COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

(CAD)
Dr Janardhan V
 CAD FUNDAMENTALS
BEFORE CAD
INTRODUCTION

CAD: It can be defined as a way

of creation, modification and
optimization of a design using
computers

COMPUTER AIDED DRAFTING

COMOUTER AIDED DESIGN DRAFTING
DESIGN
COMOUTER AIDED ENGINEERING
HISTORY
• WW-II: The need for more
• complex, accurate and precise machining was originated for then military
aerospace industry.
• 1950s: Development of NC machines.
• 1960s: Development of SKETCHPADby MIT, 1st GUI.
• 1970s: As digital computers were invented, 2D drafting CAD softwares were
developed.
• 1970s: Efforts were made to develop CAM software, for quick NC program
input.
• 1980s: As digital computers became more advance and economical, solid modeling
3D CAD softwares were developed.
• Late 1980s: CAD softwares became more advance, by the addition of analysis
tool, e.g. Pro/ENGINEER.
 WHY CAD????????
• Precise
• 3D detailed drawing BENEFITS OF CAD
• Computerized model to scale
• Easy to modify and reproduce
• Test without having to produce it Saves materials and machining time
• Drawings are device independent
• You can resize easily by using calculation
• More economical and efficient
• Smaller files than bitmapped images
• Easier to see the characteristics
• Easier to design, analyze and optimize
• Easier to integrate with CAM
 Why to study CAD?

• CAE tool users become inefficient in using them unless, fundamental concepts on
which these systems are built, are understood properly.

• All the critical shapes can not be modeled in these tools. Customized shapes require
more knowledge on programming an object.
 WHAT ARE WE GOING TO STUDY
UNIT I 11
CAD FUNDAMENTALS: Introduction, Reasons for implementing a CAD system, Computer aided
process application, benefits, CAD software’s, Elements of programming, CAD programming ,Need
and scope of computer aided design.
COMPUTER GRAPHICS: Scan conversion; Bresenham’s Algorithm for line, circle and ellipse.
Standards for graphics programming, features of GKS, other graphics standards, PHIGS, IGES,
PDES. Standards in CAD.

UNIT II 13
GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS: Geometric transformations- 2D and 3D translation, scaling,
rotation, shear and reflection, homogeneous transformations.
UNIT III 18
PLANE & SPACE CURVES: Types of mathematical representation of curves, parametric
representation of line, circle, ellipse, parabola, hyperbola. Wire frame models, wire frame entities,
parametric representation of synthetic curves: Hermit cubic splines, Bezier curves, B-splines,
constructive solid geometry.
UNIT IV 18
FINITE ELEMENT METHOD: Introduction, FEM procedure, Discretization of the Domain,
Interpolation Models, Higher Order and Isoparametric Elements, Derivation of Element Matrices and
Vectors, Assembly of Element Matrices and Vectors and Derivation of System Equations, Numerical
Solution of Finite Element Equations, Basic Equations and Solution Procedure, Analysis of Trusses, Beams.
Computer Programming: Use of computer programming in design of machine elements, development of
computer program using Matlab for machine components like shaft, spring, gears, bearing etc., plotting
graphs using programming language, generalized programming, optimization in design.

Self-study: The self- study contents will be declared at the commencement of semester.

Applications of FEM
Text book(s):
1. Mathematical elements for computer graphics by David F Rogers and J. Adams, 2nd Edition, Tata
McGraw-Hill, New Delhi
2. Computer Aided Engineering & Design by Jim Browne, New Age International Publications,
3. CAD/CAM: Computer Aided design and Manufacturing by Mikell Groover and Zimmer, Pearson
Education
4. CAD/CAM Theory & Practice by Ibrahim Zeid, 2nd Edition, Tata Mc Graw Hill, New Delhi
5. Computer Graphics & design by P. Radhakrishnan, C.P. Kothanadaraman, New Age publication
6. Finite Element Analysis by Chendraupatla, EEE Publication.
7. The Finite Element Method in Engineering by S. S. Rao, 5th Edition, Butterworth–Heinemann
Publications
8. Computer Graphics by Donald Hearn, 2nd Edition, Pearson

Reference book(s):
1. Finite Element Procedures by K. J. Bathe 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall Publications
2. An Introduction to Finite Element Methods, MC Graw Hill Publishers, 3rd Edition
3. Curves and Surfaces for Computer Graphics, David Salomon, Springer
AUTOMOBILE DESIGN
APPLICATIONS
ARCHITEXTURE DESIGN
AUTOMATION PLANTS AND ROBOTICS DESIGN
DAY TO DAY OBJECTS AND LOGOS DESIGN
ORNAMENTS AND WEPONS DESIGN
ANIMATION AND GAMES DESIGN
COMPUTER GENERATED IMAGERY
FASHION DESIGN
TEXTILE DESIGNS

3D PRINTERS
CHIP DESIGN
Medical implant design and analysis
• Please attend the classes regularly, no attendance will be given if anyone less
attendance than the institute norms.
• Please take a prior appointment over mail for any queries or for meeting the faculty.
• Please do not use mobiles in the classroom, if found serious action will be taken.
• Attention to the lectures and proper conduct is mandatory.
• Slides for the class will not be shared, you can write the notes during the class.
• Everybody has to keep a separate notebook for the subject.
• Send a prior mail in case of missing a class, due to unavoidable reasons.
• Mass bunks are strictly prohibited and 1 mass bunk will be considered as two
absents.
 REASONS FOR CHOOSING CAD

Computers can store and handle large amount of engineering data; that
can be utilized for design and analysis.

Complex geometrical shapes can be visually inspected and checked

Deformation, stress and strain analysis of machine components.

Checking interference between mating parts in an assembly

CAD tools make design, simulation, analysis and optimization an easy task.
Conventional design cycle and CAD
Problem identification
and recognition of need

Problem definition
and conceptualisation

Geometric modelling
and spatial analysis

Engineering analysis
and optimization

Prototype development

Manufacturing process
development

Manufacturing
Implementation
 HOW CAN CAD BE FIT IN CONVENTIONAL
DESIGN CYCLE?

CAD in
Conventional
design cycle

Conventional
design cycle
HOW CAN CAD BE FIT IN CONVENTIONAL
DESIGN CYCLE?

Customer CAM
Marketing
feedback cycle
 SCOPE OF CAD

• CAD is a subset of the design process (As shown earlier in design cycle)
• Activities of CAD systems: mass properties, FEA, dimensioning,
tolerance, assembly modeling, generating shaded images, documentation
and drafting.

Geometric C Computer
modeling A graphics
D

Design
 CAD PROGRAMMING
• CAD systems are powerful software tools, they require
• complex geometric modeling concepts
• computer graphics algorithms
• software techniques
• Design and analysis theories
• Manufacturing techniques
• Database and management concepts

• CAD systems evolved over the years; coding itself is very long and complex.

