Chapter 9 Representation, Elections and Voting

Representation:
 Debate in 19th and 20th centuries whether representation should be restricted to those who have the com
petence, education and  leisure to act wisely and think seriously about politics.
 Now there is widespread acceptance of political equality (universal suffrage, ‘one person, one vote’)
 What does the representative truly represent? The views of the people, their best interests, the groups fro
m which they come? 
Theories of Representation
1. Trusteeship
2. Delegation
3. The mandate
4. Resemblance
1. Trustee Model
 Trustee - someone who acts on behalf of others using their superior knowledge/experience
 Altruism - concern for the welfare of others based on recognition of common humanity
 Burke believed those who were lucky enough to have an education should act in the interests of the less 
fortunate
 Supports elitism because once the person has been elected they act in which ever way they think is best 
 Based on the belief that knowledge and education are unequally distributed in society and not all people 
know what is best  for them
 John Stuart Mill suggested that certain people should have more votes based on their education level
2. Delegate Model
 Delegate - person who is chosen to act for another on the basis of clear guidance and instruction
 Initiative - type of referendum through which the public is able to raise legislative proposals
 Recall - process in which the electorate can call unsatisfactory officials to accound and remove them
 In his pamphlet Common sense, Thomas Paine “elected should never form themselves an interest
separate from the electors.”
 Frequent interchange- mechanisms that ensure that the politicians are bound as closely as possible to
the views of the represented
 Popular sovereignity- there is no higher authority than the will of the people
 Ensures that politicians are closely bound to the views of the represented
 Provides more opportunities for popular participation and limits the ability of representatives to act in th
eir own selfinterest
 Can breed narrowness and conflict because representative must be very closely bound to represented
 Representatives are unable to provide vision and inspiration to the people as they are simply reporters of 
their wishes 
3. Mandate Model
 ‘Doctrine of the mandate’ in winning an election, the party is authorized to carry out whatever policies 
they outlined in their  election campaign
 Manifesto- document outlying the the policies and programme a party proposes to pursue if elected into
power.
 Referendum- vote in which the electorate can express a view on a particular issue of public policy
 Referendums may be either advisory or binding; initiatives or propositions or plebicites
 Politicians remain loyal to their party and its policies
  Provides a way of keeping politicians to their word
 Criticism voters can be persuaded by the personalities of the party leader; as well voters may be in favo
ur of one element of  the party’s plan but opposed to another (no way around this)
4. Resemblance Model
 A representative government would constitute a microcosm of the larger society, containing members dr
awn form all groups  and in numbers that are proportional to the society 
 Microcosm- a miniature version of a larger body, but with exact natures and proportions
 Descriptive representation- model of representation that takes account of politician’s racial and other
characteristics, in which they should be a representative sample of a larger society
 Usually endorsed by socialist, feminist and radical thinkers
 Only people who come from a particular group and can share their experiences may be a representative 
of that group
Elections:
 An intrinsic part of the democratic process is competitive elections
 Elections are widely used to fill public offices whose holders have policymaking responsibilities; there 
are some exclusions  i.e. the monarchs
 Forms that elections can take
1. Which offices/posts are subject to elective principle?
2. Who is entitled to vote, how widely is the franchise drawn?
3. How are votes cast?
4. Are elections competitive or non-competitive?
 The secret ballot method to elections are usually seen as the only way to guarantee a fair election
Functions of Elections
 Harrop and Miller explained 2 contrasting views of the function of competitive elections
1. Conventional view elections as mechanisms through which politicians are forced to introduce polici
es that reflect the public  opinion
2. Radical view (Ginsberg)elections as means through which governments exercise control over their p
opulations (shaping public  opinion)
 Central functions of elections:
