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CHAPTER 5

POWER FACTOR CORRECTION PROVISION

Power Factor Correction is the ratio of Active Power and Appar-

ent Power as define by Philippine Distribution Code (PDC). Philippine
Distribution Code requires on the “Section 3.4.4.1; which states that:
“all users of the distribution system shall maintain a Power Factor of
not less than 85% lagging at the connection point”. While the service
provider is also requiring “Section 3.4.4.2 The Distribution Utility may
establish penalties for User Power Factors that are less than a speci-
fied target level, and incentives for User Power Factors that are
greater than the target level.”

5.1 Basic Literature of Power Factor

The power factor of an AC electric power system is defined as

the ratio of the active (true or real) power to the apparent power.

• Active (Real or True) Power is measured in watts

(W) and is the power drawn by the electrical resistance of a
system that does useful work.

• Apparent Power is measured in volt-amperes (VA)

and is the voltage on an AC system multiplied by all the current
that flows in it. It is the vector sum of the true and the reactive
power.

The third component of the AC power flow, the

• Reactive Power, is measured in volt-amperes reac-

tive (VAR). Reactive Power is the power stored in and dis-
charged by the inductive motors, transformers or solenoids.
 86

The reactive power required by an inductive load will increase

the amount of apparent power - measured in kilovolt amps (kVA) -
in the distribution system. Increasing the reactive and apparent
power will cause the power factor - PF - to decrease.

Power Factor

It is common to define the Power Factor - PF - as the cosine of

the phase angle between voltage and current - or the "cosφ". The
power factor defined by IEEE and IEC is the ratio between the applied
true power - and the apparent power, and can in general be ex-
pressed as:

PF = Wactive / Wapparent (1)

where

PF = power factor

Wactive = active (true or real) power (Watt)

Wapparent = apparent power (VA, volts amps)

A low power factor is the result of inductive loads such as trans-

formers and electric motors. Unlike resistive loads creating heat by
consuming kilowatts, inductive loads require a current flow to create
magnetic fields to produce the desired work.

Power factor is an important measurement in electrical AC sys-

tems because

• an overall power factor less than 1 indicates that

the electricity supplier need to provide more generating capac-
ity than actually required
 87

• the current waveform distortion that contributes to

reduced power factor is caused by voltage waveform distortion
and overheating in the neutral cables of three-phase systems

International standards such as IEC 61000-3-2 have been es-

tablished to control current waveform distortion by introducing limits
for the amplitude of current harmonics.

5.2 Calculation of Capacitor Bank

Since the assumption of power factor is at 80% and for a sys-

tem to be efficient, power factor must be close to unity. Therefore,
the power factor that must be set for this project must be 95% lag-
ging.

Step 1: Calculate the size of capacitor bank.

Using the kVAr equation shown;

kVAr = P x (Tan Φ1 - Tan Φ2)

Where:

kVAr = Reactive power of capacitor bank

P = True power (kW) at LVSG

θ1 = Cos -1 power factor (pf) = Cos-1(0.80) = 36.86990

θ2 = Cos -1 power factor (pf) = Cos-1(0.95) = 18.19490

By direct substitution:

kVARLVSG = 835.397 kW x (Tan 36.86990 - Tan 18.19490)

kVARLVSG = 351.966 kVAr

Step 2: Select the capacitor installation type and the size of

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capacitor.

Number of Steps = kVAr / Standard kVAr rating of Capacitor

Thus,

kVARLVSG = 401.870 kVAr / 50 kVAr = 7.0393 ≈ 7 Steps

Used = 7 x 50kVAr Capacitor Bank

Step 3: Calculation of conductor and overcurrent protection

IkVAr = kVAr / (√3 x kV x (sin 90° or 1))

To determine the rating of conductor and overcurrent protec-

tion, the calculated rated current of capacitor for each switching steps
shall be multiplied by 135% (PEC Sections 4.60.1.8(A),
4.60.1.8(B)(2) and 4.60.1.8(C)(4))

