Chapter 6: Attitudes Based on Low Consumer Effort

CHAPTER 6
ATTITUDES BASED ON LOW EFFORT
CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter focuses on the processes by which marketers can change consumers’ attitudes
when MAO is low and hence the effort consumers expend to process information is low. The
chapter first examines unconscious influences on consumers’ attitudes, including thin-slice
judgments and body feedback. The chapter then examines the cognitive bases of attitudes
and how marketing communications can be designed to enhance consumers’ attitudes. When
attitudes of low MAO consumers are based on cognitive processing, the message should
affect their beliefs. These beliefs may be formed by simple inferences, attributions, or rules of
thumb (heuristics).
Marketers can also affect the salience, strength, or favorability of consumers’ beliefs, when
attitudes are based on simple beliefs. Characteristics of the source (source credibility),
characteristics of the message (category- and schema-consistent information, a large number
of message arguments, and simple messages), and characteristics of the context (the extent
of repetition) each influence one or more of the dimensions of beliefs.
According to the mere exposure effect, when MAO is low, consumers’ attitudes toward an
offering become more favorable as they become more familiar with it. Classical conditioning
predicts that consumers’ attitudes toward an offering (the conditioned stimulus, or CS) are
enhanced when it is repeatedly paired with a stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus, or UCS)
that evokes a positive emotional response (the unconditioned response). This effect is most
likely to occur when a CS-UCS link is novel, when the consumer is aware of the link, when the
UCS and CS fit together, and when the CS precedes the UCS. Furthermore, if consumers like
a particular ad (Aad), these feelings may be transferred over to the brand (Ab) (dual-mediation
hypothesis). Additionally, attitudes toward an offering can also be affected by consumers’
mood and their tendency to evaluate the offering in a mood-congruent direction.
Finally, attitudes based on affective processes can be made more favorable when consumers’
MAO and effort are low. Characteristics of the source (attractiveness, likeability, celebrity),
characteristics of the message (pleasant pictures, pleasant music, humor, sex, emotional
content), and characteristics of the context (program or editorial context) can each influence
affectively based attitudes.

CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
1. Outline some issues marketers face in trying to change consumers’ attitudes when
processing effort is low.
2. Explain the role of unconscious influences on attitudes and behavior in low-effort
situations.
3. Discuss how consumers form beliefs based on low-processing cognitive effort.
4. Show how marketers can influence cognitive attitudes through communication source,
message, context, and repetition.
5. Describe how consumers form attitudes through affective reactions when cognitive
effort is low.

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 Chapter 6: Attitudes Based on Low Consumer Effort

6. Highlight how marketers can use the communication source, message, and context to
influence consumers’ feelings and attitudes when processing effort is low.

CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. High-Effort Versus Low-Effort Routes to Persuasion
A. High Effort (Central Route)
1. Consumers have motivation, ability, and the opportunity (MAO) to process
information.
B. Low Effort (Peripheral Route)
1. Consumers do not have the MAO to process information.
2. Judgments may be more influenced by peripheral cues.
II. Unconscious Influences on Attitudes When Consumer Effort Is Low
A. Thin-Sliced Judgments
1. Assessments consumers make after brief observations despite minimal
information input.
2. These assessments can influence consumers’ decisions to buy and their
satisfaction with the sale.
B. Body Feedback
1. Body feedback such as nodding or shaking one’s head can lead to more
positive or negative evaluations of an object.
C. Marketing Implications
1. Although marketers may apply unconscious influences on consumers, this
should be used with care because of the complex interactions with conscious
influences.
III. Cognitive Bases of Attitudes When Consumer Effort Is Low
A. Consumers may acquire simple beliefs by forming simple inferences, through
attributions or explanations for an endorsement, or by forming heuristics.
1. With the frequency heuristic, consumers form a belief based on the number of
supporting arguments or amount of repetition.
2. The truth effect states that consumers are more likely to have stronger beliefs
simply because of the repetition of the message.
IV. How Cognitive Attitudes Are Influenced
A. Communication Source
1. Credible sources serve as peripheral cues for making a simplified judgment.
a) “Statements from experts can be trusted.”
b) “Products endorsed by an expert must be good.”
2. Little cognitive effort is required.
3. To be seen as more credible, endorsers are used that do not advertise many
other products.
B. The Message
1. Category- and Schema-Consistent Information
a) Consumers form inferential beliefs from a message.
(1). Based on brand name
(2). Based on price
(3). Based on color
b) Considerable attention should be devoted to immediate associations
consumers have for easily processed information.
2. Many Message Arguments
a) With the frequency heuristic, consumers count the number of arguments
rather than processing information