1. Recruiting politicians
2. Making governments
3. Providing representation demands are channeled from the public to the government o Influencing policy
4. Educating voters information about parties, candidates, policies, the gov’t, the political system etc.
5. Building legitimacy reason why dictatorships sometimes hold elections
6. Strengthening elites vehicle through which elites manipulate the minutes 
Electoral Systems: Debates and Controversies
 Electoral system- set of rules that governs the conduct of elections (vary greatly in different states)
 Voter can either choose between candidates or between parties
 Voter can elect a single candidate or rank the candidates running
 Electorate grouped into units or constituencies (constituencies are like components)
 Constituencies may return a single member or number of members
 Can win either from plurality (over 50% of voters) or an ‘absolute’ majority (____% of population want
ed them)
 Plurality-the largest number out of a collection of numbers, not necessarily an absolute majority
 Two categories on how the electoral system converts votes into seats:
 1. Majoritarian systems larger parties typically win a higher proportion of seats than the proportion of vot
es they gain  in an election
2. Proportional systems guarantee an equal relationship between the seats won and the votes earned in the 
election  (single party majority rule less likely)
 The electoral reform debate is at heart a debate about the desirable nature of government and the principl
es that underpin  ‘good’ government 
 Twoparty systems can create circumstances in which radical, ideologicallydriven parties can stay in pow
er for prolonged  periods 
 Proportional electoral systems make coalition governments much more likely 
 Supporters of PR suggest that ‘strong’ government is one with popular support and willingness of citize
ns to obey and respect  the government 
What Do Elections Mean
 Elections provide the public with its clearest formal opportunity to influence the political process and de
termine who will  hold power
 Elections are a visible manifestation of the public interest (can see shifts in popular moods)
 Difficulties arise because the public interest can be understood as ‘interests of the public as a collective 
whole’ OR  ‘the selfish interests of each individual person’
 Difficult to interpret voting results because it is impossible to know why voters vote as they do
 Economic theory of democracy suggests that the act of voting reflects and expression of selfinterest on t
he part of the voters
 The winning party can thus claim that its policies most closely correspond to the interests of the majority
 Election results may be skewed by images in the mass media, misinformation and propaganda
 Perhaps the most significant function of elections is to set limits to arbitrary gov’t by ensuring politician
s who claim to speak  for the public are ultimately judged by the public 
Types of Electoral Systems
1. SingleMember Plurality (SMP):
Examples: USA, Canada, India
Type: Majoritarian
Features:
 Country is divided into singlemember constituencies (usually of equal size) o
Voters select a single candidate 
 Winning candidate needs to achieve a plurality of votes (could win with less than 50%)
Advantages:
 Clear link between reps and parties, ensuring that the duties of the party are carried out
 Offers voter a clear choice of potential parties of government
 Allows for clear formation of government based on electorate preference
 Keeps extremism at bay by making it difficult for small radical parties to gain seats
 Makes for strong and effective government because winning party usually has majority contro
 Singleparty governments rarely collapse as a result of internal friction
Disadvantages:
 The system ‘wastes’ votes (those cast for losing parties and those cast for winning party over plu
rality mark) o Distorts electoral preferences by ‘underrepresenting’ small parties
 Offers limited choice because of its twolead parties tendency 
 Creates instability because a change I government can result in radical shift in policies and direct
ion
  Leads to unaccountable gov’t because the majority of members are supporters of the governing p
arty
 Discourages the selection of a socially broad spread of candidates in favour of those who are attr
active to a large  body of voters 

2. Second Ballot:
Examples: Austria, Chile, Russia
Type: Majoritarian
Features:
1. Singlecandidate constituencies and singlechoice voting
 To win the first ballot, a candidate needs an overall majority (51%) of the votes cast
 If no candidate gains a firstballot majority, a second ballot is held between the top two candid
ates
Advantages:
 Voters can vote with their heart in the first ballot and with their head in the second
 Candidates are encouraged to make their appeal as broad as possible as candidates can only win 
majority  support
 Strong and stable government is possible
Disadvantages:
 It distorts preferences and is unfair to ‘third’ parties
 Runoff candidates are encouraged to abandon their principles in search of shortterm popularity
 the holding of a second ballot may strain the voters’ patience and interest in politics 

3. Alternate Vote (AV):
Examples: Australia
Type:Majoritarian
Features:
 Single member constituencies
 Voters rank the candidates in order of preference
 Winning candidates must gain 50% of all the votes cast
 Votes are counted according to the first votes. If no candidate reaches 50%, the bottom candidate 
is eliminated 
and their votes are redistributed according to the second preference. This continues until someon
e gets the  majority
Advantages:
 Fewer votes are wasted than in the SMP system
 The outcome cannot be influenced by deals made between candidates
 Single party majority government is not ruled out
Disadvantages:
 Biased in favour of large parties
