71
Figure 3.30 Trace fossil association characteristic of the
Psilonichnus ichnofacies: 1. Psilonichnus, 2.
Macanopsis (2) ...................................................... 72
Figure 3.31 Schematic representation of the relationship of
the characteristic trace fossils to sedimentary
facies and depth zones in the ocean (2)................. 75
Figure 3.32 Bioturbation features ........................................... 75
Figure 4.1 Examples of range, lineage and interval zones
(Article 51, Kind of Biostratigraphic Units) (2).... 82
Figure 4.2 Examples of assemblage and abundance zones
(Articles 51) (2) ..................................................... 83
Figure 4.3 Types of Interval Zone ........................................ 86
Figure 5.1 Palynological zone on Java ................................ 146
Figure 6.1 Principle of lithocorrelation ................................. 156
Figure 6.2 Lithocorrelation (Case study 1) ........................... 156
Figure 6.3 Lithocorrelation (Case study 2) ........................... 157
Figure 6.4 Principle of biocorrelation ................................... 158
Figure 6.5 Stratigraphic section showing occurrence of
Lepidocyclina and Miogypsina in Upper
Miocene sediments, Ketindingan Field (1) ........... 161
Figure 6.6 Geologic time-table calibrated in absolute age
(North American Geology) .................................. 163
Figure 6.7 Principle of chronocorrelation ............................. 164
xiii
Figure 6.8 Chronocorrelation with flattening on Top Early
Miocene (Te5) (Case Study)............................... 164
Figure 6.9 The correlation can lead to constructing of
facies changes during the time (Case Study) ....... 165
Figure 6.10 Lithocorrelation may be not equivalent to
chronocorrelation (Case Study) ........................... 166
Figure 7.1 Profile of Delta System........................................ 167
Figure 7.2 Distribution of Foraminifera (F) and
Ostracodes (O) in the western part of the
Mahakam Delta (6) ............................................... 168
Figure 7.3 Models of Cenozoic larger foraminifera
distribution in carbonate fasies (6) ........................ 180
Figure 7.4 Species diversity ( α diagram) showing fields
defined by α value for benthic foraminifera
assemblages from known environment (5) .......... 189
Figure 7.5 Shell type ratio triangular diagram showing
fields defined by benthic foraminifera
assemblages from known environment (5) .......... 190
Figure 7.6 E. huxleyi and others, Gephyrocapsa oceanica
and Florisphera profunda diagrams for
depositional environment interpretation
(2)
(Okada,1992) .................................................. 192
Figure 8.1 Typical distribution of microfossils in cutting
and resulting imprecise interpretation (non-
marine, baren intervals obsrcured by cavings
from overlying marine beds (Contaminated
sample)(1) ............................................................ 197
Figure 9.1 Comparison of relative abundancy, range,
datum levels and succession (modification from
Kellen, 1981) (1) ................................................... 202
Figure 9.2 Idealized depositional sequence model
(simplified from Haq, Hardenbol and Vail,
1987.(1) ................................................................. 206
xiv
TOPIC 1
INTRODUCTION
1
their included fossils. These units are arranged into a number of
hierarchies relating to rock-based stratigraphy (lithostratigraphy), fossil-
based stratigraphy (biostratigraphy) and time-based stratigraphy
(chronostratigraphy) (2).
Lithostratigraphy units, such as beds, members and formations,
are widely used in geological mapping. The biozone is the fundamental
biostratigraphyc unit and comprises those rocks that are characterized
by the occurrence of one or more specified kind of fossil known as zone
fossils (2).
2
commonly can be subdivided by distinctive fossil assemblages into
several smaller biostratigraphyc unit. Indeed, one of the primary
objectives of biostratigraphy is to make possible differentiation of strata
into small-scale subunits (zones) that can be dated and correlated over
wide geographic area, allowing interpretation of Earth history within a
precise framework of geologic time. On the other hand, it is quite
common for biologically defined stratigraphyc units to span the
boundaries or formally defined lithostratigraphic units. Some
biostratigraphic units may thus include parts of two lithostratigraphic
units (members or formations), for example, or even encompass two or
more entire lithostratigraphic units (1).
Biostratigraphy is one of the most important tools for
chronostratigraphy, but bio- and chronostratigraphy are not the same.
SEQUENCE
SCALE
ACME
ZONE
SMW
MAXIMUMFLOODINGSURFACE MFS
FLOODINGSURFACE
HST
FLOODINGSURFACE
PARASEQUENCE
SCALE
FLOODING
SURFACE
FLOODING SURFACE DISTANCE
NOTE
DIACHRONOUS
4
is for specialists who have intimate knowledge about complex field of
large group of organisms and their temporal and spatial distribution.
Besides biostratigraphy and biofacies, fossil studies are also useful
in earth science research, as described follow:
a) Paleoceanography - Temperature and current patterns of ancient
oceans can be determined by occurrence of fossil assemblage. For
example, if a species lived only in warm tropical waters, then its
presence can be used to trace the geographic extent of tropical
waters through time. Thus, species “b”, which has been found in
Campanian sediment only off the coast of present-day Florida,
range from Florida to New Jersey during the Maastrichtian. It is
conclude that in the region north of Florida, ocean temperatures
were warmer during the Maastrichtian than during the Campanian.
b) Paleobiogeographic – The ancient climates, species migration
patterns, and continental relationships can be determined by similar
fossils(6).
References:
(1)
Bates, Robert L., and Jackson, Julia, A. 1987. Glossary of
Geology, Third Edition, American Geological Institute,
Alexandria, Virginia, 788
(2)
Brasier, M.D. 1985. Microfossils, Fourth Edition, George, Allen
and Unwin (Publisher) Ltd.
(3)
van Gorsel, J.T. 1988. Biostratigraphy in Indonesia: Methods,
Pitfalls and New Directions, Proceedings Indonesian Petroleoum
Association Seventeenth Annual Convention, Indonesia
6
(4)
http://www.mcz.harvard.edu/Departments/InvertPaleo/Trenton/In
tro/GeologyPage/Sedimentary%20Geology/biostrat.htm)
(5)
http://strats.home.xs4.all.nl/biostrat.htm
(6)
http:geology.er.usgs.gov/paleo/nannos.shtml
7
TOPIC 2
SAMPLES AND (MICRO)
FOSSILS ANALYSIS
8
Figure 2.1. Core samples
9
Purposes Determining of Deteermination of Determining of age
age age
Interpretation of depositional
Interpretation of
depositional Sequence stratigraphic,
geohistory, geo-modelling,
etc.
Before the geologist leaves the field, he should make sure that this
field notes include full descriptions of rock units and structures in all
parts of the area he has surveyed; otherwise he will not able to write an
accurate report on them (1).
Lithologic description made on the basis of both a single outcrop
and a number of outcrops. The descriptions are more usable if
recorded in a fairly systematic way, as by the outline that follows:
1. Name of unit and/or brief rock name
2. Specific locality or area to which description applies
3. Thickness and overall structure or shape of units in this area
10
4. Main rock types and their disposition within unit
5. Gross characteristic of area underlain by unit (topographic
expression, color and type of soil, vegetation, nature of outcrop)
6. Characteristic structures of unit:
a. Range of thickness and average thickness of beds or other
layered structures,
b. Shape of beds or other structure – tabular, lenticular, lineate
etc,
c. Primary features within beds or other structures – grading,
lamination, cross bedding, chanelling, distorted flow
banding, inclusions, etc,
d. Characteristic secondary structures, especially cleavage and
prominent weathering effects)
7. Fossil (especially if a lithologic characteristic of unit):
a. Distribution of fossil
b. Special characteristic of fossiliferous rocks
c. Position and condition of fossil (growth position,
fragmental, rounded, pitted or fluted by sollution, external
or internal molds, etc)
8. Description of rocks, with abundant variety described first
a. Color, fresh and weathered (of wet or dry rock?)
b. Induration (of weathered or completely fresh rock?)
c. Grainsize (range of size and principal or median size)
d. Degre of sorting or equigranularity
e. Shape of grains
f. Orientations or fabric of shaped grains, especially in
relation to rock structures
g. Nature and amount of cement, matrix or groundmass, if any
h. Nature and amount of pores (porosity), and any infications
of permeability
i. Constitution of grains (mineral, lithic, fossil, glass) and their
approximate percent by volume
9. Nature of contacts
a. Sharp or gradational, with description and dimensions of
gradation
b. All evidence regarding possible unconformable relations
c. Criterion or criteria used in tracing contact in field
Fault, unconforminites and intrusive contact are example of
structure that are likely to required systematic and through description
11
in the field notes (1).
References:
(1)
Compton, Robert R. 1961. Manual of Field Geology, Wiley
Eastern PVT. Ltd., Publisher, p. 1-20
(2)
Isnaniawardhani, Vijaya. 2012. Micropaleontology Research,
Academic Forum Seminar, Chiba University, unpublished
14
TOPIC 3
FOSSILS IN
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC
STUDIES
3.1. Type of fossils: macrofossils, microfossils, and
tracefossils / ichnofossils
16
Figure 3.1. The kingdom of live (3)
3.2. Foraminifera
1. Description
Foraminifera are a microfossil group, generally between 0.1 and
1 mm in size, average between 0.3 and 0.4 mm (fine sand
sized). This order are single-celled belonging to Subkingdom
Protozoa, Kingdom Protista. (von Eichwald, 1830) (13).
This cytoplasmic body enclosed in test or shell of one or
more interconnected chambers; wall may be homogeneous or of
similar or unlike layers or laminae, may be imperforate or finely
to coarsely perforate, basically proteinaceous but may have
agglutinated particles, or may deposit the mineral calcite,
aragonite, or rarely silica on the organic base, calcareous wall
may be porcelaneous, microgranular, or hyaline and optically or
ultrastructurally radiate or granular; canal or stolon system of
varied complexity may be present; commonmy test has one or
more main apertures through which pseudopodia protrude.
Sexual and asexual generatio may be suppressed; gametes
biflagellate, triflagellate, or amoeboid.
17
2. Signifance of Foraminifera
Foramifera live in Cambrian to Holocene. They are free-living
or rarely parasitic; benthic and attached or motile, or pelagic (8).
The foraminifera are almost entirely marine animals,
though a very few live in brackish or even fresh water. It
developed a test, either of agglutinated foreign material, or of
chitin, or of calcareous material secreted by the animal it self (6).
3. Sample preparation
Sample processing is relatively simple. Rocks are boiled in
hydrogen peroxyde or detergent to desintegrate the clays, clay is
washed off over a fine mesh sieve (63um), and foraminifera can
be picked with a fine brush or needle from the remaining
residue, or directly identified and recorded, under a 10 to 60x
magnification stereo microscope. Foraminifera in cemented
rocks (limestones, hard sandstones) need to be studied in thin
sections. Preservation is best in claystones. Calcareous tests may
be dissolved in some claystones rich in organic matter (prodelta)
or in rocks subjected to surface weathering (17).
19
intralaminal aperture accessories: Globotruncana
2. Test early portion trochospiral later planispiral, aperture
extraumbilical, tending to become equatorial.
2.1. Chamber elongated with a hollow bulb-shape or spine-
like extension in equatorial plane: Schackoina
2.2. Chambers elongated, some or all chambers of the last
whorl with two or occasionally more, hollow bulb-shape
extension on each side of the equatorial plane:
Leupoldina
3. Test planispiral
Primary aperture equatorial bordered by a lip, with relict aperture:
3.1. With keel: Planomalina
3.2. Without keel:
Chamber globular to ovale: Globigerinelloides
Cahmber radial-elongae: Hastigerinoides
2. with bulla(e)
a. primary aperture in final stage covered by a single
umbilical bulla, with one or more infralaminal secondary
apertures (no sutural secondary apertures) – Catapsydrax
BOLLI- LOEBLICH and TAPPAN
b. primary aperture in final stage covered by an irregular
bulla expanding along the earlier sutures, with numerous
infralaminal secondary apertures (no sutural secondary
apertures) – Globigerinita BRONNIMANN, 1951
c. primary aperture in final stage covered by an umbilical
bulla, one or more sutural secondary apertures are present,
which are usually covered by sutural bullae, with
infralaminal secondary apertures – Globigerinoita
BRONNIMANN, 1952
22
Table 3.3. The identification key for genus and species of Pliocene
to Recent (16)
24
4. Marker Planktic Foraminifera in Indonesia (Case Studies)
25
Test low trochospiral, equatorial periphery lobulate, axial
periphery rounded, chambers subspherical to ovate, four in the
final whorl, increasing rapidly in size. Sutures on spiral and
umbilical sides radial, depressed. Surface coarsely pitted.
Umbilicus narrow, deep. Aperture interiomarginal, umbilical-
extraumbilical, a rather low arch bordered by a distinct rim. This
species is distributed stratigraphically in Early Miocene (N.4) to
Late Miocene (N.16) within tropical to cool subtropical waters.
d. Globorotalia siakensis (LeRoy)
Test very low trochospiral, equatorial periphery lobulate; axial
periphery broadly rounded, Wall rather coarsely perforate,
surface smooth. Chambers inflated, subglobular, slightly
embracing, arranged in about three whorls. The five to six
chambers of the last whorl increase regularly in size. Sutures on
spiral and umbilical side radial, depressed. Umbilicus fairly
narrow to deep. Aperture interiomarginal, extraumbilical-
umbilical, a fairly narrow, elongated arched opening, bordered
by a faint lip or rim.
e. Globorotalia mayeri Cushman and Ellisor
Test very low trochospiral, inflated. Equatorial periphery
lobulate. Axial periphery broadly rounded. Wall rather coarsely
perforate, surface smooth. Chambers inflated, subglobular,
arranged in about three whorls. The five to six chambers of the
last whorl increase regularly in size. Sutures on spiral side
slightly to moderately curved, depressed. On umbilical side
radial depressed. Umbilicus is fairly wide and deep. Aperture
interiomarginal, extraumbilical-umbilical, with a large, high
arch, bordered by a lip or rim.
f. Hastigerina siphonifera (d‟Orbigny)
Test planispiral in adult stage, trochospiral in early stage,
evolute. Equatorial periphery distinctly lobulate, axial periphery
rounded. Wall perforate, surface finely pitted, may be slightly
hispid. Chambers globular to subglobular, arranged in about
three and a half whorls. The five to six chambers of the last
whorl increase rapidly in size. Sutures radial, depressed.
Aperture in later stage interiomarginal, equatorial, a broad arch,
bordered by a faint rim.
g. Orbulina suturalis Bronnimann
26
Test almost globular, early stage trochospiral. Wall distinctly
perforate, surface moderately pitted. Chambers spherical. The
much inflated final chamber not entirely enveloping the early
part of the test. Transitions from forms in which the last
chamber envelope about 75% of the earlier part to forms in
which the earlier chambers are only just visible have been
observed. Primary aperture interiomarginal, umbilical in the
early globigerine stage; in the adult areal with small openings,
which are scattered over the wall of the last chamber. Small
sutural secondary openings are present in the suture separating
the last chamber from the penultimate and earlier chambers (11).
From the Late Miocene of central Bogor Through in Java, a total of
four planktic foraminifera marker species have been selected; among
all: Globorotalia acostaensis, Globorotalia plesiotumida,
Globorotalia tumida, and Sphaeroidinella dehiscens(10). Systematic
description and synonym of these marker species refers to Postuma
(1971), Stainforth, et al. (1975), Saito, et al. (1981), Kennett and
Srinivasan (1983), Bolli and Saunders (1986), and Loeblich and
Tappan (1988) are as follows:
a. Globorotalia acostaensis Blow, 1959
Synonym:
Globorotalia (Turborotalia) acostaensis Blow in Banner and
Blow, 1967
Globoquadrina continuosa (Blow) in Parker, 1967
Globorotalia (Turborotalia) acostaensis acostaensis Blow in
Blow, 1969
Globorotalia (Turborotalia) acostaensis tegillata Bronnimann
and Resig, 1971
Description:
Test: thick discoidal low trochospiral; equatorial periphery
lobulate; axial periphery rounded. Spiral outline subcircular,
strongly lobate; side profile parallel-side with blunty rounded
periphery, thickness more than half diameter. Wall: distinctly
perforate, rather thick, pustulose around umbilicus; Surface of
wall: pitted. Chambers: ovate to subspherical, arranged in about
three to six whorls, with five to six chambers in last whorl,
increasing regularly in size. Often the last chamber is much
reduced in size and occasionally somewhat displaced towards the
umbilical side. Sutures: straight, on spiral side radial to slightly
27
curved, depressed; on umbilical side radial, depressed, more
distinct than on spiral side. Umbilicus: indistinct, narrow, deep.
Aperture interiomarginal, extraumbilical-umbilical, a low arch,
usually bordered by a distinctive lip or rim. Size: diameter 0.25
to 0.5 mm.
b. Globorotalia plesiotumida Blow and Banner, 1965
Synonym:
Globorotalia (Globorotalia) tumida plesiotumida Blow and
Banner in Banner and Blow, 1965
Globorotalia tumida plesiotumida Blow and Banner in Bolli,
1966
Globorotalia plesiotumida Blow and Banner in Bermudez and
Bolli, 1969
Description:
Test a lenticular, very low trochospiral, rimmed by blunt keel,
unequally biconvex, compressed; equatorial periphery slightly
lobulate, equatorial profile ear-shaped, last chamber projecting
noticeably; axial periphery acute with a distinct keel, axial
profile biconvex, slightly more inflated on umbilical than on
spiral side. Wall finely perforate; surface are mostly smooth,
densely, but granules are developed on the area of the wall of the
first three chambers which immediately faces the aperture.