• Modifying and programming CAD systems is difficult but possible.

 CAD PROGRAMMING
• CAD software is written in a variety of languages
Unigraphics and I-DEAS started as a Fortran code.
Pro/E and SolidWorks are written in C and C++.
Most of these systems use JAVA especially for Web-based functionality.
• How often do we need to program?
There is a need for customizing these systems.
There are different levels
Writing a simple macro
Macro automate repetitive task
The system API (application programming interface) to extend
the system functionality.
 CAD PROGRAMMING REQUIREMENTS
• Must be familiar with system functionality, structure, hierarchy, terminology
and philosophy.
Requires a good knowledge of OOP
(Object-Oriented Programming).

OOP:
In this a large application is divided into
independent components known as
objects. Objects have to be integrated
to get complete programe.

Modifying spline Object: It has data fields.

Method: Each object is associate with

procedure known as method.
(Examples: C++, JAVA, VB.NET, Python, Pascal, Visual Basic, Fortran, COBOL etc..)
 OOP APPLICATIONS
• Character User Interface (CUI)
An interface used to interact with computer by typing commands.

• Graphical User Interface (GUI)

An interface used to interact with computer by directly
manipulating the graphical images.

• Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing (CAD/CAM)

To create graphical and numerical building blocks that can be
assembled to form portable, flexible and cost effective solutions for various real life
problems
 CAD PROGRAMMING ELEMENTS
• Relational database:
CAD system utilizes relational databases to store geometric,
graphical and other data that defines a CAD model.
It is conceptually a set of collection of tables.
Table stores data about a given entity.
The data in a table is stored as attributes in rows.
Each row is known as a record.
For example customer name and account numbers.
It is usually a collection of many such tables
 CAD PROGRAMMING ELEMENTS
• Relational database:
 CAD PROGRAMMING ELEMENTS
• Relational database:
Another example to store the boundary representation (B-rep) of the model
(i.e. faces, edges and vertices).
 CAD PROGRAMMING ELEMENTS
• Relational database:
 CAD PROGRAMMING ELEMENTS
• Object database:
The unit of data storage is an object, instead of a table.
For example: What characterizes a car (attributes and features) ?
Make, model, year, color, drive, stop, maintain…
Attributes don’t require any calculations and become variables in an OOP
program.
A behavior is doing something, takes input and produces output – like an
algorithm – becomes a method in OOP.
 CAD PROGRAMMING ELEMENTS
• The other elements are:
Object concepts
Parametric design and objects
Programming levels
 LIST OF FEW SELECTED CAD SOFTWARE
• Autocad by Autodesk
• CATIA by Dassault Systems (DS)
• IDEA by 4M
• Creo Parametric by Parametric Technology Corporation (PTC)
• NX by Simens
• Revit Architecture by Autodesk
• Solid edge by Siemens PLM software
• Solid Works by Solid Works Corp.
 COMPUTER GRAPHICS AND SOFTWARE
• Collection of programmes written to make it convenient for the user to
operate the computer graphics system.

• Programme to generate images, manipulate them and interact with them.

• Additionally perform analysis like FEM and kinematic simulation.

 CONSTRUCTING GEOMETRY
• Methods of defining
• Points, Lines
• Arcs and circles
• Conics
• Curves
• Surfaces
• Editing features: Move, duplicate, mirror, rotate, delete, remove, trim,
create a cell out of graphic elements, scale an item etc.
 DISPLAY DEVICES

CRT display
 VECTOR SCAN SYSTEM

Vector scan CRT

Vector scan system

RASTER SCAN SYSTEM
 SCAN CONVERSION
Scan Conversion:
The process of digitizing a picture definition given in application program into a set of pixel
intensity values for storage in the frame buffer.

General Requirements:
• The line should appear as a straight line, with accurate starting and end points.
• The line should be displayed with constant brightness along its length independent of its
orientation.
• The line should drawn rapidly.
Two techniques:
Digital Differential analyzer (DDA) algorithm
Bresenham’s algorithm
 Aliasing or Jaggies

6
6
5
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
0
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
 DIGITAL DIFFERENTIAL ALGORITHM
Given points
X(i)=x(i-1)+X-increment
P0 (x0, y0) and P1(x1,y1) all are integers
Y(i)=Y(i-1)+Y-increment
Find dX= x1-x0;
i=1,2,…
dY= y1-y0;
Plot_pixel(X(i),Y(i))
If (dX>dY)
Repeat till
No of steps=dX;
X(i)<=x1
Else
Y(i)<=Y1
No of steps=dY;
End
X-Increment= dX/no of steps;
Y-increment= dY/no of steps;
 DIGITAL DIFFERENTIAL ALGORITHM

6 6
5 5

4 4
3 3
2 2

1 1
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
6 12

5 11

4 10

3 9
2 8

1 7

0 6

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Brsenham’s algorithm for line for points (5,8) and (9,11)
12

11 f(x,y) < 0 For any point below

the line suppose (6,8)
10
NE (6,9) f(6,8)=18-32+17=3 >0
9
For any point above
8
E (6,8)
the line suppose (6,9)
f(x,y) > 0
7 f(6,9)=18-36+17=-1<0
6
For any point on the
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
line f(x,y)= 0

f(x,y) at mid point (6,8.5) = 18-34+17=1

‫‪Thus‬‬
‫‪f(midpoint) < 0‬‬ ‫݈݁݊݅ ݄݁ݐ ݁ݒ݋ܾܽ ݐ݊݅݋݌ ݀݅݉ ⇒ ‪ ൏ 0‬ݐ݊݅݋݌݀݅݉ ݂ ݂݅‬
‫‪NE‬‬ ‫ݐ݊݅݋݌ ‪ሻ‬ܧ‪ሺ‬ݐݏܽ݁ ݋ݐ ݁ݏ݋݈ܿ ݏ݅ ݈݁݊݅ ⇒‬

‫‪M‬‬

‫‪E‬‬
‫݈݁݊݅ ݄݁ݐ ݓ݋݈ܾ݁ ݏ݅ ݐ݊݅݋݌ ݀݅݉ ⇒ ‪ ൐ 0‬ݐ݊݅݋݌݀݅݉ ݂ ݂݅‬

‫ݐ݊݅݋݌ ‪ሻ‬ܧܰ‪ ሺ‬ݐݏܽ݁ ݄ݐݎ݋݊ ݋ݐ ݁ݏ݋݈ܿ ݏ݅ ݈݁݊݅ ⇒‬

‫‪NE‬‬

‫‪M‬‬ ‫‪f(midpoint) > 0‬‬

‫‪E‬‬
 ௦ ௦
f(midpoint) < 0
NE ௦ NE

M ௦ f(midpoint) > 0
M
E E

௞ ௞ ௞ ௞ ௞ ௞ ௦

௞ ௞

௞ ௞ ௦ ௞ ௞ ௦

୭୪ୢ
f(midpoint) < 0
௞ ௞
NE
௞ ௞ ௦
M ௞ ௞ ௦

௞ ௞

௞ ௞ ௦

௞ ௞ ௦
NE

M f(midpoint) > 0

E
 ௗ௫
In first iteration ୭୪ୢ
ଶ

If dx is even there will not be any fractions otherwise we get fractional values.

