Landscape Architecture

Unit 1 - Introduction to Landscape Architecture

A. Terminologies:

Land is a directly usable portion of earth’s surface

Landscape a portion of territory that can be viewed at one time from one place, often
considered in terms of their aesthetic appeal

Landscape architecture is the design of outdoor areas, landmarks, and structures to

achieve environmental, social-behavioural, or aesthetic outcomes. (It involves the
systematic investigation of existing social, ecological, and soil conditions and
processes in the landscape, and the design of interventions that will produce the
desired outcome.)

Fig. (a) Outdoor area, (b) Landmark (Arc de Triomphe, Paris), (c) Structure (Entrance,
REVA University)

Central park, New York

Frederick Law Olmsted (April 26, 1822 – August 28, 1903) was an American landscape
architect, considered to be the father of landscape architecture. He coined the term
landscape architecture in the year 1858.

Fig (a) Central park, New York (1858) (b) Golden Gate Park, San Francisco (1871)

His design principles encourage the full utilization of the naturally occurring features
of a given space.

1. Respect “the genius of a place” Designs should stay true to the character of
their natural surroundings
2. The art is to conceal art. He believed the goal wasn’t to make viewers see his
work. It was to make them unaware of it. To him, the art was to conceal art.
And the way to do this was to remove distractions and demands on the
conscious mind. Viewers weren’t supposed to examine or analyze parts of the
scene. They were supposed to be unaware of everything that was working.
3. Words matter. Olmsted wrote often and thought hard about the words he
used. For example, he rejected the term “landscape gardening” for his own
work since he felt he worked on a larger scale than gardeners.

Theodora Kimball Hubbard (1887 – 1935)

She is considered as an expert on zoning, and is credited with writing over 100
editorials, articles, and reviews in addition to preparing detailed bibliographies and
reports on the fields of landscape and city planning.

She with her husband Henry Vincent Hubbard worked on a basic textbook for
landscape architecture, An Introduction to the Study of Landscape Design, which for
many years was considered the standard text.

Landscape architecture can be defined as a fine art to create and preserve beauty
to promote comfort, convenience and health of urban Population.
Garrett Eckbo (1910 – 2000)

He was an American landscape architect notable for his seminal 1950 book
Landscape for Living.

He rejected the centrality of nature as a psychological and spiritual source of

inspiration, criticizing the "palliative" introduction of nature into cities in parks designed
by Olmsted and other nineteenth-century landscape architects and arguing instead
for a scientific method that would provide a model for a new approach to landscape
design entirely free of preconceptions.

He defined Landscape Architecture as Land designed as space for human living i.e.
an extension of architecture by other means.

Landscape Architect analyze, plan, design, manage, and nurture the built and
natural environments. Landscape architects have a significant impact on
communities and quality of life. They design parks, campuses, streetscapes, trails,
plazas, and other projects that help define a community.

B. History

▪ A brief look at historical styles still has a relevance for the academicians as well
as the professionals today even though the terms of reference may have
changed.

▪ Many of the elements that make up today’s landscapes have historical

antecedents, while the number of old gardens which actually remain indicates
that they have stood the test of time visually and as places for use.

▪ In its earliest form the garden was basically an enclosure, made of thorn or
scrub, to keep out wild animals and keep in domestic ones. The enclosure later
took more permanent shape as a defense against other humans as much as
the animals. This was also used for growing both food and plants.

▪ This creation of a small private sanctuary characterized early enclosed

gardens, although their function varied according to the climate and lifestyle.

1. Oriental Asia (Mostly) Early Egyptian Garden, Persian Landscape, Mughal

Gardens, Japanese Landscape, Chinese Landscape, Indian Trad. Landscapes

1.1 Early Egyptian Garden

▪ Earliest recorded garden in Egypt in 3000 BC.
▪ Completely utilitarian in concept & layout
▪ Surrounded by mud wall to ward off sun & heat
▪ Square or rectangular shaped with the house located within
▪ Use of water as irrigation channels. Channels for functional reasons divided the
garden into geometric areas
▪ Plants & herbs were grown for consumption and medicinal values (e.g.
Onion as their staple diet & other vegetables)
▪ More elaborate gardens had channels widened into pools with fish and
arbors with vines to sit under as well as shade giving Palms.
Fig. (a) Egyptian garden (b) Fresco (1400 BC)

This fresco (1400 BC) found on the tomb of Nebamun in Thebes shows an ornamental
fish Pond in the center with fruit trees, Palms & Vines

1.2 Persian Landscape

▪ Persian miniature paintings show Babur in Bagh-I-vafa (Garden of Fidelity). The

irrigation channel divides the garden into four and there are Orange &
Pomegranate trees surrounding the Reservoir.
▪ The formal style of early Egyptian gardens characterized the whole Islamic
world during the next few thousand years.
▪ Gardens were walled with grape vines and other creepers
▪ Fruit trees like Peach, Apple, Cherry, Banana, Date and Olive were cultivated
▪ Flowers like Poppies, Lilies, Chrysanthemums and Roses were grown in formal
beds between the cross shaped water channels.