Thus,

IkVAr LVSG= 50 kVAr / (√3 x 0.40 kV x 1) = 72.1688 A

IkVAr LVSG= 72.1688 A x 1.35 = 97.4279 A

Use: 3x30 mm2 TW in 32 mmΦ EMT

Use: 100 AT/100 AF, Molded Case Circuit Breaker

Main Breaker = 800AT/1000AF, MCCB

For economical reason the designer only provide tapping point

as spare for future capacitor bank since the mall is located at the
central business district of Biñan, Laguna wherein the utility provider
gives concentration of quality power to be delivered to all consumers
in the area. Actual Power Factor once the mall operates with in full
swing within 6-12months; will be taken consideration in sizing the
right capacitor bank in the future.
 89

Above calculation is only assumption and sizing of branch cir-

cuit for the capacitor bank.

5.3 Voltage & Power profile (real & reactive) and Optimal
Capacitor Loss Reduction Using the Two-Thirds Rule.1

One of the main benefits of applying capacitors is that they can

reduce distribution line losses. Losses come from current through the
resistance of conductors. Some of that current transmits real power,
but some flows to supply reactive power. Reactive power provides
magnetization for motors and other inductive loads. Reactive power
does not spin kWh meters and performs no useful work, but it must
be supplied. Using capacitors to supply reactive power reduces the
amount of current in the line. Since line losses are a function of the
current squared, I2R, reducing reactive power flow on lines signifi-
cantly reduces losses.

Engineers widely use the “2/3” rule for sizing and placing ca-
pacitors to optimally reduce losses. Neagle and Samson (1956) de-
veloped a capacitor placement approach for uniformly distributed
lines and showed that the optimal capacitor location is the point on
the circuit where the reactive power flow equals half of the capacitor
var rating. From this, they developed the 2/3 rule for selecting and
placing capacitors. For a uniform distributed load, the optimal size
capacitor is 2/3 of the var requirements of the circuit. The optimal
placement of this capacitor is 2/3 of the distance from the substation
to the end of the line. For the optimal placement for a uniformly dis-
tributed load, the substation source provides vars for the first 1/3 of
the circuit, and the capacitor provides vars for the last 2/3 of the
circuit (see Figure 5.3).

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Electric Power Distribution Handbook, Second Edition by Thomas Allen Short
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A generalization of the 2/3 rule for applying n capacitors to a

circuit is to size each one to 2/(2n+1) of the circuit var requirements.
Apply them equally spaced, starting aat a distance of 2/(2n+1) of the
total line length from the substation and adding the rest of the units
at intervals of 2/(2n+1) of the total line length. The total vars sup-
plied by the capacitors is 2n/(2n+1) of the circuit’s var requirements.
So, to apply three capacitors, size each to 2/7 of the total vars
needed, and locate them at per-unit distances of 2/7, 4/7 and 6/7 of
the line length from the substation.2

Figure 5.3 – Optimal capacitor loss reduction using the two-thirds

rule3

2
Electric Power Distribution Handbook, Second Edition by Thomas Allen Short
3
Copyright © 2002. Electric Power Research Institute. 1001691. Improved Reliability of Switched Ca-
pacitor Banks and Capacitor Technology. Reprinted with permission.
 91

5.4 Capacitor Failure Mode and Rapture Curves4

Capacitors be able to fail in two modes – Low current, progres-

sive failure and high current, low-impedance failure.

5.4.1 Low current, progressive failure

The dielectric fails in one of the elements within the capacitor

(see Figure 5.4.1). With one element shorted, the remaining ele-
ments in the series string have increased voltage and higher current
(because the total capacitive impedance is lower).

With more stress, another element may short out. Failures can
cascade until the whole string shorts out. In this scenario, the current
builds up slowly as elements successively fail.

