Leadership Emotions

INT. J. LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION, 2000, VOL . 3, NO .
4, 331± 357
The emotions of educational leadership: breaking the

silence
BRENDA R. BEATTY
This study examines the emotionality of educational leadership by exploring administrators’

recall of key junctures in their lives as leaders, and was designed to begin to investigate the
associations between an individual’s philosophy of leadership and his/her experience of
emotionality in leadership. Employing an interview method, the study uses stimulated recall
of emotional experiences associated with leadership work. An assessment of the situations
that evoked emotions, patterns associated with the emotions themselves and the act of
reflection, led to noteworthy conclusions that may hold important implications for further
research in the sociology of emotions and educational leadership theory and practice.
Emerging findings support the position that our understanding of the role of the emotions
may be fundamental to a fuller appreciation of the intra- and intersubjective realities of life
in schools, in general, and of educational leadership in particular.
Introduction
Teaching and leading are profoundly emotional activities (Fried, 1995). You would not guess this
from much of the educational change and reform literature, however . . . If educational reformers
ignore the emotional dimensions of educational change, emotions and feelings will only re-enter
the change process by the back door. (Hargreaves 1997: 108–109)
The emotional experience of educational leadership has not been

explored in sufficient depth to date in educational administration research.
This study investigated the emotions of leadership—their provocations,
origins, qualities—and some of their effects on the working lives of
educational leaders.
Hochschild’s interactional model, which uses a blend of organismic and
social constructionist factors, provides us with a working definition of
emotion and feeling:
I would define emotion as an awareness of four elements that we usually experience at the same
time: (a) appraisals of a situation, (b) changes in bodily sensations, (c) the free or inhibited
display of expressive gestures, and (d) a cultural label applied to specific constellations of the first
Brenda Beatty is a graduate researcher and a doctoral candidate in the Theory and Policy Studies
Department, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education at the University of Toronto. She is a veteran in
education, with a distinguished career as an educator in Secondary School English and Media. Building
on her Masters in Educational Administration, Brenda Beatty is currently completing her dissertation
on ‘The emotions of educational leadership’ under the supervision of Dr. Andy Hargreaves, Director of
the International Center for Educational Change at OISE/UT. Brenda Beatty can be reached at
[email protected]
International Journal of Leadership in Education

ISSN 1360-3124 print/ISSN 1464-5092 online Ó 2000 Taylor & Francis Ltd
http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals
332 BRENDA R. BEATTY
three elements. We learn how to appraise, to display, and to label emotions, even as we learn how
to link the results of each to that of the other. This is the definition of emotions. A feeling is an
emotion with less marked bodily sensation; it is a ‘milder’ emotion. (Hochschild 1990: 118–119)
Hochschild’s approach to defining emotion is particularly useful in its

refusal to deny the relevance of the organismic argument or the purely
social constructionist stance. Its appeal, then, lies in its flexibility and
inclusiveness, with an emphasis on the interactional model.
Leadership researchers and theorists have identified a number of
different traits, styles, behaviours and ingredients associated with leader-
ship (Burns 1978, Bennis 1989, Leithwood 1990, Leithwood and Jantzi
1990, Sergiovanni 1992, Leithwood et al. 1999). In the past ten to fifteen
years, the widespread acceptance of the need for change in education and
elsewhere has led to extensive reconsideration of ‘what is leadership?’ and
‘what are effective ways in which to lead?’ We struggle to define leadership,
from the mutual exclusivity between ‘management’—as maintenance and
control—and ‘leadership’—as creation and inspiration (Bennis 1989)—
through to the suggested recombination of these dimensions in a composite
blend (Fullan and Stiegelbauer 1991). The conception of leadership as
‘influence’ continues to dominate the discourse (Leithwood et al. 1999),
while leadership as ‘support’ remains under-represented (Greenfield 1999).
The dialogue continues as we attempt to define leadership and to discover
how to do it best.
In recent years, the concepts of multiple intelligences (Gardner 1983)
and emotional intelligence (Bar-On 1988, Salovey and Mayer 1990,
Goleman 1995, 1998) have become increasingly popular in the examination
of corporate maximization strategies. The need for workers and leaders to
develop these intelligences has become part of the business success
rhetoric:
. . . emotional intelligence can be an inoculation that preserves health and encourages growth. If
a company has the competencies that flow from self-awareness and self-regulation, motivation
and empathy, leadership skills and open communication, it should prove more resilient, no
matter what the future brings. . . The capabilities needed for leaders in the next century will
differ radically from those valued today. (Goleman 1998: 312)
While the applicability to educational leadership of the principles

and benefits of collaboration and the emotional skills required to
promote and maintain collaborative cultures may seem self-evident,
human emotions per se have been consistently marginalized in
educational leadership research. It should be noted that in education,
several writers and researchers do acknowledge emotions as relevant to
teachers’ work in terms of themes that include morale, stress and
burnout, motivation, empowerment, the self, change, deprofessionaliza-
tion of inspection, and emotions of learning to teach (Nias 1989,
Rosenholtz 1989, Noddings 1992, Hargreaves 1994, Acker 1995, Blase
and Anderson 1995, Dinham 1995, Jeffrey and Woods 1996). However,
the emotions of leadership are virtually unmentioned. Indeed, what is
missing from the knowledge base for the emotions of leadership are the
voices of leaders themselves.
THE EMOTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 333
There are exceptions. In a revealing narrative reflection of his own