The idea of a flowering Paradise within a formal setting were captured in Persian
writings, painted miniatures and woven carpets.
Fig. (a) Persian garden (b) Carpet design showing map of typical garden

1.3 Mughal Gardens

The Mughal gardens in India are a direct offshoot of Persian gardens

Philosophy

▪ Persian gardens are designed around water flowing to the four corners of the
earth.
▪ The four rivers of life meet at the center take the place of a central pavilion.
▪ From this evolves the concept of Char Bagh with straight water channels
crossing at right angles to divide the garden into four quadrants.
▪ A new environment in which water was to play an important role.
▪ Mughal gardens were laid out in conformation with geometrical patterns, with
divisions and sub-divisions.
▪ Normally square or rectangular in plan, was divided into four quarters (CHAR
BAGH) and was enclosed by a high wall.
▪ Massive gateways, which contained huge wooden doors studded with heavy
iron bosses
Fig (a) Char-Bagh concept (b) Typical tomb garden plan

Typical Mughal Gardens Features

▪ Series From terrace to terrace the water was led down the beautiful slopes
called Chadars which mean white shawls of water were marble or stone chutes
carved in various patterns so that the water running over them were thrown up
and broken into ripples and splashes.

▪ Series of niches were also provided behind the waterfall

▪ The Mughals like the Persians paved the channels of water with blue tiles.

▪ Fresh green willows form a leafy green canopy.

▪ Fruit trees were planted for revenue and beauty. Flowers like jasmine & michelia
were used for color and scent

▪ Chenar gave weight, shade & sense of scale within the gardens

▪ It is an idealized form in the pattern of irrigation

▪ Water is shown symbolically & physically as the source of life

▪ Water containers included Channels, chaddars, reflecting pools etc.

▪ Channels divide area into four rectangular parts

▪ Pavilions built of marble sandstone

▪ Brick and stone paving

▪ Chabutra-thrones overlooking the garden.

▪ Intricate marble lattice in tomb gardens

▪ Monumental and ornate gateways

Examples:

▪ Mughal Gardens: Rambagh, Agra

▪ Mughal Gardens: Humayun’s Tomb, Delhi
▪ Mughal Gardens: Akbar Tomb, Sikandra
▪ Shalamar bagh, Kashmir
▪ Nishat bagh, Kashmir
▪ Chasme shahi, Kashmir
▪ Shalamar bagh, Lahore
▪ Faiz Baksh lower, Lahore
▪ Faiz Baksh middle, Lahore
▪ Farah Baksh, Lahore
▪ Taj Mahal, Agra
▪ Pinjore gardens, Haryana

1.4 Metamorphosis

Any complete change in appearance, character, circumstances etc.

Egyptian Garden to Persian Garden to Moorish Garden to Mughal Garden

Same Landscape elements transformed as per the environment (Climate and Need)

• Narrow rills developed into wider canals and great tanks- to enjoy the cool air
generated by large sheets of water and its need in Indian heat.

• Transformation from simple stone thrones in the water channels of Nishat and
Shalamar to elaborate building set in centre of great tanks surrounded by
sprouting jets of water.

• Another Persian feature which persisted in the earlier Mughal Gardens was the
underground room but as the new comer adjusted to the surroundings they
delighted more in life in open air.

• Single jets from Persian tanks developed into hundreds of fountains.

• Level Landscape to contoured landscape indicative of increasing

magnificence and simplicity.

• Water from its simple existence into channels and tanks was found in great
fountains and cascades.

1.5 Japanese Garden

The most important characteristic of the Japanese Garden is their expression of the
essence of nature, rather than its mere representation.