Chambers compressed, arranged in three whorls; the five to six
chambers of the last whorl increase somewhat irregularly in size
as added, especially in radial length. Sutures on spiral side
curved, limbate; later depressed to sunken, oblique to recurved,
coalescing into keel, ones becoming almost sub-radial; their
distal parts being strongly curved, flush to raised; on umbilical
side incised, radial, almost straight, to slightly curved, shallowly
depressed. Umbilicus: narrow to closed, deep, umbilical
shoulders developed only on last three chambers. Aperture:
interiomarginal, extraumbilical-umbilical, a rather low arch from
umbilicus almost to keel, bordered by a thick lip along whole
length. Size: diameter 0.5 to 0.7 mm.
c. Globorotalia tumida (Brady, 1877)
Synonym:
Pulvinulina menardii tumida Brady, 1877
Globorotalia tumida (Brady) in Cushman, 1927
28
Globorotalia (Globorotalia) tumida tumida (Brady) in Banner
and Blow, 1965
Globorotalia tumida tumida (Bardy) in Bolli, 1970
Description:
Test: a large, moderately low trochospiral, biconvex; spiral side
more convex than umbilical side, compressed; equatorial
periphery subcircular to slightly lobulate in the final stage,
equatorial profile ear-shaped, slightly lobate; axial periphery,
tumid trochospire rimmed by heavy, acute with a massive keel,
axial profile rhomboid to dropshaped. Wall: finely perforate,
thick; Surface of wall: smooth except for the umbilical side of
the early chambers of the last whorl and the umbilical margins of
the later chambers, centered on umbilicus, which are heavily
pustulose. Chambers: compressed, arranged in about three
whorls; the six chambers of the last whorl increase regularly to
irregularly in size as added, especially in radial length. Sutures:
on spiral side limbate, initially smoothly curved, later more
sharply curved to hooked obliquely backwards, coalescing into
thick keel, their proximal ends almost straight and nearly radial,
their distal ends re-curved almost tangentially to the periphery,
raised; on umbilical side almost radial to slightly sinuous,
depressed. Umbilicus: fairly narrow, deep. Aperture: a slit or low
arch between umbilicus and keel, interiomarginal,
extraumbilical-umbilical, a rather high arch, partially bordered
by a broad, thick lip or flap. Size: diameter 0.7 to 1.0 mm.
d. Sphaeroidinella dehiscens (Parker and Jones, 1865)
Synonym:
Sphaeroidina bulloides dehiscens Parker and Jones, 1865
Sphaeroidinella dehiscens (Parker and Jones) in Bolli, Loeblich
and Tappan, 1957
Sphaeroidinella dehiscens excavata Banner and Blow, 1965
Sphaeroidinella dehiscens dehiscens (Parker and Jones) in Blow,
1969
Description:
Test: trochospiral, compact; equatorial periphery very slightly
lobulate; axial perpihery rounded. Gross from egg-shaped,
gashes by apertural slits. Wall: primarily coarse perforate,
covered by secondary layers of shell material greatly reducing
the external openings of the pores of the primary wall or sealing
29
them; Surface of wall: smooth and glassy in appearance.
Chambers: subglobular, becoming increasingly embracing in the
adult, arranged in about three whorls; the three chambers of the
last whorl increasing raidly in size, sometimes relative sizes
variable and trochoid pattern not obvious, only last 3 chambers
visible externally. Sutures: indistinct, radial, slightly depressed to
flush where not modified by apertures, typically smooth and
vitreous owing to secondary covering, but abrasion or solution
may reveal coarsely perforate, almost latticelike primary shell.
Primary aperture interiomarginal, umbilical; one or two sutural
secondary apertures on opposite side of the final chamber are
present. Umbilicus: a deep irregular pit. Apertures: primary
aperture umbilical extended by reentranta along intercameral
sutures; secondary/supplementary apertures of similar aspect also
on spiral side, at least in adults. Apertures may be partially
obscured or with lips variying from the smooth or crenulate rims
overhanging chamber flanges. Size: diameter commonly to 1.0
mm (10).
30
Table 3.4. Range of selected planktic foraminifera marker
(Blow, 1979) (1)
31
continued:
32
a. Globigerinoides trilobus c. Globigerinoides conglobatus
b. Globigerinoides sacculiferus
33
a. Neogloboquadrina dutertrei b. Neogloboquadrina humerosa
Orbulina universa
34
Figure 3.6. Pulleniatina obliqueloculata - Cenozoic planktic
foraminifera (9)
35
40000 species have been determinate. This group used in the
Tertiary of Indonesia foraminifera are the most versatile, providing
both age and paleoenvironmental information. Composition of
modern assemblages is known to change with water depth, salinity,
substrate, etc. Most species live on the sediment surface (epifaunal),
some on sea-grasses (epiphytic; planoconvex Cibicides, Discorbis,
etc.), some dig into the upper centimeters of unconsolidated mud
(infaunal; some Rotalia, Ammonia, buliminid and bolivinid species)
(17)
.
36
3. The Identification Key
37
38
39
40
3.2.3 Larger benthic foraminifera
1. Description
Larger foraminifera have large, complex calcareous tests (generally
2-5mm in diameter; giant variants of Cycloclypeus, Eulepidina and
Nummulites more than 5 cm).
2. Significance of Larger benthic Foraminifera
External features or random thin sections generally allow
identification at the species level, but oriented thin sections through
the embryonic stage are usually required for determination of species
or degree of development within an evolutionary series. They live in
shallow, clear, tropical or subtropical marine waters, and are often
associated with coral reefs. Some are bottom dwellers, others live
attached to sea grasses. Most, or all, have a symbiotic relationship
with algae or diatoms and are thus restricted to the photic zone (17).
References to most papers on Indo-Pacific Tertiary larger forams can
be found in Adams (1970, 1983) (17).
41
Table 3.6. Range of selected larger foraminifera marker species (1)
42
3. Larger benthic foraminifera in Indonesia (Case Study)
Larger benthic foraminifera associated with small form planktic
foraminifera which have calcareous test, are dominantly calcitic, were
well-preserved in limestone of Klapanunggal Formation in Lulut area
(11)
. According to taxonomic method by Cushman (1959), some larger
benthic foraminifera can be identified as follows:
1. Milliolid
Foraminifera belonging to the Suborder Miliolina have test wall
structure is described as porcelaneous, and it has a distinctive
appearance, being yellow or brown when viewed with plane-
polarized light and showing anomalous low birefrigence with
polars crosses, sometimes characterized by lost and walls appear
micritic. Adams and Mackenzie (1998) reported that the miliolids
are dominantly a Mesozoic and Cenozoic group. Scholle (1978)
recorded Milliolids are especially common in slightly restricted
back-reef or bank facies.
2. Nummulites spp
Test compressed, small, trigonal or suborbicular in plan. Surface
papillate. Embryonic apparatus excentric in position, composed of
two equal or subequal chambers, around which there are several
chambers whose features are intermediate in character between
the embryonic and the usual equatorial chambers. The early
chambers may be distinctly spiral in arrangement, later growth
mostly on only a segment of the periphery, and thereby
producting a triangular outline, or cyclical, but greater on one
than on the other side of the nucleoconch. A spiral canal and
interseptal canals are present. Equatorial chambers rhomboid or
elongate hexagonal. A net of canals in the chamber walls. Lateral
chambers well-developed. Pillars present; terinating in surface
papillae. They are disc-shaped and have a hyaline wall composed
of radial calcite, individual crystal being orientated with their long
axes at right angle to the wall. Cushman (1959) observed
Nummulites spp. in Oligocene-Miocene sediment.
3. Amphistegina spp. d‟Orbigny, 1826.
Test usually lenticular, trochoid, often involute on the dorsal side
in the adult, ventral side with supplementary chambers more or
less irregularly rhomboid. Sutures with a pronounced angle. Wall
calcareous, finely perforate, without a true secondary canal
system. Aperture small, ventral, the wall granular about the
43
opening. Amphistegina spp. occur in the Eocene to Recent
sediment (Cushman, 1959).
4. Operculina spp. d‟Orbigny, 1826
Test billaterally symetrical, planispiral, complanate, usually all
coils visible from the exterior, earlier coils sometimes involute,
chambers undivided, periphery with thickened marginal cord.
Wall calcareous, perforate, smooth or ornamented with bosses.
Aperture single, at the base of the apertural face, median.
Cushman (1959) found this taxa in Lower Cretaceous to Recent
material.
5. Cycloclypeous spp. W.B. Carpenter, 1856
Test in the young of the microspheric from like Operculina, early
chambers simple, later chambers annual, divided by radial
portions into rectangular chamberlets, test discoidal and much
compressed. According to Cushman (1959), Cycloclypeous spp.
lives in Tertiary to Recent (11).
44
Figure 3.10. Nummulites sp. (a) and miliolids benthic foraminifera
(b) in wackstone (11).
45
Figure 3.13. Larger foram in packstone from Lulut area (11).
3.4. Algae
The green algae (Division Chlorophyta) and red algae (Division
Rhodophyta) comprise two major groups of the Kingdom Plantae
whose colour differences arise from their different photosynthetic
pigments. Both divisions of algae range from unicellular to complex
multicellular species. Their abundance in limestone, plus their general
ecological value, make these calcareous aglae a significant part of
micropaleontological inquiry (3).
1. Red-brown algae
The calcareous dark red-brown algae, exhibit many different
external forms, such as encrusing, nodular and branching,
segmented types, show fine cellular structure were founded in
limestone. Some alga are cylindrical branched, segmented, with a
poorly preserved internal structure, but apparently having walls of
microgranular or finely fibrous carbonate. They are classified as
red algae. Adams and Mackenzie (1998) reported that coralline
47
algae are being especially abundant in Cenozoic reefs and
associated environment (11).
2. Blue Green Algae
There was also found plants with numerous branches, the stem is
calcified with its central cell cavity surrounded by smaller cortical
cell cavities. They are classified as green algae. Adams and
Mackenzie (1998) found it in fresh or brackish water environment
(11)
.
a. Description: The cyanophyta are usually called blue-green
algae on account of the colour imparted by the
photosynthetic pigment phycocyanin. The living
cyanophyta may also be olive green or red. Cyanophytes
have relatively small cells, mostly less than 25 mikron in
diameter. These may be spherical (coccoid), ovoid,
discoidal, cylindrical or pear-shaped (pyriform) in outline.
The cell has nearther nuclear membrane, mitochondria nor
contractile cell vacuoles. The phycoxyanin and chlorophyll
pigments are distributed in lamellae around the edges of the
cell. Cells have a single (unicellular) or colonial
organization (bound by an outer mucilaginous sheath of
cellulose fibrils). The arrangement of cells in a colony may
be regular to irregular (flat, cuboid, spherical) uniseriate
filamentous or branched filamentous that compreise the
trihome. Cyanophytes construct organic materials from
inorganic ones by photosynthesis, evolving free oxygen in
the process. As these sheaths are of resistant cellulose, it has
a change of preservation in the fossil record. Classification:
Kingdom Monera, Division Cyanophyta, Class:
Cyanophyceae (3).
48
Figure 3.14. Cynophyte sedimentary structure (a) Stromalite type of
vertical section, (b) Girvanella tubes in skeletal oncolite, (c)
Ortonella tubes in skeletal oncolite, (d) section through endolithic
cyanophyte boring and skeletal envelopes (3).
3.5. Nannofossils
1. Description
Calcareous nannofossils (or coccolithospores) are extremely small
calcite plates that cover golden algae, unicellular planktonic protists
with chrysophyte-like photosynthetic pigments of algae
(coccolithophorids). This single-celled algae live only in the oceans.
Coccolithospores differ from most other Chrysophyta in having two
flagella of equal length and a third whip-like organ called a haptonema.
The group is an important component of the oceanic phytoplankton
providing a major source of food for herbivorous plankton. Because
they are plants they need sunlight, so they float near the surface of the
water. There are billions and billions of them living in the oceans today,
and they are eaten by anything that is bigger than they are. They are one
of the primary organisms at the base of the food chain (18) (3).
50
Figure 3.16. Coccolith (a) Recent coccolithosphore Cycloccolithina
with coccolith shields, (b) side view of Cyclococcolithina coccolith
with cross section, (c) Pseudoemiliania distal view, (d) same from
proximal shield, (e) Helicopontosphaera, (f) Zygodiscus, (g)
Prediscosphaera proximal and side view, (h) Braadosphaera, (i)
Rhabdosphaera side view, (j) Discoaster (3).
51
are a chalk. If there aren‟t so many nannos, they can be part of a
limestone or shale (18) (3).
These calcite platelets are preserved in the rocks and are the
fossils. Being both abundant and relatively easy to recover from marine
sediments, coccolith have been used increasingly for biostratigraphyc
correlation of the post-Triassic rock in which they occur (18) (3).
2. Significance of Nannofossils
Calcareous nannofossils have been living in the world oceans for
at least 200 million years (from the Triassic Period), and they have
evolved and changed constantly over time. For example, if a
paleontologist looks at an ocean bottom sediments from 1 million years
ago and compares it to a sediment that was deposited 60 million years
ago, most of the nannos in the two samples will be completely different
species. A calcareous nannofossils specialist can look at ocean bottom
sediment from anywhere in the world that was deposited less than 200
million years ago (one which does contain calcareous nannofossils) and
be able to tell you how old that sediment is. And he/she would be
accurate within 1-4 million years or even less (18).
They are useful for dating open marine beds, the same facies in
which planktonic foraminifera occur, and with a similar zonal
resolution. Used in conjunction with planktonic foraminifera, higher
resolution may be obtained than with either method alone. As a result of
their small size (around 10 microns) only a very small amount of
sample material is needed, which is useful in the study of sidewall
cores. When working with cuttings, however, it becomes very critical
which chips of rock are selected for processing: if recirculated sediment
is used, the floras studied may have little relation with the depth on the
sample bag (18).
A disadvantage of their small size is that traces of drilling mud on
a sample may contaminate a sample significantly. Field samples also
can easily be contaminated by dirty collecting tools, hands or natural
processes (runoff, wind).
3. Sample Preparation
Processing of samples is fast and simple: a small amount of material is
scratched off a rock sample (marl or clay), and, with some water
smeared over a glass slide. Identification requires a transmitted light
microscope with 400 – 1000 x magnifications and with polarization and
52
light contrast equipment. A Scanning Electron Microscope may be
needed for the determination of some species. Useful reviews of
nannofossils are Hay (1977) and Perch-Nielsen (1985) (18).
53
Figure 3.18. Calcareous nannofossils zonal marker of the Miocene
and Pliocene (14)
54
Systematic description of these marker species refers to Perch-Nielsen
(1985) and Bramlette and Wilcoxon (1967) are as follow:
a) Sphenolithus cipoeroensis Bramlette and Wilcoxon, n. sp.
Sphenolithus are very important for the subdivision of the
Oligocene to Early Miocene, which otherwise has few short-lived
forms or new forms with a wide distribution (Perch-Nielsen,
1985). Sphenolith small, with nearly uniform taper from base to
tip of apical spine; about 10-12 spines around the distinctly
depressed basal area. Apical spine pointed in most specimens but
slighty to strongly bifurcate in some otherwise identical forms.
The spine consist of coalesced units of calcite of slightly different
orientation (obvious with superimposed quartz plane), hence does
not normally show complete extinction between crossed nicols of
the apical spine in the position parallel to either nicol. Although
small, this form is conspicuous between crossed nicols, having a
particulary distinctive appearance with length of specimen and
apical spine at 450 to either nicol. A bifurcation of long, slender
branches can be seen; the angle between the branches seems
about 120°.
b) Cyclicargoltihus abisectus (Muller)
This species is the largest form of Cyclicargoltihus, but usually
smaller than D.bisectus which it co-occurs. The central opening is
oval to subround and small. The extinction lines between the wall
and the shields are typically disjunct, whereas they are curved but
continuous in D.bisectus and C.floridanus.
c) Discoaster druggi Bramlette and Wilcoxon
This species usually has 6 arms that may be blunty rounded,
truncated or notched at the tips. The central area is broad and
nearly flat and the arms taper slightly. It has a wide inter arm
area.
d) Sphenolithus heteromorphus Deflandre
This species has a more compact proximal shield and column,
where the columb and the lateral element are about equal in
height. It is formed by the basal quadrants instead of by the apical
complex. Sphenolithus heteromorphus looks like a butterfly when
seen between crossed nicols at 0° and has a very bright apical
spine at 45° (Perch-Nielsen, 1985). The appearance between
crossed nicol is characteristic, parallel to and at 45 0 to the nicols.
Study at various orientations in a viscous medium shows that a
55
series of eight or nine spines surround the depressed basal area
lacking spines, with radiating shorter spines above producing the
black cross between crossed nicols when the single big apical
spine is at extinction position. This apical spine varies markedly
in lengthband robustness (Bramlette and Wilcoxon, 1967).
e) Sphenolithus belemnos Bramlette and Wilcoxon, n. sp.