inner journey as principal, David Loader tells us that leadership is indeed
an emotional practice and that we need ‘. . . a more balanced view of
leadership . . . those who have researched the current educational writing
have identified a gap. . . Little seems to have been written about the person
of the leader and the emotions that person experiences while leading’
(Loader 1997: 3). He offers many insights, such as the following:
Leadership has its highs and lows, its successes and failures. Principals cry, laugh, dream and
become suspicious. There are times when principals do want the fairy godmother to come and
save them. While leadership is about courage, about creating the tomorrow of our choice,
heroism does not come easily. (Loader 1997: 3)
Loader’s candor about his personal and professional self is

exceptional in educational administration literature. ‘Criticisms of my
school were taken personally, as criticisms of me. With this mind set
it became very hard to have a private life. . . . My personal failure was
that I had no sense of myself as separate from the institution’
(p. 147).
The emotional experience of educational leaders is rich in potential
to assist us in deepening our understanding of leadership. In her study
of several principals and the pressures to compete in the educational
marketplace at the expense of shared collegiality, Blackmore (1996)
found the need for an increased appreciation of the emotional labour
(Hochschild 1983) involved in educational leadership during times of
severe fiscal restraint and aggressive educational reform. Also, we find
that for principals in one study, there were emotional implications in
learning to ‘let go’ of control in shared governance of schools (Blase
and Blase 1997). Principals, mandated to implement distributed
leadership in their schools, reported emotional and professional
rewards for themselves and their teachers. However, the anxiety and
fear that accompanied making the adjustment held them back and in
some cases undermined their ability even to try to make the necessary
changes.
In the educational administration literature, leadership behaviours
that have emotional implications are repeatedly recommended: lending
support, exhibiting moral integrity, providing safety, fostering collabora-
tion, offering intellectual stimulation, encouraging organizational learning
and practising consultative and shared decision making (Leithwood et al.
1999). Optimally, it is theorized, these features combine to create
cultures in schools which generate and sustain the kind of energy
necessary for change and transformation. These ways of leading may
foster the ability to improve schools from within (Barth 1990).
Csikszentmihalyi (1990) might call the total engagement possible during
self-directed authentic collaborative synergy ‘finding flow’ (Beatty
1999a). Yet leaders’ emotional capacities to exhibit these behaviours
will most certainly vary. Indeed, the emotional causes and effects of so
many conditions, to which a leader may deliberately or inadvertently
contribute, remain under-explored, while the emotional processes of the
leader her/himself remain virtually uncharted territory.
Emotions and the social sciences
In educational administration and leadership theory and research, the

emotions have been treated, if they are mentioned at all, as little more than
pesky interlopers, distracting us from a higher, rational purpose. This is the
case throughout much of social science:
Analysis of political and cultural forces that condition emotional experience across time and
space is neglected [while] emotional processes are treated as separate from other kinds of
subjectivity such as thinking and somatic experiences . . . As a result, emotional and cognitive
orientations are viewed as competing perspectives . . . [and] little has been done to unravel the
complex manner in which emotion, cognition and the lived body intertwine. (Ellis and Flaherty
1992: 3).
This dualist paradigm continues to pervade our consciousness,

harkening back to the age of enlightenment (Damasio 1994) and
obfuscating a more complete view of the human mind–body continuum.
As Davies warns, in the context of examining cultural narrative,
The binary pairs male/female, mind/body, reason/emotion, light/darkness, fact/fantasy take their
meaning not only in relation but in hierarchical opposition to each other. Our new stories must
rework the element of these dualisms, such that both sides are equally valued, their meaning is no
longer part of any oppositional binary form of thought, and both become necessary elements of
each person’s subjectivity. In the meantime though, personal identities have been (are being)
constituted in terms of those very dualities we are in the process of challenging. (Davies 1989,
1992: 67)
Emotions are political. The hierarchical relationship between reason

and emotion has particular implications for life in organizations—for
leaders and for followers—in that it is often played out as one of mutual
exclusion. Power positions in the hierarchy are ritually reasserted through
strict emotional control and suppression—the maintenance of an exclu-
sively and dominatingly rational appearance. The notion that, optimally,
saner heads prevail and that sane is synonymous with unemotional is re-
enacted continually. However, this may be the antithesis of the way people
are really feeling. Thus the display of rational ‘sanity’ that is held to be
synonymous with control, may actually belie emotional insanities, or
indicate incongruities that can function as valuable indicators of the need
for change in an organization.
A similar phenomenon may explain rationalist preferences in
educational research. Reason itself is not free from emotional foundation
and, even in the purest of intellectual moments, emotions are present.
The mind is actually a seamless blend of thinking and feeling (Damasio
1994). The consistent exclusion of the emotions in traditional educa-
tional administration is limiting, for it distorts our theoretical under-
standing of human experience. In the literature, problem solving,
strategic planning, and even reflective practice are considered from an
exclusively rational standpoint. Educational administration researchers
can no longer afford to treat the emotions as subordinate, insignificant or
peripheral if we are to explore fully the way leaders are and the ways
they can be.
Despite their apparently ‘unpleasant’ or ‘dangerous’ qualities for