 The outcome may be determined by the preferences of those who support small extremist parties
 Winners may not be widely supported as they are just the least unpopular
4. MixedMember Proportional (MMP)
Example: Germany, Italy, New Zealand
Type: Proportional
Features: 
 A proportion of seats are filled by the SMP system using singlemember constituencies
 The remaining seats are filled using the partylist system
 Electors cast two votes: one for candidate and the other for the party
Advantages:
 Balances the need for party representation against the need for electoral fairness
 It keeps the possibility alive for a singleparty government
 Allows voters to choose a party representative from one party and yet support another party to fo
rm a  government
 Takes account of the fact that representing constituents and holding office are very different job
Disadvantages:
 Prevents high levels of proportionality
 The system creates two classes of representatives, one burdened by insecurity and constituency d
uties, the other  having higher status and the prospect of holding ministerial office
 Constituency representation suffers because of the size of constituencies
 Parties become more centralized and powerful under this system

5. SingleTransferableVote (STV):
Example: Ireland
Type: Proportional
Features:
 Multimember constituencies, each of which usually returns 38 members
 Parties may put forward as many candidates as there are seats to fill
 Electors vote preferentially (ranking)
 Candidates are elected if they achieve a certain quota according to the Droop formula
 Votes are counted according to first preferences. If not all seats are filled, the bottom candidate is 
eliminated and  his or her votes are redistributed
Advantages:
 Capable of achieving highly proportional outcomes
 Competition amongst candidates from the same party means that they can be judged on their rec
ords and on  where they stand on issues that cut across party lines
 Voters can choose to whom they take their grievances because of the availability of several mem
bers
Disadvantages:
 The degree of proportionality achieved varies, largely on the basis of the party system
 Strong and stable singleparty government is unlikely
 Intraparty competition my be divisive and allow members to evade their constituency responsibil
ities

6. PartyList System:
Example: Israel, Belgium, Switzerland
Type: Proportional
Features:
  Either entire country is treated as one constituency or there are a number of large multimember c
onstituencies
 Parties compile lists of candidates to place before the voter, in descending order of preference o
Electors vote for parties, not candidates
 Parties are allocated seats in direct proportion to the amount of votes they gain in the election. Th
ey fill these  seats from their party list
 A ‘threshold’ may exist to exclude small, extremist parties from representation (ex. 5% in Germa
ny)
Advantages:
 Only potentially pure system of proportional representation and is fair to all parties
 Promotes unity by encouraging electors to identify with their nation/region
 This system makes it easier for women and minorities to be elected, provided they feature on the 
party list
 The representation of a large number of small parties ensures that there is emphasis upon negotia
tion 
Disadvantages:
 The existence of many small parties can lead to weak and unstable government
 The link between representatives and constituencies is entirely broken
 Unpopular candidates who are wellplaced on a party list cannot be removed from office
 Parties become heavily centralized, because leaders have to draw up party lists 
Theories of Voting
1. Party Identification model – sense of psychological attachment that people have to parties
2. Sociological model – links voting behaviour to group membership
3. Rational choice model – voting is viewed as a rational act
4. Dominant ideology model – voter’s attitudes conform to the tenets of a dominant ideology
Chapter 12 Governments, Systems and Regimes Traditional 
Systems of Classification:
 Government= the institutional processes through which collective and binding decisions are made
 Political system= the mechanisms of government and the institutions of the state, along with the structur
es and processes  through which these interact with society
 Regime= a ‘system of rule’ that endures even though governments come and go
Why Classify Political Systems?
 By highlighting similarities and differences in diff. types of political systems we can evaluate which syst
ems tend to work  best 
 One disadvantage to classification is that regimes of the same type will be oversimplified and their differ
ences will be  ignored
 Another disadvantage is that value biases are often imposed on classifications
Classical Typologies
 Most famous system of classification is Aristotle’s ‘who rules?’ and ‘who benefits from rule?’ question
 Who can rule= One, Few, Many
 Who’s benefit= One, Few, Many
 Tyranny, oligarchy and democracy were all perverted forms of rule;
Monarchy, aristocracy and polity were preferred
 Demagogue= a political leader whose control over the masses is based on the ability to whip up hysteric
al enthusiasm
  Later theorists were more concerned with ‘sovereignty’ which means the most high power that alone co
uld guarantee orderly  rule
 Jean Bodin concluded that absolutism was the most defensible of regimes
 Montesquieu proposed a ‘separation of powers’ between the executive, legislative and judicial institutio
ns
The ‘Three Worlds’ Typology
 The belief that the political world could be divided into three distinct blocs:
 A capitalist ‘first world’ populations enjoy the highest levels of mass affluence; private enterprise, mate
rial  incentives, free market
 A communist ‘second world’ largely industrialized and capable of satisfying the population’s basic mat
erial needs;  social equality, centralized planning
 A developing ‘third world’ economically dependent and often suffer widespread poverty