Sphenolithus is small with a narrow proximal column. This
species is characterized by its dart-shaped outline in side view,
with depressed base constructed of about 10-12 spines that
constitute about one half to one third of the length. The proximal
columb is relatively high, and certainly higher than the cycles of
lateral elements. The apical spine is bright when the specimen is
seen at 45° and disappears between the bright lateral elements
when viewed at 0°. The spenolith shows a uniform taper up to the
pointed apical spine. Much shorter lateral spines, extending
upward, are indicated between crossed nicols in the position with
the main spine (apical) at extinction. This species is most
distinctive and easily recognized between cross nicols, particulary
with the apical spine parallel to either of the nicols and thus at
extinction.
f) Calcidiscus macintyrei (Bukry and Bramlette)
Calcidiscus includes round coccolithaceae with open or closed
central area and mainly Neogene round forms with a distal shield
and simple proximal shield. C.macyntyrei only if we find more
than 40 elements and not only a size larger than 10μm.
g) Helicosphaera ampliaperta Bramlette and Wilcoxon, n. sp.
This usual form of the genus is nearly oval in outline, normally
showing little of the terminal flare of the larger (distal) shield, and
with no bridge in the large oval central opening. There is thus
superficial similarity to occasional specimens of other species
which have had the central bar broken out. Lack of any central
bar is evident in that a population includes none with a bar, nor
any irregularity around the peripheral edge of the central opening.
Length 7 – 12 μ. This distinctive species is not easily recognized
as belonging to the genus, except in side view, or by the
characteristic extinction lines between crossed nicols in plan
view. It is, however, stratigraphically very significant because of
its wide geographic and rather restricted time range.
h) Discoaster kugleri Martini and Bramlette
56
Specimen typically with stubby ray, less than half the diameter of
the central part. Tips slightly notched and thicker than the central
area of the asterolith, as is indicated by brighter, more condensed,
lighting near the tips of the rays. This species typically has 6
short, stubby arms. They are slightly notched and the central area
does not carry a central knob. It noted has a relatively large
central area, a knob on both sides and short arms, by the lack of
central knob and the lack of a bifurcation at the tip of the arms.
i) Discoaster hamatus Martini and Bramlette
This species is a large, 5-armed form with small knob in the
centre. The arms are long, somewhat curved, and turn sharply
clockwise and downward near the end, as viewed on the convex
side. A much smaller knob is usual as a bifurcation, although it
appears to be continuation of the main part of the arm as it
extends in the same direction.
j) Discoaster neohamatus Bukry and Bramlette
D.neohamatus differs from D.hamatus by having 6 arms instead
of only 5. This species has slender, tapering and terminally bent
arms. The outer ends of which consistently are bent in one
direction and terminate in points. The central area is very small
and no knob is present. In overgrown specimens, the arms appear
to be more bent than in better-preserved specimens.
k) Discoaster bellus Bukry and Percival
This species is a relatively small, simple 5-armed from lacking a
central knob. The arms taper slightly and terminate in points.
D.bellus is consistently smaller than D.hamatus and lack the tip
turned to the side of that species.
l) Discoaster neorectus Bukry
This species is a gigantic, 6-armed species with a small, twisted
central knob but no separately marked central area. The arms are
long and symmetrically arranged and tapering to a simple point.
m) Discoaster quinqueramus Gartner
This species has 5 tapering, long non-bifurcating arms arranged
symmetrically and robust central area with very prominent, 5-
armed central knob.
n) Amaurolithus primus (Bukry and Percival)
Amaurolithus contains the horseshoe-shaped coccoliths which
show no birefringence between crossed nicols. A.primus, the
57
oldest ceratolith, is a small, crescent-shaped from with short
horns and an extended apical region.
o) Discoaster berggrenii (Bukry)
This species is a symmetric, 5-armed from with tapering arms and
a very prominent knob consisting of the inwardly directed
prolongations of the ridges on the arms on one side and of ridges
extending from the interarm area over a depresses central area to
form a central knob (SEM in Perch-Nielsen, 1985) on the other
side. The free length of the arms is about equal to the diameter of
the central area, whereas it is longer in D.quinqueramus, which
has thinner arms and less prominent knobs.(12)
58
Figure 3.19 Morphology and terminology of trilete spores (3).
59
Figure 3.21. Morphology and terminology of tricolpate and related
pollen grains (3)
3.7. Ostracods
1. Description
Ostracodes are small crustaceans with bivalve mollusc-like
calcareous shells. It is small laterally compressed Crustacea enclosed
within a protective shell. This shell is formed by two chitinous or
calcareous valves that hinge above the dorsal region of the body.
2. Significance of Ostracods
Ostracods have adapted to various niches in the ocean plankton, on
the sea floor, in freshwater ponds and even in humid forest soils.
60
They are commonest, however, as shallow marine benthic, where
they may number only less than the foraminifera amongst the fossil
microfauna. They live in fresh, brackish and marine waters and can
be observed in many samples, although rarely as frequent as
foraminifera. Processing of samples is the same as for foraminifera
(3) (17)
.
This group is particularly useful for biozonation of marine strata on a
local or regional scale and second to none as indicators of ancient
shorelines, salinities and relative sae-floor depth. They have a long
and and well documented fossils record from the early Cambrian to
present day. Eventhough they are good facies indicators and some
species may have stratigraphic significance, but since the early
papers of Le Roy (1939) and Kingma (1948) little work has been
done in Indonesia (17).
1. Description
The Pyrrhophyta, known as dinoflagellates (meaning whirling
whips), are single-celled organism, generally between 20 and 150
mikronmeter long, with both plant and animal characteristics. They
are usually considered as plants, however because of the presence of
cellulose in the cell wall and chlorophyll pigments in the
protoplasma. It is the carotenoid pigments dinoxanthin and peridinin,
though, which give to these organisms the flame-like colours from
which they derive their formal, botanical name of Pryyhophyta
(meaning fire plants). The majority of dinoflagellates are equipped
with one whip-like and one ribbon-like flagellllum for propulsion
and have a prominent nucleus and a sculptured cell wall (3).
61
Figure 3.22. Dinoflagellates (a) Dinogymmium, a fossil
gymnodinialean cyst, (b) motile cell of Recent Peridinium, (c) cavate
cyst of Deflandrea, (d) motile cell of Recent Gonyaulax, (e)
proximochorate cyst of fossil Spiniferites, (f) proximate cyst of fosil
Gonyaulacysta, (g) chlorate cyst of fossil Hystrichospharidium, (h)
Nannoceratopsis, a fossil dinophysialean cyst(3).
2. Significance of Dinoflagellates
Both heterotrophic and autotrophic modes of nutrition occur,
although the latter predominate and have formed an important
contingen of oceanic phytoplankton since at least mid-Mesozoic
times. Although these motile cells are abundant and wide ranging, it
is resistant resting cyst which leaves a fossil record. Dinoflagellate
cyst (or dinocyst) have proved to be valuable tool for
biostratigraphy, but they have contributed less to ecological and
evolutionary paleontology (3).
62
Dinoflagellate cysts, made by extremely small planktonic algae, are
a relatively new tool in biostratigraphy. They are used successfully
in the Paleogene and Mesozoic marine beds in areas like the North
Sea. For the Cenozoic a broad "world-wide'' zonation was proposed
by Williams (1977), but there is no published information on
Indonesian samples to test its validity here. Sample processing is the
same as for spores and pollen. The presence of common
dinoflagellates in palynology slides is usually taken as evidence of a
marine depositional environment, although some freshwater
dinoflagellates are also known to make cysts (17).
3.9. Silicoflagellates
63
1. Description
The chrysophytes are protest with a distinctive golden colour
imparted by their photosynthetic pigments (chlorophylla a and c, B-
carotene, fucox-anthin and carotenoids). Most are unicellular but
there are some colonial forms. The motile cell may have either one
or two flagella of unequal length inserted at the apex. Several group
with siliceous or calcareous skeletons in this division are
paleontological interest: silicoflagellates, diatoms and
coccolithosphores (3).
2. Significance of Silicoflagellates
Silicoflagellates has been minor component of marine phytoplankton
since early Cretaceous time. There are only well preserved in
siliceous rock such as diatomites, though, and have been little used
expect in deep oceanic strata where they are now widely employed
both for correlation and for estimation of paleoclimatic condition (3).
3.10. Radiolaria
1. Description
Radiolaria are a group of small marine planktonic protozoans with
intricate siliceous tests. They are free floating protest with roughly
spherical cells and thread-like pseudopodia extending radially over a
delicate endoskeleton. These two groups of the Actinopoda differ,
however, in that modern radiolarian are entirely marine with
representatives in Cambrian times, whereas the Helizoa are an
exclusively fresh water subclass with no fossil representatives before
the Pleistocene (3) (17).
2. Significance of Radiolaria
They are rare in nearshore waters and are common mainly in open-
ocean, high biological productivity regions. For this reason they will
never become a widely used tool in oil-well biostratigraphy.
Radialarian are most useful for biostratigraphy of Mesozoic and
Cenozoic deep-sea sediments and have great potential as
paleoenvironmental indicators. In Indonesia the first study of fossil
radiolaria is by Tan Sin Hok (1927). Very little additional work was
done since. A commonly used zonation of the tropical Cenozoic is
that by Riedel and Sanfilippo (1978). (3) (17).
64
Figure 3.24. Radiolaria are found as zooplankton in the upper
layers of all oceans (9).
3.11. Diatoms
1. Description
The Class Bacillariophyceae is known as diatoms are unicellular
algae with chrysophyte-like photosynthetic pigments. They differ
from other chrrysophytes in lacking flagekka. The cell wall is
silicified to form a frustule, comprising two valves, one-overlapping
the other like the lidnof a pillbox or an agar dish. Diatoms occupy a
very wide range of habitat and may occur in enormous numbers in
diatomites. (3) .
2. Significance of Diatoms
This group of siliceous microfossils is tests of unicellular brown
algae, which live in a wide variety of (semi-) aqueous terrestrial and
marine environments, but are restricted to the photic zone (generally
100 m or less). Some species are planktonic, others are bottom
dwellers. Planktonic diatoms can be useful biostratigraphic markers,
but they are found only in open oceanic deposits, where other, higher
resolution dating tools are available (planktonic forams,
nannoplankton) This group is also valuable tools in
paleoenvironment studies. Little work has been done on fossil
diatoms in Indonesia, although one of the early classic studies is
from Java material (Reinhold 1937). Burckle (1982) is one of the
very few more recent papers (3) (17).
65
Figure 3.25. Pennate diatoms (a) Pinnularia, (b) Fragilaria, (c)
Achanthes (3)
67
rockground. Bromley, Pemberton and Rahmani (1984) proposed the
Teredolithes ichnofacies for borings in wood (woodgrounds). Frey and
Pemberton (1987) established for the Psilonichus ichnofacies for
softgrounds in marine to non marine environment. Skolithos, Cruziana,
Nereites and Zoophycos ichnofacies have the great potential for
interpreting ancient marine environmental conditions (2).
Data from: BromIey et al., 1984; Frey and Seilacher, 1980; Frey and Pemberton,
1987; Pemberton et al., 1992; Seilacher, 1967
68
3.12.1. Skolithos Ichnofacies
- Trace fossil of this association are characterized especially by
vertical, cylindical or U-shaped burrows (e.g., Ophiomorpha,
Displocraterion and Skolithos).
- Overall diversity of ichnogenera is low and few horizontal
structures are present.
- This ichnofacies is developed primarily in sandy sediment where
relatively high levels of waves or current energy are typical.
- Organism in this environment construct deep burrows to protect
against desiccation or unfavorable temperature or salinity changes
during low tide, and as a means of escaping the shifting substrate
of the surface.
- The skolithos ichnofacies is typical of sandy shore line
environment, but it may grade seaward into shallow shelf
environments. It has also been reported from some deeper-water
environments, such as deep-sea fans and bathyal slopes (2).
70
Figure 3.29. Trace fossil association characteristic of the Nereites
ichnofacies 1. Spirorhaphe, 2. Uroheiminthoidea, 3. Lorenzinia, 4.
Megagrapton, 5. Paleodictyon, 6. Nereites, 7. Cosmorhaphe (2).
71
Figure 3.30. Trace fossil association characteristic of the
Psilonichnus ichnofacies: 1. Psilonichnus, 2. Macanopsis (2).
74
1. Polydora, 2. Entobia, 3. Echinoid borings, 4. Tryparites, 5 and 6 Pholadid
burrows, 7. Diplocraterion, 8. Unlined Crab Burrow, 9. Skolithos, 10. Diplocraterion,
11. Thalassinoides,12. Arenicolites, 13. Ophiomorpha, 14. Phycodes, 15.
Rhizocorallium, 16. Teichichnus, 17. Crossopodia,18. Asteriacites, 19. Zoophycos, 20.
Spirohaphe, 21. Zoophycos, 22. Paleodictyon, 23. Taphrhelminthopsis, 24.
Helminthoida, 25. Spirohaphe, 26. Cosmorhaphe
Figure 3.31 . Schematic representation of the relationship of the
characteristic trace fossils to sedimentary facies and depth zones in
the ocean (2).
75
Figure 3.32. Bioturbation features (9)
References:
(1)
Anwar, Khoiril M. 1999. Panduan Praktikum Foraminifera,
Laboratorium Mikropaleontologi Institut Teknologi Bandung,
tidak dipublikasikan
(2)
Boggs, Sam Jr. 2006. Principles of Sedimentology and
Stratigraphy, Fourth Edition, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey
07458, p. 102-112
(3)
Braiser, M.D. 1985. Microfossils, Fourth Edition, George, Allen
and Unwin (Publisher) Ltd
(4)
Caron, Michele. 1985. Cretaceous Planktic Foraminifera in
Plankton Stratigraphy, edited by Bolli, H.M., Saunders, J.B., and
Perch-Nielsen, K., Cambridge University Press, p. 17-86
(5)
Compton, Robert R. 1961. Manual of Field Geology, Wiley
Eastern PVT. Ltd., Publisher
(6)
Cushman, J.A. 1969. Foraminifera Their Classification and
Economic Use, within an Illustrated Key to The Genera, Fourth
Edition, Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachusetts
(7)
Erdtman, G. 1943. An Introduction to Pollen Analysis, Chronica
Botania Company, p 1-54
(8)
Isnaniawardhani, V. 2014. Tambelan Seas Quaternary Shallow
Marine Smaller Benthic Foraminifera
(9)
Isnaniawardhani, Vijaya. 2012. Micropaleontology Research,
Chiba University Academic Seminar, Japan, unpublished
(10)
Isnaniawardhani, V, Adhiperdana, B.G, Nurdradjat. 2013. Late
Miocene Planktic Foraminifera Biostratigraphy of Central Bogor
Through, Indonesia, Pustaka Ilmiah Universitas Padjadjaran,
http://pustaka.unpad.ac.id/archives/126510
(11)
Isnaniawardhani, Vijaya, Rinawan, Rusman and Prianggoro,
Bambang. 2012. The fossil assemblage features of limestone and
clastic sedimentary rock in Lulut Area, Cileungsi District, Bogor,
West Java, Bulleton of Scientific Contribution Volume 10,
Nomor 2, Agustus 2012
(12)
Isnaniawardhani, Vijaya, Suparka, Emmy, and Adisaputra,
Mimin K. 2013. Miocene Calcareous Nannofossil Biostratigraphy
of East Java, Indonesia, Procceding of the 9th International
Congress on Pasific Neogene Stratigraphy, Tsukuba, Japan
(13)
Loeblich, A.R. Jr. and Tappan, H. 1988. Foraminiferal Genera
and Their Classification, Jilid 1 and 2, van Nostrand Reinhold,
76
New York, 970 p.
(14)
Perch-Nielsen. 1985. Cenozoic Calcareous Nannofossils, in Bolli,
H.M., Saunders, J.B., and Perch Nielsen, K. (Eds.) Plankton
Stratigraphy, Cambridge University Press, p. 427-554
(15)
Postuma, J.A. 1971. Manual of Planktonic Foraminifera, Elsevier
Publishing Company, Amsterdam, London, New York, 398 p.
(16)
Saito, T., Thompson, P.T., Dee Breger. 1981. Systematic Index of
Recent and Pleistocene Planktonic Foraminifera, University of
Tokyo Press, 190 p.
(17)
van Gorsel, J.T. 1988. Biostratigraphy in Indonesia: Methods,
Pitfalls and New Directions, Proceedings Indonesian Petroleoum
Association Seventeenth Annual Convention, Indonesia
(18)
http:geology.er.usgs.gov/paleo/nannos.shtml
(19)
www.ucpm.berkeley.edu/fosrec.lipps.1.html
77
TOPIC 4
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC UNIT
79
The North American Stratigraphic Code (1993) (2)
81
Figure 4.1. Examples of range, lineage and interval zones (Article
51, Kind of Biostratigraphic Units) (2)
82
Figure 4.2. Examples of assemblage and abundance zones (Articles
51) (2)
83
Rank of Biostratigraphic Units
Article 53. – Fundamental Units. The biozone is the
fundamental unit of biostratigraphic classification.