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 Chapter 6: Attitudes Based on Low Consumer Effort

3.Simple Messages
a) Marketers communicate differences from competitors with simple key
points.
4. Involving Messages
a) Enhancing consumers’ involvement with the message ensures that the
information is received.
b) Self-referencing strategies develop positive attitudes and intentions.
5. Marketing Implications
a) Marketers can increase self-referencing by:
(1). Directly telling consumers to use self-reference
(2). Using the second person
(3). Asking rhetorical questions
(4). Showing visuals of situations easy for consumers to relate to
b) Mystery ad (also called the “wait-and-bait” ad)
(1). Identity of brand not revealed until end of ad
(2). Heightens curiosity and situational involvement
(3). Particularly effective in generating category-based processing and
storing brand associations in memory
c) Use of Avatars by online marketers to induce more arousal and
involvement.
d) Scratch-and-sniff ads
e) Interactive ads
C. Message Context and Repetition
1. The context of a message can affect the strength and salience of beliefs to the
consumer.
2. Message repetition:
a) Helps consumers acquire basic knowledge
b) Aids in learning and recalling information (incidental learning)
c) Enhances brand awareness
d) Can make claims more believable (the truth effect), especially when ads
are spaced out over time.
V. Affective Bases of Attitudes When Consumer Effort Is Low
A. The Mere Exposure Effect
1. We prefer familiar objects to unfamiliar ones.
2. Consumers’ attitudes toward an offering change over time—objects become
more liked as they become more familiar.
3. Mostly demonstrated in controlled laboratory experiments.
4. Can help an unknown brand compete with other unknown brands if
performance is similar and consumers expend little processing effort?
5. When consumers can easily process stimulus information, they are more likely
to prefer the brand and believe the ad claims.
6. Marketing Implications
a) Since consumers’ attitudes may become more favorable with time, even
when consumers initially dislike new offerings, marketers may be able to
enhance consumers’ liking for a new offering by repeatedly exposing
consumers to the offering itself or the messages about it.
b) Repetition is critical when MAO is low, but watch out for ad “wearout.”
B. Classical and Evaluative Conditioning
1. A way of affecting consumers’ attitudes without invoking much processing
effort. Evaluative conditioning is a case oc cc. It produces an affective

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 Chapter 6: Attitudes Based on Low Consumer Effort

response by pairing a neutral conditioned stimulus with an emotionally charged

unconditioned stimulus.
2. A stimulus is called unconditioned (UCS) because it automatically elicits an
involuntary or unconditioned response (UCR).
3. A conditioned stimulus (CS) does not automatically elicit an involuntary
response.
4. Repeatedly pairing the conditioned stimulus (CS) with the unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) automatically elicits the involuntary unconditioned response
(UCR).
5. When the response is made in the presence of the conditioned stimulus by
itself, the response is said to be a conditioned response (CR).
6. Marketing Implications
a) By repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., happy scenes) with
a conditioned stimulus (e.g., a brand name), it may be possible to invoke
the same emotional response (now the conditioned response) to the
brand name.
C. Attitude Toward the Ad
1. When consumers like an ad a great deal, they may transfer their positive
feelings from the ad to the brand.
a) Attitudes toward ads may be the best indicator of advertising
effectiveness.
2. Dual-mediation hypothesis
a) Consumers can have a favorable attitude toward an ad either because
they find it believable or because they feel good about it.
b) These responses, in turn, may positively affect consumers’ intentions to
purchase.
3. Marketing Implications
a) By providing ads that are pleasing or likable to consumers, marketers
may be able to make consumers’ brand attitudes more favorable.
b) This approach is more effective when strong attitudes have not already
been formed, as when brands are new or not well known.
D. Mood
1. A stimulus can create a positive or negative mood, which can affect
consumers’ reactions to any other stimulus.
2. Putting consumers in a good mood through the use of physical surroundings
and employee behavior can cause consumers to evaluate stores and store
merchandise more favorably.
3. Consumers in a good mood tend to ignore negative brand information.
4. Consumers in a positive mood are more likely to like a brand extension that is
moderately similar to the parent product than consumers not in a good mood.
5. Marketing Implications
a) Retailers can use physical surroundings and the behavior of store
employees to put consumers in good moods and thus positively influence
their attitudes.
VI. How Affective Attitudes Are Influenced
A. Communication Source
1. Attractive Sources
a) When consumers’ motivation to process an advertised message is low,
attractive sources will enhance the favorability of consumers’ brand
attitudes.
2. Likable Sources