researchers because of their capacity to ‘contradict so much of the rational
actor world-view on which mainstream sociology is premised’ (Ellis and
Flaherty 1992: 1), subjective experiences are fundamental to our notion of
reality. The emotional dimension of our subjectivity has a foundational role
to play in the development of our socially constructed reality. Lived
experience, then, may be more appropriately treated as ‘an interpretive
story, rather than a causal one’ (Ellis and Flaherty 1992: 5). An interpretive
story ‘lives willingly with plurality, embracing the power of language to
make new and different things possible; . . . focuses on how we talk about
the world and tries to deal with it; . . . recounts improvisations, changes,
contradictions, ambiguities and vulnerabilities’ (Bochner 1990: 5–6). We
need to study the stories of emotional subjectivity in this spirit.
This research is therefore grounded in a paradigm of the human mind
which recombines the previously polarized cognitive and affective domains
and is based on a vision of the ‘whole body as mind’ (Pert 1998). With this
image of the ‘whole mind’ in mind, we may begin to pursue lines of
research that could lead to a more meaningful understanding of people
whose realities are largely defined and whose values are heavily influenced
by their emotions. A fuller understanding of the emotional dimension of
the total human experience then, may complement cognitive and
behavioural emphases that have gone before, giving us a closer look at
some of the less considered parts, and moving us nearer to a fuller
appreciation of human beings as whole persons.
Emotions and organizations
School cultures support the notion that the ideal ‘professional’ demeanour
is primarily rational and carefully controlled emotionally. This is especially
the case in terms of the emotional display rules among adults in schools. In
attempting to retain appropriate professional decorum, the continual denial
or suppression of the emotionality of our experience may be creating an
artificiality to organizational life that is energy depleting and even
unhealthy.
Typically, in organizations, people suppress ideas and feelings about ongoing problems at work,
behavior often viewed as politically useful and adaptive. Paradoxically, successful efforts at
organizational change and development rely upon participants’ feelings and ideas. Nevertheless,
sincerity may challenge the political nature and defensive strategies that characterize most work
relationships. Resistance to change is therefore inevitable. (Diamond 1993: 117)
This denial of the emotionality of experience may also be limiting the

potential for professional renewal and synergy that can occur only when the
whole self is safe to grow and to discover in collaboration with trusted
colleagues (Barth 1990, Little 1993). Perhaps leaders themselves need a
forum of trust and safety within which to examine and reflect upon the
emotionality of their experience (Fineman 1992, Osterman and Kottkamp
1993). There is a connection between the emotions of feeling safe and secure
in shared heterarchical leadership and the ability to engage in authentic
collaborative professional learning and creative risk taking (Beatty 1999a).

However, the relationship between the teachers’ emotional experience in this
sense and that of the leader may be one of inverse proportionality. That is, in
some cases, the more secure and empowered the teacher, the more
threatened, insecure and anxious the leader (Blase and Blase, 1997). This
‘either–or’ relationship between leaders’ and teachers’ emotional security
may prove to be central to the inner workings of educational stasis and critical
to our understanding of the possibility for educational change. It is important
to note, however, that teachers’ willingness to make voluntary commitment
to extracurricular duties is not necessarily dependent on the extent of their
perceived empowerment (Blase and Roberts 1994). Closed and open,
authoritarian and transformative, leaders with various styles get results.
Thus, there may be other more elusive qualities to the effective leadership
connection with teachers. Could these be emotional qualities? The
characteristic emotional intersubjectivity of an organization may be a
measure of its energy system and its openness to learning, growth and change.
Some models of the learning organization are based on empowerment
and shared decision making. Schools that have succeeded in fostering a
truly collaborative culture report a self-generating creative synergy and
commitment (Blase and Blase 1997). However, despite much rhetoric about
the desirability of a horizontal organizational structure characterized by
shared decision making and authentic collaboration, the present education
system is still typically hierarchical and exclusionary. The hierarchical
educational administration regime is often characterized by centralized
control, favouritism, and highly restricted information flow (Blase and
Anderson 1995). Thus, the processes whereby leaders experience their
emotional capacity, or incapacity, to provide the necessary impetus for
optimal personal and organizational growth and change are worthy of our
consideration. For instance, the emotional attachment of leaders to their
values of power and control may be a factor in the seemingly irrepressible,
self-replicating power of hierarchy. Thus, an emotional link may be partly
responsible for a corresponding loss of opportunity to energize the system
through alternative leadership styles. In the highly controlled, closed
regime, wherein an authoritarian or even emotionally damaging leader
restricts the possibility of transformation, there is the danger of entropic
depletion of personal and organizational energy. Important, therefore, are
the shaping and maintaining forces in the culture of educational leadership,
and the underlying emotionality that is associated with these forces.
Emotions and transformational leadership
Much has been written about transformational leadership styles, which are
theoretically facilitative and fostering of shared growth and organizational
change. However, even the most well-intentioned leader is subject to her/
his own transrational values (Hodgkinson 1990) and, I would argue, the
emotions that sustain these values. Thus, the leader whose need for power
and control overrides his/her intellectual acceptance of the desirability of a
heterarchical distributed leadership may be faced with obstacles to
organizational success and leadership flexibility which are essentially

emotional. A better understanding of the emotions of leadership could be
used to build our capacity for learning and change in schools. If we
continue to ignore the emotional dimension of organizational life in general
and leadership in particular, we do so at our peril. Intrapersonal,
interpersonal, social, micropolitical, structural and psychodynamic factors
at work in schools may be contributing to, creating and sustaining the
emotional processes underlying our attachment to stasis, at a time when
embracing change has become essential.
Context of study
At the time of this study, the ongoing need for publicly funded
organizations to become places that are safe, dynamic, learning, evolving,
adaptive and creative exists concurrently with the increased momentum of
a new external political reality. Increasing demands for fiscal restraint and
professional accountability have created pressures for change and improve-
ment but with little money to support these initiatives. Thus, there is an
increasing demand on human resources at a time when there are few
supports to facilitate human adjustment and, more importantly, real deep
organizational change or transformation.
The need for transformation is felt keenly in the education milieu.
Educators are aware of the need for change. They are not, however,
informed, prepared or supported in these changes. For instance, making
the transition from having exclusive control over what students will learn,
to joining them as fellow learners in an information-flooded world is, like
principals learning to share leadership, an emotionally challenging feat.
Importantly, it is the teacher who is encouraged to be a life-long learner,
looking inwards as well as outwards for growth, who can best exemplify
this most potent lesson for students. However, the teacher who is
emotionally safe to take the necessary risks is far more likely to become
such a model (Beatty 1999a). The ability of the leader to foster such a safe
environment, to promote and perhaps exemplify such a learning model is in
part an emotional capacity (Loader 1997). At the time of this study the
emotional self-awareness and capacity of the leader was a little researched
link in the chain of professional growth and organizational change.
Decades of study have been devoted to ‘educational change’, ‘learning
organizations’, ‘transformational leadership’, ‘leadership behaviours’,
‘values in education’ and other attempts to understand the inner workings
of life in schools with a view to effecting educational improvement. Yet,
despite various new theories, policies and attempted implementations, deep
meaningful change remains elusive.
To discover why change has been so difficult to effect, some have
tried to reconfigure elements within existing organizational and leader-
ship models in order to try to describe the different ways leadership
occurs (Leithwood et al. 1999). However, these models are characterized
by heavily cognitivist and behaviourist perspectives. Leithwood et al.’s
summary of clusters of leadership paradigms gleaned from educational
administration journal articles since 1988 is useful, offering several