The Japanese designer composes their garden picture from nature, reproducing in
an exaggerated form the impression he obtains from it in the given space.
Picturesque view control by planting trees

The rear branches are removed, allowing the trees to be planted close together, while
the front branches are clipped to form a continuous curtain.
1.5.1 Hill Garden

The hill garden features a hill, with which are usually combined a pond and a stream.
Requires large ground areas

Tree plantation:

Substantial equality of appearance throughout the year… evergreen trees

interspersed with flowering trees and Japanese Maple (famous for its autumnal hues).

Background lined by evergreens along the garden periphery.

Pine trees fashioned into fine shapes, as picturesque as those of ‘bonsai’s or pot plants.

Fig. (a) Pine tree (b) Maple trees

Fig. (a) Hill garden (b) Bonsai

1.5.2 Flat Garden

Flat garden is those laid on flat terrains and believed that the scenic features of the
sea, lake or pond are taken as inspiration.

While the Hill Garden is said to represent the mountains or valleys, the Flat Garden
represents the coast or island.

Stone groups in a flat garden represent island of varying size.

It doesn’t have ups or downs and the monotony is relieved by stones and trees, and
further complexity is affected by either a well, a water-basin or some stepping stones.

Example: Komyo-ji, Kamakura, Japan

1.5.3 Tea Garden

~ are gardens attached to tea-houses, and in their design, the issue of utility plays an
important part – to reflect the rites required to be observed by the guests

It is divided into two sections:

Outer garden or ‘Soto-roji’

Inner garden or ‘uchi-roji’

The outer garden has a waiting place, a small edifice for guests’ waiting. Provision for
washing hands in a water-basin and a stone lantern for illumination

Pathway leads to the inner garden, entry marked with a simple Gate.

Inner garden consists of the tea-house, a rest place called ‘koshikake’ and a
convenience.

A second water-basin placed low on the ground, for rinsing mouth.

Path, water-basin and rest place are all
lit with stone lanterns.

Tree plantation: harmony is preferred.

Both evergreen & deciduous trees may
be used, but not made imposing…

Outer garden is aesthetically in contrast

to the inner garden…..

Outer garden may be fully exposed to

sun-light (deciduous trees), Inner
garden will be darkened by shadowy
trees (evergreen)\

Japanese Garden elements

▪ Water (Pond, Stream, Waterfall, Wells)

▪ Islands
▪ Bridges
▪ Stones
▪ Fences
▪ Stone lanterns
▪ Water-basins
▪ Garden paths: stepping stones/ paved path

Japanese Landscape: Lighting

To illuminate different landscape elements like plants, landform, pools and other water
features, man-made structures and sculptures etc. to dramatize the overall visual
composition.

Fig (a) Daytime gives no hint of how lighting will transform this yard at night. (b) In
darkness, the shoji acts as a giant projection screen, showing silhouettes of banana
trees positioned behind it.
1.6 Chinese Landscape

Chinese gardens grew out of the fusion of Confucian concept of art, as something
created by human beings but modelled on nature and the Taoist (philosophy
based on Lao-tzu) belief in the superiority of the nature as an art form.

According to Tao, human activity should never dictate the shape of the natural
world since all things should be allowed to develop naturally (hence plants are left
in their natural form).

Aesthetic principles of art forms and moral/ethical principles of the Chinese society
are based on observation and interpretation of nature.

Human characteristics are compared with stone, bamboos, blossoms.

Mountains and water form essential features in Chinese gardens and paintings.

The five elements: Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal and Water are the agents of Chi - the
universal energy or the life force in all living beings...
…they represent Shapes, Colours & Senses

Representation by landscape elements

i) Wood (Green) Columns, Furniture, Decking, Planters, Logs
ii) Fire (Red/Purple) Pyramids, Obelisks, Arrows, Points, Lights
iii) Earth (Yellow/Orange/Brown) Rectangle, Flat Tops, Squares, Troughs, Rock,
Stone
iv) Metal (White/Silver) Domes, Balls, Hummocks, Bowls, Lead
v) Water (Dark Blue/Black) Meanders, Drifts, Gravel, Water Features, Glass

The design of this garden is based on natural plant forms, rocks & water

Water is an integral part of Chinese Gardens, with a variety of paths and walkways to
provide different vistas over it.

Zig-zag walkways are made to offer different views of the garden as they twist and
turn
 v
Over hanging plants to soften the sides of straight edges or to slow down a stream -
water in static and dynamic forms. Plant selection is made as natural to the setting as
possible – seen here with water in informal irregular shape.