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 Chapter 6: Attitudes Based on Low Consumer Effort

a)
May serve as unconditioned stimuli, create a positive mood that affects
consumers’ evaluations of the ad or brand, and make consumers feel
more positive about the endorsed products
3. Celebrity Sources
a) Combine physical attractiveness and likeability to account for one-third of
television advertising
B. The Message
1. Pleasant Pictures
a) Can affect ad and brand attitudes when they are processed peripherally
2. Music
a) Can create different emotional responses and convey different product
meanings
3. Humor
a) Can be used to attract consumers’ attention and increase liking of the ad
and the brand
b) Most effective when tied or related to the offering, otherwise consumers
may pay attention to the humor and not the brand.
c) Marketing Implications
(1) Humor works best on TV and radio
(2) Humor is more effective with some audiences than others; for
example, young, more educated males respond the most positively
to humor.
(3) While humor is universal, specifics of humor are culturally specific.
4. Sex
a) Sex as a communication technique appears in two major forms
(1) Sexual suggestiveness involves situations that portray or imply
sexual themes or romance
(2) Nudity or partial nudity is the other technique used in ads.
b) Marketing Implications
(1) Sex in marketing can be effective because it attracts consumers’
attention, and it can evoke an emotional response which in turn can
affect consumers’ moods.
(2) However, sexual messages may create negative feelings such as
embarrassment or disgust in some consumers.
(3) Men and women vary in their responsiveness to sexual marketing
messages.
(4) The sexual content of a marketing message should be consistent
with the product/service being advertised.
(5) Consumer reaction to sexual marketing communications varies
across cultures.
5. Emotional Content
a) The goal of transformational advertising is to associate the experience of
using the product with a unique set of psychological characteristics
thereby increasing emotional involvement.
b) Dramas attempt to get the consumer to empathize with the characters
and become involved emotionally.
6. Message Context
a) The program or editorial context in which a message appears affects
consumers’ evaluation.
b) Programs influence consumers to transfer their feelings about the
program to the ad (excitation transfer hypothesis).

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 Chapter 6: Attitudes Based on Low Consumer Effort

c) A program that is too distracting can inhibit processing and ad recall.

d) Humor appeals in 30-42% of ads

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION

Possible answers are as follows.

1. How can unconscious influences affect consumer attitudes and behavior in low effort
situations?
Much processing in low effort situations occurs below conscious awareness. Thin-slice
judgments and body feedback are two ways in which consumers process information
unconsciously.
2. What role do source, message, context, and repetition play in influencing consumers’
cognitive attitude?
The communication source characteristics are important in influencing consumer beliefs
in low-effort processing situations. The message itself also influences attitudes.
Messages should attempt to provide consistent information to consumer schema. In low-
processing situations, simple messages should be used. Repetition increases recall
through incidental learning, which is effortless processing. Repetition may also enhance
brand awareness and memory. This is why in ads it is very likely to hear or see the brand
name at least four to seven times to help increase retention of the brand in the
consumer’s mind.
3. What is the mere exposure effect, and why is it important to consumers’ affective
reactions.
The mere exposure effect is the concept that familiarity leads to liking of an object. It is
important to our affective reactions, as we tend to prefer familiar objects to unfamiliar
ones. Research has shown that mere exposure allows consumers to more easily process
information to which they have been exposed.
4. How do classical conditioning and evaluative conditioning apply to consumers’ attitudes
when processing effort is low?
Successful classical conditioning links the conditioned stimulus to a response. This works
best in low effort processing situations where the linkage becomes assumed over time
rather than cognitively paired. Pairing the product with certain unconditioned stimuli such
as beautiful scenery or a catchy jingle can automatically elicit an emotional response
such as joy or warmth.
Taco Bell helps condition consumers to eat at their establishments by utilizing a
Chihuahua as part of a very effective ad campaign.
5. Explain the dual-mediation hypothesis. What are the implications for affecting
consumers’ brand attitude?
The dual-mediation hypothesis explains how attitudes toward the ad (Aad) can influence
attitudes toward the brand (Ab) and purchase intentions (Ib). In short, if a marketer can
positively influence your attitude toward the ad (Aad), then these positive feelings can
transfer to the brand (“I like the ad so I like the product”), positively impact brand beliefs
and increase the likelihood of purchase. The dual-mediation hypothesis holds best for

