SHOTCRETETECHNOLOGY

CHAPTER 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Shotcreting has proved to be the best method for construction of curved surfaces. Domes
are now much easier to construct with the advent of shotcrete technology. Tunnel linings are also
becoming easy with this technology. Not only are these but there a wide range of applications
where this technology has been a leading one.
This technical paper includes the concept of shotcrete and how it differs from
conventional concrete. It also enumerates the different types of process involved in shotcreting
i.e. dry mix process and wet mix process. Advantages of shotcrete and its applications in various
fields like tunneling, canals, buildings etc. are specified in detail. This paper presents an
overview of shotcreteing technology along with itsapplications
The double-chambered gun, developed in the early 20th Century by an American, Carl
Akeley, brought the development of dry process shotcrete, known in North America “Gunite”.
The wet process shotcrete was introduced in North America only in the early fifties after the
development of equipment, which enabled the pneumatic spray application of mortars and
concrete.
American Concrete Institute Publication, ACI 506R-85, "Guide to Shotcrete" defines
shotcrete as "mortar or concrete pneumatically projected at high velocity onto a surface". [1] The
application process falls into two groups: dry and wet mix shotcrete processes.

1.1 HISTORY
The shotcrete process has grown into an important and widely used construction
technique. In 1910, a double chambered cement gun was introduced to the construction industry.
The sand-cement product of this device was given the proprietary name Gunite. In the ensuing
years, trade marks such as Guncrete, pneucrete, Blastcrete, Blocrete, Jetcrete, and the terms
pneumatically applied mortar and concrete, were introduced to describe similar processes.
The early 1930s saw the generic term “shotcrete” introduced by the American Railway
Engineering Association to describe the Gunite process. In 1951, the American Concrete

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Institute (ACI) adopted the term shotcrete to describe the dry-mix process. Shotcrete is now
applied to the wet-mix process and has gained universal acceptance in the United States.

1.2 DEFINITION OFSHOTCRETE

Shotcrete is a mortar or high performance concrete conveyed through a hose and
pneumatically projected at high velocity onto a backing surface. It is the force of this spraying
action that leads
To compaction of the concrete or mortar which then forms layers of concrete to the
required thickness.Shotcreting has been an acceptable way of placing cementitious material in a
variety of applications.
Usually patented polypropylene fibers are included in the shotcrete which increases the
cohesive nature of the shotcrete through mechanically binding the cementitious materials
together. This mechanism reduces the rebound waste that occurs through the shotcreting process
and these fibers also resist plastic shrinkage and cracking through their ability to enhance the
early stage tensile strength of concrete. Shotcrete also gives better surface finishes and reduces
surface tearing on nonlinear sections. Cementitious material containing the poly propylene fibers
resist cycles of freezing and thawing and also reduces the chances of water and chemical
penetrations.

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CHAPTER 2
2.0 CONCRETE VS SHOTCRETE.
Concrete is truly a versatile building material. Concretes in use today are formulated with
very specific performance characteristics in mind and include lightweight, heavyweight, porous,
fiber-reinforced, mass, high-performance and cellular concretes to name just a few. Each
provides specific characteristics or properties for their intended use. These properties are
achieved by intentional formulation and control of such variables as cement content and type,
pozzolan type and content, aggregate type, admixtures used, the addition time and rate of those
admixtures, as well as other, often subtle,differences.
One widely used specialty concrete is known as “shotcrete.” The major difference
between shotcrete and its close cousin, concrete, is the placement method. Concrete is discharged
from a ready-mix truck, placed on the ground or in forms and then must be vibrated for
compaction. By contrast, the shotcrete process, whether using wet or dry material feed, does not
require forming or compaction thereby enhancing design creativity and application flexibility,
often resulting in a savings of time or money
Just as in concrete mix designs, the water-to-cementitious materials ratio remains the
single most important parameter influencing the compressive strength, shrinkage and overall
durability of the final product. Application technique is also crucial and less forgiving than
ordinary ready-mix. Good “shooting” technique can mean the difference between a dense high-
strength material or one that looks good on the finished surface but actually has underlying sand
pockets, voids and poorly encased reinforcing steel. Poor application technique increases the
probability of cracking and its negative ramifications. The shotcrete process is more versatile
than conventional concrete placement. If the shooting surface is sound, clean and accessible,
shotcrete can be applied in very difficult or complex shapes or sections where conventional
concrete formwork would prove difficult or impossible as well as cost prohibitive. Shotcrete is
especially applicable for unique shapes desired in complex shapes, swimming pools and other
unique features of aquatic parks. It can also be an excellent overlay and repair material for
existing structures because of its potential to achieve good bond strength and lowpermeability.