Figure 5.4.1 Capacitor Unit with a failed Elements5

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Electric Power Distribution Equipment and Systems
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Electric Power Distribution Equipment and Systems – Capacitor Application
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5.4.2 High current

A low-impedance failure develops across the capacitor termi-

nals or from a phase terminal to ground. A broken connector could
cause such a fault.

Progressive Failure - Most failures are progressive. Sudden

jumps to high current are rare. To detect progressive failures quickly,
fusing must be very sensitive. Film-foil capacitors have few case rup-
tures — much less than older paper units.

An EPRI survey of utilities (EPRI 1001691, 2002) found that

film-foil capacitor ruptures were rare to non-existent. This contrasts
sharply with paper capacitors, where Newcomb (1980) reported that
film/paper capacitors ruptured in 25% of failures.

Paper and paper-film capacitors have an insulating layer of pa-

per between sheets of foil. When a breakdown in a pack occurs, the
arc burns the paper and generates gas. In progressive failures, even
though the current is only somewhat higher than normal load current,
the sustained arcing can create enough gas to rupture the enclosure.

In modern film-foil capacitors, sheets of polypropylene film di-

electric separate layers of aluminum foil. When the dielectric breaks
down, the heat from the arc melts the film; the film draws back; and
the aluminum sheets weld together.

With a solid weld, a single element can fail and not create any
gas (the current is still relatively low). In film-foil capacitors, the pro-
gressive failure mode is much less likely to rupture the case. When
all of the packs in series fail, high current flows through the capacitor.
This can generate enough heat and gas to rupture the capacitor if it
is not cleared quickly.
 93

Figure 5.4.2 shows capacitor-rupture curves from several

sources. Most case-rupture curves are based on tests of pre-failed
capacitors. The capacitors are failed by applying excessive voltage
until the whole capacitor is broken down.6

The failed capacitor is then subjected to a high-current short-

circuit source of known amperage for a given time. Several such sam-
ples are tested to develop a case-rupture curve.7

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Electric Power Distribution Equipment and Systems – Capacitor Application
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https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/capacitor-banks-failure-modes
 94

Figure 5.4.2 Capacitor Rupture Curves8

5.5 The Capacitor Withstands and Outrush

Capacitors are rated to withstand 180% of rated rms current,

including fundamental and harmonic currents. Fusing is normally not

8
Electric Power Distribution Equipment and Systems (Data from [ANSI/IEEE Std. 18-1992; Cooper
Power Systems, 1990; General Electric, 2001].)
 95

based on this limit, and is normally much tighter than this, usually
from 125 to 165% of rated rms current. Occasionally, fuses in excess
of 180% are used. In severe harmonic environments (usually in com-
mercial or industrial applications), normally fuses blow before capac-
itors fail, but sometimes capacitors fail before the fuse operates. This
depends on the fusing and protection strategy.9

Outrush is highlighted as a possible failure mode that has been

neglected by the industry. Outrush is sometimes considered for sta-
tion banks to calculate the probability of a fuse operation from a fail-
ure of an adjacent parallel unit. But for distribution fuses, nearby
faults have not been considered in regard to the effects on fuse op-
erations. The energy input into the fuse during outrush depends on
the line resistance between the capacitor and the fault (see Figure
5.5.1). The capacitor has stored energy; when the fault occurs, the
capacitor discharges its energy into the resistance between the ca-
pacitor and the fault. Closer faults cause more energy to go into the
fuse.

Figure 5.5.1 Outrush from a Capacitor to a nearby fault

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Electric Power Distribution Equipment and Systems – Capacitor Application
 96

The I2t that the fuse suffers during outrush to a line-to-ground

fault is

where

C = capacitance of one unit, μF

Vpk = peak voltage on the capacitor at the instant of the

fault, kV

R = resistance between the capacitor and the fault, Ω

Qkvar = single-phase reactive power, kvar

Vpu = voltage at the instant of the fault in per unit of the ca-
pacitor’s rated voltage

