SUBJECT: EC8352- Signals and Systems

AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC

Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR , AP/ECE/ RMDEC

Unit 2: Analysis of continuous time signals

2.1 Fourier series analysis

The Fourier representation of signals can be used to perform frequency domain analysis of
signals in which we can study the various frequency components present in the signal, magnitude
and phase of various frequency components.

Conditions for existence of Fourier series:

The Fourier series exist only if the following Dirichlet’s conditions are satisfied.
 The signal 𝑥(𝑡) must be single valued function.
 The signal 𝑥(𝑡) must possess only a finite number of discontinuous in the period T.
 The signal must have a finite number of maxima and minima in the period T.
𝑇
 𝑥(𝑡) must be absolutely integrable. i.e., 0
𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 < ∞

Types of Fourier series:

 Trigonometric Fourier series
 Exponential Fourier series
 Cosine Fourier series

2.2 Trigonometric Fourier series

The trigonometric form of Fourier series of a periodic signal, 𝑥(𝑡) with period 𝑇 is defined
as
∞ ∞

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛Ω0 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛Ω0 𝑡 ……… 1

𝑛=1 𝑛=1
𝑎0 , 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑏𝑛 → Fourier coefficients of trigonometric form of Fourier series

𝑡 0 +𝑇
1
𝑎0 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑡0
𝑡 0 +𝑇
2
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛Ω0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑡0
𝑡 0 +𝑇
2
𝑏𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 sin 𝑛Ω0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
𝑡0

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SUBJECT: EC8352- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR , AP/ECE/ RMDEC
Example 1 Find the trigonometric Fourier series for the periodic signal x(t) as shown in Figure
x(t)
1 x(t)
1
-7 -5 -3 -1 0 1 3 5 7 9 t
-1 --1 0 1 3 t
T -1

Solution:
2𝜋 𝜋
𝑇 = 3 − −1 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ω0 = =
𝑇 2
Evaluation of 𝒂𝟎
1 𝑡 0 +𝑇 1 1 3
1 1 3
1
𝒂𝟎 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1 𝑑𝑡 + −1 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 −1 −1 𝑡 1 = (1 − (−1 ) − (3 − 1)]
𝑇 𝑡0 4 −1 1 4 4

1
= 2−2 = 𝟎
4
Evaluation of 𝒂𝒏
𝑡 0+𝑇 1 3
2 2
𝒂𝒏 = 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + (−1)cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑡0 4 −1 1
𝜋 1 𝜋 3
1 sin 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 1
sin 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 3
1 sin 𝑛 2 𝑡 sin 𝑛 2 𝑡
= − = 𝜋 − 𝜋
2 𝑛𝛺0 −1 𝑛𝛺0 1 2 𝑛 𝑛
2 −1 2 1
1 2 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= sin 𝑛 − sin 𝑛 −1 − sin 𝑛 3 − sin 𝑛
2 𝑛𝜋 2 2 2 2
1 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 1 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
= sin 𝑛 + sin 𝑛 − sin 3𝑛 + sin 𝑛 = 3sin − sin(2n𝜋 − )
𝑛𝜋 2 2 2 2 𝑛𝜋 2 2
1 𝑛𝜋 𝜋 𝟒 𝝅
= 3sin − −sin 𝑛 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏
𝑛𝜋 2 2 𝒏𝝅 𝟐
Evaluation of 𝒃𝒏
2 𝑡 0 +𝑇 2 1 3
𝒃𝒏 = 𝑥 𝑡 sin 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = sin 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + − sin 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑡0 4 −1 1
𝜋 1 𝜋 3
1 −cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 1
−cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 3
1 −cos 𝑛 2 𝑡 cos 𝑛 2 𝑡
= − = 𝜋 + 𝜋
2 𝑛𝛺0 −1 𝑛𝛺0 1 2 𝑛2 𝑛2
−1 1
1 −2 𝜋 𝜋 2 𝜋 𝜋
= cos 𝑛 − cos 𝑛 −1 + cos 𝑛 3 − cos 𝑛
2 𝑛𝜋 2 2 𝑛𝜋 2 2
1 2 𝑛𝜋 𝜋 1 𝜋 𝜋
= 0+ cos 2𝑛𝜋 − − cos 𝑛 = cos 𝑛 − cos 𝑛 =𝟎
2 𝑛𝜋 2 2 𝑛𝜋 2 2
Trigonometric Fourier series
∞ ∞