To avoid fractions we can take

݂ ‫ݔ‬, ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ݀‫ ݔ ݕ‬െ ݀‫ ݕ ݔ‬൅ ܿ௦ ݀‫ ݔ‬ൌ 0 as

݂ ‫ݔ‬, ‫ ݕ‬ൌ 2݀‫ ݔ ݕ‬െ 2݀‫ ݕ ݔ‬൅ 2ܿ௦ ݀‫ ݔ‬ൌ 0 ݂‫݈݁݊݅ ݊݋ ݐ݊݅݋݌ ݕ݊ܽ ݎ݋‬

݂ ݉݅݀‫ ݐ݊݅݋݌‬in first iteration

ൌ 2݀‫ݔ ݕ‬௞ ൅ 1 െ 2݀‫ݕ ݔ‬௞ ൅ 0.5 ൅ 2ܿ௦ ݀‫ ݔ‬ൌ 2݀‫ݔ ݕ‬௞ െ 2݀‫ݕ ݔ‬௞ ൅ 2ܿ௦ ݀‫ ݔ‬൅ 2݀‫ ݕ‬െ ݀‫ݔ‬
ൌ 2݀‫ ݕ‬െ ݀‫ݔ‬

Since ሺ‫ݔ‬௞ , ‫ݕ‬௞ ሻ ‫ݔ ݂ ݈݁݊݅ ݄݁ݐ ݊݋ ݐ݊݅݋݌ ݃݊݅ݐݎܽݐݏ ݄݁ݐ ݏ݅ ݄݄ܿ݅ݓ‬௞ , ‫ݕ‬௞ ൌ 2݀‫ݔ ݕ‬௞ െ 2݀‫ݕ ݔ‬௞ ൅ 2ܿ௦ ݀‫ ݔ‬ൌ 0

݂ ݉݅݀‫ ݐ݊݅݋݌‬in first iterationൌ 2݀‫ ݕ‬െ ݀‫ ݔ‬ൌ ݀௢௟ௗ

12

11

10

NE
9

8
E

4 5 6 7 8 9 10
 ݂ ݉݅݀‫ ݐ݊݅݋݌‬in second iteration
݀௡௘௪ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬௞ ൅ 2, ‫ݕ‬௞ ൅ 0.5ሻ

݀௡௘௪ ൌ 2݀‫ݔ ݕ‬௞ ൅ 2 െ 2݀‫ݕ ݔ‬௞ ൅ 0.5 ൅ 2ܿ௦ ݀‫ݔ‬

ൌ 2݀‫ݔ ݕ‬௞ െ 2݀‫ݕ ݔ‬௞ ൅ 2ܿ௦ ݀‫ ݔ‬൅ 4݀‫ ݕ‬െ ݀‫ ݔ‬ൌ 4݀‫ ݕ‬െ ݀‫ݔ‬

൏0
E
݂ ݉݅݀‫ ݐ݊݅݋݌‬in first iterationൌ 2݀‫ ݕ‬െ ݀‫ ݔ‬ൌ ݀௢௟ௗ ݀௡௘௪ ൌ ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬௞ ൅ 2, ‫ݕ‬௞ ൅ 1.5ሻ
NE
൐0 ݀௡௘௪ ൌ 2݀‫ݔ ݕ‬௞ ൅ 2 െ 2݀‫ݕ ݔ‬௞ ൅ 1.5 ൅ 2ܿ௦ ݀‫ݔ‬

ൌ 2݀‫ݔ ݕ‬௞ െ 2݀‫ݕ ݔ‬௞ ൅ 2ܿ௦ ݀‫ ݔ‬൅ 4݀‫ ݕ‬െ 3݀‫ ݔ‬ൌ 4݀‫ ݕ‬െ 3݀‫ݔ‬

E 4݀‫ ݕ‬െ ݀‫ ݔ‬െ 2݀‫ ݕ‬െ ݀‫ ݔ‬ൌ 2݀‫ݕ‬

∆݀ ൌ ݀௡௘௪ െ ݀௢௟ௗ
NE
4݀‫ ݕ‬െ 3݀‫ ݔ‬െ 2݀‫ ݕ‬െ ݀‫ ݔ‬ൌ 2ሺ݀‫ ݕ‬െ ݀‫ݔ‬ሻ
 ݀௡௘௪ ൌ ݀௢௟ௗ ൅ ∆݀ ൌ ݀௢௟ௗ ൅ ݀௡௘௪ െ ݀௢௟ௗ

Algorithm
‫ ݔ‬ൌ ‫ݔ‬଴ ; ‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ݕ‬଴ ;
݀‫ ݔ‬ൌ ‫ݔ‬ଵ െ ‫ݔ‬଴ ; ݀‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ݕ‬ଵ െ ‫ݕ‬଴ ;
݀ ൌ 2݀‫ ݕ‬െ ݀‫ݔ‬
∆݀ா ൌ 2݀‫;ݕ‬
∆݀ோ ൌ 2ሺ݀‫ ݕ‬െ ݀‫ݔ‬ሻ;
‫ ݔ ݈݄݁݅ݓ‬൑ ‫ݔ‬ଵ
݂݅ሺ݀ ൑ 0ሻ
݀ ൌ ݀ ൅ ∆݀ா
݈݁‫݁ݏ‬
݀ ൌ ݀ ൅ ∆݀ோ
‫ ݕ‬ൌ ‫ ݕ‬൅ 1;
݁݊݀
‫ ݔ‬ൌ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 1; ‫ ݐ݋݈݌‬ሺ‫ݔ‬, ‫ݕ‬ሻ
݁݊݀
12

11

10

4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Brsenham’s algorithm for Circle
6