Biostratigraphic Nomenclature
Article 54. -Establishing Formal Units. Formal establishment of
a biozone must meet the requirements of Article 3 and requires a unique
name, a description of its fossil content and stratigraphic boundaries,
and a discussion of its spatial extent.
84
(North American Commission on Stratigraphic Nomenclature,1983) (2)
Consecutive-range zone
85
INTERVAL ZONE
Concurrent-range zone :
G.sellii
Pseudohastigerina barbadoensis
86
TOPIC 5
FORAMINIFERA,
NANNOFOSSILS AND
PALYNOMORPH
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC
ZONATIONS
The applicability of a biostratigraphic zonation depends on
facies. In open marine environments planktonic foraminifera and
calcareous nannoplankton are used, in shallow marine and deltaic series
local zonations based on rotaliid benthic foraminifera may apply, in
shallow marine carbonate facies larger foraminifera are the most
important markers, and in coastal and alluvial plain environments
spores and pollen are used (18).
Zone P.13
Orbulinoides beckmanni zone
Category: Total range zone
Author: Bolli, 1957, nom. corr. et transl. pro
Porticulasphaera mexicana zone, Bolli, 1957
Definition: The base of this zone is placed at the first
stratigraphical appearance of Orbulinoides
beckmanni.
Zone P.14
Truncorotaloides rohri – Globigerinita howei zone
Category: Partial range zone
Synonymy: Truncorotaloides rohri zone, Bolli, 1957, also
Blow and Banner, 1962 in Eames et al.
Definition: The base of zone is placed immediately
subsequent to the extinction horizon of
Orbulinoides beckmanni which appears to be
only slightly prior to the first appearance of
Globigerinita howei.
Zone P.15
Globigerapsis mexicana zone
88
Category: Partial range zone
Synonymy: Globigerapsis semiinvoluta zone, Bolli, 1957,
also Blow and Banner, 1962, emended, partim.
Age: Lower part of late Eocene
Definition: The base of the zone is placed immediately
subsequent to the extinction horizon of
Truncorotaloides rohri.
Zone P.16
Cribrohantkenina inflata zone
Category: Total range zone
Age: Middle part of late Eocene
Synonymy: Cribrohantkenina danvillensis zone Blow and
Banner, 1962, emended Globigerapsis
semiinvoluta zone, Blow and Banner, 1962,
partim. Globorotalia acostaensis zone, Bolli,
1957.
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
development of the genus Cribrohantkenina (as
C. inflata) from Hantkenina alabanensis.
Zone P.17
Globigerina gortanii-Globorotalia (Turborotalia) centralis zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Latest Eocene
Synonymy: Globigerina turritilina turritilina zone, Blow
and Banner (1962)
Definition: The base of the zone is placed immediately
subsequent to the extinction horizon of
Cribrohantkenina inflata which is only slightly
subsequent to the horizon of development of
Globigerina gortanii gortanii from its
immediate ancestor G. gortanii praeturritilina.
89
Zone P.18
Globigerina tapuriensis zone
Category: Consecutive range zone
Age: Early Oligocene
Synonymy: Globigerina turritilina turritilina zone, Blow
and Banner (1962)
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the first
evolutionary appearance of Globigerina
tapuriensis from its immediate ancestor G.
tripartita.
Zone P.19
Globigerina sellii/Pseudohastigerina barbadoensis zone
Category: Concurrent range zone
Age: Early to middle parts of Oligocene
Synonymy: Globigerina oligocaenica (G. sellii) zone, Blow
and Banner (1962)
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the first
evolutionary appearance of Globigerina sellii
from its immediate ancestor G. tapuriensis.
Zone N.5
Globoquadrina dehiscens praedehiscens – G. dehiscens dehiscens
zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Early Miocene, Aquitanian
Synonymy: Catapsydrax dissimilis zone Bolli, 1957 (nom.
corr: Globigerinita dissimilis zone, Blow and
Banner, 1962 ex Bolli
Definition: The base of the zone is placed immediately
above the top of the biostratigraphical range of
Globorotalia (Turborotalia) kugleri.
Zone N.6
Globigerinatella insueta/Globigerinita dissimilis zone
Category: Concurrent range zone
Age: Early Miocene, late Aquitanian to early
Burdigalian
Synonymy: Catapsydrax stainforthi zone, Bolli, 1957;
emend. Blow, 1959 (Globigerinita stainforthi
zone, nom. corr. Blow and Banner, 1962).
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first stratigraphical appearance of
Globigerinatella insueta.
Zone N.7
Globigerinatella insueta – Globigerinoides quadrilobatus zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Early Miocene, Burdigalian
Synonymy: Globigerinatella insueta/Globigerinoides
trilobus subzone, Blow, Globigerinatella insueta
(part only)
92
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon
immediately above the horizon of extinction of
Globigerinita dissimilis (s.l)
Zone N.8
Globigerinoides sicanus – Globigerinatella insueta zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Early Miocene, late Burdigalian
Synonymy: Globigerinatella insueta/Globigerinoides
bisphericus subzone, Blow, 1959. Partim:
Globigerinatella insueta zone, Bolli, 1957
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of
Globigerinoides sicanus (= G. bisphericus), a
horizon which occur within the range of
Globigerinatella insueta.
Zone N.9
Orbulina suturalis – Globorotalia (Turborotalia) peripheroronda
zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Middle Miocene, early Langhian
Synonymy: Globorotalia fohsi barisanensis zone, Bolli,
1957, plus highest part only of Globigerinatella
insueta zone, Bolli, 1957
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at he horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of Orbulina
suturalis from its immediate ancestor.
Praeorbulina glomerosa circularis, which is a
horizon that occurs within the range of
Globorotalia (Turborotalia) peripheroronda
(and within the ranges of Globigerinatella
insueta and Globigerinoides sicanus).
93
Zone N.10
Globorotalia (Turborotalia) peripheroacuta zone
Category: Consecutive range zone
Age: Langhian, part, middle Miocene
Synonymy: Globorotalia fohsi fohsi zone, Blow, 1959;
Globorotalia fohsi fohsi (part only) Bolli, 1957.
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of
Globorotalia (Turborotalia) peripheroacuta
from its immediate ancestor, G. (T.)
peripheroronda.
Zone N.11
Globorotalia (G.) praefohsi zone
Category: Consecutive range zone
Age: Langhian, part, middle Miocene
Synonymy: Globorotalia fohsi fohsi (part only) plus G.
fohsi lobata zone (part only). Bolli, 1957;
Globorotalia fohsi lobata Blow, 1959
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of
Globorotalia (G.) praefohsi from its immediate
ancestor, G. (T.) peripheroacuta.
Zone N.12
Globorotalia (G.) fohsi zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Langhian, part, middle Miocene
Synonymy: G. fohsi lobata zone (part only) plus G. fohsi
robusta zone (part only), Bolli, 1957;
Globorotalia fohsi robusta zone (part only),
Blow, 1959 (ex Bolli, emend).
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of
94
Zone N.12
Globorotalia (G.) fohsi zone
Globorotalia (G.) fohsi from its immediate
ancestor Globorotalia (G.) praefohsi.
Zone N.13
Sphaeroidinellopsis subdehiscens subdehiscens – Globigerina druryi
zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Langhian, part, middle Miocene
Synonymy: Globorotalia fohsi robusta zone, Bolli, 1957,
Globorotalia fohsi robusta zone (part only) plus
G.mayeri/G.lenguensis subzone, Blow, 1959.
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of
Sphaeroidinellopsis subdehiscens subdehiscens,
from its immediate ancestor S. seminulina
seminulina, which occurs within the range of
Globigerina druryi.
Zone N.14
Globigerina nepenthes/Globorotalia (Turborotalia) siakensis zone
Category: Concurrent range zone
Age: Late Langhian, middle Miocene
Synonymy: Globorotalia mayeri/Globigerina nepenthes
subzone Blow, 1959 (nom. corr. subst. et
transl).
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of Globigerina
nepenthes, from its immediate ancestor,
Globigerina druryi, a horizon which occurs
within the range of Globorotalia (Turborotalia)
siakensis.
95
Zone N.15
Globorotalia (Turborotalia) continuosa zone
Category: Consecutive range zone
Age: Late Langhian-early Tortonian, middle to late
Miocene
Synonymy: Globorotalia menardii zone, Bolli, 1957 (part
only); Globorotalia menardii
menardii/Globigerina nepenthes zone, Blow,
1959
Definition: The base of the zone is placed immediately
above the horizon of extinction of Globorotalia
(Turborotalia) siakensis, which occur within the
range of Globorotalia (T.) continuosa.
Zone N.16
Globorotalia (Turborotalia) acostaensis acostaensis – Globorotalia
(G.) merotumida - zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Tortonian, late Miocene
Synonymy: Globorotalia menardii menardii/Globigerina
nepenthes zone (part only) plus Sphaeroidinella
seminulina zone (part only), Blow, 1959.
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of
Globorotalia (Turborotalia) acostaensis
acostaensis from its immediate ancestor, G. (T.)
continuosa.
Zone N.17
Globorotalia (G.) tumida plesiotumida zone
Category: Consecutive range zone
Age: Messinian, part, late Miocene
Synonymy: Sphaeroidinella seminulina zone (part only)
plus Globigerina bulloides zone (part only),
96
Blow, 1959.
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of
Globorotalia (G.) tumida plesiotumida from its
immediate ancestor, G. (G.) merotumida.
Zone N.18
Globorotalia (G.) tumida tumida – Sphaeroidinellopsis subdehiscens
paenedehiscens zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Late Miocene-early Pliocene; late Messinian –
early Zanclian
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of
Globorotalia (G.) tumida tumida.
97
Author: Banner and Blow, 1965
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of
Globorotalia (Turborotalia) acostaensis
pseudopima which occurs within the lower part
of the range of Pulleniatina obliquiloculata
obliquiloculata.
Zone N.21
Globorotalia (T.) tosaensis tenuitheca zone
Category: Consecutive range zone
Age: Pliocene to extreme basal Pleistocene
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of
Globorotalia (T.) tosaensis tenuitheca from its
immediate ancestor, G. (T.) crassaformis
oceanica.
Zone N.22
Globorotalia truncatulinoides truncatulinoides zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Pleistocene
Definition: The base of the zone is placed at the horizon of
the first evolutionary appearance of
Globorotalia (G.) truncatulinoides
truncatulinoides from its immediate ancestor,
G. (Turborotalia) tosaensis tenuitheca.
Zone N.23
Globigerina calida calida/Sphaeroidinella dehiscens excavata
Category: Assemblage zone
Age: ? Late Pleistocene – Holocene
98
5.1.2. Paleocene–Eocene and Oligocene-Miocene planktic
foraminifera zones by Postuma (1971) (14)
99
5.1.3. Cretaceous planktic foraminifera zones by Caron,
1986 (5)
To subdivide the time interval of some 55 m.y from Hauterivian
to the end of Maastrictian, 28 zones are proposed by Caron (1986),
from older to younger as follows (5)
1) Globuligerina hoterivica zone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Late Hauterivian
Author: Van Hinte (1972)
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of Globuligerina
hoterivica to first occurrence of Hedbergella
sigali
100
and Hedbergella bizonae.
101
7) Ticinella bejaouensis zone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Late Aptian to early Albian
Author: Moullade (1966)
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of Ticinella
bejaouensis to fisrt occurrence of Ticinella
primula.
Remarks: In the lower part of the zone, extinction of
Planomalina cheniourensis and
Globigerinelloides ferreolensis, and first
occurrence of Ticinella roberti.
102
Age: Late Albian
Author: Postuma (1971)
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of Rotalipora
subticinensis to fisrt occurrence of Rotalipora
ticinensis.
104
18) Marginotruncana sigali zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: LateTuronian
Author: Barr (1972)
Definition: Interval, with Marginotruncana sigali, from
extinction of Helvetoglobotruncana Helvetica to
first occurrence of Dicarinella primitive.
105
22) Globotruncanita elevata zone
Category: Partial range zone
Age: Early Campanian
Author: Postuma (1971)
Definition: Interval, with of Globotruncanita elevate, from
last occurrence of Dicarinella asymetrica, to
first occurrence of Globotruncana ventricosa.
106
26) Globotruncana aegyptiaca zone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Early Maastrichtian
Author: Caron (1986)
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of Globotruncana
aegyptiaca to first occurrence of Gansserina
gansseri.
1. Early Paleocene:
107
2) Morozovella pseudobulloides zone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Early Paleocene
Author: Leonov and Alimarina (1961) as Globigerina
pseudobulloides – Globigerina daubjergensis
zone. Name shorted by Bolli (1966).
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of Morozovella
pseudobulloides to first occurrence of
Morozovella trinidadensis.
2. Middle Paleocene:
108
angulata to first occurrence of Planorotalites
pusilla pusilla.
3. Late Paleocene:
4. Early Eocene:
110
Age: Early Eocene
Author: Introduced by Krasheninnikow (1965) as
a zubzone
Definition: Interval from first occurrence of
Turborotalia cerrozulensis frontosa to
first occurrence of representatives of the
genus Hantkenina.
5. Middle Eocene:
111
3) Morozovella lehneri zone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Middle Eocene
Author: Bolli (1957)
Definition: Interval with zonal marker from last occurrence
of Globigerinatheka aragonensis to first
occurrence of Orbulinoides beckmanni.
6. Late Eocene:
113
3) Turborotalia cerroazulensis pameroli/T. cerroazulensis
cerroazulensis zone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Middle Eocene
Author: Toumarkine and Bolli (1970) emended
Toumarkine (1986)
Definition: Interval with zonal marker from last occurrence
to last occurrence of Turborotalia
cerroazulensis frontosa to the extinction of the
genus Truncorotaloides and other spinosa form.
114
5.1.5. Oligocene to Holocene low latitude planktic
foraminifera zones by Bolli and Saunders (1986) (3)
115
5) Globorotalia kugleri zone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Late Oligocene
Author: Bolli (1957) emended Bolli and Saunders
(1986)
Definition: First occurrence of zonal marker to first
occurrence of frequent Globigerinoides
primordius and/or G. trilobus s.l.
116
9) Globigerinatella insueta zone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Early Miocene
Author: Cushman and Stainforth (1945), emended
by Bolli (1957)
Definition: Interval with zonal marker, from last
occurrence of Catapsydrax dissimilis to the
first occurrence of.
117
Globorotalia fohsi zone s.l. :
Cushman and Stainforth introduced a „Zone III Upper (Globorotalia
fohsi) Zone‟ without formally defining it. Based on stratigraphically
successive subspecies of Globorotalia fohsi, Bolli (1951, 1957), Blow
and Banner (1966), Bolli (1967) subdivide the zone into subzones.
Boundaries between the fohsi zones are based on the first successive
subspecies. Because morphological changes form one subspecies to the
next younger are gradual, the lacing of the zonal boundaries remains to
some extent subjective. Except for the rapidly evolving fohsi lineage,
the interval remains markedly poor in other events in which might serve
for subdivision in the absence of the marker species.
119
18) Globorotalia acostaensis zone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Late Miocene
Author: Bolli and Bermudez (1965)
Definition: Interval with zonal marker from its first
occurrence to first occurrence of
Globorotalia humerosa.
121
22) Globorotalia tosaensis tosaensis zone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Late Pliocene
Author: Bolli (1970), renamed by Bolli and Saunders
(1985).
Definition: Interval with zonal marker from extinction of
Globorotalia miocenica or G. exilis to first
occurrence of G. truncatulinoides
truncatulinoides.
122
23) Globorotalia truncatulinoides truncatulinoides zone
Category: Taxon range zone
Age: Pleistocene - Holocene
Author: Bolli and Bermudez (1965), renamed by
Bolli (1966) and Bolli and Premoli Silva
(1973)
Definition: Range of zonal marker.
a) Globorotalia crassaformis viola subzone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Pleistocene
Author: Bolli and Premoli Silva (1973)
Definition: Interval with subzonal marker, from first
occurrence of Globorotalia truncatulinoides
truncatulinoides to first occurrence of
Globorotalia crassaformis hessi.
b) Globorotalia crassaformis hessi subzone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Pleistocene
Author: Bolli and Premoli Silva (1973)
Definition: Interval with subzonal marker, from its first
occurrence to first occurrence of
Globigerina calida calida.
c) Globigerina calida calida subzone
Category: Concurrent range zone
Age: Pleistocene
Author: Bolli and Premoli Silva (1973)
Definition: Interval with subzonal marker, from its first
occurrence to extinction of Globorotalia
tumida fexuosa.
d) Globigerina bermudezi subzone
Category: Interval zone
Age: Pleistocene
Author: Bolli and Premoli Silva (1973)
Definition: Interval with subzonal marker, from last
occurrence of Globorotalia tumida flexuosa
123
to first occurrence of G. fimbriata.
e) Globorotalia fimbriata subzone
Category: Taxon range zone
Age: Holocene
Author: Bolli and Premoli Silva (1973)
Definition: Range of subzonal marker.
Other important papers on the subject, with similar zonations and
additional information, are Bronnimann and Resig (1971), Stainforth et
al. (1975), and Kennett and Srinivasan (1983). Little used possible
additional datum levels are coiling changes in some genera, and
incursions of cold water species, reflecting climate changes (18).