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The nuances and differences between concrete and shotcrete are too numerous to cover in
a short article. Selecting a concrete placement method, whether it be conventional concrete, wet-
mix or dry-mix process shotcrete, can be a challenging task, since there are positive aspects of
each for almost every application. While it is true that one approach may be more applicable,
adaptable or economical than another, the final concrete placement selection for the project
should be based on project design, material performance criteria and overall budget.

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CHAPTER 3
3.0 CLASSIFICATIONS OF SHOTCRETE
There are two classifications of shotcrete namely-
1. Dry process 2. Wet process
They are discussed below.
3.1 DRYPROCESS
Working of dry process proceeds as per the following steps:
Step1: Pre blended, dry or semi-dampened materials are placed into shotcrete equipment and
metered into a hose.
Step2: Compressed air conveys materials at high velocity to the nozzle where the water is added.
Step3: Then the material is consolidated on receiving surface by high impact velocity.
The dry process can be used for any shotcreting applications from the smallest patching and
sealing works to largest projects like tunnel linings, pools, canal linings or reservoirs. The
maximum production achievable with dry process equipment ranges from 10-12 yards per hour
of dry mix depending on the conditions. To achieve ultimate capacity it is necessary to use 2”-
2.5” hose and larger compressors. Most applications have production rates of 2-6 cubic yards per
hour of mix. Patching and sealing are done at even low rates by employing 1”-1.5”hoses.
In dry process rebound and over spray should be considered.
3.1.1 USES
Dry sprayed concrete is always used when smaller quantities and outputs are required and high
very early strength is essential, for example for preliminary sealing against high water
penetration with gunites. The final, the choice of process is also determined by the contractor’s
preferences!

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3.1.2 APPLICATIONS FOR DRY SPRAYED CONCRETE AND READY-

MIXED GUNITES
• concreterepairs
• preliminary sealing against high waterpenetration
• minor sprayingworks
• waterproofingworks
• logistics concept not time dependent (localstorage)

Fig.3.1.2.Simplified sketch of a typical dry mix shotcrete system

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3.1.3 ADVANTAGES OF DRYPROCESS

1. Easy start up, shutdown and cleanup.
2. Control of materials is onsite.
3. Nozzle man can be up to 1000ft horizontally or 500ft vertically from the gun.

3.2 WETPROCESS
Working of wet process proceeds as per the following steps:
Step1: All ingredients, including water, are thoroughly mixed and introduced into the shotcrete
equipment.
Step 2: Wet material is pumped to the nozzle where compressed air is introduced to provide high
velocity for placement and consolidation of the material onto the receiving surface.
Step 3: Mostly wet-process shotcreting is done with premixed mortar or small aggregate concrete.
The mix design and consistency of supply are very important in order to provide a mix with the
workability or plasticity to be pumped through a small-diameter hose.
Sand gradation is the same as for the dry process and for coarse aggregate mixes; 20-30 percent of
3/8" aggregate is added. Cement content will vary according to the aggregate gradation and surface
area. However, most mixes contain approximately700 pounds or more of cement.
3.2.1 USES
Wet sprayed concrete is always used when high set concrete quality is specified and
high output is required. This process is by far the most popular in mechanicaltunnelling.
Ultimately the choice of process is also determined by the contractor’spreferences!
The main applications of the wet sprayed concrete process are
• sprayed concrete works with high outputcapacity
• substantially improved working conditions in the sprayingarea
• higher durability due to controlled mixing waterquantity
3.2.2 ADVANTAGES OF WETPROCESS
1. Little or no formwork isrequired.
2. Cost effective method for placingconcrete.
3.Ideal for irregular surfaceapplications
4.Allows for easier material handling in areas with difficult access

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Fig.3.2.2.One typical type of wet mix shotcrete machine

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3.3 COMPARISON OF THE DRY AND WET-MIXPROCESSES

Dry-mix Wet-Mix

1. Instantaneous control over mixing 1. Mixing water is controlled at the

water and consistency of mix at the delivery equipment and can be
nozzel to meet variable field accuratelymeasured
conditions.