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡

𝑛=1 𝑛=1
∞ ∞
4 𝑛𝜋 4 𝑛𝜋 𝜋
= sin cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 = sin cos 𝑛 𝑡
𝑛𝜋 2 𝑛𝜋 2 2
𝑛=1 𝑛=1

Example 2 Obtain Fourier series of the following full wave rectified sine wave shown in figure

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SUBJECT: EC8352- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR , AP/ECE/ RMDEC
x(t)

-2 -1 0 1 2 t

Solution:
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡 ; ∴ 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙, 𝑠𝑜 𝒃𝒏 = 𝟎
2𝜋
𝑇 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ω0 = = 2𝜋
1
The given signal is sinusoidal signal, ∴ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin Ω𝑡
2π 2π
Here Ω = = = π and A = 1
T 2
∴ 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝅𝒕
Evaluation of 𝒂𝟎
𝑇 1 1
2 2 2 1
2 2 cos 𝜋𝑡 2 2 𝜋 𝟐
𝒂𝟎 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 sin 𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 − =− cos − cos 0 =
𝑇 1 𝜋 0 𝜋 2 𝝅
0 0 0

Evaluation of 𝒂𝒏
𝑇 1 1
2 2 2
4 4
𝒂𝒏 = 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛Ω0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = sin 𝜋𝑡 cos 𝑛2𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 sin (1 + 2𝑛)𝜋𝑡 + sin (1 − 2𝑛)𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 1
0 0 0
1
cos (1 + 2𝑛)𝜋𝑡 cos (1 − 2𝑛)𝜋𝑡 2
=2 − −
1 + 2𝑛 𝜋 1 − 2𝑛 𝜋 0
𝜋 𝜋
2 cos (1 + 2𝑛) 2 cos (1 − 2𝑛) 2 1 1
= − − + +
𝜋 1 + 2𝑛 1 − 2𝑛 1 + 2𝑛 1 − 2𝑛
2 1 1 2 1 − 2𝑛 + 1 + 2𝑛 𝟒
= + = =
𝜋 1 + 2𝑛 1 − 2𝑛 𝜋 1 − 4𝑛2 𝝅 𝟏 − 𝟒𝒏𝟐

Trigonometric Fourier series

∞ ∞

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎𝑛 cos 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑛 sin 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡

𝑛=1 𝑛=1
∞
2 4
∴𝑥 𝑡 = + cos 𝑛2𝜋𝑡
𝜋 𝜋 1 − 4𝑛2
𝑛=1
2.3 Exponential Fourier series
The exponential form of Fourier series of a periodic signal 𝑥(𝑡) with period 𝑇 is defined as,
∞

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛 Ω0 𝑡
𝑛=−∞
The Fourier coefficient 𝑐𝑛 can be evaluated using the following formulae

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SUBJECT: EC8352- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR , AP/ECE/ RMDEC
𝑇
2
1
𝑐𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛 Ω0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
−𝑇2

Example 3 Find exponential series for the signal shown in figure

x(t)

0 1 2 3
Fig 2.26
t

Solution:
2π 2π
𝑇 = 1, Ω0 = T
= 1
= 2π
Consider the equation of a straight line
𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑥 − 𝑥1
= ……… 9
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Consider one period of the given signal Fig 2.26 as shown in Fig 2.27 x(t)

Consider points P,Q as shown in fig 2.27 1 Q[1,1]