125
Remarks: The first of Globorotalia (Globorotalia) tumida
plesiotumida is used to define the base of N.17 zone (Blow, 1969,
1979) on Late Miocene.
d) Globorotalia tumida – Sphaeroidinella dehiscens Interval Zone
Definition: Interval with zonal marker, from Globorotalia tumida
to first appearance of Sphaeroidinella dehiscens
Age : Latest Miocene (< 5.3 my BP)
Remarks: The first of Globorotalia (Globorotalia) tumida tumida
is used to define the base of N.18 zone (Blow, 1969, 1979) near
the Miocene-Pliocene Boundary.
The next table shows the Late Miocene planktic foraminifera
biostratigraphy of central Bogor through, and it‟s correlation with
previously standard foraminifera zonation. The biostratigraphy zones
indicate that thoughout Late Miocene interval, foraminifera provides a
high accurate biostratigraphy and it is a good tool for correlation (8).
TORTONIAN N16
Figure 3. Correlation of the Late Miocene Planktic Foraminifera Biostratigraphy in Central Bogor
5.2. Larger foraminifera biostratigraphic
Through with Previously zonations
Standard Foraminifera Zonation
Between about 1930 and 1960 these were used extensively by oil
company paleontologists in Indonesia for zonations and correlations. In
Central Sumatra, for instance, Stanvac paleontologists subdivided the
Early Miocene in an upper Uvigerina 4 zone (deep marine), a middle
Rotalia 5 zone (mainly prodelta) and a lower Elphidium 8 zone (mainly
delta front-delta plain). Over short distances correlations based on these
were not unreasonable, but they were facies correlations with no age
significance, and where facies changed laterally the succession could
not be recognized. Such benthic foraminifera zonations are no longer
used. However, in the shallow marine realm benthic foraminifera are
usually the only common microfossils, and certain species probably do
have age significance. Billman and Witoelar (1974) and Billman et al.
(1980) proposed a zonation for the Late Miocene -Recent deltaic series
in East Kalimantan. Soeka et a1.(1980) proposed six benthic foram
zones in the mid-Miocene to Recent interval in the NE Java basin.
Mohler (1946) and Djamas and Luwarno (1982) suggested that a small
miliolid, Sigmoilina personata, is a good marker species for Eocene
beds in East Kalimantan (18).
Research on evolutionary patterns in smaller benthic foraminifera
is called for, as it might give marker species in those shallow water
facies that generally lack age diagnostic microfossils, but are associated
with reservoir rocks. One example of a possible lineage with
stratigraphic significance is the spinose, small Asterorotalia group.
Early forms with incipient spines are found in the early part of the
Middle Miocene in Central Sumatra (Rotalia sumatrensis of Le Roy
1944). These probably develop into Asterorotalia rnultispinosa with 6-
128
8 well-developed spines. Possibly from this stock, through a gradual
reduction in the number of spines, the first A. subtrispinosa appears
near the Middle-Late Miocene boundary (Soeka et al.1980). Further
development is towards a more pronounced triangular test outline (A.
trispinosa; ?latest Miocene- Recent). Other evolutionary series can
perhaps be established in the Pseudorotalia group (Billman et al. 1980),
and other genera (18).
130
Table 5.3. Cretaceous nannoplankton zonations by Sissingh (1977)
(16)
.
DATUM INDICATORS
P E AGE CALCAREOUS NANNOPLANKTON ZONATION
Last Nephrolithus frequens
131
Barnard and Hay (1975) were first to propose a zonation for the
Jurassic, based on material from southern England and northern France.
They correlated their zonal boundaries to the chronostratigraphic stages
through the relationship of nannofossil events to ammonite zones. Soon
afterward, Thierstein (1976) gathered and evaluated the existing
information on Jurrasic and Cretaceous nannofossil biostratigraphic
horizons and compiled, for the late Jurassic-Cretaceous interval, a
correlation between biohorizons, European stages, and
magnetostratigraphy. Thierstein differentiated between well-distributed,
cosmopolitan taxa and provincial taxa, which were useful in the age
determination of Jurrasic-Cretaceous sequences. Subsequent to these
studies, other biostratigraphic studies have added more detail and have
substantiated the earlier result. These include: Sissingh (1977), Manivit
et al. (1977), Taylor (1978), Hamilton (1979), Medd (1979),
Moshkovitz (1979), and Deres and Acheriteguy (1980). However,
Barnard and Hay‟s and Thierstein‟s biostratigraphic schemes remain
the most commonly used for Mesozoic coccolith subdivisions. Perch-
Nielsen (1979) has presented an excellent review of the Cretaceous
nannoplankton biostratigraphy, paleoecology, and phyletic evolutionary
trends (7).
Several recent nannofossil and planktonic foraminifera studies on
Cretaceous pelagic sections, in conjuction with magnetostratigraphic
determinations, have furthered the state of the art of Cretaceous
plankton biochronology and have increased the reability as age
assigments on the basis of nannofossils (7).
133
Their magnetostratigraphy was based on cores from the equatorial
Pasific, whose biostratigraphic data was compared to similar data from
Neogene sections in the Mediterranean region; and, thus, by second
order correlations, dates were assigned to various Neogene stage
boundaries. Haq et al (1996 and 1980) have also estimated the ages of
several nannofossil events of the past 8 m.y. by first older correlations
with magnetic polarity events in Pasific and Atlantic cores. Mazzei et.
Al (1979) calibrated the late Neogene calcareous plankton events to
magnetostratigraphy in a DSDP site off northwest Africa; and their
estimates show a substantial agreement to those in earlier studies (7).
The development of the hydraulic piston corer, which brought
with it the possibility of recovering undisturbed sections older than
Neogene, has finally provided the opportunity to extend the calibration
of biochronologic datum events to magnetostratigraphy futher back in
time (7).
As mentioned, the popular Cenozoic planktonic nannofossil
(nannoplankton) biostratigraphic zones have been studied by Hay, et al.
(1967), Bramlette and Wilcoxon (1967), Martini (1971), Bukry (1973)
and Okada and Bukry (1980). Martini‟s standard nannofossil
biozonation using samples throughout the word is the most popular to
be used in Indonesia. The 25 nannoplankton zones in the Paleogene
(numbered NP 1 to NP 25) and the 21 nannoplankton zones in the
Neogene to Quaternary (numbered NN 1 to NN 21) are supposed for a
standard Tertiary and Quaternary calcareous nannoplankton zonation.
Whereas Okada and Bukry (1980) suggested 19 nannoplankton zones in
the Paleogene (numbered CP 1 to CP 19) and 15 nannoplankton zones
in Neogene which are divided into several subzones (10).
134
Table.5.4. Paleogene Nannoplankton Zonation by Martini
(1971) (11)
135
Table 5.5. Neogene Nannoplankton Zonation by Martini
(1971) (11).
136
Table 5.6. Cenozoic nannoplankton zonations by Okada and Bukry
(1980) and its correlation with Martini (1971) (12).
137
Table. 5.7. Correlation of Nannoplakton and Foraminifera
Biozonation, of Martini (1971), Okada and Bukry (1980) and Blow
(1969) (1)(12)(2)
138
Table 5.8. Modified coccolith zones and subzones and
corresponding code numbers (Okada and Bukry, 1980) (12)
139
Another frequently used zonal scheme is that of Okada and Bukry
(1980; CN and CP number zones). Varol(l983) proposed a modified
scheme for the Miocene - Recent in Southeast Asia
The Neogene is subdivided into eight intervals (A-H) of 1-5 Ma
duration, based on the most important events, as follows:
1. Interval A (last occurrence of Sphenolithus ciperoensis to first
occurrence of Sphenolitus belemnos NN1-2/CN1a-c)
2. Interval B (first occurrence of Sphenolitus belemnos to last
occurrence of Sphenolitus belemnos NN3/CN2)
3. Interval C (last occurrence of Sphenolitus belemnos to last
occurrence of Spenolithus heteromorphus NN4-5/CN3-4)
4. Interval D (last occurrence of Spenolithus heteromorphus to first
occurrence of Catinaster NN6-7/CN5a-b)
5. Interval E (first occurrence of Catinaster to base small
Reticulofenestra interval NN8-10a/CN6-8a)
6. Interval F (base small Reticulofenestra interval to last occurrence
of Discoaster quinqueramus NN10b-11/CN8b-9b)
7. Interval G (last occurrence of Discoaster quinqueramus to last
occurrence of Reticulofenestra pseudoumbilicus NN12-15/CN10a-
11b)
8. Interval H (last occurrence of Reticulofenestra pseudoumbilicus to
last occurrence of Discoaster brouweri NN16-18/CN12a-d) (12).
140
Wilcoxon, n. sp., Discoaster kugleri Martini and Bramlette, Discoaster
hamatus Martini and Bramlette, Discoaster neohamatus Bukry and
Bramlette, Discoaster bellus Bukry and Percival, Discoaster neorectus
Bukry, Discoaster quinqueramus Gartner, Amaurolithus primus (Bukry
and Percival), and Discoaster berggrenii (Bukry) (10.)
For the purpose of establishing levels of correlation between
subsurface and surface section in this region, interval zones are
determined. Interval zone are biostratigraphyc zone lying between two
horizon first appearance (LA) or last appearance (LA) of calcareous
nannofossil marker species. On the basis of these events, the eighteen
Miocene zones from total the nineteen zones were established. Those
are, starting from the oldest (10) :
a) Sphenolithus ciperoensis Range Zone
Definition: The appearance of relatively common Sphenolithus
ciperoensis defines this zone.
Age: Late Oligocene
Remarks: Okada (1973) in Perch-Nielsen (1985) defines the first
and last appearances of S.ciperoensis as boundaries spesies of
S.ciperoensis zone. This zone is defined as CP 19 zone (Okada
and Bukry, 1981).
b) Sphenolithus ciperoensis - Cyclicargolithus abisectus Interval
zone
Definition: Interval from the last appearance of Sphenolithus
ciperoensis to the last appearance of Cyclicargolithus abisectus.
Age: Latest Oligocene.
Remarks: The first appearance of C.abisectus is used to define the
base of the Late Oligocene C.abisectus zone of Waghorn in
Perch-Nilesen (1985) and to approximate the base of NP 24
(Martini, 1971) or 25.2 my BP. The last appearance of
C.abisectus defines top of CN 1a (Okada and Bukry, 1980).
Occurrences above the basal Miocene have, however, been
reported.
c) Cyclicargoltihus abisectus - Discoaster druggi Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the last appearance of Cyclicargoltihus
abisectus to the first appearance of Discoaster druggi.
Age: Early Miocene
d) Discoaster druggi - Sphenolithus heteromorphus Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the first appearance of Discoaster
druggi to the first appearance of Sphenolithus heteromorphus.
141
Age: Early Miocene
Remark: The Early Miocene sees that the first appearance of a
few new discoasters; one, D.druggii is used to define the base of
NN 2 (Martini, 1971) and CN 1c subzone or 21 my (Okada and
Bukry, 1980).
e) Sphenolithus heteromorphus - Sphenolithus belemnos Interval
zone
Definition: Interval from the first appearance of Sphenolithus
heteromorphus to the last appearance of Sphenolithus belemnos.
Age: Early Miocene
Remarks: Okada (1973) in Perch-Nielsen (1985) defines the first
and last appearance of S.belemnos as boundaries spesies of
Sphenolithus belemnos zone. The last appearance of S. belemnos
is used to define top of NN 3 (Martini, 1971) and CN 2 or 17 my
(Okada and Bukry, 1980).
f) Sphenolithus belemnos - Calcidiscus macintyrei Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the last appearance of Sphenolithus
belemnos to first appearance of Calcidiscus macintyrei.
Age: Early Miocene
g) Calcidiscus macintyrei - Helicosphaera ampliaperta Interval
zone
Definition: Interval from the first appearance of Calcidiscus
macintyrei to the last appearance of Helicosphaera ampliaperta
Age: Early Miocene
Remark: The last appearance of H.ampliaperta is used to define
top of NN 4 (Martini, 1971) and CN 3 or 15 my (Okada and
Bukry, 1980).
h) Helicosphaera ampliaperta - Sphenolithus heteromorphus
Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the last appearance of Helicosphaera
ampliaperta to the last appearance of Sphenolithus
heteromorphus
Age: Middle Miocene
Remark: The last appearance of S.heteromorphus is used to
define top of NN 5 (Martini, 1971) and CN 4 or 14 my (Okada
and Bukry, 1980).
i) Sphenolithus heteromorphus - Discoaster kugleri Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the last appearance of Sphenolithus
heteromorphus to the first appearance of Discoaster kugleri
142
Age: Middle Miocene
j) Discoaster kugleri Range zone
Definition: Interval from the first to the last appearance of
Discoaster kugleri
Age: Middle Miocene
Remarks: The first last appearance of D.kugleri is used to define
base of NN 7 zone (Martini, 1971). Okada and Bukry (1980)
defines total range of D.kugleri as CN 5b subzone or 13.4 to 13.2
my.
k) Discoaster kugleri - Discoaster hamatus Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the last appearance of Discoaster
kugleri to the first appearance of Discoaster hamatus
Age: Middle Miocene
l) Discoaster hamatus - Discoaster neohamatus Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the first appearance of Discoaster
hamatus to the first appearance of Discoaster neohamatus
Age: Latest Middle Miocene
Remark: The first appearance of D.hamatus is used to define base
of NN 9 zone or 10.2 my (Martini, 1971).
m) Discoaster neohamatus - Discoaster bellus Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the first appearance of Discoaster
neohamatus to the first appearance of Discoaster bellus
Age: Late Miocene
n) Discoaster bellus - Discoaster hamatus Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the first appearance of Discoaster bellus
to the last appearance of Discoaster hamatus
Age: Late Miocene
Remarks: Okada (1973) in Perch-Nielsen (1985) defines the first
appearance of D.bellus to the last appearance of D.hamatus
interval as Discoaster bellus subzone. The first appearance of
D.bellus defines the base of CN 8 zone or 11 my (Okada and
Bukry, 1980); whereas the last appearance of D.hamatus defines
top of NN 9 zone (Martini, 1971).
o) Discoaster hamatus - Discoaster neorectus Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the last appearance of Discoaster
hamatus to the last appearance of Discoaster neorectus
Age: Late Miocene
Remark: The last appearance of D.neorectus defines the top of
CN 8 zone or 7 my (Okada and Bukry, 1980).
143
p) Discoaster neorectus - Discoaster quinqueramus Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the last appearance of Discoaster
neorectus to the first of Discoaster quinqueramus
Age: Late Miocene
Remark: The first appearance of D.quinqueramus marks the base
of CN 9 zone or 7 my (Okada and Bukry, 1980).
q) Discoaster quinqueramus - Amaurolithus primus Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the first appearance of Discoaster
quinqueramus to the first appearance of Amaurolithus primus
Age: Late Miocene
r) Amaurolithus primus - Discoaster berggrenii Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the first appearance of Amaurolithus
primus to the last appearance of Discoaster berggrenii
Age: Late Miocene
Remark: The first appearance of A.primus is used to define the
base of CN 9b subzone or 6.6 my (Okada and Bukry, 1980)
s) Discoaster berggrenii - Discoaster quinqueramus Interval zone
Definition: Interval from the last appearance of Discoaster
berggrenii to the last appearance of Discoaster quinqueramus
Age: Late Miocene
Remark: The last appearance D.quinqueramus is used to define
top of NN 11 zone (Martini, 1971) or 5.2 my BP.
144
Table 5.9. Nannofossil Events, Biostratigraphic Zones in East Java
and Its Correlation with Martini's (1971) and Okada and Bukry
(1980) (10)
145
DI AGN OS T I C S PE C I E S
B LOW MARTI NI
ZONE ZONE
NN 21
N 23 NN 20 Abundant M. annu latus which associates with D. australiensis,
PLEISTOCENE Monoporites annulatus
N 22 N N 19 in the absence of S. papuanus.
N 21 NN 17
NN 18 S. papuanus The presence of D . australiensis together with S. papuanus.
NN 16 Dacrycarpidites australiensis
LATE
N 20 NN 15 D.australiensis
PLIOCE NE
NN 14
EARLY N 19 NN 13 The o ccurrence of S. papuanus without D . australiensis and
Stenochlaenitites papuanus F. trilobata.
N 18 NN 12
N 17 NN 11
LATE F. trilobata
N 16 NN 10
N 15 NN 9
N 14 NN 8 F. meridionalis, F. levipoli and F. trilobata are found together
NN 7 Florschuetzia meridionalis within this zone.
N 13
N 12 NN 6
N 11
N 10
NN5
N9 F. meridionalis
N 8 NN 4 The appeara nce of F. levipoli in association w ith F. trilobata.
N 7 NN 3 Florschuetzia levipoli F. meridionalis is absent from this zone.
EARLY N 6 NN 2 F. levipoli
N5 The presence of F. trilobata w ithout F. levipoli and other Paleo-
N4
NN 1 Florschuetzia trilobata gene taxa.
P 22 NP 25
LATE P 21
NP 24 M. naharkotensis
P 20
Meyeripollis naharkotensis The occurence o f M. n aharkotensis.
P 19 NP 23
EARLY
P 18 NP 22 M. naharkotensis
NP 21
P 17 NP 20
EOCENE
LATE P 16
P 15
NP 19
NP 18
Proxapertites operculatus The existence of P. operculatus.