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 Chapter 6: Attitudes Based on Low Consumer Effort

products that are less well known to the consumer and for products that require far less
cognitive processing effort (products with a simple belief schema).
6. In low-effort situations, what characteristics of the message influence consumers’
affective response?
The characteristics of the message that influence consumers’ affective response include
the credibility, attractiveness, and likeability of the source, as well as message content
factors such as the use of pleasant pictures, music, humor, sex, emotional content, and
message context.
7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of featuring celebrities in advertising
messages?
Typically, celebrities often rank high on attractiveness, likeability and credibility. When
the celebrity directly relates to the product being advertised (match-up hypothesis),
celebrity sources can be very effective at affecting consumer attitudes. However, there is
a danger for the advertiser to link their product to a celebrity whose credibility or
likeability changes. Public scandal has affected numerous celebrities’ ability to promote
products.

EXERCISES AND TEACHER GUIDELINES

1. Watch at least four hours of commercial television. Prepare a chart that lists all the
techniques discussed in this chapter across the top as columns (attractive source, likable
source, visuals, humor, music, sex, emotion, simple message, repetition, and so on). For
each ad, tally which techniques are used. Also briefly assess the effectiveness of each
ad in terms of creating positive Aad and Ab, attitudes about the ad and the brand. After
collecting this information for all ads viewed during the four hours, answer the following
questions: (a) Which techniques are used most frequently. (b) In your judgment, which
ads tend to be the most effective in influencing attitudes toward the ad and the brand?
Why. (c) In your judgment, which ads tend to be the least effective? Why?
When discussing this exercise in class, ask students to consider not only the shows that
they watched, but also the time of day that the shows were on. How does time of day,
even on the same network, influence the likelihood of seeing an ad for a particular
product? Also, inquire as to the degree to which prior brand attitudes may have affected
their current evaluations of the ads. I find that students do not realize that prior brand
attitudes do affect their evaluations of current ads. I point this out to students and they
seem to be surprised that advertising does influence them. Many of the students convey
to me that they thought advertising influenced others but not them.
2. Collect five magazines that are directed at different target audiences. Prepare a chart
that lists all the techniques discussed in this chapter across the top as columns
(attractive source, likable source, visuals, humor, music, sex, emotion, simple message,
repetition, and so on). Down the side of the chart, generate a running list of the different
product and service categories that appear in the ads. For each ad in each magazine,
make a tally of the type of product advertised and the type(s) of techniques used. Then
answer the following questions: (a) Which techniques are used most frequently? (b) Do
certain techniques tend to be used more often for certain product or service categories?
(c) Do the magazines in general use certain techniques more often for certain target
audiences?

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 Chapter 6: Attitudes Based on Low Consumer Effort

Similarly, have students carefully consider the target markets of each of these
magazines. Would they have similar opinions regarding ads placed in magazines that
they do not read frequently or at all? Ask students, if a high-end item is advertised in a
magazine they have brought in, what does that tell them about the magazines
demographics.