A small rock and a pool symbolize the mountain and a lake. Set with rocks, stones and
pebbles, water in various forms symbolize wealth and prosperity

Stone grouping / Rocks

According to Taoist principles, the interest of these stones lie in their holes, since it is
they that bring the stones to life

Yin of a water against yang of the rocks- to reflect the Mountain and lake formations
so important in Chinese philosophy
Fig. (a) (b) (c) and (d)

(a) In the picture on TOP, the rounded domes of the hedge suggest Metal, while the
meandering shape suggests Water.
(b) Any plant, regardless of shape/size represent the wood element. Tall upright trees
symbolize the element's shape.
(c) In the picture, the 3 examples of Fire shapes- the cordyline, potted conifers and
the clipped bay – each represent different ‘chi’ as / Feng shui principles.
(d) In the picture, Spruce trees should be planted alone as / Feng shui principles
(harmony between individual and surroundings).

The Moon Gate is symbolical of the Yin & Yang – i.e. solidity/mass (Yang) &
emptiness/ nature (Yin) and forms an integral part of a typical Chinese Garden.

It also imparts:

• A sense of mystery & suspense

• Frame views
• Invites and tempts the visitors to move beyond

Fig. (a) Wooden moon gate (b) Wooden chair (c) An arched bridge
2. Occidental (countries of West) 16th C. Italian Renaissance Gardens, 17th C. French
Renaissance, 18th C. English Romantic Landscapes, American Contemporary
Landscapes

2.1 Italian Renaissance Gardens (16th Century)

Axial Alignment

The garden was enclosed, with walls often covered with climbers and fruit trees.
But the most important feature was the garden’s axial arrangement to the house
– that is to say a main line ran from the main doorway in the centre of the house
to the end of the garden; with areas to right and left of this line essentially mirror
images.

Fig (a) Villa Garzoni at Collodi (Italy) (b) Map of Villa d'Este Gardens (Italy)

Decorative hedges

The Italians were the first to make decorative use of plants with HEDGES to link the
house and garden structurally.

Steps and Terraces

Magnificent arrangement of steps and terraces, which became a prototype of

everything that followed. From then on, the garden design had terraces at different
levels retained by walls and interconnected by grand staircases.

Fig (a) Vila Lante, Bagnaia (Italy) (b) Steps

God’s Meadow

Each compartimenti was planted either with a single specimen, or mixed planting
increase the flower season, and to show. By the 16th century and tied in with the Age
of Discovery the obsession with collecting new plants was widespread. By displaying
as large a range of plants as possible, it demonstrated one’s wealth, as well as, of
course, displaying the diversity of God’s wonders.

Architectural Features

Throughout the garden there were gazebos, pavilions, groves, grottoes, statues,
sculptures and spectacular water features. Again this demonstrated Man’s
inventiveness, and offered scope for a symbolic display of the owner’s power and
wealth.

Fig (a) Water feature (b) Gazebos (c) Statue

Fig (a) Pavillion (b) God’s meddow (c) Grottoes

During the 15th and 16th centuries the garden evolved along side many other art
forms and sciences, and the surviving examples, which have influenced garden
designers down the centuries, are monuments to the ability of the innovative garden
designers, sculptors and engineers who built them.

Today, however, the gardens tend to be seen only in terms of beautiful statuary,
fantastic water works, and large evergreen trees. This is far from the whole story, but
to understand these gardens, it is essential to get into the Renaissance mind, which
saw the world as hierarchical, but with each part interrelated.
Renaissance

A signifiant time period in the cultural history of Europe

▪ Age of Discovery

▪ Cultural bridge between the Middle ages and modern history

▪ Period of revolutions in the field of art, architecture, politics, science and

literature

▪ Best known for its artistic developments by polymaths or Renaissance man

(Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo & Raffaello Sanzio)

Renaissance Philosophy

▪ Renaissance Humanism: Based on ancient Greek Philosopher Protagoas, "Man

is the measure of all things." This new thinking became manifest in art,
architecture, politics, science and literature.

▪ Relation Between Human and Divine : The basic idea was to depict the
interaction between Human and Divine in subtle yet complex form in the
garden where art and nature were united into an indistinguishable whole.
Unfortunately, the planting and perishable features have disappeared, many
surviving Renaissance gardens have lost much of their original symbolism. But it
is possible to ‘recreate’ them.

Example : 9i) Villa d Este, Tivoli, Italy (ii) Villa Lante, Bagnaia, Italy

2.2 French Renaissance Gardens – 17th Century

The Renaissance movement originating in Italy spread Northwards, together with

increased knowledge about plants and their cultivation. In France, the small formal
gardens within the walls of moated chateau moved outside becoming more
grander in scope.