MIDDLE P 14 NP 17
NP 16
(15 )
Figure 5.1 Palynological zone on Java .
146
Table.5.10. Biostratigraphyc Correlation in Indonesia (18)
147
Continued:
148
Table. 5.11. Neogene Biochronostratigraphy
References :
(1)
Blow, W.H. 1969. Late Middle Eocene to Recent Planktonic
Foraminiferal Biostratigraphy, International Conference
Planktonic Microfosil 1 st., Geneva (1967)
(2)
-. 1979. The Cenozoic Globigerinida, Leiden, E.J Brill, Proc.
Leiden, E.J. Brill, V.1, p. 199 – 422.
(3)
Bolli, H. M., and Saunders, J. B. 1986. Oligocene to Holocene
Low Latitude Planktic Foraminifera, in Plankton Stratigraphy,
edited by Bolli, H.M., Saunders, J.B., and Perch-Nielsen, K.,
Cambridge University Press, p. 155 – 262.
(4)
Braiser, M.D. 1985. Microfossils, Fourth Edition, George, Allen
and Unwin (Publisher) Ltd
(5)
Caron, Michele. 1986. Cretaceous Planktic Foraminifera, in
Plankton Stratigraphy, edited by Bolli, H.M., Saunders, J.B.,
and Perch-Nielsen, K., Cambridge University Press, p. 17-86
(6)
Erdtman, G. 1943. An Introduction to Pollen Analysis, Chronica
Botania Company, p 1-54
(7)
Haq, Bilal, U. 1984. Nannofossils Biostratigraphy, benchmark
149
papers in Geology/78, Hutchinson Ross Publishing Company,
Stoundsburg Pennsylvania, 386 p.
(8)
Isnaniawardhani, V, Adhiperdana, B.G, Nurdradjat. 2013. Late
Miocene Planktic Foraminifera Biostratigraphy of Central Bogor
Through, Indonesia, Pustaka Ilmiah Universitas Padjadjaran,
http://pustaka.unpad.ac.id/archives/ 126510
(9)
Isnaniawardhani, Vijaya, Rusman, Rinawan and Prianggoro,
Bambang. 2012. The fossil assemblage features of limestone and
clastic sedimentary rock in Lulut Area, Cileungsi District, Bogor,
West Java, Bulleton of Scientific Contribution Volume 10,
Nomor 2, Agustus 2012
(10)
Isnaniawardhani, Vijaya, Suparka, Emmy, and Adisaputra,
Mimin K. 2013. Miocene Calcareous Nannofossil Biostratigraphy
of East Java, Indonesia, Procceding of the 9th International
Congress on Pasific Neogene Stratigraphy, Tsukuba, Japan
(11)
Martini, E. 1971. Standard Tertiary and Quaternary Calcareous
Nannoplankton Zonation, Proceedings of the II Planktonic
Conference, Roma, 1970, A. Farinacci, ed., Ediziioni
Tecnoscienza, Rome, p. 739-785
(12)
Okada, H and Bukry, D. 1980. Supplementary Modification and
Introduction of Code Numbers to the Low Latitude Coccolith
Biostratigraphic Zonation (Bukry, 1973; 1975), Marine
Micropaleontologi volume 5, pp. 321-325
(13)
Perch-Nielsen. 1986. Cenozoic Calcareous Nannofossils, in Bolli
Palnkton Stratigraphy, H.M., Saunders, J.B., and Perch Nielsen,
K. (Eds.) Plankton Stratigraphy, Cambridge University Press, p.
427-554
(14)
Postuma, J.A. 1971. Manual of Planktonic Foraminifera, Elsevier
Publishing Company, Amsterdam, London, New York, 398 p.
(15)
Rahardjo, AT, Polhaupessy. AA, Wiyono Sugeng,
Nugrahaningsih, Lelono, Eko. B. 1994. Zonasi Polen Tersier
Pulau Jawa, Makalah Ikatan Ahli Geologi Indonesia, Pertemuan
Ilmiah Tahunan ke 23.
(16)
Sissingh, W. 1977. Biostratigraphy of Cretaceous Nannoplankton,
Geologie en Mijnbouw, volume. 56. The Royal Netherlands
Geological and Mining Society, p. 37-65
(17)
Toumarkine, Monique, and Luterbacher, Hanspeter. 1986.
Paleocene and Eocene planktic foraminifera, in Plankton
Stratigraphy Bolli, H.M., Saunders, J.B., and Perch Nielsen, K.
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(Eds.), Cambridge University Press, p. 87 - 154
(18)
van Gorsel, J.T. 1988. Biostratigraphy in Indonesia: Methods,
Pitfalls and New Directions, Proc. Indonesian Petroleum
Association, Seventeenth Annual Convention.
(19)
Young, J.R. 1996. Neogene, in Bown, Paul, R, Calcareous
Nannofossils Biostratigraphy, Kluwer Academic Publisher, p. 225
– 315.
151
TOPIC 6
CORRELATION
AND STRATIGRAPHIC MARKER
6.1. Introduction
In spite of the fact that the concept of correlation goes back to the
152
early history of stratigraphy, disagreement has persisted over the exact
meaning of the term, Historically, two points of view have prevailed.
One view rigidly restricts the meaning of correlation to demonstration
of time equivalency, that is, to demonstration that two bodies of rock
were deposited during the same period of time (Dunbar and Rodgers,
1957; Rodgers, 1959). From this point view, establishing the
equivalence of two lithostratigraphic units on the basis of lithologic
similarity does not constitute correlation (1).
A boarder interpretation of correlation allows that equivalency
may be expresses in lithologic, paleontologic and chronologic terms
(Krumbein and Sloss, 1963). In other words, two bodies of rock can be
correlated as belongin to the same lithostratigraphic and
biostratigraphic unit even though these units may be of different ages. It
is clear, from a pragmatic point of view, that most geologists today
accept the boarder view of correlation. Petroleoum geologists, for
example, routinely correlate subsurface formations on the basis of
lithology of the formations, the specific signature recorded within
formations by instrumental well logs, or the reflection characteristics on
seismic record (1).
153
defined by criteria used to establish lithologic correlation.
Because of this fact, different methods of correlation
(lithocorrelation, biocorrelation, chronocorrelation) may yield
different results when applied to the same stratigraphic succession
(1)
.
Another point that requires some clarification is the difference
between matching of stratigraphic units and correlation of these units.
Matching has been defined simply as correspondence of serial data
without regard to stratigraphic units (Schwarzacher, 1975; Shaw, 1982).
For example, two rock units identified in stratigraphic sections at
different localities as having essentially identical lithology (a.g. two
black shales) can be matched on the basis of lithology, however, these
units may have neither time equivalence nor lithostratigraphic
equivalence. Physical tracing of the units between the localities may
show that one unit lies stratigraphically above the other. Matching by
lithologic characteristics in this particular case does not constitute
demonstration of equivalence. Shaw (1982) states that the process of
correlation is the demonstration of geometric relationship between
rocks, fossils, or succession of geologic data for interpretation and
inclusion in facies models, paleontologic reconstruction, or structural
models. The object of correlation is to establish equivalency of
stratigraphic units between geographically separated parts of a geologic
unit. Implicit in this definition is the concept that correlation is made
between stratigraphic units, that is, lithostratigraphic units,
biostratigraphic units, or chronostratigraphic units (1).
Correlation can be regarded as either direct (formal) or indirect
(informal) (Shaw, 1982). Direct correlation can be esrablish physically
and unequivocally. Physical tracing of continuous stratigraphic units is
the only unequivocal method of showing correspondence of a lithic unit
in one locality to that in another. Indirect correlation can be established
by numerous methods, such as visual comparison of instrumental well
logs, polarity reversal records, or fossil assemblages, however, such
comparison have different degrees of reliability and can never be totally
unequivocal (1).
6.4. Lithocorrelation
154
establish the equivalence of such a unit without doubt. This
correlation method can be applied only where strata are
continuously or nearly continuously exposed.(1)
2. Lithologic similarity and stratigraphic position.
a) Lithologic similarity
Geologist working in areas where direct lateral tracing of
bed is not possible must depend for correlation of
lithostratigraphic units upon methods that match strata from
one area to another on the basis of lithologic similarity and
stratigraphic position, Because matching of strata does not
necessarily indicate correlation, correlation by lithologic
similarity has varying degrees of reliability. The success of
such correlation depends upon the distinctiveness of the
lithologic attributes used for correlation, the nature of the
stratigraphic succession and the presence or absence of
lithologic changes from one area to another. Facies changes
that take place in lithostratigraphic units between two areas
under study obviously complicated the problem of lithologic
correlation. (1)
Lithologic similarity can be established on the basis of a
variety of rock properties. These properties include gross
lithology (e.g. sandstone, shale or limestone), color, heavy
mineral assemblages or other distinctive mineral
assemblages, primarily sedimentary structures such as
bedding and cross-lamination, and even thickness and
weathering characteristics. (1)
b) Stratigraphic position in a succession
Another way in which position in a stratigraphic succession
is important has to do with establishing correlation of strata
by relation to some highly distinctive and easily correlated
unit or units. Such distinctive beds serve as control units for
correlation of other strata above and bellow. (1)
3. Correlation by instrumental well logs
Well logs are simply curves sketched on paper charts that are
produced from data obtained from measurements in well bores.
These traces record variation in such rock properties as
electrical resistivity, transmissibility of sound waves, or
adsorption and emission of nuclear radiation in the rocks
surrounding a borehole. These variations are a reflection of
155
changes in features, such as gross lithology, mineralogy, fluid
content, and porosity in the subsurface formations. Thus
correlation by use of well log is not based totally on lithology.
Nonetheles, most of the rock properties measured by well logs
are closely related to lithology. (1).
LITHOCORRELATION
WELL-1 WELL-2
mudstone
mudstone
sandstone
limestone
limestone
breccia
breccia
shale
156
CARBONATE DOMINATED,
SHALES INTERCALATION
SHALLOW
MARINE
USED FOR
SEISMIC TIE
CORE
Lithocorrelation
6.5. Biocorrelation
157
BIOCORRELATION
WELL-1 WELL-2
Sandstone
Conglomerate Fossil
Fossis assemblage
assmblage A Aump. fosil A
Mudstone
Fossil
Sandstone assemblage B
Fossil
assemblage B
Shale
Fossil
Shale Fossil assemblage C
assemblage C
Limestone
Shale
Fossil
Fossil
assemblage D
assemblage D
159
strata deposited during relatively short periods of time, they
do not necessarily yielded precise time-stratigraphic
correlations. Organism may migrate laterally and appear in
other areas at somewhat later times than their true first
appearance or they may migrate out of a local area before
their final extinction elsewhere. These variables of behavior
make a boundaries between interval zones inherently
„fuzzy”. The exact boundary between biozones can never be
known because such boundaries are determinated
empirically. Additional collecting in a new data always
holds the possibility of extending the known range of
previously defined species or taxa, because they may have
appeared earlier or persisted longer in the new area than in
the originally defined areas. One way to minimize the
problem of fuzzy zonal boundaries is to treat range data
statistically, utilizing the first and last appearances of all the
species present in a stratigraphic section rather than the
ranges of just one or two species. Shawn (1964) was the first
to propose a graphical method for establishing time
equivalence of strata in two stratigraphic sections by plotting
first and last appearances of all the species in one section
against the frst and last appearances of the same species in
another section. This method is now widely used by
stratigraphers for detailed time-stratigraphic correlation
between stratigraphic sections, particularly local sections.
5. Correlation by biogeographical abundance biozones
This approach is correlation based on the maximum abundance of
a taxon that result from geographical shifts of an environmentally
sensitive fossil assemblage (Haq and Worsley, 1962). Owing to
latitudinally related temperature differences in the ocean, some
species or other taxa are restricted to biogeographic provinces that
are defined by latitude. Thus, low latitude taxa are ecologically
excluded from high latitudes, and vice viersa; however, changes
in climate can allow shifts of these taxa into a different
biogeographic province. During major glacial stages, for example,
high-latitude taxa can expand into lower-latitudes, and during
warning trends between major glacial stages low-latitude taxa can
expand into higher latitudes. From a geochronological point of
view, the spreading out of certain planktonic species in response
160
to major climatic fluctuations is essentially isochronous.
Climate-related shifts in planktonic taxa at specific times thus provides
biogeographical abundance events that can be correlated from one area
to another.
A related approach is time-stratigraphic correlation based on the
coiling ratios of planktonic foraminifera, as described by Eicher (1976).
The multi-chambered shells of some foraminifera are known to coil in
one direction when the species lives in areas of warm water and in
opposite direction when it lives in areas of cold water. The foraminifer
Globorotalia truncatulinoides, for example, has dominantly right-
handed coils in warm water and left-handled coils in cold water (1).
6.6. Chronocorrelation
163
CHRONOCORRELATION
Well-1 Well-2
Limestone
Late Miocene Limestone
Late Miocene
Sandstone
Shale
Shale
Middle Miocene Sandstone
Siltstone
Early Miocene Tuffaceous
sandsstone
Breccia Early Miocene
164
6.7. Key bed or marker bed
165
Top Miocene Tf3
Top Miocene Tf3
Top Oligocene Te 4
References
(1)
Boggs, Sam, JR, 2006, Principles of Sedimentology and
Stratigraphy, Fourth Edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey
07458.
166
TOPIC 7
PALEOENVIRONMENT AND
BIOFACIES
168
Table 7.1. Deltaic environment classification based on vegetation
(Morley, 1977), Allen and Chambers (1998)
170
swamp, which may be proximal to the beach and perhaps locally
inundated at high water.
7.2.2. Intertidal, freshwater
1. Foraminifera:
Generally barren of foraminifera. Freshwater ostracods may be
recorded.
2. Palynomorph:
An abundance of freshwater palynomorphs, generally miospores,
including common-abundant occurences of the arboreal species
Pandaniidites spp. Barringtonia, Marginipollis concinnu, and
fluvial fringe vegetations characterize tidal freshwater zone (the
tidal part of river systems not affected by brackish water
influence)(7).
1. Foraminifera:
Microfauna is generally absent or poorly developed in this
depositional setting. If present, the assemblage is characterised
by low abundance and low diversity and is typified by the
arenaceous forms Haplophragmoides spp., Trochammina spp.
and Miliammina spp.
2. Palynomorph:
Palynomorph assemblages that characterise the intertidal, upper
estuarine include brackish water backmangrove elements such as
the Nipa palm Spinizonocolpites echinatus, Florschuetzia
trilobata and Discoidites borneensis (Brownlowia type - modern
botanical garden), along with possibly rare brackish water/marine
dinocysts and/or microforaminiferal test linings.
Mangrove and backmangrove vegetation is usually a fringe
type vegetation within the lower delta plain along river/estuary
systems and low energy coastlines where there is brackish water
tidal influence. The mangrove vegetation is generally more
tolerant to increased salinity than the backmangrove vegetation.
The latter consequently develops behind the mangrove or further
upstream where salinities are lower.
171
The intertidal, upper estuarine setting is often represented
by a relatively continuous belt of Nipa as the fringe vegetation.
Palynomorph assemblages from this environment may be
strongly affected by freshwater influence from further upstream
and possibly by more brackish water/marine influence from
further downstream.
1. Foraminifera:
Within a lower estuarine setting microfaunal abundance and
diversity generally increases, although barren sediments are
frequently recorded from this setting. If present, the assemblage
is, relative to the upper estuarine, of higher abundance and
diversity, with arenaceous forms such as Haplophragmoides spp.,
Trochammina spp., Miliammina spp. and Ammobaculites spp.,
together with small specimens of unkeeled Elphidium spp. and
Ammonia spp. (calcareous benthic taxa) present.
2. Palynomorph:
Palynological studies are of major importance in assessing this
environment (1).
Palynomorph associations from the intertidal, lower
estuarine are usually characterised by an abundance of the
mangrove forms Zonocostites ramonae (Rhizophora spp. -
modern botanical name) and Florschuetzia levipoli (Sonneratia
caseolaris), along with an increased diversity of brackish
water/marine dinocysts and/or microforaminiferal test linings. As
mentioned in the discussion on the upper estuarine.
Mangrove vegetation forms a fringe vegetation along the
most seaward part of river systems/estuaries and along low
energy coastlines in front of the backmangrove vegetation.
Palynomorph assemblages from this setting may be strongly
affected by freshwater influence from further upstream and to a
lesser extent from more marine influence offshore (7).
172
7.2.5. Marginal marine (intertidal zone), littoral
Intertidal, littoral microfaunal assemblages will lack the brackish
water elements observed in the estuarine setting and palynologically,
assemblages are probably poor/barren due to the winnowing effect in
what is probably an arenaceous beach deposit.
1. In sandy beaches, the microfauna inhabiting this environment is
little diagnostic. This species diversity is low, and planktic, larger
foraminigera and attached calcareous benthic forms are absent.
As most high energy sandy beached face open sea, salinities are
generally normal. Characteristic species are: Quinqueloculina sp.
Milliolinella sp., Ammonia beccarii, and Ephidium spp. Fossil
sandy beaches can be recognized by poorly preserved abraded
specimens. However, due to continuous transport of the tests after
death many small or thin-shelled specimens may be destroyed,
and foraminifera are sometimes completely absent from an
exposed beach sand. A futher complication in determining an
ancient sandy beach is, that many alochonous forms may have
been washed in.