Table 5.5 shows several sources of fuse operations and the I2t that
they generate for a 900-kvar bank at 12.47 kV. The nominal load
current is 41.7A. Utilities commonly use 40 or 50-A fuses for this
bank. The table shows the minimum melt I2t of common fuses. Out-
rush to nearby faults produces high enough energy to blow common
fuses, especially the K links. Of the other possible causes of fuse op-
eration, none are particularly high except for a lightning first stroke.
The lightning data is misleading because much of the first stroke will
go elsewhere — usually, the line flashes over, and much of the light-
ning current diverts to the fault.10

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Electric Power Distribution Equipment and Systems – Capacitor Application
 97

Table 5.5 Comparison of I2t of Events11

Use Figure 5.5.2 to find outrush I2t for other cases. Two factors
make outrush worse:

 Higher system voltages — The outrush I2t stays the same

with increases in voltage for the same size capacitor bank. The
line impedance stays the same for different voltages. But
higher-voltage capacitor banks use smaller fuses, with less I2t
capability. So, a 25-kVcapacitor installation is more likely to
have nuisance fuse operations than a 12.5-kV system.

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Electric Power Distribution Equipment and Systems – Capacitor Application
 98

Figure 5.5.2 Outrush as a function of the resistance to the fault for

various size capacitor banks (the sizes given are three-phase kvar;
the resistance is the resistance around the loop, out and back; the
distances are to the fault)12

 Larger conductors — Lower resistance

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Electric Power Distribution Equipment and Systems – Capacitor Application
 99

5.6 Charging and Discharging a Capacitor

In Figure 5.6.1, the Capacitor is connected to the DC Power

Supply and Current flows through the circuit. Both Plates get the
equal and opposite charges and an increasing Potential Difference,
vc, is created while the Capacitor is charging. Once the Voltage at the
terminals of the Capacitor, vc, is equal to the Power Supply Voltage,
vc = V, the Capacitor is fully charged and the Current stops flowing
through the circuit, the Charging Phase is over.

Figure 5.6.1 The Capacitor is Charging

A Capacitor is equivalent to an Open-Circuit to Direct Current, R =

∞, because once the Charging Phase has finished, no more Current
flows through it. The Voltage vc on a Capacitor cannot change ab-
ruptly.

When the Capacitor disconnected from the Power Supply, the Capac-
itor is discharging through the Resistor RD and the Voltage between
the Plates drops down gradually to zero, vc = 0, Figure 5.6.2.
 100

Figure 5.6.2: The Capacitor is Discharging

In Figures 5.6.1 and 5.6.2, the Resistances of RC and RD affect the

charging rate and the discharging rate of the Capacitor respectively.
The product of Resistance R and Capacitance C is called the Time
Constant τ, which characterizes the rate of charging and discharging
of a Capacitor, Figure 5.6.3.

Figure 5.6.3: The Voltage vc and the Current iC during the Charging
Phase and Discharging Phase
 101

The smaller the Resistance or the Capacitance, the smaller the Time
Constant, the faster the charging and the discharging rate of the Ca-
pacitor, and vice versa.

Capacitors are found in almost all electronic circuits. They can be

used as a fast battery. For example, a Capacitor is a storehouse of
energy in photoflash unit that releases the energy quickly during
short period of the flash.

5.7 Neutral voltage unbalance protection method for un-

grounded capacitor banks13

Ungrounded-wye connected capacitor banks and harmonic filter

banks applied at the medium voltage level should be equipped with
a neutral voltage unbalance protection system. An unbalance protec-
tion system serves two primary functions:

 It provides over voltage protection to capacitors. These over

voltages are primarily caused by blown fuses and can cause
damage to the capacitors.
 It provides blown fuse indication.

The following discussion provides background information on setting

and applying neutral voltage unbalance protection relays on un-
grounded-wye connected capacitor banks and harmonic filter banks.
Further information on this topic can be obtained from in IEEE
C37.99-1990, "IEEE Guide for the protection of Shunt Capacitor
Banks".