Coordinates of point 𝑃 = 0,0
Coordinates of point 𝑄 = 1,1
0 1 t
On substituting the coordinates of points 𝑃 and 𝑄 in eq 9 P[0,0]
𝑥 𝑡 −0 𝑡−0 Fig 2.27
= ⇒ 𝑥 𝑡 =𝑡
1−0 1−0
∵ 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑡)
Evaluation of 𝒄𝟎
𝑇 1 1
1 1 𝑡2 1
𝑐0 = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = =
𝑇 0 1 0 2 0
2
Evaluation of 𝒄𝒏
𝑇 1 1 1
1 −𝑗𝑛 Ω 0 𝑡
1 −𝑗𝑛 2𝜋𝑡
𝑒 −𝑗𝑛 2𝜋𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗𝑛 2𝜋𝑡
𝑐𝑛 = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 − 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 1 0 −𝑗𝑛2𝜋 0 0 −𝑗𝑛2𝜋
−𝑗𝑛 2𝜋 −𝑗𝑛 2𝜋𝑡 1 −𝑗𝑛 2𝜋 −𝑗𝑛 2𝜋
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 1
= +0+ 2 2
=𝑗 + 2 2− 2 2
−𝑗𝑛2𝜋 −𝑗 (𝑛2𝜋) 0 𝑛2𝜋 𝑛 4𝜋 𝑛 4𝜋
𝑗 1 1 𝑗
= + 2 2− 2 2=
𝑛2𝜋 𝑛 4𝜋 𝑛 4𝜋 𝑛2𝜋
𝑗
𝑐𝑛 =
𝑛2𝜋
𝑗 𝑗 𝑗 𝑗 𝑗 𝑗
𝑐1 = , 𝑐2 = , 𝑐3 = , 𝑐−1 = , 𝑐−2 = , 𝑐−3 =
2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋 −2𝜋 −4𝜋 −6𝜋
Exponential Fourier series
∞

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑛 𝑒 𝑗𝑛 𝛺 0 𝑡
𝑛=−∞

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SUBJECT: EC8352- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR , AP/ECE/ RMDEC
𝑗 −𝑗6𝜋𝑡 𝑗 −𝑗4𝜋𝑡 𝑗 −𝑗2𝜋𝑡 1 𝑗 𝑗2𝜋𝑡 𝑗 𝑗4𝜋𝑡 𝑗 𝑗6𝜋𝑡
∴ 𝑥 𝑡 = +⋯− 𝑒 − 𝑒 − 𝑒 + + 𝑒 + 𝑒 + 𝑒 +⋯
6𝜋 4𝜋 2𝜋 2 2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋
1 𝑗 𝑗2𝜋𝑡 𝑗 𝑗4𝜋𝑡 𝑗 𝑗6𝜋𝑡
= + 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑡 + 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑗4𝜋𝑡 + 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑗6𝜋𝑡 + ⋯
2 2𝜋 4𝜋 6𝜋
1 1 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑡 1 𝑒 𝑗4𝜋𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑗4𝜋𝑡 1 𝑒 𝑗6𝜋𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑗6𝜋𝑡
= + + +
2 𝜋 −1 2𝑗 2𝜋 −1 2𝑗 3𝜋 −1 2𝑗
1 −1 1 1
= + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋𝑡 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝜋𝑡 − sin 6𝜋𝑡
2 𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋
1 1 1 1
= − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜋𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝜋𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 6𝜋𝑡 + ⋯
2 𝜋 2 3

2.4 Cosine Fourier series

Cosine representation of 𝑥 𝑡 is
∞

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴0 + 𝐴𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 + 𝜃𝑛 )

𝑛=1
Where 𝐴0 is dc component, 𝐴𝑛 is harmonic amplitude or spectral amplitude and 𝜃𝑛 is phase
coefficient or phase angle 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

Example 4 Determine the cosine Fourier series of the signal shown in Figure

x(t)

-2π -π 0 π 2π 3π t

Solution:
2𝜋
The signal shown in is periodic with period 𝑇 = 2𝜋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ω0 = 2𝜋 = 1
The given signal is sinusoidal signal, ∴ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin Ω𝑡
2π 2π
Here Ω = = = 1, A = 1
T 2π
∴ 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕
Evaluation of 𝒂𝟎
1 𝑇 1 𝜋
1 𝜋
1 1 1
𝑎0 = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 0 = [− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0] = [2] =
𝑇 0 2𝜋 0 2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋

Evaluation of 𝒂𝒏

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SUBJECT: EC8352- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR , AP/ECE/ RMDEC
𝑇
2 2 𝜋 1 𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 + 𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 − 𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 2𝜋 0 2𝜋 0
𝜋
1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 + 𝑛 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 − 𝑛 𝑡
= − −
2𝜋 1+𝑛 1−𝑛 0
1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 + 𝑛 𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 − 𝑛 𝜋 1 1
= − − + +
2𝜋 1+𝑛 1−𝑛 1+𝑛 1−𝑛
1 1 1 1 1
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑜𝑑𝑑 ∶ 𝑎𝑛 = − − + + =0
2𝜋 1 + 𝑛 1 − 𝑛 1 + 𝑛 1 − 𝑛
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 ∶ 𝑎𝑛 = + + + = +
2𝜋 1 + 𝑛 1 − 𝑛 1 + 𝑛 1 − 𝑛 2𝜋 1 + 𝑛 1 − 𝑛
1 1−𝑛+1+𝑛 2
= =
𝜋 1 − 𝑛2 𝜋(1 − 𝑛2 )
𝟎 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒏 = 𝒐𝒅𝒅
∴ 𝒂𝒏 = 𝟐
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒏 = 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏
𝝅(𝟏 − 𝒏𝟐 )
Evaluation of 𝒃𝒏
2 𝑇 2 𝜋 1 𝜋
𝒃𝒏 = 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝛺0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 − 𝑛 𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 1 + 𝑛 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 2𝜋 0 2𝜋 0
𝜋
1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 − 𝑛 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 + 𝑛 𝑡 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 − 𝑛 𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1 + 𝑛 𝜋
= − = − −0 =𝟎
2𝜋 (1 − 𝑛) (1 + 𝑛) 0 2𝜋 (1 − 𝑛) (1 + 𝑛)

Evaluation of Fourier coefficients of Cosine Fourier series from Trigonometric Fourier series:
1
𝐴0 = 𝑎0 =
𝜋
2
𝐴𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 2 + 𝑏𝑛 2 = , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝜋(1 − 𝑛2 )
𝑏𝑛
𝜃𝑛 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 =0
𝑎𝑛

Cosine Fourier series

∞

x t = A0 + An cos nΩ0 t + θn
n=1
∞
1 2 1 2 2
∴ 𝑥(𝑡) = + 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑡 = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑡 + ⋯
𝜋 𝜋(1 − 𝑛 ) 𝜋 𝜋(1 − 4) 𝜋(1 − 16)
𝑛 =1
(𝑛=𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 )
1 2 2 1 2 1 1
= − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑡 + ⋯ = − [ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4𝑡 + ⋯ ]
𝜋 3𝜋 15𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3 15

2.5 Fourier transform

The Fourier representation of periodic signals has been extended to non-periodic signals by
letting the fundamental period T tend to infinity and this Fourier method of representing non-
periodic signals as a function of frequency is called Fourier transform.
Definition of Continuous time Fourier Transform

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SUBJECT: EC8352- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR , AP/ECE/ RMDEC
The Fourier transform (FT) of Continuous time signals is called Continuous Time Fourier
Transform
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑋 𝑗Ω = 𝐹 𝑥(𝑡)
The Fourier transform of continuous time signal, x(t) is defined as,
∞

𝑋 𝑗Ω = 𝐹 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗Ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
Conditions for existence of Fourier transform
The Fourier transform 𝑥(𝑡) exist if it satisfies the following Dirichlet condition
1. 𝑥(𝑡) should be absolutely integrable
∞

𝑖𝑒 , 𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 < ∞
−∞

2. 𝑥(𝑡) should have a finite number of maxima and minima with in any finite interval.
3. 𝑥 𝑡 should have a finite number of discontinuities with in any interval.