ADDITIONAL DISCUSSION QUESTIONS WITH SAMPLE ANSWERS

These discussion questions can be used as in-class activities or as thought questions that the
students consider while reading the chapter or to test their understanding of the material after
the reading and lecture are complete.
1. Explain the peripheral route to persuasion and discuss ways marketers can influence
low-effort consumer attitudes.
When consumers’ motivation, ability, and opportunity (MAO) are low, they are not likely
to devote much effort to attitude formation and change. Instead, they are likely to form
beliefs based on simple inferences, attributions, and heuristics. This low-effort processing
results in marketers using the peripheral route to persuasion (aspects other than key
message arguments).
Marketers can influence low-effort consumers’ attitudes either cognitively or affectively.
When designing cognitively based messages, marketers should consider the credibility of
the communication source, the content of the message, and the context of the message.
The source should serve as a positive peripheral cue, and the context should include
repetition. The message should incorporate category- and schema-consistent
information, many supporting arguments, and involving, yet simple, messages.
When designing affectively based messages, marketers should select communication
sources that are attractive and likable or celebrities. They should create messages that
include pleasant pictures, music, humor, sex, or emotional content, and an appropriate
context.
2. Discuss the mere exposure effect and provide examples of how marketers can enhance
consumer liking for an object.
According to the mere exposure effect, familiarity with an object leads to liking an object.
While the effect’s validity has been questioned, it has been applied by the advertising
industry. One of advertising’s goals is to create tactics that increase consumer exposure
to products and messages. The mere exposure effect is in use when product or brand
information is repeated within an ad, when a commercial is repeated numerous times
throughout a television broadcast or radio program, and when a product is advertised
through multiple channels simultaneously (television, radio, print media, the Internet,
etc.).

ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS
1. Give an example of how the mere exposure effect could be used to influence consumers’
affective response to the brand you are considering.
2. Knowing that marketers can influence cognitively based attitudes when consumer effort
is low, explain how you could use characteristics of the source, message, and context to
influence consumers’ brand perceptions of the brand you are considering.

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 Chapter 6: Attitudes Based on Low Consumer Effort

3. The mere exposure effect and classical conditioning are both ways marketers can
influence the affective bases of attitudes when consumer effort is low. Describe how you
could use both of these approaches to complement each other in a marketing effort for
the brand you are considering.
4. Describe in what circumstances classical conditioning is most likely to be successful.
Develop a list of reasons why it is difficult to use classical conditioning in marketing and
advertising.
5. Explain what is meant by “attitude toward the ad.” Outline its key components and
explain why it is important to advertising and marketing.
6. Explain the dual-mediation hypothesis and explain why it is important to marketing and
advertising.
7. Explain why consumers often process messages using heuristics. Describe some
common types of heuristics that consumers might employ. Offer examples of situations in
which these heuristics could be used.
8. Explain how source attractiveness can influence consumer attitudes and include a
description of factors that might mediate this process. Provide several examples of
marketing communications that illustrate this process.
9. Discuss how humor in advertising impacts upon consumer attitudes. Provide examples of
marketing communications that effectively use this technique.

EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES AND CLASSROOM EXAMPLES

Students who learn more readily through visual and tactile stimuli will benefit from the
introduction of physical examples into the classroom.
1. “Celebrity Spotlight” Exercise
Ask students to write down the names of their five favorite celebrities and then identify
branded products or services for which those celebrities would make good
spokespersons. For example, would Andre Agassi’s fiery temper make him a good match
(no pun intended!) with Tabasco? Would Rosie O’Donnell’s knowledge of old television
shows and theme songs make her a candidate for Nickelodeon? Discuss the pairings,
why or why not they make strategic sense, and the celebrity’s potential role in building
brand equity.
2. “From the Ridiculous to the Sublime” Exercise
Ask for student reactions to a variety of hypothetical brand extensions, ranging from the
weird to the wonderful (e.g., Mrs. Field’s carburetors, Chanel facial tissues, Disney
children’s hospitals, Nikon film, H&R Block travel agency, Sony toaster, Outward Bound
hotels, and Dial deodorant). After discussing why they reacted as they did (explaining the
notion of affect transfer in the process), give them an opportunity to try their hand at
developing an extension concept. Separate the class into groups of four or five students
and give them 15 minutes to come up with an extension of a brand of their choice. After
each group has described its idea and explained why they believe it would be successful,


This experiential exercise was contributed by Professor Sheri Bridges of Wake Forest University.