Shunt capacitor banks and harmonic filter banks are not typically
grounded in industrial and commercial power systems for a variety of

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Neutral Voltage Unbalance Protection System Provided by Northeast Power Systems, Inc.
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reasons. The main reason for keeping them ungrounded is to over-

come the disadvantages associated with grounded wye capacitor
banks. These disadvantages include:

 Grounded banks provide a low-impedance path to ground for

0-sequence (ground or unbalanced) harmonic currents. These
harmonic currents have the potential of exciting resonances
and may also cause communication interference and nuisance
ground fault relay operation.
 Grounded banks may cause ground fault relay operation when
unbalanced due to a blown capacitor fuse(s), capacitor toler-
ances, and/or system voltage unbalances.
 Grounded banks have high discharge currents during system
ground faults. These discharge currents can cause nuisance
fuse operation and surge arrester damage.
 Grounded banks on resistive grounded systems (very prevalent
on industrial and commercial power systems) can be damaged
during system ground faults.

Due to these disadvantages, many capacitor banks and harmonic fil-

ter banks are left ungrounded for industrial and commercial power
systems up to 34.5kV. The primary disadvantage of ungrounded
banks is the over voltage that occurs when the bank is unbalanced
due to a capacitor fuse blowing as shown in the Figure 5.7.1 below.
The over voltage appears across the remaining capacitors on the
phase in which the fuse has opened. The over voltage can be as high
as 50%, depending upon bank configuration, and can reduce the life
and permanently damage the remaining capacitors. In addition, the
kvar output of the bank is reduced, and can cause the industrial or
commercial customer to be hit with a power factor penalty. For this
reason, neutral voltage unbalance protection should be considered.
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Figure 5.7.1 – Over-voltage Caused by capacitor fuse blowing14

Neutral Voltage Unbalance Protection Considerations

There are many technical considerations when setting and applying a

neutral voltage unbalance protection system. The following bullets
list the major considerations. They may not all be obtainable for every
bank configuration.

 The unbalance protection system should coordinate with the

individual capacitor unit fuses such that the fuses operate to
isolate a defective capacitor unit before the bank is switched
out of service, and thus provide a convenient visual means of
locating the defective capacitor unit.
 Where possible, the unbalance protection system should be
sensitive enough to alarm for the loss of one or more capaci-
tors, but trip out for a loss of sufficient or additional capacitor
units that will cause an over voltage in excess of 110% on the
remaining capacitors.

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Neutral Voltage Unbalance Protection System Provided by Northeast Power Systems, Inc.
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 The unbalance protection system should have a time delay of

at least 0.5 seconds to overcome false operations due to inrush,
ground faults on the line, lightning, switching of nearby equip-
ment, and other transient unbalance conditions.
 The unbalance protection system should have a lockout feature
to prevent automatic reclosing of the capacitor bank switching
device.
 If the capacitor bank is not equipped with an over voltage relay,
the unbalance protection system should be set with considera-
tion given to the maximum continuous system operating volt-
age.
 To allow for the effects of inherent unbalance, the unbalance
protection system should be set to alarm at one-half the level
of neutral displacement determined for the desired alarm con-
dition.
 To allow for the effects of inherent unbalance, the unbalance
protection system should be set to trip at a level of neutral
displacement that will not cause a capacitor over voltage in ex-
cess of the manufacturer’s recommended maximum continuous
operating voltage.
 105

Figure 5.7.2 below can help in meeting the above considerations. The
figure shows that a 28% loss in phase kvar can result in a 10% over
voltage. This is the ANSI/IEEE continuous over voltage limit for
standard off-the-shelf shunt capacitors. Other limits are shown for
setting the time-delay requirements on the relay.

Figure 5.7.2 - Graph of Neutral-Ground Voltage and Per Unit Over-

voltage for Ungrounded Capacitor and Harmonic Filter Banks with
Blown Fuses15

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Neutral Voltage Unbalance Protection System Provided by Northeast Power Systems, Inc.
www.nepsi.com