 Since the 1970s this system of classification has been increasingly hard to sustain
 Deep poverty in some areas has arguable created a ‘fourth world’
 Second and third world regimes collapsing because of the recognition that capitalism can lead to econo
mic prosperity and  political stability
Regimes of the Modern World:
1. Constitutionalinstitutional approach to classification was influenced by classical typologies  •
Structuralfunctional approach developed out of systems theory and concerned with how political system
s work in practice
2. Economicideological approach attempts to take account 3 key features of a regime (political, economic 
and cultural aspects)
 Significant because it emphasizes the degree to which formal political and economic arrangements may 
operate  differently depending on their cultural context
 Five regime types of the modern world:
1. Western polyarchies
2. New democracies
3.  East Asian regimes
4. Islamic regimes
5. Military regimes
1. Western Polyarchies
 Polyarchy= ‘rule by many’; the institutions and political processes of modern representative democracy 
that operate by  forcing rulers to take account for the public’s wishes
 Equivalent to liberaldemocracies (North America, western Europe, and Australia)
 Polyarchial regimes are distinguished by two main features:
1. A high tolerance of opposition (i.e. political party competition, healthy civil society)
2. The opportunities for political participation are widespread in order to guarantee responsiveness
 These regimes respect the idea of liberal individualism by protecting individual rights, encouraging choi
ce and competition,  and implementing some fear of government
 A Polyarchy can either have majoritarian tendencies or consensual tendencies
2. New Democracies New democracies followed the fall of communism and the overthrow of rightwing di
ctatorships (Greece, Portugal, Spain)
 Multiparty elections and marketbased economic reform
 Lack political culture and must handle strains caused by external forces of globalization
 Reemergence of military forces into politics
 Postcommunist regimes must deal with the consequences of communist rule but this usually is diffic
ult to repair leads to  discrepancies between parties
  The transition from central planning to capitalist economies can lead to insecurities and social inequa
lity
 The weakness of state power can lead to the emergence of ethnic and nationalist tensions
3. East Asian Regimes
 Orientated more around economic goals than around political goals
 Focus on boosting growth and prosperity than individual freedoms
 Broad support for ‘strong’ government and a general respect for the state
 Respect leaders because of a stress on loyalty, discipline and duty which at times invests East As
ian regimes with  authoritarianism
 Large emphasis on community and social cohesion, as well as family (‘group think’)
4. Islamic Regimes
 Islam is not just a religion, it is a complete way of life, defining moral, political and economic be
haviour for people and  nations
 Political Islam aims at the construction of a theocracy in which political and other affairs are stru
ctured according to ‘higher’  religious principles
5. Military Regimes
 Military regimes belong to a broader category of dictatorship
 The leading positions in the government are filled on the basis of the person’s position within the 
military chain of command
 3 types where the military took power
1. Military junta= the armed forces assume direct control of government and there is a rivalry 
between the three categories of  military (army, navy and air force)
2. Another form of military regime is a militarybacked personalized dictatorship 
3. Final form of military regime is where the military works ‘behind the scenes’ as leaders (t
hrough the front of another face)
Political Executives and Leadership
 Parliamentary Executive – composed of Prime Minister and a cabinet
 Presidential Executive – headed by a president, who enjoys political and constitutional independence
from the parliament
 3 dimensions of power
a. Formal
b. Informal
c. External
 Impeachment – formal process for the removal of a public official in the event of a professional
wrongdoing
 Cohabitation - An arrangement in a semi-presidential system in which the president works wih a
government and assembly controlled by a rival party or parties
 Prime Minister – primus inter pares (first among equals)
 Thatcherism – UK version of New Right Political project/ free market and strong state
 Cabinet – committee of senior officers who represent the various government departments or ministries
 France and EU – small groups of policy advisers who support individual ministers
 Core executive – network of institutions and people who play a key role in overall direction of
government policy
 Theories of Leadership
a. Natural gift
b. Sociological phenomenon
c. An organizational necessity
d. Political skill
 Styles of Leadership
 a. Laissez-faire leadership
b. Transactional leadership
c. Transformational leadership
Assemblies
 Elective dictatorship – imbalance bet. Executive and the assembly
 Lobby-fodder – pejorative term denoting assembly members who vote consistently and
unquestioningly as their parties dictate
 Immobilism – political paralysis stemming from the absence of a strong executive
 Checks and balances – internal tensions within the governmental system that results from institutional
fragmentation
 Functions of Assemblies
a. Legislation
b. Representation
c. Scrutiny and Oversight
d. Recruitment and Training
e. Legitimacy
 Committes – power houses of assemblies (chambers are for talking, committes are for working)
 Do assemblies make policy?
a. Policy-making assemblies – has most autonomy
b. Policy-influencing assemblies – can transform policy but only by reacting to executive
initiatives
c. Executive-dominated assemblies – mere rubber stamp