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 Chapter 6: Attitudes Based on Low Consumer Effort

ask students to vote for a favorite (it is up to the instructor whether to allow students to
vote for their own group’s idea). Give the winning group a small prize (a bag of candy, for
example).
3. Consider visiting the local grocery store to find examples of marketing efforts that call
attention to how companies are making efforts to build categories, schemas, or scripts for
their products. Examples of these efforts might include: (a) coupons that may be
designed to induce trial, but may actually serve as a classical conditioning tool, teaching
customers to react to the promotion; (b) advertisements that include characteristics
designed to influence affectively based attitudes when consumer effort is low (e.g., using
source, message, or context characteristics). Use these and other examples to stimulate
discussion about how marketers are or are not using principles of consumer behavior to
support their marketing efforts.

CLASSROOM GROUP ACTIVITY: INFLUENCING ATTITUDES WHEN

CONSUMER EFFORT IS LOW: 20 MINUTES
I. Start Up
A. Purpose of the activity
1. This activity will give students an opportunity to consider factors related to
attitude formation and schemas in a brief classroom exercise.
B. What the instructor will do
1. The instructor will divide people into small groups, assign them a product for
consideration, and be available to coach and help the groups as needed.
C. What the participants will do
1. The participants will work in small groups to brainstorm ideas for applying
concepts from the chapter to specific brands. After a period of small-group
discussion, they will make reports to the large group.
D. Rules for this experience
1. Groups are to work separately from each other. Individuals should rely on their
knowledge from the book and may refer to their notes and the book as
necessary.
II. Experience
A. Group up.
1. Have students form groups of no more than five. This exercise will work in
groups of any size; however, room restrictions that do not allow for moving
furniture may make group work more difficult.
B. Assign brands.
1. Each group should be assigned a single brand for a low-involvement good
(i.e., frequently purchased consumer nondurable) on which to focus.
a) Consider using local brands including both products and services.
b) In addition, international brands like the following could be used: Exxon,
McDonald’s, Coca-Cola, Heinz, Glade, Hungry Jack.
c) Consider bringing samples of the brands to the class for students to study
and review in their groups (e.g., a box of crackers, a candy bar, a cola
can).
C. Specific actions for groups
1. The groups are responsible for creating a combination of methods for
generating attitudes toward the brand in a competitive environment, given that
consumers are likely to expend low levels of effort (involvement) developing
attitudes toward these brands.
2. Questions to be answered by small groups

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 Chapter 6: Attitudes Based on Low Consumer Effort

Identify factors that may help or hinder consumers’ likelihood to actively

a)
develop attitudes toward the brand.
b) By what specific means could you influence consumer attitudes toward
this brand?
c) How might consumers’ attitudes toward the brand be otherwise influenced
in a competitive marketplace, and how can you address these sources of
influence?
3. Large-group discussions
a) First, have groups present their ideas about the first question, and then
proceed to discuss each of the subsequent questions.
b) If there are many groups, share the discussion among all groups, though
not all groups may answer all of the questions.
III. Debrief and Unveil Concepts
A. Discuss the activity itself.
1. The purpose of this discussion is to allow students to express what they felt
about the experience itself.
2. Ask students to describe their experiences of “doing” the activity.
a) Likes and dislikes about what just happened
b) How they felt during the experience
c) What is realistic, unrealistic about the exercise?
d) What will be different when they do this for their own brand?
B. Discuss the content of the experience.
1. The purpose of this discussion is to ensure that students “take away” important
learning points.
2. Ask students to describe the important points the experience teaches.
3. Use the chalkboard to record student responses.
a) Write down their ideas as they are presented.
b) Concentrate on the principles being discussed rather than the examples
being used.
c) Help them to see the interrelationships between their responses
IV. Execute
A. Apply what has been learned.
1. Lead a discussion on how the concepts can be applied in organizations.
a) What barriers may be faced in applying the concepts from the exercise?
b) What can be done to help others understand the concepts when you use
them at work?
B. Transfer and use the knowledge.
1. Encourage students to make a record in their notes about how they will use the
ideas in the workplace.
2. Even if they do not have a specific job, how will they remember to use what
they have learned?

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