overarching leadership categories including ‘instructional’, ‘transforma-
tional’, ‘moral’, ‘participative’, ‘managerial’ and ‘contingent’. But the
emotions get scant attention from these authors. They found references
to emotion and its role in teacher motivation. The desirability of
‘emotional arousal states’ the leader may attempt to create in others is
highlighted. Consistent with the focus on leadership as influence, the
focus is on the emotions the leader stimulates in others in the process of
causing productive behaviour. Furthermore, their chapter entitled
‘Emotional Balance’ is actually an examination of teachers’ ‘emotional
exhaustion’ or burnout. Still, these authors do not report any sign, in
their review of the literature, of what the emotional states of the leader
her/himself might be. It is arguable that the virtual absence or
marginalization of affectivity within mainstream educational leadership
discourse represents a kind of subversion of the emotions. The emotions
are undoubtedly present, in leaders and led, but, for the most part, they
go unacknowledged, in research, theory and perhaps, even in practice.
We need a comprehensive study of the subtle interplay among cognitive
and affective processes responsible for allowing and preventing change,
processes that may be far more emotionally based than it has been
fashionable to acknowledge. The present research was guided by the
question: how do leaders experience, express, reflect upon and under-
stand the emotionality of their work?
Theoretical framework
Emerging from the analysis of the data was confirmation of the relevance of
several concepts. These include the following: the ‘self’, emotional
intersubjectivity, and micropolitics and gender.
(1) The concept of ‘self’ as ‘I’ and ‘Me’ experienced relative to the
‘Other’ was introduced by Mead (1934) and discussed by Heidegger (1927/
1962: 275, as cited in Denzin (1984)) and explored later by others, notably
Nias (1989):
Emotionality is a circular process that begins and ends with the transactions and actions of the
self in the social situation interacting with self and others. (Denzin, 1984: 2, 54)
The internal experience of emotions by leaders often results in felt

implications for the leader’s sense of self. The felt emotions are referred
to here as emotional intrasubjectivity. As Nias advises, the ‘substantial
self’ seeks internal and external congruence. The cognitive and emotional
dissonance that occurs in situations that clash with our ‘beliefs’ and
‘values’ about our substantial self demands a ‘strongly protective and
sometimes far from optimal change of view or action’ (p.16), a
fragmentation of the professional self, which would presumably be
associated with some manifestation of emotionality. Through stimulated
recall, participants gained some access to these aspects of their
experience.
(2) Emotional intersubjectivity, as explored by Denzin (1984) is helpful

in considering the emotions of the leader in conjunction with the emotions
of others:
If emotionality is conceptualized as a process of self-feeling, then it can be seen as arising out of
the self-interactions that individuals direct toward themselves and out of the reflected appraisals
of others, both imagined and real. (Sullivan 1956, as cited in Denzin 1984: 54)
Denzin (p. 146) reminds us that ‘As recurring fields of common