Definition of Inverse Fourier Transform

The inverse Fourier Transform of 𝑋 𝑗Ω is defined as,
∞
1
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐹 −1 𝑋 𝑗Ω = 𝑋 𝑗Ω 𝑒 𝑗Ω𝑡 𝑑Ω
2𝜋
−∞

Example 5 Find Fourier transform of impulse signal

Solution:
By definition of Fourier transform
∞

𝐹 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑋 𝑗Ω = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗Ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
∞
∴ 𝐹[𝛿(𝑡)] = 𝛿(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗 𝛺𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 = 0
𝐹𝛿 𝑡 = 𝛿 0 𝑒 −𝑗 𝛺 0
=1 ∵ 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝛿 𝑡 =
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≠ 0

Example 6 Find Fourier transform of double sided exponential signal

Solution:
Double sided exponential signal is given by
−𝑎𝑡
𝐹[𝑒 −𝑎|𝑡| ] = 𝑒𝑎𝑡 ∶𝑡≥0
𝑒 ∶𝑡≤0
0 ∞ 0 ∞
𝐹[𝑒 −𝑎 |𝑡| ] = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑒 −𝑗 𝛺𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 . 𝑒 −𝑗 𝛺𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 (𝑎−𝑗 𝛺)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑒 −(𝑎 +𝑗 𝛺)𝑡 𝑑𝑡
−∞ 0 −∞ 0
(𝑎−𝑗 𝛺)𝑡 0 −(𝑎+𝑗 𝛺)𝑡 ∞
𝑒 𝑒 1 1 𝑎+𝑗𝛺+𝑎−𝑗𝛺
= + = + =
𝑎−𝑗𝛺 −∞
−(𝑎 + 𝑗 𝛺) 0
𝑎−𝑗𝛺 𝑎+𝑗𝛺 𝑎 2 + 𝛺2
2𝑎
= 2
𝑎 + 𝛺2
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SUBJECT: EC8352- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR , AP/ECE/ RMDEC

Example 7 Find Fourier transform of rectangular pulse function shown in figure

x(t)

-T/2 0 T/2 t

Solution:
−𝑇 𝑇
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝜋(𝑡) = 𝐴 ; ≤𝑡≤
2 2
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
𝑇
2 𝑒 −𝑗𝛺𝑡 2 𝐴 𝑇 𝑇 2𝐴 𝑒 𝑗𝛺 2 − 𝑒 −𝑗𝛺 2 2𝐴 𝑇
𝐹[𝜋(𝑡)] = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑗𝛺𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐴 = [𝑒 −𝑗𝛺 2 − 𝑒 𝑗𝛺 2 ] = [ ]= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺
−𝑇 −𝑗𝛺 −
𝑇 −𝑗𝛺 𝑗𝛺 2 𝛺 2
2 2
𝑇
2𝐴 𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺 2 𝑇
= 𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛺 = 𝐴𝑇 𝑇 𝐴𝑇 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐 𝛺
𝛺𝑇 2 𝛺 2
2

Example 8 Find inverse Fourier transform 𝑋(𝑗 𝛺) = 𝛿(𝛺)

Solution:
∴ 𝐹 −1 [𝑋(𝑗 𝛺)] = 𝐹 −1 [𝛿(𝛺)]
1 ∞ 1 ∞ 1 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝛺 = 0
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑋 𝑗 𝛺 𝑒 𝑗 𝛺𝑡 𝑑𝛺 = 𝛿 𝛺 𝑒 𝑗 𝛺𝑡 𝑑𝛺 = 1 ∵ 𝛿 𝛺 =
2𝜋 −∞ 2𝜋 −∞ 2𝜋 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝛺 ≠ 0
1
𝐹 −1 [𝛿(𝛺)] =
2𝜋

2.6 Laplace transform

It is used to transform a time domain to complex frequency domain signal(s-domain)

Two Sided Laplace transform (or) Bilateral Laplace transform

Let 𝑥(𝑡) be a continuous time signal defined for all values of 𝑡. Let 𝑋(𝑆) be Laplace transform of
𝑥(𝑡).
∞

𝐿 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑋 𝑆 = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

−∞

One sided Laplace transform (or) Unilateral Laplace transform

Let 𝑥(𝑡) be a continuous time signal defined for 𝑡 ≥ 0 (ie If 𝑥(𝑡) is causal) then,
∞

𝐿 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑋 𝑆 = 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

0

Inverse Laplace transform

The S-domain signal 𝑋(𝑆) can be transformed to time domain signal x(t) by using inverse Laplace
transform.