2. In marshes and mangrove swamps.
Tidal marshes can be subdivided into three groups according to
salinity:
a. Hyposaline marshes
b. Normal marine marshes
c. Hypersaline marshes
(a and b are difficult to distinguish) (1).
Foraminifera diversity is highest in hyposaline marshes, although
the general diversity is low. The hyposaline marshes are
characterized by the predominance of arenaceous species
(Miliammina sp., Ammotiurn sp. Trochhammina inflata) and
rotaloids (Elphidium spp.) and absence of miliolids (1).
Normal marine marshes are inhabited by dominantly arenaceous
species with minor miliolids (Quinqueloculina) and rotalids
(Elphidium spp., Ammonia beccarii) (1).
In hypersaline marshes the percentage of arenaceous species,
miliolids and rotalids is about equal. Typical cosmopolitan marsh
species are: Ammofium salsum, Areno parrella mexicana,
Miliammina fusca, Trochammina macrescens and T. polystoma
(1)
.
173
Interpreting an ancient marsh environment may be difficult. Due
to reducing conditions calcareous tests are easily destroyed after
death. After complete solution of calcareous species, it is
impossible to distinguish between the various marsh
environments. Only the low. diversity and an assemblage
consisting of small arenaceous species such as Trochammina sp.,
Haplophragmoides sp., Ammobaculifes sp. points to a marsh
origin. If Miliammina sp. is present in this assemblage, a
hyposaline lagoon could also be indicated (1).
The lithology of a marsh deposit consists of dark grey highly
organic clay and silt, containing abundant roots and other in
determining an ancient plant debris. This can often help marsh
deposit. Pyrite is common, due to the reducing conditions (1).
Faunal distribution in a mangrove swamp is similar to that of
marshes. Typical taxa in a Southeast Asian mangrove are as
follows: Haplophragmoides salsun, Haplophragmoides wilberfi,
Miliammina pariaensis, Arenoparella mexicana and
Trochammina laevigata (1).
3. Tidal flats
Tidal flats develop along gently dipping seacoasts, with marked
tidal rhythms, where enough sediment is available and strong
wave action is not present. This may be the case in estuaries,
lagoons, bays, or behind barrier islands or other sand bars (1).
Characteristic foraminifers inhabiting this environment are:
Ammonia beccarii, Elphidiun spp.and Quinqueloculina sp. (1).
Rotalids predominate in tidal flat assemblages, miliolids are rare
to absent, and arenaceous species not common. (1).
4. Estuaries
An estuary is the wide mouth of a river or arm of.the sea where
the tide meets the river currents, or flows and ebbs (1).
Estuaries are hyposaline in character, and can be subdivided into
an upper part, subject to the greatest freshwater influence and a
lower part connected with the sea. This differences in salinity is
reflectedin the faunas of both parts:
upper estuary: Miliammina sp, Ammobaculites sp.
lower estuary: Miliammina sp., Ammobaculites sp., Ammonia
beccarii and Elphidium spp. (1).
5. Lagoon
174
A lagoon is a shallow or sheet of water, connected with the sea or
a river. Coastal lagoons are water bodies, running parallel to the
coast, and connected to the sea with an outlet. They are separated
from the sea by sand bars or barrier islands (1).
Based on the amount of seawater entering through the inlet, and
the amount of freshwater contributed by river, the following
subdivision of lagoons can be made:
a. hyposaline : freshwater seawater
b. normal marine lagoons
c. hypersaline : no freshwater comes into the lagoons (1).
A characteristic feature of modern lagoons is their low
foraminiferal species-diversity. The relatively highest diversity is
found in normal marine lagoons. Despite the fact that literature on
lagoonal assemblages is scarce, the following genera to some
extent may characterise the three types:
a. Hyposaline: Genus Ammotium, Millammina fusca,
Ammonia beccarii, Elphidium, and Protelphidium.
b. Normal marine: Genus Quinqueloculina, Triloculina,
Miliolinella, Peneroptids, Glabratella, Ammonia beccarii,
Elphidium, and Protelphidium.
c. Hypersaline: Genus Quinqueloculina, Triloculina,
Miliolinella, Peneroptids, Glabratella, Ammonia beccarii
and Elphidium (1).
6. Deltas
With respect to foraminiferal assemblages deltas require special
comments since in these environments certain species behave
abnormally,especially within the prodelta region. Three major
environmental systems can be distinguished within a delta as
follows:
The delta plain consists of an intertidal or supratidal covered with
Nipah and mangrove vegetation. Palynological studies are most
useful in assessing delta top environments.
The delta front consists of an intertidal to shallow subtidal
platform fringing the delta plain. The inner zone of the delta front
consists of extensive tidal flats.
The prodelta consists of the smooth, steep slope seaward of the
edge of the delta front platform, marked by an abrupt slope break
at the 5 meter isobath. The outer limit of the prodelta appears to
coincide with the 60-70 m, isobaths (1).
175
It is important to mention the "delta effect" (e.g. Pflum and
Frerichs, 1976), that is,a variable upper depth limit of certain
species. They call these species heterobathyal species, as opposed
to isobathyal species (which have a more or less consistant upper
depth limit). It is possible to distinguish delta elevated and delta
depressed species. Delta elevated species are species with a
shallower upper depth limit in the delta area. (For instance
Sigmoilopsis schlwnbergeri and Martinotiella occidentalis). Delta
depressed species have a lower upper depth limit in a delta area.
Examples are Pullenia quinqueloba, Melonls barleeanus,
Hoglundina elegans and Bulimina aculeata. However care must
be taken in applying these data to ancient environments (1).
Salinity (or salinity fluctuations) is the dominant control on
distribution in this zone (Table 7-2). Remarkably, very similar
assemblages are found worldwide. The lowest salinity
assemblages consist of small arenaceous forams only
(Trochammina, Haplophragmoides, Miliammina) and are found
in environments like intertidal mangrove swamps and mud flats,
upper estuary, lagoons or bays. In higher, but variable salinity
waters (bay, lower estuary, mud flat, delta front) assemblages of
mixed small arenaceous (as above plus Ammobaculites or
Ammotium) and small calcareous forams (Elphidium, unkeeled
Ammonia) are found (6).
176
Table 7.2. Dominant foraminifera in shallow marine facies as a
function of salinity and substrate (6).
177
d) Calcareous foraminiferal test become smaller and thinner near
sources of fresh water. In carbonate rich environments, tests may
reach a larger size and be very robust.
e) The percentage occurrence of the most common species in a
foraminiferal population relates the variability the environment.
As marginal marine conditions are approached, environmental
parameters become more pronounced resulting the tendency
towards single species dominance in the most unfavourable
environments.
f) Planktic forms occur most abundantly within the outer shelf and
deeper water. Under ideal sedimentation conditions, especially in
clastic deposit, planktic foraminifera can show more or less
regular increase in abundance with depth.
g) Arenaceous taxa with labyrinthic wall structures occur most
abundantly in bathyal or deeper water. In sediments deposited
bellow the calcium carbonate comprnsition depth (CCD) these
forms may become dominant since the calcareous shells of other
foraminifera are dissolved (1).
178
However, it is extremely dangerous to rely on the planktic
percentage alone. In a case of 90% planktics for instance, it is important
to determine how many planktic species are present, if there are only a
few, the environment may be quite shallow. It is also important to note
size sorting (1).
Inner neritic (= inner shelf, shallow inner sublittoral) has its lower
boundary at the base of the turbulent zone. Within this depth range
many subenvironments can be recognised, depending on wave energy,
substratum etc., and hence many different populations can be found.
1. Foraminifera:
Characteristic for inner shelf environments is the low species
diversity, with one or two species dominating the faunas. Planktic
foraminifers may occur in frequencies of 0-20%. Larger
foraminifera such as Operculina and Amphistegina may be locally
abundant, other forms may be abundant only in carbonate
sediments (1).
Within inner neritic settings the microfauna is generally
moderately to well developed, although depending on conditions
at the substrate-water contact, poorly developed assemblages or
barren sediments may occur (1).
The assemblages are generally composed of calcareous benthic
forms including, under favourable conditions, larger foraminifera.
The genera typifying the inner neritic setting include Ammonia,
Pararotalia, Asterorotalia, Nonion, Elphidium, Cibicides,
Quinqueloculina and the larger forms Operculina, Heterostegina,
Calcarina, Marginopora and Baculogypsina. Only rarely are
planktonic forms recorded (1).
Nearshore environments with normal marine salinity have low
diversity assemblages, with 2 or 3 species making up more than
90% of the fauna. Species present depend mainly on the type of
substrate (or the associated water turbidity; Table 7.2). On muddy
substrates we find predominantly Pseudorotalia, Ammonia and
Nonion assemblages, on silty-sandy substrates Operculina-
Elphidium, on rocky, high-energy substrates Baculogypsina and
species with an encrusting or attached mode of life, and on
carbonate substrates (reef flat, shallow lagoon) Calcarina and
large miliolids (Marginopora and Peneroplis) (6).
In Miocene and older shallow marine carbonates or mixed
calcareous-clastic systems larger foram assemblages are useful
179
for facies interpretation (Figure 7.3). Hallock and Glenn (1986)
summarized data on the distribution of Recent larger foraminifera
assemblages (which are poorer in species than Early Miocene or
Eocene assemblages). Restricted platform facies assemblages are
dominated by large peneroplids and soritids (Marginopora). On
platform edges Baculogypsina, Calcarina and robust
Aniphistegina are common. Shallow foreslopes may have
common Amphistegina fessonii and alveolinids, deep foreslope
and open shelf areas within the euphotic zone are characterized by
flat, discoidal species of Amphistegina, Heterostegina and
Cycloclypeus. Similar facies distribution models can be made for
older periods, although many taxa common in the older Tertiary
are now extinct. In the Late Oligocene - Early Miocene, for
instance, the shallowest assemblages are dominated by
miogypsinids. Going deeper, dominant forms are Lepidocyclina
and Spiroclypeus, and near the base of the photic zone
Cycloclypeus dominates the assemblages (Chaproniere 1975 and
Figure 7.3). In sheltered back-reef or lagoonal settings complex
miliolids like Austrotrillina and alveolinids (Borelis,
Flosculinelfa) dominate. In our experience ”back-reef” facies are
rare in Miocene carbonatesof Indonesia. In the Eocene Alveolina-
Orbitolites assemblages signify restricted, lagoonal conditions.
Thick Nummulites are found near high-energy platform margins
or shallow marine shoals. In deeper foreslope environments flat
Nummulites, Spiroclypeus and Discocyclina are the dominant taxa
(6)
.
180
Figure 7.3. Models of Cenozoic larger foraminifera distribution in
carbonate fasies (6).
181
The following taxa are typical of inner shelf environments. It
must be stressed that this is not a complete list and that the taxa
indicated are not restricted to this environment in South Asia:
Planorbulinella sp., Chrysalidinella limbatum, Massilina sp.,
Asterorotatia spp., Cibicides tobatulus, Cymbaloporetta
squamosal, Pseudorotatia spp., Baculogypsina sphaerulata,
Cellanthus craticulatus, Amphistegina lessonii, Loxostom
limbatum, Ammonia spp. and Elphidium spp.
2. Nannofossil:
Sediments from the inner neritic zone often yield nannofossils of
low abundance and low diversity, with robust forms such as the
Sphenolithus and Cyclicargolithus groups dominating the
assemblage.
3. Palynomorph:
Apart from marine microplankton such as dinocysts and
microforaminiferal test linings, palynomorph assemblages are
entirely transported from brackish water and freshwater settings
onshore. Consequently, palynomorph assemblages usually
comprise a high diversity of forms orginating from various
coastal, estuarine and freshwater settings, associated with a
relatively diverse assemblage of marine microplankton. The
kerogen fraction may also include commonly occurring humic
vitrinite derived from a strong terrestrial input.
1. Foraminifera:
Planktonic foraminifera are an important constituent of deeper
marine microfaunas. The percentage of planktonics in a foram
assemblage increases with water depth, from about 20% in middle
sublittoral (30-100m), 40-80‟70 in outer sublittoral (100-200m) to
90% or more in bathyal (deeper than 200m) environments.
However, there is a rather large variability in these numbers in
different areas, depending on nutrient distribution, circulation
patterns, etc. (6).
Middle neritic setting is typified by well-developed microfaunal
assemblages of moderate to high diversity. The assemblages
consist of both planktonic and calcareous benthic forms although
the former are generally of reduced abundance. Benthic taxa
182
typifying the middle neritic are amongst others Uvigerina,
Bolivina, Lenticulina and Bulimina, in addition to the inner neritic
assemblage.
The middle shelf can be subdivided in two parts: shallow middle
shelf (20-50m), the lower boundary of this zone is the base of the
photic zone and the storm wave base; and deep middle shelf (50-
100m), the lower boundary of this zone is the base of the seasonal
temperature changes (1).
In shallow middle shelf, the diversity of species increases here.
Larger foraminifera1 species (Operculina spp. and Amphistegina
spp. particularly A. quoyi are common to abundant locally, and
the same calcareous benthic assemblage of the inner shelf is
present, but their tests are generally more robust. Planktonic
foraminifers can make up 20-30% of the total assemblages, but
their diversity is low, and restricted to forms such as
Globigerinoides spp. and Globigerina bulloides (1).
In deep middle shelf, rich assemblages are generally present in
this environment. 'The typical inhabitants of the inner and shallow
middle shelf are still present, but they are rare (Operculina spp.,
Amphistegina spp., Elphidum spp., Pseudorotalia spp.).
Planktonic foraminifers can make up to 40-50% of the total
assemblages (1).
Typical middle shelf taxa in Southeast Asia are as follows:
Operculina spp., Baggina inflata, Amphistegina spp. (A.
bicirculata and A. papillosa), Bigenerina nodosaria, Bolivina
spp., Praeglobobulimina pupoides, Florilus spp., Siphonina
pulchra, Anomalinella, Cancris auriculus, Cassidulina laevigata,
Nodosaria spp., Cassidulina oblonga, Uvigerina spp., Heterolepa
praecinctus, Loxostomum spp., Dentalina spp. and Lenticulina
spp., with 20-40% planktonic foraminifers + 10 s pecies (1).
2. Nannofossil:
Nannofossil associations from middle neritic settings are
generally characterised by moderate abundance and diversity.
Genera which are often common and dominate the assemblage
include Discoaster, Thoracosphaera and Sphenolithus. Genera
such as Helicosphaera and Calcidiscus may also be rare to
common in occurrence.
3. Palynomorph:
183
Palynomorph assemblages from middle neritic environments
often show an increase in the proportion of marine microplankton,
particularly dinocysts such as the Spiniferites ramosus group,
which when occurring commonly to abundantly, indicate open
marine conditions. A relative decline in the proportion of
terrestrially derived miospores (often to qualitative counts) is
usually related to the distal location of the site of deposition from
the land source. Unless there is strong terrestrial input into deep
waters, miospore assemblages are generally poor and taxa noted
may often be preferentially transported. Certain specimens like
spores and gymnosperms are particularly robust and/or buoyant
grains and tend to be concentrated in offshore regions where there
is minimal terrestrial influence. Where terrestrial influence is
low, the amount of amorphous organic material tends to increase
relating to a greater pelagic influx.
1. Foraminifera:
Outer neritic foraminiferal assemblages are usually abundant and
diverse, with often a predominance of planktonic forms. The
benthics include both calcareous and arenaceous forms, with
prevalence of the former. Larger foraminifera are rare and in
deeper outer neritic settings absent. Typical outer neritic
microfaunas comprise anomalinids, buliminids, e.g. Uvigerina,
Bulimina, Bolivina/Brizalina and a variety of other forms
including nodosariids. The rotaliids which characterise the inner
to middle neritic environments are strongly reduced.
Diversity of benthic foram assemblages increases with depth to
maximum values in the outer sublittoral-upper bathyal realm (up
to one hundred species or more) and decreases again at greater
depths. Species composition also changes with depth. Common
forms in the middle neritic zone are Cibicides praecinctus,
Lenticulina and small Bolivina. and in the outer sublittoral zone
Uvigerina, Bolivina, Lenticulina, Bulimina, Cassidulina,
Siphonina, etc. (6).
The lower boundary of this zone is the shelf edge. The species
diversity in this environment is high. Planktonic foraminifera
make up to 40-80% of the total assemblages and their diversity is
184
high (moreless 20 species in recent samples). Larger foraiainifera
are absent. Most of the calcareous benthic species of the deep
middle shelf are present (1).
Typical taxa of the outer shelf are as follows: Gyroidina acuta,
Pullenia quinquezoba, Gyroidina soldanii, Uvigerina
soendaensis, Hoglundina elegans, Bulimina striata, Cassidulina
spp., Bulimina marginata, Fursenkoina spp. and Sphaeroidina
bulloides (1).
2. Nannofossil:
Nannofossils are abundant and of moderate to high diversity.
Groups such as Discoaster, Helicosphaera, small Dictyococcites/
Reticulofenestra spp., and Sphenolithus spp. are abundant and
dominate the assemblages.