interactional experience, organizations provide the contexts for the
preperforming, coperforming, and reperforming of those social acts that
underlie all emotional understanding’. His examination of forms of
emotional intersubjectivity is useful. Feelings in common, fellow-feeling,
emotional infection, emotional identification, emotional embracement, and
spurious emotionality constitute the range, kinds and levels of emotional
understanding in his construct. Presumably, for leaders and led,
interpretations of emotional understanding bear on their lived experi-
ence in work. The ways leaders, who remain more isolated than many
others in the organization, handle their emotional understandings and
apply these understandings in their practice was of interest in this
study.
(3) Micropolitics. Blase and Anderson’s (1995: 18) treatment of leader-
ship styles as relatively open or closed, transactional or transformative
provides a useful construct with which to consider power and emotions in
leadership. Leaders in this study described their self-definitions of what
leadership should be. These then were compared to feelings associated with
instances involving themes of power, influence, control and other aspects of
leadership. Emerging patterns were identified. Perhaps, for instance,
certain emotions, whether pleasant or unpleasant, can be linked to
particular leadership practices and examined for their interrelationship.
The notion here is that the emotions of the leader are likely to be
fundamental to her/his practice, even if they are not displayed, or perhaps
even acknowledged at the time. Authoritarian and adversarial leadership
styles were noted for their provocation of ‘anger, depressive, anxiety,
resignation and satisfaction’ states in teachers. The latter, ‘satisfaction’, was
mixed with ‘concern for ethics’ and ‘feeling sorry for those who were not’
among the favoured group (Blase and Anderson 1995: 40–41). Leaders
gained access to these and other kinds of micropolitical interrelationships
between power and emotionality through stimulated recall and focused
reflection.
(4) Gender. Work by Gilligan (1982), Noddings (1984), Hochschild
(1983), Blackmore (1996), Shakeshaft (1987) and others, suggests there are
gender distinctions with the emotions. Gilligan sees the female sense of
morality as socially constructed in ways that are distinctive, indicating a
contrastingly high value on connectedness, integration and continuity. All
these values have significant emotional implications and play out in the
daily social interactions of organizational life.
Noddings (1984) positions the role of caring as central to our lives.
Associated with the classically feminine role of nurturing, caring is at the
root of receptivity, relatedness and responsiveness in many realms,
including education. The study examines the leader’s feelings about caring
and explores associated moral and ethical issues.
Hochschild (1983) introduces the notion of emotional labour, required
when, in the line of your work, you feel one thing but think you are
expected to feel another. Leaders’ work seems well described as emotional
management of self and others, involving significant amounts of emotional
labour. Blackmore contributes a case study of several principals whose
emotional labour requires them to abandon the comforts of professional
collaboration in deference to a new policy of competition between schools
for students and funds. Also, Shakeshaft’s (1987) noting of women
administrators’ distinguishing characteristics and different experience of
the culture of power and control lends credence to the argument in favour
of considering gender as highly relevant to the research of the emotions of
educational leadership. When being known means being known for one’s
authentic self, and one’s authentic (female) self is inherently marginal to the
dominant organizational culture, the resulting potential for cognitive and
emotional dissonance is worthy of consideration. Leadership’s stricter
codes of emotional display rules may intensify this aspect of the leadership
experience for females, who may be encouraged to undergo more extensive
reshaping of the self. Together, all these perspectives on gender provide
significant insights into some of the universal processes involved in
learning and interacting, in schools and in life.
Design/method
Each of five participants shared in 35–45 minutes of focused reflective

conversation. Interviews moved loosely through a clarification of leader-
ship and what it means to the participant: leadership as it has been part of
the participant’s life, from early experiences of other leaders or in being a
leader; recollection of a specific occasion of a meaningful association
between emotion and leadership either very positively or very negatively;
additional probes to develop and elaborate on these ideas to identify the
emotions themselves, the provocations, the inner emotionality and the
emotional intersubjectivity of any occasion or incident being discussed; a
second occasion of the opposite type; and recollection of a time that
epitomized the participant’s sense of leadership, perhaps a turning point in
understanding, revisiting the experience, with a particular emphasis on its
emotional dimensions. Additionally, written reflections were invited, and
the researcher took observation notes. All interviews were fully transcribed
and subjected to a thematic analysis. Patterns emerging from the data were
observed and analysed.
Participants
At the time of this study, the participants, having had leadership experience
at various levels throughout their careers, were engaged in educational
administration doctoral studies. At the same time they were all actively
involved in leadership positions in various locations in Canada. Their

settings included public (state) education, private education, separate
school education, higher education and, for one participant, health care
administration at the time. Ranging in age from 35 to 49, all participants
were in the middle years of their professional lives, with fairly extensive
experience, ranging from 8 to 20 years, in designated leadership positions.
The participants are renamed here as: Joan, 35 years old, who was a
university lecturer and administrator; Linda, 49, a career educator serving
as a superintendent; Carol, 36, a trainer and instructor, now serving as a
health care administrator; Sue, 43, a vice principal in a private school; and
John, 46, who was an elementary school principal. Participants were
selected on the basis of their willingness to participate.
Limitations
The generalizability of these findings is difficult to determine. The sample

is small, and involves a range of leadership backgrounds. Nevertheless, all
participants are focused on educational leadership development in their
present work and scholarship. Findings in this study do warrant further
exploration, particularly as they may be found to pertain to a larger more
homogeneous sample.
Findings
1. Kinds of emotions and their provocations
Positive emotions
In this section the positive emotions and the kinds of situations associated
with them are summarized.
‘Flow’ through empowerment and collaboration. Among the emotions

selected by leaders to describe experiences that were positive and pleasant
were a number associated with creative flow (Csikszentmihalyi 1990).
‘Passion’, ‘excitement’, ‘determination’, ‘confidence’, ‘satisfaction of letting
go’, ‘relief’, ‘joy’, ‘high’, ‘adrenaline rush’, were terms used to describe
situations where the leader felt challenge and focus, where people were
working together and accomplishing things. For instance, for one leader,
initiating a major new project was exciting and included some stress, but
good stress. For another, the ‘synergy of bringing important people
together’ in a ‘meeting of the minds’ led to ‘satisfaction, togetherness,
feeling included and letting go of control’ associated with great ‘relief’ at
having learned to share responsibility and credit with others. A third leader
reported that in collaborative problem-solving, ‘finding the way through’
caused ‘joy, validation and satisfaction’.
Support. Leaders also needed the emotional support of validation. One

woman reported feeling ‘affirmed, sustained, sheltered and liberated’ by
sharing the responsibility and credit as a facilitator of a committee. Shared

decision making and authentic collaboration also evoked these kinds of
feelings. Being allowed and encouraged to grow as a leader made another
woman feel ‘supported, secure, and able to risk’.
Being known. Sharing an important update with subordinates and being

appreciated in the feedback led to feelings of ‘adrenaline rush, excited,
supported, known’. While after being emotionally candid about feelings
associated with a conflict of interest as a committee member, one leader felt
‘relief, affirmed, seen, caring, happy and real’. Showing her real feelings
caused one leader to receive feedback that made her feel ‘genuine, proud
and happy’. When ‘truly collaborating’ several of these leaders enjoyed
feeling ‘connected’.
Self-affirmation. The leader’s self is challenged in the line of work and