French Renaissance gardens were characterized by symmetrical and geometric

planting beds or parterres; plants in pots; paths of gravel and sand; terraces;
stairways and ramps; moving water in the form of canals, cascades and
monumental fountains, and extensive use of artificial grottoes, labyrinths and
statues of mythological figures.

Fig (a) plants in pot (b) Labyrinths (Maze)

 Example: (i) Chateau de Villandry, Villandry (ii) Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte,
Maincy (iii) Garden of Versailles, Versailles (France)

2.3 English Romantic Landscape – 18th Century

Unlike the Italian and French Renaissance layouts during the 16th & 17th C., the
English garden developed as less rigorously formal

▪ English climate is more conducive to mixed planting.

▪ 18th C., was influenced by writers, landscape painters & philosophers

▪ The English Landscape Movement reacted against the artificiality of formal

gardens. It professed the curved lines and irregularity of nature and the idea
of a romantic natural garden. Formal gardens were entirely swept away by this
new school of thought.

▪ With William Kent as the pioneer of this movement, followed by Lancelot Brown
and Humphrey Repton, contours were altered, hills built and valleys excavated,
straight paths were abandoned and straight canals turned into serpentine
lakes.

William Kent (1685 – 1748)

William Kent was born in Bridlington, East Yorkshire. He firstly trained as a sign painter
then progressed to landscape painting, followed by architecture. Through his
architectural commissions Kent moved onto developing the surrounding landscape.

He had a vision that all landscape should be viewed as a classical painting remarking
that ‘all gardening is landscape painting’, with sympathetic arrangements to
maximize the artistic effects of shape, light and color.

Kent ’s career as a landscape designer proved very successful and he is viewed as

the master of the ‘picturesque’ and ‘natural’ gardening style.

It was William Kent who provided the grounding for the illustrious career of Lancelot
‘Capability’ Brown who for a time worked under his direction at Stowe.

Kent’s most famous and unique garden can be found at Rousham House, the gardens
remaining much as he had planned them almost 300 years later.

Example: Rousham House is a country house at Rousham in Oxfordshire, England.

Lancelot Brown (1715 – 1783)

During his early career at Stowe, Brown got the opportunity to work with William Kent
and John Vanbrugh, and see great works carried out there under the overall direction
of Kent. In 1751, Brown became an independent landscape gardener.

Lancelot Brown was a leader in the development of the ‘natural’, ‘English’ or

‘serpentine’ style of gardening. He rejected the very formal geometric French style of
gardening, a la Versailles, and concentrated on echoing the natural undulations of
the English landscape.
He is remembered as "the last of the great English 18th century artists to be accorded
his due" and "England's greatest gardener". He designed over 170 parks, many of
which still endure.

He was nicknamed "Capability" because he would tell his clients that their property
had "capability" for improvement.

Characteristics of his work included grass meadows in front of the mansion, serpentine
lakes, follies, encircling carriage drives, belts and circular clumps of trees. Bridges or
cascades often were used to connect the ‘natural’ lakes.

Fig (a) Grass Meadows iin front of Masion (b) Serpentine lakes

Fig (a) Bridge (b) circular clumps of trees

Fig (a) follies (b) cascades

Humphry Repton (1752 – 1818)

Humphry Repton was the last great English landscape designer of the eighteenth
century, often regarded as the successor to Capability Brown

In the early life Repton spent some time in Ireland working as private secretary to
William Windham, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland . It was here that he made many
acquaintances which, when he returned to Essex , he called upon offering his services
as an ‘improver of the landscape’.

As a result he soon had a steady flow of work. Repton returned to England

determined to become a worthy successor to Capability Brown.

Repton’s style continued on from Brown’s as he included a vision of the house and
how it was placed with relation to the landscape surrounding it.

Repton outlined his principles of landscape gardening in his book ‘Observations on

the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening’ –

“The perfection of landscape gardening consists in the four following requisites. First,
it must display the natural beauties and hide the defects of every situation. Secondly,
it should give the appearance of extent and freedom by carefully disguising or hiding
the boundary. Thirdly, it must studiously conceal every interference of art. However
expensive by which the natural scenery is improved; making the whole appear the
production of nature only; and fourthly, all objects of mere convenience or comfort,
if incapable of being made ornamental, or of becoming proper parts of the general
scenery, must be removed or concealed”.