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SUBJECT: EC8352- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR , AP/ECE/ RMDEC
The inverse Laplace transform of X(S) is defined as,
𝑠=𝜎 +𝑗Ω
−1
1
𝐿 𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑋 𝑆 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑠
2𝜋𝑗
𝑠=𝜎 −𝑗Ω

Existence of Laplace transform

The necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence of Laplace transform are
 𝑥(𝑡) should be continuous in the given closed interval
 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 must be absolutely intergrable
∞
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑋 𝑆 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 −∞ 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒 −𝜎𝑡 𝑑𝑡 < ∞

Example 9 Find unilateral Laplace transform for the following signals

𝒊) 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝜹(𝒕)
∞ ∞
1 for t = 0
X S = x t e−st dt = δ t e−st dt = e−s 0
=1 ∵δ t =
0 0 0 for t ≠ 0

𝒊𝒊) 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝒖(𝒕)

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 1 1 for t ≥ 0
𝑋 𝑆 = x t e−st dt = u t e−st dt = −𝑠𝑡
1𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = = ∵u t =
0 0 0 −𝑠 0 𝑠 0 for t < 0

Example 10 Find Laplace transform of 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑢 𝑡

Solution:
∞ ∞ ∞
𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 −𝑠𝑡 − 𝑠−𝑎 𝑡
𝑒 − 𝑠−𝑎 𝑡 1
𝑋 𝑆 =𝐿𝑒 𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = =
− 𝑠−𝑎 0
𝑠−𝑎
0 0

1
Example 11 Determine initial value and final value of the following signal 𝑋(𝑆) = 𝑠 𝑠+2
Solution:
Initial value
1 1
𝑥 0 = Lt 𝑆𝑋 𝑆 = Lt 𝑠 = =0
𝑠→∞ 𝑠→∞ 𝑠 𝑠+2 ∞
Final value
1 1
𝑥 ∞ = Lt 𝑆𝑋 𝑆 = Lt 𝑠 =
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠 𝑠+2 2

𝑆 2 +9𝑆+1
Example 12 Find inverse Laplace Transform of 𝑋 𝑆 = 𝑆[𝑆 2 +6𝑆+8]. Find ROC for 𝑖) 𝑅𝑒 𝑠 > 0
𝑖𝑖) 𝑅𝑒 𝑠 < −4 𝑖𝑖𝑖) − 2 > 𝑅𝑒 𝑠 > −4
Solution:

9
SUBJECT: EC8352- Signals and Systems
AUTHOR: M.SHAKUNTHALA, A.P/ECE/RMDEC
Dr.M.N.VIMAL KUMAR , AP/ECE/ RMDEC
𝑆 2 + 9𝑆 + 1 𝑆 2 + 9𝑆 + 1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
X 𝑆 = 2
= = + +
𝑆[𝑆 + 6𝑆 + 8] 𝑆 𝑆 + 4 (𝑆 + 2) 𝑆 𝑆+4 (𝑆 + 2)
𝑆 2 + 9𝑆 + 1 = 𝐴 𝑆 + 4 𝑆 + 2 + B𝑆 𝑆 + 2 + C𝑆 𝑆 + 4
at 𝑆 = 0 𝑆 = −4 𝑆 = −2
1 19 13
𝐴= 𝐵=− 𝐶=
8 8 4
1 19 13
−8
∴𝑋 𝑆 = 8 + + 4
𝑆 𝑆+4 (𝑆 + 2)
Applying inverse Laplace transform
1 19 13
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) + 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
8 8 4

ROC
𝒊) 𝑹𝒆 𝒔 > 𝟎
jΩ
ROC lies right side of all poles
1 19 13
∴ 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) + 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
8 8 4
-4 -2 0 σ

𝒊𝒊) 𝑹𝒆 𝒔 < −𝟒

jΩ
ROC lies left side of all poles
1 19 13
∴ 𝑥 𝑡 = − 𝑢 −𝑡 + 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑢 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡)
-4 -2 0 σ 8 8 4

𝒊𝒊𝒊) − 𝟐 > 𝑅𝑒 𝒔 > −𝟒

ROC lies left side of poles s=-2, s=0 and right side of
jΩ pole s=-4
1 19 13
∴ 𝑥 𝑡 = − 𝑢 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(−𝑡)
8 8 4
-4 -2 0 σ

10