when his/her values, capacities, and abilities are sufficient to accomplish a
difficult task it is, not surprisingly, an occasion of affirmation. Positive
emotions were associated here. Affirming her values in the balance between
justice and care was helpful in the vice principal’s altercation with an
extremely pushy parent. The successful interaction boosted her confidence.
Negative emotions
In this section the negative emotions and the kinds of situations associated
with them are summarized.
Disempowerment. Leaders who felt pressure to succeed but had to

function without the support or empowered autonomy to accomplish their
objectives found the leadership role emotionally difficult. They were
‘overwhelmed, insecure, questioning, discouraged, fearful, anxious’ and
experienced a sense of ‘loss of control’. A leader who, believing she must be
perfect and that she should have total responsibility and control over her
subordinates’ success, characterized these as times of ‘anxiety and fear’.
Later, when she learned to share responsibility and success with others, to
empower them, she reported feeling much ‘relief’, and could ‘relax and
enjoy the process’. These leaders reported feeling ‘resentment and
frustration’ when being controlled and limited ‘from above’. They suffered
for lack of their own empowerment and suffered when they failed to
empower others and share the burden and the glory.
Threatened self. A critical, threatening and limiting boss was described as

the provocation for feeling ‘insecure, anger, resentment, nervousness,
hesitant’.
Control and emotional display. A defiant aggressive accusatory parent who

was very upset confronted and insulted one of the leaders, causing ‘anger,
frustration and hurt’. She learned not to let the attacker know how much
she was affected in order to retain power and control. Becoming
‘emotionally shut down’ was the answer for this leader, learning to take
control of an emotionally charged situation by refusing to become engaged.
In other words ‘this interview is over’. One leader’s worst memory of an

unpleasant emotional experience was a loss of control and subsequent
embarrassment about having engaged in a yelling match with a student.
She never did this again.
It’s a dirty job . . . . Sometimes the work itself was responsible for creating
the emotionally unpleasant situation. One leader was required to serve on a
committee to help to determine which of her subordinates’ positions would
be eliminated in a downsizing. She felt deeply conflicted, and great
‘sadness, resistance and worry’. A vice principal, finding that her principal
was embezzling school funds, had to turn him in. She felt ‘fearful, grief,
sorrow, and sadness’, having empathized with her well-respected boss and
having found it very hard to do the dirty work of turning him in. However,
in the process, their superintendent began to accuse her of impropriety, as
if she had turned her boss in as a kind of lover’s spat. Wrongfully accused,
her empathy for his plight was instantly eclipsed by ‘anger, defensive,
aggressive’ feelings.
Disillusionment with the system. The unpleasant emotions experienced on

finding the politics of the system diluting the outcome of a major project
led an elementary school principal to decide that the system discourages
passion of purpose. This experience caused him long term ‘frustration and
disappointment’. He had lost his faith in trying to make a difference at the
board-wide level, and retreated to focus his energies locally in his school.
2. The process of reflection on self and work
Gender. The initial approach to the task of trying to articulate their

emotional experience was met with apparent confidence and determination
by all participants. Since the sample involved four women and only one
man, the patterns among the women as a group are worthy of note. While
all participants had to struggle to try to find words that would do justice to
their rendering of the experiences, all the women were finally able to access
enough variety in their emotional vocabulary to accomplish a high degree of
specificity. Words were supplemented with musing, pausing as if looking
into a replay in their minds and seemingly reliving their experiences, and
expressing the reclaimed emotions in the form of varied tone and volume,
bodily gestures and animated facial expression. While not significant with
an n of 1, a comparison of the patterns in the process of reflection among
the women with those of the lone male may indicate directions worth
pursuing in further research. For instance the male participant did not
seem to relive the experiences in order to describe them. His voice tone and
volume did not vary particularly. In effect, he did not give outward signs of
being emotionally engaged with his own narratives at the time of the
retelling. This stood in direct contrast with the four women. Whether this
contrast would occur in a larger sample is not known and no assumptions
can be made as to the representative nature of this one male’s experience of
retelling his emotions of leadership. But it was interesting that he did not
strive for specificity of emotion or specificity of detail in a moment-to-
moment recounting of incidents. Instead, his descriptions were leaning
toward the conceptual and analytical, referring most often to his own
‘passion’ for one particular objective or another, as a way of indicating the
emotional intensity associated with the occasion. This is consistent with
Jourard’s (1964) findings, wherein he concluded that ‘. . . women are both
the givers and the receivers of subjective data. Women know more, and tell
more, about people’s selves than men do. This doubtless, is part of their
‘‘expressive role’’ in social systems, in contrast with the male ‘‘instrumental
role’’ ’ (p. 13). Jourard also found that men were more self-disclosing to
other men and women to other women. The fact that the interviewer was
female, therefore, could account in part for the contrast in degree of specific
self-disclosure and particularity between the women and the male.
Furthermore, all participants described instances of emotional labour and
suffering from being isolated and disempowered. The pattern of authentic
self at risk and the perceived necessity of well-masked emotions did not
divide along gender lines. In terms of gender comparison, then, the single
case of male participation in this discussion of leadership’s emotional
experience can only provide possible leads for further research.
Age. While the limited sample size prevents any generalization of

