Analog Signal

INTRODUCTION
A logic gate can be defined as digital circuit which either allows a

signal to pass through or stops it. These gates are related to
Boolean Algebra. These gates allow signals to pass through them
only when some logic is satisfied. A semiconductor diode (P‐N
junction) acts as a closed switch when it
Is forward biased, i.e. it allows current to pass through it. It acts as
an open circuit when it is reversed biased, i.e. it allows very little or
no current to pass through it. This unique property of diode is
employed in the design of logic gates and the circuits.
BASIC TERMINOLOGY
Signal Information converted in electrical form and suitable for

transmission is called a signal.
There are two types of signals:‐
i) Analog signal
ii) Digital signal
Analog signal
Analog signals are continuous variation of voltage or current. They
are essentially single‐valued function of time. Sine wave is
fundamental analog signal.
Digital signal
Digital signal are those which can take only discrete step wise
values. Binary system that is extensively used in digital electronics
employs just two levels of a signal. ‘O’ corresponds to low level and
‘1’ corresponds to high level of voltage or current.
THEORY
A logic gate is an elementary building block of a digital circuit.
Most logic gates have two inputs and one output. At any given
moment, every terminal is in one of the
two binaryconditions low (0) or high (1), represented by
different voltage levels. The logic state of a terminal can, and
generally does, change often, as the circuit processes data. In most
logic gates, the low state is approximately zero volts (0 V), while
the high state is approximately five volts positive (+5 V).
There are seven basic logic gates: AND, OR, XOR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and
XNOR.
AND GATE
The AND gate is so named because, if 0 is called "false" and 1 is

called "true," the gate acts in the same way as the logical "and"
operator. The following illustration and table show the circuit
symbol and logic combinations for an AND gate. (In the symbol,
the input terminals are at left and the output terminal is at right.)
The output is "true" when both inputs are "true." Otherwise, the
output is "false."
AND gate
Input 1 Input 2 Output
1
1
1 1 1
OR GATE
The OR gate gets its name from the fact that it behaves after the
fashion of the logical inclusive "or." The output is "true" if either or
both of the inputs are "true." If both inputs are "false," then the
output is "false."
OR gate
1 1
1 1
1 1 1
XOR GATE
The XOR ( exclusive-OR ) gate acts in the same way as the logical
"either/or." The output is "true" if either, but not both, of the inputs
are "true." The output is "false" if both inputs are "false" or if both
inputs are "true." Another way of looking at this circuit is to
observe that the output is 1 if the inputs are different, but 0 if the
inputs are the same.
XOR gate
1 1
1 1
1 1
NOT GATE
A logical inverter , sometimes called a NOT gate to differentiate it

from other types of electronic inverter devices, has only one input.
It reverses the logic state.
Inverter or NOT gate

Input Output
1
1
NAND GATE
The NAND gate operates as an AND gate followed by a NOT gate.

It acts in the manner of the logical operation "and" followed by
negation. The output is "false" if both inputs are "true." Otherwise,
the output is "true."
NAND gate

1
1 1
1 1
1 1
NOR GATE
The NOR gate is a combination OR gate followed by an inverter. Its

output is "true" if both inputs are "false." Otherwise, the output is
"false."
NOR gate

1
1
1
1 1
XNOR GATE
The XNOR (exclusive-NOR) gate is a combination XOR gate

followed by an inverter. Its output is "true" if the inputs are the
same, and"false" if the inputs are different.
XNOR gate

1
1
1
1 1
Logic gates with more than 2 inputs
We can separate and make a group of 2 and work on it. for

eg:
Y=A+B+C then Y is also equal to X+C where X=A+B
The output state of a digital logic AND gate only returns
“LOW” again when ANY of its inputs are at a logic level “0”. In
other words for a logic AND gate, any LOW input will give a
LOW output.
The logic or Boolean expression given for a digital logic AND
gate is that for Logical Multiplication which is denoted by a
single dot or full stop symbol, ( . ) giving us the Boolean
expression of: A.B = Q.
Then we can define the operation of a digital 2-input
logic AND gate as being:
“If both A and B are true, then Q is true”
Digital Logic “AND” Gate Types
The 2-input Logic AND Gate
Symbol Truth Table
B A Q
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
2-input AND Gate
1 1 1
Boolean Expression Q = A.B Read as A AND B gives Q
The 3-input Logic AND Gate

Symbol Truth Table
C B A Q
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
3-input AND Gate
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
Boolean Expression Q = A.B.C Read as A AND B AND C gives Q
Because the Boolean expression for the logic AND function is

defined as (.), which is a binary operation, AND gates can be
cascaded together to form any number of individual inputs.
However, commercial available AND gate IC’s are only
available in standard 2, 3, or 4-input packages. If additional
inputs are required, then standard AND gates will need to be
cascaded together to obtain the required input value, for
example.
Multi-input AND Gate

CONSTRUCTION
2-input Transistor AND Gate

A simple 2-input logic AND gate can be constructed using
RTL Resistor-transistor switches connected together as
shown below with the inputs connected directly to the
transistor bases. Both transistors must be saturated “ON” for
an output at Q.
Logic AND Gates are available using digital circuits to

produce the desired logical function and is given a symbol
whose shape represents the logical operation of the AND
gate.
Aim :
TO DESIGN AND STIMULATE THE AND GATE CIRCUIT.
Components:
Two ideal p-n junction diode (D1 and D2) and resistance R.
Theory and Constructions:
An AND gate can be realized by the electronic circuit
,making use of two diodes D1 and D2.The resistance R
is connected to the positive terminal of a 5V battery
permanently.
Here the negative terminal of the battery is grounded

and corresponds to the 0 level ,and the positive
terminal of the battery corresponds to the level 1.The
output Y is the voltage at C with respect to earth.

Analog Signal

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INTRODUCTION

A logic gate can be defined as digital circuit which either allows a

Signal Information converted in electrical form and suitable for

The AND gate is so named because, if 0 is called "false" and 1 is

Input 1 Input 2 Output

Input 1 Input 2 Output

A logical inverter , sometimes called a NOT gate to differentiate it

Inverter or NOT gate

The NAND gate operates as an AND gate followed by a NOT gate.

Input 1 Input 2 Output

The NOR gate is a combination OR gate followed by an inverter. Its

Input 1 Input 2 Output

The XNOR (exclusive-NOR) gate is a combination XOR gate

Input 1 Input 2 Output

Logic gates with more than 2 inputs

We can separate and make a group of 2 and work on it. for

“If both A and B are true, then Q is true”

Digital Logic “AND” Gate Types

The 2-input Logic AND Gate

Symbol Truth Table

Boolean Expression Q = A.B Read as A AND B gives Q

The 3-input Logic AND Gate

Boolean Expression Q = A.B.C Read as A AND B AND C gives Q

Because the Boolean expression for the logic AND function is

Multi-input AND Gate

2-input Transistor AND Gate

Logic AND Gates are available using digital circuits to

Here the negative terminal of the battery is grounded

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