4 N c

3 S

R
2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
6

4 N NN NNN

3 NNS
S NS
NSN

SS NSS
2 SSN

1 SSS

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
 N
1
݂ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 3, ‫ ݕ‬െ ൌ ݀ேே ൌ ݀ே ൅ ∆݀ேே
N 2
ே௘௪
∆݀ேே ൌ ݀ேே െ ݀ே ൌ 2‫ ݔ‬൅ 5 ൌ ∆݀ே ே
S ே௘௪
ሺ∆ଶ ݀ሻ_ܰܰ ൌ ∆݀ே ே െ ∆݀ே ൌ 2
1
݂ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 2, ‫ ݕ‬െ ൌ ݀ே ൌ ݀଴ ൅ ∆݀ே
2
N 3
∆݀ே ൌ ݀ே െ ݀଴ ൌ 2‫ ݔ‬൅ 3 N ݂ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 3, ‫ ݕ‬െ ൌ ݀ேௌ ൌ ݀ே ൅ ∆݀ேௌ
2
∆݀ேௌ ൌ ݀ேௌ െ ݀ே ൌ 2‫ ݔ‬െ 2‫ ݕ‬൅ 7 ൌ ∆݀ௌே௘௪ ே
S
1 ሺ∆ଶ ݀ሻ_ܰܵ ൌ ∆݀ௌே௘௪ ே െ ∆݀ௌ ൌ 2
(x , y) ݂‫ ݔ‬൅ 1, ‫ ݕ‬െ ൌ ݀଴
2 S
N 3
݂ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 3, ‫ ݕ‬െ ൌ ݀ௌே ൌ ݀ௌ ൅ ∆݀ௌே
2
ே௘௪
N ∆݀ௌே ൌ ݀ௌே െ ݀ௌ ൌ 2‫ ݔ‬൅ 5 ൌ ∆݀ே ௌ
ே௘௪
S 3 ሺ∆ଶ ݀ሻ_ܵܰ ൌ ∆݀ே ௌ െ ∆݀ே ൌ 2
݂ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 2, ‫ ݕ‬െ ൌ ݀ௌ ൌ ݀଴ ൅ ∆݀ௌ S
2
∆݀ௌ ൌ ݀ௌ െ ݀଴ ൌ 2‫ ݔ‬െ 2‫ ݕ‬൅ 5 N 5
݂ ‫ ݔ‬൅ 3, ‫ ݕ‬െ ൌ ݀ௌௌ ൌ ݀ௌ ൅ ∆݀ௌௌ
2
∆݀ௌௌ ൌ ݀ௌௌ െ ݀ௌ ൌ 2‫ ݔ‬െ 2‫ ݕ‬൅ 9 ൌ ∆݀ௌே௘௪ ௌ
S
ሺ∆ଶ ݀ሻ_ܵܵ ൌ ∆݀ௌே௘௪ ௌ െ ∆݀ௌ ൌ 4
S
 STANDARDS FOR COMPUTER GRAPHICS-NEED
FOR
GRAPHIC STANDARDS
• Need for portability of the geometric model among different
hardware platforms.
• Exchange drawing database among software packages.
• Need for exchanging graphic data between different
computer system.
• Need for the requirement of graphic data exchange formats
and their details.
 DATA USED IN PRODUT
DESCRIPTION
• Shape data

• Non shape data

• Design data

• Manufacturing data
Shape data: both geometric and topological information, part or form features. Fonts, color,
annotation are considered part of the geometric information.

Non-shape data: graphics data such as shaded images, and model global data as measuring units
of the database and the resolution of storing the database numerical values.

Design data: information that designers generate from geometric models for analysis purposes.
Mass property and finite element mesh data belong to this type of data.

Manufacturing data: information as tooling, NC tool paths, tolerance, process planning, tool
design, and bill of materials (BOM).

Old standards include geometry data only

 TRANSLATORS

Useful for archiving

the data for many
years

Direct Translators

No of translation Indirect Translators

files required are
more

Useful where there are less no of systems as

the memory required for this is less
SOME OF GRAPHIC STANDARDS
PLANE PROJECTIONS
Parallel Projection:
If Center Projection on the plane is at infinity then the resultant projections are
parallel, the projection is called parallel projection.

Perspective Projection:
If Center Projection on the plane is at finite distance then the resultant projections are not parallel,
the projection is called perspective projection.
 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
The Simplest of parallel projection

The transformation matrix for projection on to Z-0 plane

The transformation matrix for projection on to y-0 plane

 ܺ ܲ௬ ൌ ܺ ∗

Top View

ܺ ܲ௫ ൌ ܺ ∗
ܺ ܲ௭ ൌ ܺ ∗

Front View Right Side View

AUXILIARY VIEWS
For the some of the cases additional views
required to get better information regarding
the objects

To get Rear, Bottom and Left side views there

are two methods

1. To project from infinity in –x, -y and –z

directions.

2. To reflect about the z=0, y=0 and z=0

planes and then project onto z=0, y=0 and
x=0 planes
AUXILIARY VIEWS

ܺ ܶ௙௭ ܲ௭ ൌ ሾܺ ∗ ሿ

ܺ ܶ௙௫ ܲ௫ ൌ ሾܺ ∗ ሿ

ܺ ܶ௙௬ ܲ௬ ൌ ሾܺ ∗ ሿ
Develop the auxiliary view showing the true shape of the triangular corner
shown in the figure. The coordinates of the object are

Procedure:

This is the case of rotation about an arbitrary axis

1. Find direction of the axis normal the triangular face, in this it

passes through the corner points of the cube.
2. The corner points of the cube are
[0 0 0 1] and [1 1 1 1]
3. Unit vector in the normal direction

4. Rotate it such that normal coincides with Z-axis for this the rotation
about x-axis

And the rotation about y-axis is

ܶ ൌ ܶ௫ ܶ௬ ൌ
 AXONOMETRIC PROJECTIONS
Obtained by two arbitrary rotations about x and y-axis and projecting on to any one of the planes
(usually on Z=0 plane).
There are cases
1. Trimetric Projection
2. Dimetric Projection
3. Isometric Projection

After an axonometric projection a vector of unit length along each principle axis scales down by some
amount called foreshortening factor.
Trimetric: If projection is such that foreshortening factors along three principle axes are different
Dimetric: Foreshortening factors along any two principle axes are same.
Isometric: Foreshortening factors along three principle axes are same.
TRIMETRIC PROJECTION

Trimetric projection is formed by performing arbitrary rotations

in arbitrary order about any or all of the coordinate axes
followed by projection on to the z=0 plane

The position vectors of the cube with one corner removed are given
below, find the foreshortening ratios of the trimetric projection
formed by a rotation of 30 degrees about y-axis, and 45 degrees
about x-axis followed by projection on to the z=0 plane.
Foreshortening ratios:
DIMETRIC PROJECTION
ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
 UNIT-III
PLANE & SPACE CURVES
curve (also called a curved line in older texts) is, an object similar to a line but that need not
be straight.
(OR)
A curve is a generalization of a line, in that its curvature need not be zero.