comparative findings based on age, a few patterns bear comment and
may be worthy of pursuit in further studies. Three of the participants were
over 40 years of age and two were under 40 years of age. The under-40
participants chose examples that were project-specific to illustrate the
pleasant and unpleasant experiences as well as those which epitomized
leadership. In contrast, the over-40 participants selected process oriented
examples, preferring to emphasize, for instance, ‘synergy’ and ‘sharing’ and
‘collaborating’ in committees as opposed to particular projects that yielded
‘satisfaction’, ‘pride’ or personal and professional ‘affirmation’ by their
completion. Perhaps the more seasoned leader had come to see the meaning
of emotions in leadership experiences in terms of larger ongoing processes,
a kind of metacognitive and emotional reflective blend or perhaps this big
picture perspective is simply more characteristic of the age group.
3. Emotional understanding and leadership
In addition to references to their own emotions, in several instances,

participants spoke about the emotions of others in conjunction with their
work.
Emotions of others impact feelings of affirmation. Carol spoke of having an

emotional effect on others in her work place, bringing them a sense of
satisfaction and motivation of which they spoke to her, and from which
she drew a sense of being appreciated and supported. Her analysis of a
problem boss who would not select her to participate in committee work
despite her repeated offers was that he was threatened and thus his
emotions were preventing him from providing her with creative and
leadership growth opportunities. This caused her much disappointment
and anger. She handled it by becoming resigned to a situation she said
you ‘can’t control’. What may be of note here is that the emotional
reason inferred by Carol for her boss’s behaviour and attitude was
deemed to be unchangeable, as if the emotions are waters too deep to
navigate. Whether or not this was the reason for her boss’s way of acting
towards her, Carol’s interpretation of his emotional predisposition to her
made this forbidden territory, something she might just as well accept as
unchangeable. Oddly enough, the emotions are in fact highly changeable.
Personal interactions can quickly change perceptions and feelings we
have about each other. Yet this was territory Carol chose not even to
contemplate exploring.
Emotional display of the other: fellow feelings and the necessity of detachment.
Sue used the words ‘desperate’ and ‘distraught’ to describe her boss when he
was caught juggling the books. She felt the ‘loneliness of this man’ and
described her associated feelings of ‘compassion, grief and incredible
sadness’, which she had to overcome in order to turn him in. She also
described students’ fathers who try to take control with ‘power’ and ‘anger’
and her own response of simply ‘shutting it down’ and ‘refusing to be
intimidated’. Mothers, on the other hand, would cry in desperation in her
office, and she found it was important to distance herself from their feelings in
order to keep a ‘balance of justice and care’. Thus, the ability to detach oneself
emotionally from the situation, as a skill one employs on demand, is perceived
as an essential part of leadership, for maintaining control and power.
Leader’s emotional responses to perceptions about others’ emotions and lack

thereof shape leaders’ behaviours and attitudes. Leaders are human! John
referred to the ‘hostility, defensiveness’ and ‘lack of passion’ in others as a
source of great ‘frustration’ to him. John had withdrawn from the larger
board-level forum as a result of his feelings about some of these
experiences, which were draining his energy with no observable reward.
The leader’s emotional response to the feelings of others is a distinguishing
feature of her/his leadership style. Blase and Anderson (1995: 133) refer to
facilitative leadership styles as simply supporting teacher autonomy and
professionalization. In contrast, democratic/empowering styles go further,
to achieve a supportive environment for critique and voice, a kind of
emancipatory discourse. It would seem that for John, an elementary
principal, the lack of supportive emotional feedback from others was highly
influential, having caused him to withdraw. Clearly emotional intersub-
jectivity has a bearing on the availability to the organization of individual
voice for critique.
Discussion
How do leaders experience, express, reflect upon and understand the

emotionality of their work? Themes emerging from the data include the
following: mixed emotions, control, emotional management, emotional

support, and emotional conflict of interest.
1. Passion and peril: leadership is a matter of mixed emotions.
The passion and excitement of being able to realize the opportunity and
potential for growth are sustaining and inspiring to leaders. However,
perils accompany passions.
Passion of purpose and determination are key to providing the

emotional drive and force necessary to lead even when you are
the only one who can see the goal line.
Joan characterized some of the emotional aspects of leadership:
. . . things I was passionate about because I saw . . . there was an opportunity and I was excited
by the opportunity or the thought of growth and being able to make that happen . . . I wouldn’t
think excitement was the whole thing. Determination, I don’t know if that’s an emotion . . .
Determination helped me go through the emotional fluctuations, because sometimes, sometimes
you’d be excited and energized by the way it was going and other times you’d be overwhelmed
because you’d wonder, why am I taking this battle on when no one else has?
Sustaining passion is often intertwined with troubling anxiety

associated with vulnerability and need for approval and
success.
Carol referred to these mixed emotions:

. . . adrenaline . . . kind of like there was a lot of anxiety. They’re kind of mixed, though. It’s like
a big . . . Well it’s kind of all intertwined . . . it’s one day feeling excitement about it and
thinking, ‘great I can do something about it,’ and the next day feeling sort of anxiety and also
feeling in the organization that there’s some conflict there, so it’s also saying ‘I’m sticking my
neck out here’ and even in terms of a supervisor maybe not appreciating me going for that, so
there’s mixed feelings.
The passion of purpose in the leader may exceed that of others

in the organization creating an emotional dissonance between
the individual leader and her/his environment.
John spoke fervently of his passion as the driving force in his work and
his sense of frustration at the lack of passion in others:
I’m passionate about what I do in my profession and I have, I guess, I feel I have a high degree of
integrity about my work. And in many respects I guess the organization and some of the
expectations of the organization either conflicts with my professional intensity or my integrity
about my work, and that stuff may have conflicts and certainly it’s a conflict between my passion
for my work and what I see as a lack of intensity in many of my colleagues and in the organization
itself as it expresses itself as an organization or as a culture of the organization.
2. Control of self and others and learning to share responsibility
Control of self and of others and learning to let go of control present