2. Better suited for placing mixes 2. Better assurance that the mixing
containing lightweight aggregates, water is thoroughly mixed with
refractory materials and shotcrete otheringredients
requiring early strengthproperties

3. Capable of being transported longer 3. Less dusting and cement loss

distances accompanies the gunning
operation

4. Start and stop placement 4. Normally has less rebound

characteristics are better with resulting in less materialwaste
minimal waste and greater
placementflexibility

5. Capable of higherstrengths 5. Capable of greaterproduction

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CHAPTER 4
4.0 APPLICATIONS OF SHOTCRETE
The selection of shotcrete for a particular application should be based on knowledge,
experience, and a careful study of required and achievable material performance. The success of
the shotcrete for that application is contingent upon proper planning and supervision, plus the
skill and continuous attention provided by the shotcrete applicator. The following paragraphs
discuss the use of shotcrete in several of the more common applications. A number of shotcrete
applications are listed blow
4.1 REPAIR
Shotcrete can be used to repair the damaged surface of concrete, wood, or steel structures
provided there is access to the surface needing repair. The following examples indicate a few
ways in which shotcrete can be used in repairs:
4.1.1 .BRIDGES
Shotcrete repair can be used for bridge deck rehabilitation, but it has generally been
uneconomical for major full-thickness repairs. It is very useful, however, for beam repairs of
variable depths, caps, columns, abutments, wing walls, and under decks from the standpoint of
technique and cost.

Fig.4.shotcrete patches around drains now 8 years old.

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fig.4.1.1.Repairs on the underside joint of the roof of a tunnel bridge on Project

4.1.2 BUILDINGS.
In building repairs, shotcrete is commonly used for repair of fire and earthquake damage
and deterioration, strengthening walls, and encasing structural steel for fireproofing. The repair
of structural members such as beams, columns, and connections is common for structures
damaged by anearthquake.

4.1.3 MARINESTRUCTURES
Damage to marine structures can result from deterioration of the concrete and of the
reinforcement. Damaging conditions are corrosion of the steel, freezing and thawing action,
impact loading, structural distress, physical abrasion from the action of waves, sand, gravel, and
floating ice, and chemical attack due to sulfates. These problems can occur in most marine
structures such as bridge decks, piles, pile caps, beams, piers, navigation locks, guide walls,
dams, powerhouses, and discharge tunnels. In many cases, shotcrete can be used to repair the
deteriorated surfaces of these structures.

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4.1.4 SPILLWAYSURFACES
Surfaces subject to high velocity flows may be damaged by cavitations erosion or
abrasion erosion. Shotcrete repairs are advantageous because of the relatively short outage
necessary to complete there pairs.

4.2 UNDERGROUND EXCAVATIONS

For the most part, shotcrete is used in underground excavations in rock; but on occasion,
it has been successfully used in the advancement of tunnels through altered, cohesion less, and
loose soils. Typical underground shotcrete applications range from supplementing or replacing
conventional support materials such as lagging and steel sets, sealing rock surfaces, channeling
water flows, and installing temporary support and permanentlinings.

4.3 SLOPE AND SURFACE PROTECTION

Shotcrete is often used for temporary protection of exposed rock surfaces that will
deteriorate when exposed to air. Shotcrete is also used to permanently cover slopes or cuts that
may erode in time or otherwise deteriorate. Slope protection should be properly drained to
prevent damage from excessive uplift pressure. Application of shotcrete to the surface of
landfills and other waste areas is beneficial to prevent surface water infiltration.

4.4 NEWSTRUCTURES.
Shotcrete is not necessarily the fastest method of placing concrete on all jobs, but where
thin sections and large areas are involved,shotcreting can be used effectively to save time. The
following paragraphs describe some of the applications involved with construction of new
structures.

4.4.1 POOLS ANDTANKS.

Shotcrete has been used extensively to construct concrete swimming pools. More
recently, large aquariums have been constructed using shotcrete.

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4.4.2 SHOTCRETE FLOORS AND WALLS.

Shotcrete floors in tanks and pools on well compacted subbase or on undisturbed earth
have generally given excellent service. Vertical and overhead construction for walls, slabs,
columns, and other structural members has been frequently shotcreted.