Why should I know

about curves ????
To design any systems a straight line it self is not sufficient.
 What is required to
use curves in computer
aided design????
One needs know how to represent curves.

What are the options available

By using set of points

Accuracy of representation depends on the

number of points used to represent the
curves

Finding the intermediate points on the curves is difficult and inaccurate

Needs lot of memory to store the given set of points

 One needs know how to analytically represent curves using mathematical
expressions.
Advantages:

Easy to alter the shape.

Easy to differentiate.

Requires less memory

Methods of representing curves

Non parametric

Parametric
 Non parametric curves

Plane curve:
A plane curve is a two dimensional curve which lies in a single plane.

A non parametric curve can be represented in both explicit and implicit forms

Explicit representation of curve y=5x3-3

Implicit representation of curve x2 + y2 – 1 = 0

Disadvantages of non-parametric curves

When the slope is infinity For uniform increment in x or y

points are not uniformly spaced
Difficult to represent numerically
Parametric representation of curves

The curve is represented as a function of

single parameter

For a two dimensional curve

For infinite slope keep boundary
condition as x’(t)=0.

End points of the curve depends on

The position vector and first derivative the range of the parameter
of any point on the curve is given by
But it is possible to normalise it
Parametric Representation of a Line

If there are two position vectors P1

and P2, the parametric representation
of a line is
Parametric Representation of a circle

Points are equally spaced

But trigonometric functions have to be evaluated many times

Computationally expensive
 For a step
length of

Points are not equally spaced

Parametric Representation of an ellipse
Parametric Representation of parabola
Parametric Representation of hyperbola
 REPRESENTATION SCHEME FOR
COMPUTER MODELLING OF SOLIDS

Requirements:
• Be versatile and capable of modeling a generic solid.
• Generate valid solids (consists of a complete set of spatial points occupied by the
solid)
• Be complete such that every valid representation (solid) produced is unambiguous.
• Generate unique solids in that no two different representations should generate the
same object.
• Permitted transformation operations on valid solids would always yield valid solids.
• Be compact and efficient in matters of data storage and retrieval
 SOLID REPRESENTATION SCHEMES

• Wire frame modelling

• Boundary representation method (B-rep)
• Constructive solid geometry method
 WIRE FRAME MODELLING
• One of the oldest to represent solids.

• Representation is essentially through a

set of key vertices connected by key
edges.

• Edges may be straight or curved.

• For line the coordinates of the end

points are stored.
• For curved edges, the control points,
slopes and knot vector may be stored.
 WIRE FRAME MODELLING ADVANTAGES AND
DRAWBACKS
Data structures used in wireframe models are simple.

Wireframes are nonunique and ambiguous.

Face information is not available

Due to ambiguous representation, wireframes are limited in use in solid modeling.

Popular in applications like preview or animations

SPACE CURVES
CUBIC SPLINE
HERMITE CURVE
HERMITE BLENDING FUNCTIONS

For small values of ‘t’ , F1 has more influence (other blending

functions are zero) and the function value is close to P1.

For large values of ‘t’, F2 has more influence (other blending

function values are zero) and functions value is close to P2.

For t values around 1/3, weight F3(t) exerts some influence

on the curve.

Function F4(t) has large values of t at t = 2/3, so it affects the

curve only in this region.

Hermite weight functions F1(t) and F2(t) are barycentric,

F1(t) + F2(t) = 1.
HERMITE DERIVATIVES
DEGREE-5 HERMITE INTERPOLATION
CONTROLLING THE HERMITE SEGMENT

Changing the magnitude of tangents without changing direction

Suppose
• Given two end points P1 and P2, and two unit tangent vectors T1 and T2, and third point P3, find
scaling factors ߙ ܽ݊݀ ߚ such that the Hermite segment P(t) defined by points P1 and P2 and tangents
αT1 and βT2, respectively, will pass through P3. Also find the value t0 for which P(t0) = P3.
 SPLINE CURVE
• A spline is a set of polynomials of degree k that are smoothly connected at certain data points.
• At each data point, two polynomials connect, such that all their derivatives from 1st up to the (k − 1)st
be the same at the point.

Why do we need splines?

• A high-degree polynomial may wiggle wildly and its shape may be far from what the user has in
mind.
• Given n data points, smooth curve that passes through the points can be formed.
• The curve consists of n − 1 individual Hermite segments that are smoothly connected at the n−2
interior points.

• For the segments to meet at the interior points, their tangent vectors (first derivatives) and second
derivatives (up to order of k-1 for a kth degree spline) must be the same at each interior point.

• For cubic spline the second derivatives of the curves getting joined should also same at the interior
points.

For n-points P1, P2, ………., Pk, Pk+1, ….. Pn

n-1 curves joined at n-2 interior points

For given n-points form pairs to create Hermite curves
(P1,P2), (P2,P3), and so on, up to (Pn−1,Pn).

In designing curve the tangent at the end of Pk(t) should be

same as starting tangent of P k+1 (t).
• The second derivatives of the individual segments match
at every interior point

Conditions to be enforced are

Pk(1)=Pk+1(0);
Pkt(1)=Pk+1t(0);
Pktt(1)=Pk+1tt(0);
At all intermediate points
 PROCEDURE FOR FORMING CUBIC SPLINE
1. Find the tangents at all the interior points such that Pktt(1)=Pk+1tt(0);

For k= 1 to n-2
2. Solve these system of equations for

3. Find n-1 Hermite curves that satisfy

Pk(1)=Pk+1(0);
Pkt(1)=Pk+1t(0);
 Various cases of cubic spline

Relaxed Cubic
spline

Cyclic cubic
spline

(For 2D spline)
Periodic cubic
spline

An extra curve segment is

added between Pn and P1 No need to
Closed cubic define Pt1
. The total no of curves and
spline
interior points become n. and ptn
Pn+1 =P1 and Pn+2 =P2
 RELAXED SPLINE

No need to specify the start and tangents of spline i.e tangent

conditions can be relaxed
CYCLIC CUBIC CURVE
 Since n=5, 4 cubic spline curves need to be calculated

Anti cyclic end conditions

CLOSED SPLINE
THE QUADRATIC SPLINE
Each spline segment is quadratic polynomial or parabolic arc.

Quadratic segments can be connected with C1 continuity only as the second derivative is constant.

A quadratic spline may not be as tight as cubic spline that passes through the knot points.

Quadratic curve
For a Hermite curve when two end points and the tangent at the starting point only is given we can
generate a quadratic curve only since we have 3 conditions.
At the joint point of the two curves

For C1 continuity
BE´ZIER CURVE
The curve is named after the scientist Be´zier.

The Bezier curve is a parametric curve P(t) that is a

polynomial function.