3. Palynomorph:
Assemblages from outer neritic water depths may show a further
increase in the proportion of marine microplankton. However,
this is largely dependent upon factors such as distance from land
and terrestrial influence rather than actual waterdepth. In general,
the assemblages are similar to those documented for the middle
neritic, with preferentially transported miospores (spores and
gymnosperms) characterising the terrestrially-derived component,
and the open marine dinocyst S. ramosus group often proving the
most significant element within the in situ marine component.
Associated kerogen may be rich in amorphous organic material
although this is also largely dependent upon the degree of
terrestrial influence.
1. Foraminifera:
Upper bathyal foraminiferal microfaunas are characterised by
well-developed planktonic and benthic assemblages of high
diversity. Planktonics usually outnumber the benthics. Larger
foraminifera are absent unless displaced from neritic
environments. Among the calcareous benthics, the Buliminida
(e.g. Uvigerina, Bulimina, Bolivina, Brizalina) are often
particularly frequent due to their tolerance to oxygen deficiency.
Other characteristic calcareous benthics are, among others,
Globocassidulina, Gyroidina, Melonis, Oridorsalis and various
185
anomalinids. Arenaceous foraminifera may occasionally be
frequent. In upper bathyal environments, downslope transport of
shallower water biota is a common feature; this may make it
difficult to differentiate between middle to outer neritic and upper
bathyal palaeoenvironments.
In the upper bathyal zone (200-1000 m) many of the above genera
are still found, but Sphaeroidina, Gyroidina, Pullenia,
Globocassidulina and robust arenaceous species (Cyclammina)
are also common. In the lower bathyal zone (1000 – 4000 m)
Planulina wuellerstorfi, Oridorsalis umbonatus, Laticarinina,
Melonis pompiliodes, Sigmoilopsis and Karreriella are the most
typical taxa. In the deepest oceanic environments (abyssal), below
the Carbonate Compensation Depth (CCD), calcareous
microfossils are dissolved and large arenaceous foraminifera are
the only microfossils present (”flysch-faunas‟ ‟ with Bathysiphon,
Ammodiscus, etc.). Samples just above the CCD tend to have
many fragmented, partly dissolved calcareous microfossils (6).
Other criteria that may be used for depth interpretation are
changes in size of various genera and changes in ornamentation
with depth in Uvigerina (Pflum and Frerichs 1976). The main
controls on benthic foram distribution is probably not depth itself,
but depth-associated changes in water mass characteristics,
primarily temperature and salinity. Since these vary from area to
area and may change with climate fluctuations, real ”isobathyal
species” (species with the same upper depth limit worldwide;
Bandy and Chierichi 1966) are rare or non-existent. Other
significant factors controlling distribution are substrate (grain
size, organic matter content, sedimentation rate) and oxygen
content of the sea water. Low diversity deep water faunas
dominated by either Bolivina, Globobulimina, Chilostomella
and/or Uvigerina tend to be associated with sediments with
relatively high organic carbon content and coincide with areas of
low oxygen bottom waters (Poag 1981, Miller and Lohmann
1982). Off California Bolivina from areas with low oxygen waters
are larger and flatter than those from more oxygenated areas
(Douglas 1979). In the late 1930‟s Stanvac paleontologists
MacGillavry and Thalmann noted the difference between
Miocene ”Java faunas” (mainly marly sediments rich in genera
like Nodosaria, Lenticulina, Gyroidina, Melonis, Planulina and
186
Pullenia) and the ”Sumatra faunas” from the dark gray Telisa
(Gumai) clays, in which the above genera are absent or rare, but
contain rich Bolivina, Uvigerina and Bulimina. They are all deep
water faunas, but the Sumatra assemblages either reflect
deposition in a relatively low oxygen environment, in restricted
back-arc basins behind the Proto-Barisan island chain, while the
Java faunas reflect well-oxygenated open ocean environments, or
they reflect higher deltaic mud influx (many of the Java species
are comparable to ”delta-depressed” species with limited
distribution off deltas, or a combination of both (6).
On most shelves the inclination of the seafloor increases at about
180-200m depth, and this corresponds with the continental slope.
In the deeper waters below 200m conditions are very stable as
compared to shallower environments. No major changes in
temperature and salinity occur. Because of these stable conditions
many of the species living in these environments will be
cosmopolitan. However, with increasing depth, the solubility of
calcium carbonate will increase. The critical depth is called the
calcium carbonate compensation depth, which lies in modern
oceans between 4000-5500 m. Below this depth calcareous tests
will be dissolved. In general, we will find with increasing depth a
decrease of calcareous benthic species, and an increase in
arenaceous species. An interesting factor is that the size of many
deep water benthic forms shows increase with depth. Many taxa
here have very specific depth limits and are termed isobathyal
species. These are particularly helpful in determining
environments (1).
In upper slope (upper bathyal) 200m-1000m water depths, species
diversity and abundance is usually very high in this environment.
The planktonic percentage increases to 50-95%. Robust
arenaceous species such as Martinotiella comminis, Karreriella
sp., Tritaxilina sp., Dorothia and Haplophragmoides sp. occur
frequently. Typical upper slope taxa are as follow: Martinotiella
communis, Sphaeroidina bulloides, Karreriella sp., Tritaxitina
sp., Pullenia bulloides, Uvigerina peregrina, Chilostomella
oolina, Gavelinopsis translucens, and Globocassidulina
subglobosa, with 50-95% planktonics (1).
lsobathyal (-cosmopolitan) species with their highest depth limit
within zone are as follows: Bolivina albatrossi, Bulimina striate
187
mexicana, Chilostomella oozina, Eponides reguza, Gyroidina
altiformis cushmani, Discorbis transluucens, and Uvigerina
peregrina: highest occurrence at 200 m (1).
188
from this depositional setting are dominated by robust and
dissolution resistant forms, such as Coccolithus pelagicus
/eopelagicus, Cyclicargolithus floridanus, Discoaster,
Reticulofenestra/Dictyococcites spp. (large) and Sphenolithus
groups.
3. Palynomorph:
Palynomorph assemblages from upper bathyal environments may
have high frequencies of certain highly buoyant miospores (e.g.
bisaccates), often have an unbalanced mixed composition, or are
impoverished in miospores. Marine microplankton is usually the
most common group of palynomorphs.
190
2. Wall structure (Miliolid-Rotalia-Textularina/Aglutinated Ternary
Diagram).
Although there is some overlap of environments, this type of
analysis is particularly useful for discriminating shallow-water
environments (5).
a) The porcelaneous component exceeds 20% only in normal
marine and hypersaline lagoon and marshes, and is
normally <20% in shelf areas.
b) Agglutinated forms dominate in brackish and abyssal zone
(below CCD) (5).
191
3. Test form (similarity, dominance)
Test form in benthic foraminifera is a compromise between a
complex array selective pressures, but it is true that there is often
a good correlation between form of the test and the environment
in which the foraminifera lives.
a) Hypersaline and brackish environment exhibit a smaller
range of morphological variety (dominated by planispiral,
trochospiral, milliolid and annular test). Uniserial, biserial
and fusiform tests are generally absent in these
environments.
b) Uniserial test generally only occur in low energy zones
associated with shelf, slope, and bathyal environment.
c) Milioline tests are mainly found on the shelf, and rarely
found in slope and deep sea environments.
d) Agglutinated foraminifera can be classified into four
morphogroups and these have a distinctive distribution in
modern environments
Morphogroup A (unilocular, tubular or branching) are
characteristic of the deep sea.
Morphogroup B1 (globular) and B2 (coiled-flattened)
represent only a small percentage in most
assemblages but they are more common in deep
marine environment.
Morphogroup B3 (multilocular,
planispiral/trochospiral, lenticular are particularly
common in shelf and marginal marine environments.
Morphogroup C1 (elongate) is absent in marsh and
lagoon environments, but can dominate shelf and
upper bathyal (to 1000 m).
Morphogroup C2 (elongate quinqueloculine) and D
(trochospiral conical) are characteristic of marshes
and lagoons (1).
192
Figure 7.6. E. huxleyi and others, Gephyrocapsa oceanica and
Florisphera profunda diagrams for depositional environment
interpretation (Okada,1992) (2).
194
Table 7.4. Nannoplankton taxa as bathimetric marker in Madura
Waters (2).
Litoral Neritik Batial
Gephyrocapsa oceanica
Gephyrocapsa spp. > 80% dominan
Gephyrocapsa oceanica > Coccolith > 10%
50% Ditandai oleh kehadiran
Coccolith < 2% Discoaster spp., Pontosphaera
spp., Helicosphaera carteri dan
Calcidiscus leptoporus
References:
(1)
Anwar, Khoiril M. 1999, Panduan Praktikum Foraminifera,
Laboratorium Mikropaleontologi Institut Teknologi Bandung,
tidak dipublikasikan
(2)
Isnaniawardhani, Vijaya. 2006. Biostratigrafi dan Paleoekologi
Cekungan Jawa Timur Utara, Disertasi, Institut Teknologi
Bandung, tidak dipublikasikan
(3)
Isnaniawardhani, V, Adhiperdana, B.G, Nurdradjat. 2013. Late
Miocene Planktic Foraminifera Biostratigraphy of Central Bogor
Through, Indonesia, Pustaka Ilmiah Universitas Padjadjaran,
http://pustaka.unpad.ac.id/archives/126510
(4)
Isnaniawardhani, Vijaya, Rusman, Rinawan and Prianggoro,
Bambang, 2012, The fossil assemblage features of limestone and
clastic sedimentary rock in Lulut Area, Cileungsi District, Bogor,
West Java, Bulleton of Scientific Contribution Volume 10,
Nomor 2, Agustus 2012
(5)
Murray, John. W., 2006, Ecology and Applications of Benthic
Foraminifera, Cambridge University Press
(6)
van Gorsel, J.T. 1988. Biostratigraphy in Indonesia: Methods,
Pitfalls and New Directions, Proc. Indonesian Petroleum
Association, Seventeenth Annual Convention.
195
TOPIC 8
BIOSTRATIGRAPHYC PROBLEMS
In biostratigraphyc study, the errors and inaccuracies can be
caused from the type of samples used, sample spacing, ”geological
mixing” of fossils, laboratory or field contamination, biased picking of
samples by technicians, misidentification of species or insufficient time
spent on looking for marker species. The general error or inaccurate can
be idetified as summaried follows (1).
196
8.3. Observed assemblages being atypical or incomplete
References:
(1)
van Gorsel, J.T. 1988. Biostratigraphy in Indonesia: Methods,
Pitfalls and New Directions, Proc. Indonesian Petroleum
Association, Seventeenth Annual Convention.
198
TOPIC 9
DEVELOPMENTS IN
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC STUDY
200
within which it is contained to a very specific interval of time when the
organism lived. (2)
Fossil taxa used in biochronologic investigations rarely satisfy all
aspects of the ideal index fossil. That is, they often violate one or more
of the following rules: 1), must have a widespread distribution (fossils
tend to be limited to a small region or are found only in a particular
depositional environment as opposed to globally); 2), must show rapid
evolution (fossils change rapidly in preservable morphology so that
distinctive identifiable species are easily recognized); 3), must be
present in substantial numbers (so that fossils can be observed by the
biostratigrapher); and 4), fossils should be robust mineralogically (so
that depositional and diagenetic processes do not remove the fossils
from the rock record). (2)
Most often the best biostratigraphic markers or index fossils are
taxa that live in the open water column either as free-floating plankton
or as actively swimming nekton. Such organisms tend to be rapidly
evolving, widely distributed and widely deposited. In contrast, benthic
organisms which live on or very close to the seabottom, tend to be less
widespread, fewer in numbers, and are typically found only in
particular environments. Nonetheless, nektonic, planktonic, and benthic
forms can be used to establish relative biostratigraphic age zonations. (2)
202
stacks of depositional sequences (genetically related, predictable
successions of lithofacies; commonly shanowing-upward sequences;
deposited in relatively short time periods), separated by sequence
boundaries, representing periods of erosion or non-deposition. Factors
controlling this cyclic deposition are variations in eustatic sea level,
relative rates of basin subsidence, and sediment supply. (1)
In wells or outcrops cyclicity is particularly obvious in deltaic
systems, thin ones being caused by distributary switching, thicker ones
by sea level changes. An example describing the major Eocene to
Recent cycles in Sarawak is Ho Kiam Fui (1978), A sequence is
composed of a predictable 3-dimensional arrangement of facies. Haq,
Hardenbol and Vail (1987) published an idealized 2-dimensional model
of a (clastic) depositional sequence. It is defined as the succession of
sediments deposited during a complete eustatic sea level cycle, from a
sea level fall to subsequent rise and ending with the next fall (Figure
9.1) .(1)
204
that help identify position within a sequence:
a) common reworked shallow marine fauna in deep marine beds are
suggestive of updip erosion and turbidite transport, and thus point
to lowstand fan deposits; - abundant large arenacous forams
(”flysch faunas”) are thought to reflect relatively rapid mud
deposition in a deep marine facies, which most likely occurs in
the lowstand fan or distal lowstand wedge deposits;
b) in the transgressive systems tract most clastics are trapped in
aggradational alluvial and coastal plain deposits. Shorelines
receive relatively little sediment, so these tend to be dominated by
marine processes (waves, tides). Water turbidity is relatively low,
and ”clear water” marine microfaunas like Cellanthus,
Operculina, Amphistegina, larger foraminifera and sea-grass
species like planoconvex Cibicides and Discorbis are most
frequent here. Also glauconite-rich and calcareous beds, including
reefal buildups, are most frequent in transgressive deposits.
c) the highstand systems tract is characterized by relatively rapidly
prograding shorelines. Influence of rivers and deltas is relatively
high, and ”turbid water” marine foraminifera tend to dominate
tend to dominate here (Ammonia, Pseudorotalia in the shallow,
Uvigerina and Bolivina in the deeper parts). Figure 9.2 shows the
idealized distribution of foraminifera in a vertical section through
a Middle Miocene sequence (13.8 to 15.5 million years). (1)
The approximate position of this section in the model is indicated
on Figure 9.1 About 80% of the sequence is composed of the Highstand
systems tract, an overall shallowing-upward package with minor breaks
(parasequences). Evidence for shallowingupward is: coarsening-upward
log pattern, decreasing percentage of planktonic foraminifera, and
benthic foraminifera assemblages changing from upper bathyal species
at base to brackish water species near the top. The Condensed Interval
is around the zone of deepest facies and contains abundant glauconite.
The thin shallow marine and fluvial packages between the condensed
interval and the 15.5 Ma sequence boundary are interpreted as the
Transgressive and Lowstand Wedge systems tracts. The beds below the
15.5 boundary are from the shallowing-upward Highstand systems tract
of an older sequence, which is truncated by erosion at 15.5 Ma. Only
the deep marine parts of the sequence can be dated with planktonic
foraminifera. Species diagnostic of zones N8, N9 and N10 are present.
Using the Exxon cycle chart numerical ages of the sequence boundaries
205
can then be obtained. It should be noted that some aspects of the
example Table 9.1 may not be typical of most real world sections: - all
samples are cores or sidewall cores. Paleontologists usually work with
cuttings, containing cavings that obscure the fossil-poor zones around
the sequence boundaries; - not many sequences show the broad range of
facies from upper bathyal to non-marine. This may be found only in
high subsidence-high sedimentation rate areas.In general narrower
ranges of facies are found. Where bathyal to non-marine facies
transitions do occur theyusually comprise several sequences; - the
relative thickness of the Lowstand, Transgressive and Highstand
systems tract in a well section depends on the position in the basin. In
settings farther basinward than the Table 9.1 example lowstand deposits
would become relatively thick, transgressive beds would be absent, and
highstand deposits would become thin, incomplete shallowing-upward
packages. Further landward the sequence boundary becomes a more
pronounced erosional surface, lowstand deposits are absent (except for
valley-fill sands), and the transgressive beds become relatively thick
(Figure 9.2); - smaller scale sequences (parasequences) may be more
pronounced than in the Table 9.1.
Summarizing, sequence (bio-)stratigraphy attempts to subdivide
sections into genetically related packages, improving correlations and
interpretation of fossil-poor zones, and allowing prediction of lateral
facies changes. In addition to the traditional breakdown of a well
section into zones and environments, ”sequence biostratigraphy”
reports also indicate the position of sequence boundaries, their age in
millions of years, and describe the nature of the sequences. Since most
seismic marker horizons are sequence boundaries or condensed
intervals (”downlap surfaces”), this method facilitates integration of
fossil and rock data with seismic studies, and, in genera1,leads to a
more meaningful stratigraphic framework. Detailed and accurate age
and facies information from micropaleontology is indispensable for
establishing a reliable sequence framework.
206
Figure 9.2. Idealized depositional sequence model (simplified from
Haq, Hardenbol and Vail, 1987.(1)
207
Table 9.1. Typical distribution of foraminifera in a Middle Miocene
depostional sequence (hypothetical well section; for approximate
position in model see Fig 9.2 (1)
References:
(1)
van Gorsel, J.T. 1988. Biostratigraphy in Indonesia: Methods,
Pitfalls and New Directions, Proceedings Indonesian Petroleoum
Association Seventeenth Annual Convention, Indonesia
(2)
http://www.mcz.harvard.edu/Departments/InvertPaleo/Trenton/In
tro/GeologyPage/Sedimentary%20Geology/biostrat.htm)
(3)
http://strats.home.xs4.all.nl/biostrat.htm
208
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