Fig.4.4.2.Shotcrete walls

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4.4.3 SHOTCRETE DOMES.

Construction techniques using inflatable air-forming systems have made the construction
of shotcrete shells or domes practical. These large structures have been used for residential
housing, warehousing, bridge, and culvert applications.

Fig.4.4.3.DOMES

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Chapter 5
MACHINES
Manual and mechanical methods are used for the wet spraying process, but wet sprayed
concrete is traditionally applied by machine. The high spray outputs and large cross sections
require the work to be mechanized. Concrete spraying systems with duplex
pumps are mainly used for working with wet mixes. Unlike conventional concrete pumps,
these systems have to meet the additional requirement of delivering a concrete flow that is
as constant as possible, and therefore continuous, to guarantee homogeneous spray
application.
5.1 FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION OF PUTZMEISTER‚ DOUBLE-
PISTONPUMPS
The concrete pumps are hydraulically operated by electric or diesel motors by means of
oil pumps. The delivery plungers are hydraulically linked through drive cylinders. They
operate by push-pull. The reverse plunger generates a vacuum which is balanced by the
material flowing into the cylinder. At the same time, the forward plunger forces the material
in the cylinder (sprayed concrete) into the delivery pipe. At the end of the lift the pump
reverses. The pipe switch pivots in front of the other full cylinder and the plungers reverse
their direction of movement.
A core pump consists of hydraulic drive cylinder, delivery cylinder with delivery plunger,
water tank between the two, concrete hopper with agitator, pipe switch, lever and reversing
cylinder for the pipe switch.

Fig.5.1.a.Putzmeister double-piston pump

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Like the sprayed concrete application methods, the entire tunneling process is being
further mechanized and automated. Tunnel boring machines (TBM) are taking the lead. Sprayed
concrete is also used in TBM driving, if the substrate conditions and the relevant lining and
stabilization method allow. Sprayed concrete systems must be adapted to the conditions and
requirements. They are mounted directly on the tunnel boring machines and are therefore an
integral part of the mechanized tunneling system with all its constraints and potential.

Fig.5.1.b.Round arch spraying robot fig.7.1.cSpraying robot with telescoping boom

Figure.5.1.d.Compact trailer-mounted robot unit for remote controlledshotcrete application

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Chapter 6
6.0 IMPORTANCE OF PROPER APPLICATION.
Properly applied shotcrete is a structurally sound and durable construction material which
exhibits excellent bonding characteristics to existing concrete, rock, steel, and many other
materials. It can have high strength, low absorption, good resistance to weathering, and
resistance to some forms of chemical attack. Many of the physical properties of sound shotcrete
are comparable or superiorto those of conventional concrete or mortar having thesame
composition. Improperly applied shotcrete may create conditions much worse than the untreated
condition.
6.1 ADVANTAGES OF SHOTCRETE.
Shotcrete is used in lieu of conventional concrete, in most instances, for reasons of cost or
convenience. Shotcrete is advantageous in situations when formwork is cost prohibitive or
impractical and where forms can be reduced or eliminated, access to the work area is difficult,
thin layers or variable thicknesses are required, or normal casting techniques cannot be
employed. Additional savings are possible because shotcrete requires only a small, portable plant
for manufacture and placement. Shotcreting operations can often be accomplished in areas of
limited access to make repairs tostructures.
6.2 STRENGTH OFBONDING.
The excellent bonding of shotcrete to other materials is often an important design
consideration. The force of the impact of this pneumatically propelled material on the surface
causes compaction of the shotcrete paste matrix into the fine surface irregularities and results in
good adhesion to the surface. Within limits, the material is capable of supporting itself in vertical
or overhead applications.

6.3 CONCLUSION
The use of Shotcrete to build new concrete structures as well as to restore and repair
existing structures is well known and documented and it is perhaps the most diverse method
available for concrete construction. The use of this innovative technology is increasing day by
day and procedures for its proper performance are well developed and high quality work is
regularly obtained.

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REFERENCES
1. ”Advanced concrete technology” byM.S.Shetty
2. Morgan, D. R., “Shotcrete Bibliography,” Shotcrete Magazine, V. 1, No. 1, Feb.199
3.American shotcrete association

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