The degree of the polynomial depends on the

number of points used to define the curve.

The method employs control points and produces

an approximating curve, i.e the curve does not pass
through the interior points, but is attracted by them. The curve is defined by four points and is a cubic
polynomial (in fig, it is cubic Bezier curve).

Each point influences the direction of the curve by The points can be moved, to vary the curve. Thus it is
easy to edit the curve. It is also possible to add and
pulling it towards itself.
delete points to edit the curve. (This is the major
advantage)
Control polygon : It is the polygon obtained when the control points are connected, in their natural
order, with straight segments.

The general representation of Bezier curve with points P0, P1, ……….Pn (n is 1 less than given points)
Is given as

‫ܤ‬௜ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ - weight function with a variable t corresponding to the point ܲ௜

If the curve is defined by 3 points then there will be ‫ܤ‬଴ ‫ ݐ‬, ‫ܤ‬ଵ ‫ܤ ݀݊ܽ ݐ‬ଶ ‫ݐ‬
If the curve is defined by 4 points then there will be‫ܤ‬଴ ‫ ݐ‬, ‫ܤ‬ଵ ‫ ݐ‬, ‫ܤ‬ଶ ‫ܤ ݀݊ܽ ݐ‬ଷ ‫ݐ‬
Similarly
If the curve is defined by n points then there will be ‫ܤ‬଴ ‫ ݐ‬, ‫ܤ‬ଵ ‫ ݐ‬, ‫ܤ‬ଶ ‫ܤ ݀݊ܽ ݐ‬௡ ‫ݐ‬

What is criteria in designing ௜ -

The curve should pass through the end points.

The function ‫ܤ‬௜ ‫ ݐ‬should be such that the curve is

close to the point ܲ௜ .

The functions ‫ܤ‬଴ ‫ ݐ‬, ‫ܤ‬ଵ ‫ ݐ‬, ‫ܤ‬ଶ ‫ܤ ݀݊ܽ ݐ‬௡ ‫ ݐ‬are
barycentric.

The functions also depends on the number of

points given. Based on this criteria

The function ‫ܤ‬௜ ‫ ݐ‬is written as ‫ܤ‬௡,௜ ‫ݐ‬

What is ‫ܤ‬௡,௜ ‫ ݐ‬-
If the number of points given are 3- then n=2 and ’i’ varies as 0, 1 and 2, then weight function are
‫ܤ‬ଶ଴ ‫ ݐ‬, ‫ܤ‬ଶଵ ‫ܤ ݀݊ܽ ݐ‬ଶଶ ‫ ݐ‬.
The curve ‫ܤ‬ଶ଴ ‫ ݐ‬and ‫ܤ‬ଶଶ ‫ ݐ‬is such that the curve should pass through the points P0 and P2.
The curve ‫ܤ‬ଶଵ ‫ ݐ‬should be such that the curve approaches P1 at t=1/2 i.e the curve should have
maximum value at t=1/2.
Similarly
If the number of points given are 5- then n=4 and varies as 0, 1 to 4, then weight functions are
‫ܤ‬ସ଴ ‫ ݐ‬, ‫ܤ‬ସଵ ‫ … … … ݐ‬. ‫ܤ‬ସସ ‫ ݐ‬.
The curve ‫ܤ‬ଶ଴ ‫ ݐ‬and ‫ܤ‬ଶଶ ‫ ݐ‬is such that the curve should pass through the points P0 and P2.
Bernstein Form of the Bezier Curve

Bernstein polynomials
RECURSIVE REPRESENTATION OF BEZIER CURVE

can be represented as

For generating define

For n=1,

For n=2,
PROPERTIES OF BEZIER CURVE
The functions should be such that the curve passes through the first and last control
points.

The tangent to the curve at the start point should be P1 − P0, and for the end point
should be P n-1 - Pn

i.e., the curve should start at point P0 moving toward P1. A similar property should
hold at the last point.

The same requirement is generalized for higher derivatives of the curve at the two
extreme endpoints.
Ptt(0) should depend only on the first point P0 and its two neighbors P1 and P2.
P(k)(0) should only depend on P0 and its k neighbors P1 through Pk.
The weight functions should be symmetric with respect to t and (1 − t). This
means that a reversal of the sequence of control points would not affect the shape of
the curve.

The weights should be barycentric, to guarantee that the shape of the curve is
independent of the coordinate system.

The entire curve lies within the convex hull of the set of control points.
CONNECTING BEZIER CURVES

Two sets P0,P1, . . . ,Pn and Q0,Q1, . . . ,Qm.

B SPLINE CURVE
Disadvantages of Bezier curves
• The degree of the Bezier curve depends on the number of control points
• It offers only global control
• Individual segments are easy to connect with C1 continuity, but C2 is difficult to obtain.

B- Spline curves overcome all these limitations.

In B- spline curves, the curve does not pass through the end points also. Thus all are control points.
In B-spline curves, in addition to control points, one has to define additional variables called ‘knots’.
Knot’s are real numbers which offer additional control
Types of B-splines
Uniform B-splines
Non- uniform B-splines
Open uniform B-splines
Rational B-splines
Non Uniform Rational B- Splines (NURBS)

The Quadratic Uniform B-Spline

n + 1 control points, P0, P1,. . . , Pn, are given
Pi(t) is a quadratic parametric polynomial based on three points, Pi−1, Pi, and Pi+1.
The quadratic segments connect with C1 continuity only

The start and end points of segment Pi(t) are denoted by Ki and Ki+1, respectively, they are called joints
For the curves to be independent of the coordinate system the weights of the functions should satisfy
barycentric property

Nine of the 11 equations only are independent

Similarly find P2(t) from P1, P2 and P3
Closed Quadratic B-Splines

Pn, P0, P1, P2, . . . , Pn−1, Pn, P0

Similarly find P1(t) and P2(t)

The Cubic Uniform B-Spline
We now have 19 equations, but only 16 of them are independent
Similarly find P2(t)
Closed Cubic Uniform B-Spline

Higher degree uniform B-Spline

 Multiple Control Points

It is possible to have several identical control points and a set of identical points is referred to as a multiple point.

For double control points of cubic b-spline

P0, P1 = P2, and P3

For a triple point of cubic b-spline

P0, P1 = P2 = P3, and P4

Cubic B-Spline and Bezier Curves
Given a cubic B-spline segment P(t) based on the four control points P0, P1, P2,
and P3,

Find four control points Q0, Q1, Q2, and Q3 such that the Bezier curve Q(t) defined by
them will have the same shape as P(t).
 FINITE ELEMENT METHODS
Fundamental Concept of FEM
A continuous field of a certain domain having infinite degrees of freedom is
approximated by a set of piecewise continuous models with a number of finite
regions called elements. The number of unknowns defined as nodes are
determined using a given relationship i.e.{F}=[K]*{d}.

 
Domain  x
x
 Subdomain e


Domain with degrees of freedom Domain divided with subdomains

with degrees of freedom




 


x
x
 The dots in the model are called
nodes. The unknowns in Finite
Element Analysis (FEA) are field
variable values at the nodes.

From values of field variables at the

nodes of an element, the field
variables at the intermediate
locations of elements is
approximated by some interpolating
functions.

The coefficients of the nodal values for variables in the interpolating function are
called shape functions.
 GENERAL STEPS
• Discretize the domain
Divide domain into finite elements using appropriate element types (1-D, 2-D, 3-D, or
Axisymmetric)
• Select a Displacement Function
Define a function within each element using the nodal values

• Define the Strain/Displacement and Stress/strain Relationships

• Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and Equations

Derive the equations within each element
• Assemble the Element Equations to Obtain the Global or Total Equations and Introduce
Boundary Conditions
Add element equations by method of superposition to obtain global equation
• Solve for the Unknown Degrees of Freedom (i.e primary unknowns)

• Solve for the Element Strains and Stresses

• Interpret the Results
 NOTE ON STIFFNESS MATRIX
For a 1-D bar, the stiffness matrix is derived from the
stress/strain relationship in Hooke’s law and the definitions
of stress and strain.

σx = Eεx. ; σx = P/A ; εx = du/dx = (d2x – d1x)/L

L E
By substitution: -f1x = EA (d2x – d1x)
L A
f1x = EA (d1x – d2x) f2
f1
L
Similarly for f2x: f2x = EA (d2x – d1x) d1x d2x
L
Combining into matrix form, the stiffness matrix is defined
as

[k] = EA 1 -1
L
-1 1
NOTE ON THE DISPLACEMENT FUNCTION

If a 1-D bar is broken into 2 elements, the displacement function

would be u(x) = a + a x + a x2.
1 2 3

Putting it into matrix notation: u(x) = [1 x x2] a1

a2
By knowing the distances to the nodes a3
and the displacements at those nodes, the
equation becomes: u1 1 0 0 a1
u2 2
= 1 x2 x2 a2 , where
u3 1 x3 x32 a3

x1 = 0, x2 and x3 are the distances to the nodes and u1, u2, and u3 are the displacements.

The coefficients are found by solving the equation.

 EXAMPLE
E 2E

a A b A P

L L

Determine displacements of materials a and b if the load P is applied to the end of

the bar given the above information.
 EXAMPLE CON’T.
1) Discretize the domain with appropriate elements.

Element a Element b

f1 f3 = P
1 2 3
u1 u2 u3

f1 2 f21 f22 2 3 f3 = P
1

u1 u2 u2 u3
 EXAMPLE CON’T.

2) Select a displacement function

1 2 3

u1 u2 u3

u(x) = a1 + a2x + a3x2

 EXAMPLE CON’T.
3) Define stress/displacement and stress/strain relationships
σx = Eεx εx = du/dx
4) Derive the element stiffness matrix and element equations
{F} = [k]{d} [k] = stiffness matrix

{F} = Force [k] = EA 1 -1

L
{d} = displacement -1 1
a b
f1 EA 1 -1 u1 EA
= ,
f22 2 -2 u2
f21 L u2 f3 = u3
L
-1 1 -2 2
 EXAMPLE CON’T.
5) Construct Global equation and introduce boundary
conditions and known variables.

f1 EA 1 -1 0 u1 Global Equation
f21+f22 =
L u2
f3 -1 3 -2 u3

0 -2 2

B.C.: (x =0) u1 = 0
Known variables: f3 = P and f2 = f21+f22 = 0
 EXAMPLE CON’T.

6) Solve for unknowns.

f1 EA 1 -1 0 0
0 =
L -1 3 -2 u2
P u3
0 -2 2

f1 = -EAu2 0 = EA(3u2-2u3) P = EA(2u3-2u2)

L L L

u2 = PL u3 = 3PL
EA f1 = -P
2EA
 EXAMPLE CON’T.

7) Solve for the element strains and stresses.

εa = P = u2 σa = Eεa = P
EA L A
εb = 3P = u3 σa = 2E εb = P
2EA L 3 A

8) Interpret the Results

•After solving for the displacements, the coefficients of the

displacement function can be determined.
 Discretize the domain

As a first step, discretization, irregular domain broken into smaller and regular subdomains (finite
elements).

It is replacing the domain having an infinite number of degrees of freedom (dof) by a system having
a finite number of dof.

Choosing the shapes, sizes, number, and configurations of the elements is important.

• If the geometry, material properties, and the field variable of the problem can be described in
terms of a single spatial coordinate, 1D or line elements are chosen.

• T distribution in a rod (or fin), the pressure distribution in a pipe flow, and the deformation of a
bar under axial load etc., 1D element are chosen.
• Analysis of beams, the values of the field variable (transverse
displacement) and its derivative (slope) are chosen as the
unknowns (dof) at each node, the following 1D element is chosen.

• When the configuration and other details of the problem can be

described in terms of two independent spatial coordinates, we can
use the 2D elements.
• The basic element useful for two-dimensional analysis is the
triangular element. 176
• Use of quadrilateral (or rectangle or
parallelogram) elements is advantageous. For the
bending analysis of plates, multiple dof (transverse
displacement and its derivatives) are used at each
node.

177
• If the geometry,
material properties,
and other
parameters of the
body can be
described by three
independent spatial
coordinates, we can
idealize the body by
using the three-
dimensional
elements..

178
• For the discretization of problems involving curved geometries,
finite elements with curved sides are useful.
• Typical elements having curved boundaries are shown.
• The ability to model curved boundaries has been made possible
by the addition of mid-side nodes.
• Finite elements with straight sides are known as linear elements,
whereas those with curved sides are called higher-order
elements.

179
180
Discretization process
1. Type of Elements:

181
Aircraft wing using
different types of
elements.

182
 183
The more suitable element that suits the
problem.
2. Size of Elements: If the size of the elements is small, the final
solution is expected to be more accurate. Use of smaller-sized
elements will also mean more computation time. Sometimes,
elements of different sizes in the same body may to be used.

184
3. Location of Nodes:

185
4. Number of Elements: The number of elements to be chosen for
idealization is related to the accuracy desired, size of elements,
and the number of dof involved.

186
5. Simplifications afforded
by the physical
configuration of the
body: If the configuration
of the body as well as the
external conditions are
symmetric, we may
consider only half of the
body for finite element
idealization.

187
 FEM PROCEDURE
1. Descretize the given continuum.
2. Select a proper interpolation or displacement model.
3. Derive element stiffness matrices and load vectors.
4. Assemble element equations to obtain the overall
equilibrium equations.
5. Solve for the unknown nodal displacements.
6. Compute element strains and stresses.
188
 INTERPOLATION MODELS
• In FEM, the solution of a complicated problem is obtained by dividing the region of
interest into small regions (finite elements) and approximating the solution over each
sub region by a simple function.
• It is an important step to choose a simple function for the solution in each element.

• The functions used to represent the behavior of the solution within an element are
called interpolation functions or approximating functions or interpolation models.

• Polynomial-type interpolation functions have been most widely used due to the following
reasons:

189
• Easier to formulate and computerize the finite element equations with polynomial
type interpolation functions.

• Easier to perform differentiation or integration with polynomials.

• To improve the accuracy of the results increase the order of the polynomial.
Theoretically, a polynomial of infinite order corresponds to the exact solution. But in
practice we use polynomials of finite order only as an approximation.

190
POLYNOMIAL APPROXIMATION

191
• For a fixed order of the interpolation polynomial, the discretization of the region (or domain) can
be improved by two methods.
• 1. r-method, the locations of the nodes are altered without changing the total number of
elements.
• 2. h-method, the number of elements is increased.
• If improvement in accuracy is sought by increasing the order of the interpolation of polynomial
(p-method).
• Curved boundaries cannot be modeled satisfactorily using straight sided elements,
isoparametric elements are developed.

192
• In isoparametric elements use the interpolation functions to define the
shape or geometry and the variation of the field variable within the
element.
Linear interpolation polynomials in terms of global coordinates
• 1D Simplex Element:
• Consider a 1D element (line segment) of length l with two nodes, one
at each end. Let the nodes be denoted as i and j and the nodal values
of the field variable φ as φi and φj. The variation of φ inside the
element is assumed to be linear as
• φ(x)= α1 + α2x, where α1 and α2 are unknown coefficients.

193
194
• By using the nodal conditions, we can write φ(x)= α1 + α2x as φ(x) = φi at x=xi,
φ(x) = φj at x=xj,
• Substituting the above equations, we can write as
φi= α1 + α2xi
φj= α1 + α2xj
• Solving for α1 and α2 we get, i x j  j xi  j  i
1  , 2 
l l

  i x j   j xi    j  i
• Substituting,

 ( x)   
  l
x

195

 l   
 • This equation can be written after rearrangement as

 ( x)  N i ( x)i  N j ( x) j  N ( x)

where [N ( x)]  [ N i ( x) N j ( x)]
xj  x x  xi
And N i ( x)  , N j ( x) 
l l
 i 
and      vector of nodal unkowns of elements e
 j 
• The linear functions of x defined the above equations are called as
interpolation or shape functions.
• Values of [N(x)] at each of x=xi and x=xj?
196
• Q: The nodal displacements of nodes i and j of an element in a one-dimensional fin are known to
be Ti=120oC and Tj=80oC with the x-coordinates xi=30 cm and xj=50 cm. Estimate the shape
functions (Ni(x), Nj(x)) associated with the nodal values Ti and Tj. Interpolation model for the
temperature inside the element T(x) and estimate the Temperature in the element at x=45 cm.
• Sol:
• Obtain [Ni(x) Nj(x)]
• Obtain the interpolation model for the temperature T(x)
• Determine the T at x=45 cm using the above eq.

197
2D Simplex Element:
• The two-dimensional simplex element is a straight-sided triangle with three nodes,
one at each corner.
• Let the nodes be labeled as i, j, and k by proceeding counterclockwise from node i,
which is arbitrarily specified. Let the global coordinates of the nodes i, j, and k be
given by (xi, yi), (xj, yj), and (xk, yk) and the nodal values of the field variable ϕ (x, y)
by ϕi, ϕj, and ϕk, respectively.
• The variation of ϕ inside the element is assumed to be linear as ϕ(x, y) = α1 + α2x+
α3y

198
2D SIMPLEX ELEMENT

199
• The nodal conditions can be written as
ϕ(x, y) = ϕi at (x = xi, y = yi),
ϕ(x, y) = ϕj at (x = xj, y = yj),
ϕ(x, y) = ϕk at (x = xk, y = yk)
• This leads to the equations:
ϕi = α1 + α2xi + α3yi,
ϕj = α1 + α2xj + α3yj,
ϕk = α1 + α2xk + α3yk.
• Solving the above equations,
α1 = 1/2A (aiϕi +ajϕj + akϕk)
α2 = 1/2A(biϕi +bjϕj + bkϕk)
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α3 = 1/2A (ciϕi +cjϕj + ckϕk)
• Where A is the area of the triangle ijk, and the other values are as given by

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• Substituting the values in the first equation,

 ( x)  N i ( x, y )i  N j ( x, y ) j  N k ( x, y )k  N ( x, y )

where [ N ( x)]  [ N i ( x, y ) N j ( x, y ) N k ( x, y )]
1
N i ( x, y )  (ai , bi x  ci y )
2A
1
N j ( x, y )  (a j , b j x  c j y )
2A
1
N k ( x, y )  (a k , bk x  ck y )
2A
 i 
 
and    j   vector of nodal unkowns of elements e
 
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 k
• Q. The temperatures at the nodes of a triangle element are given by Ti=210oC, Tj=270oC
and Tk=250oC. If the nodal coordinates are (xi,yi)=(50,30), (xj,yj)=(70,50) and
(xk,yk)=(55,60) mm, determine the shape functions of the element and temperature at the
point (60, 40) inside the element.
• Sol:
• Obtain area A and the other constants needed
• From the constants, obtain the shape functions
• Obtain the T distribution
• From the above T distribution, obtain the T at (60, 40).

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 HIGHER ORDER 1D ELEMENTS

• Quadratic Element: Defined as ϕ(x, y) = α1 + α2x+ α3x2

• Three degree of freedom is assumed.

The unknowns are

evaluated as

Φ(x)= Ni(x) Φi+ Nj(x) Φj + Nk(x) Φk 204

Axial Strain = dΦ/dx

• Cubic Element: Defined as ϕ(x, y) = α1 + α2x+ α3x2 + α4x3

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• We are not discussing:
• Higher order 2D, 3D elements
• Quadratic Elements
• Cubic Elements

• Natural coordinate system of 1D, 2D and 3D elements.

• Q. A bar(1 D), subjected to an axial force, is divided into a number of
quadratic elements (3 nodes). For a specific element, the nodes i, j and
k are located at 15, 18 and 21 mm respctly., from origin. If the
displacements of the 3 nodes are given as 0.0015, 0.0024 and 0.0033,
determine, shape functions, variation of the displacement in the element
and axial strain in the element.

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