challenges to the leader.
The handling of the fear of loss of control can be a significant
part of the emotional experience of a leader. It is illustrative of
the leader’s emotional coping strategies and indicative of the
style of leadership ‘in use’.
Joan describes her feelings associated with the sense of loss of control:
Who says that what I came up with is the right way and what happens if it fails? . . . . [I feel]
insecure, but probably messy. You don’t have any control over where you’re going to go even
though you’re taking everybody there. Sort of like going on a bus trip but not remembering to get
enough gas, so you’re not sure if you’re going to make it. That kind of feeling, so it can be a little
intimidating.
Linda, who considers herself an empowering leader, offers her working

knowledge of emotions and the control-empowerment continuum:
It’s such a downward spiral because the more you control and the less you share, the less people
support and feel they have any ownership, and so then you become more and more isolated. It’s
hell, I’m sure. You see, if you must have control and people withdraw their support over time
because you don’t trust and give them control, it’s a spiral . . . I don’t know if anybody breaks free
of it if that’s their style. I learned the power of collaboration and empowerment of others by
sharing in the responsibility.
Sue shares her beliefs about emotional control and leadership:

I personally have found that it is important to control emotions, that the few exceptions when I
have become very, very angry with a student, angry with a parent, angry with a faculty member,
that things are said that are not in the best interests of anyone, that it’s better to stay rational.
That to be able to express your emotions of frustration at times through tears, or sadness, is okay,
but, to feel anger is one thing, but to express it, I question the appropriateness of it, and have not
found it helpful.
Managing others’ emotions and one’s own reaction to them is

seen as essential to leadership.
Sue illustrates her way of keeping control of a situation by managing

her emotions and those of others:
I had a parent who did the attack. I was hurt. I was visibly hurt. I let this person have the power
to hurt me. With experience, if a person is going to take that tack, is going to attack me
personally, I will shut it down: ‘I don’t think this is a healthy conversation. I am not going down
that road with you.’ . . . I do not have to carry on a conversation with a parent just because
they’ve come through the door.
Sue offers perceptions about attempts at emotional control-taking by

others:
Many moms in my office in tears, and feeling very desperate about what the next step is with
their children. Fathers are interesting. With more fathers than moms I’ve dealt with anger, and
they do a power anger thing, thinking that I’ll intimidate her and she’ll back down, and I don’t.
Sue on control and connectedness:

It was very important for me to work with others and yet be in control. So connected with others
and yet in charge of my own . . .
The importance of a leader being given sufficient support and

autonomy by superiors—feeling safe in order to take risks.
Sue:
I worked with a principal at the time who said ‘make this thing fly.’ You know carte blanche. So
it was important to establish myself as a leader within the subject area. . . . Wonderfully
supportive people that I worked with, within the school, very professional staff, did more than
any other staff that I have worked with . . . You felt very safe. You could take risks. They’d do
anything for you.
Linda:
I think frustration is when you’re dealing with authority that is controlling, and there’s only one
way to do things and so whatever you do is either right or wrong, and it’s frustrating when you
don’t know the whole agenda and you only see one little piece of it.
Display rules: playing by them exemplifies ‘appropriate

leadership demeanour’.
Most participants demonstrated fairly traditional views of emotional

display rules (emotional self-control) in leadership, with some notable
exceptions. Emotion is, regrettably say some participants, something to
control and keep out of the way.
John shares concerns about his own display of passion and his
observation that this can become problematic:
Often [I am] responded to by the fact that I’m being too personally aggressive about the issues
and interpersonally I’m being too forward with people sometimes and yet I see and view it very
much as simply expressing my issues with passion and rather than the issues becoming the focus
of the concern or the context, it becomes personalized that it’s myself that is responded to or
attacked or whichever, not the issues that I raised.
John on emotions and conflict resolution; feel but don’t show emotions:
Well, conflict resolution I think is something, that requires that the person who is mediating the
conflict resolution be very unemotional. . . . I’m a firm believer in removing emotions from
behavior management and conflict management. It’s usual that I remain calm and . . . I try to
remain very neutral and objective about the situation and assist in the process, while calming
people down is involving a process of just timing out too . . . I already developed a sense of self
control and that’s an internal thing as well.
When asked if too much emotional control might create a gap in

emotional authenticity and be perceived to always give him the upper hand
in terms of the power dynamic, John responded,
‘Yeah but . . . Yeah’.
Carol on the importance of openly displaying emotions, emotional

authenticity as helpful to her as a leader:
When I’ve shown that, sharing when I’m happy; I genuinely cried; I’ve shown that I’ve cared by
sharing my own personal incident . . . I took the time to listen and share that I was there
emotionally. It wasn’t just words, because those are the kinds of things that let people see that
you are real.
Sue on display of anger and joy:

I think it’s okay to verbalize. It’s how it’s expressed is that ‘I feel angry when you do this’ is very
different from losing it and speaking out of anger. Sharing a student’s joy with hugs is okay.
3. Internal emotional management is important in sustaining

confidence and commitment
Managing emotions means generating certain emotions, restraining others

and persevering to achieve emotional understanding.
True grit and determination epitomize leadership.
Joan’s image of the emotional power of determination:

It’s like you’re going on a marathon or a long run. You know how you sort of get that second
wind; you don’t know where it comes from but it’s going to get you there. I don’t know what
emotion that would be. . . part of it would be past experience, part of it is just determination that
if you keep running, if you keep going you’re going to get somewhere.
Depersonalizing and detaching are favoured techniques.
Linda describing her system for problem solving in an emotionally

challenging situation—isolating the issues and removing the personal
element:
Okay, so I’m confronting a director with a staff member that is sabotaging an assignment and it
normally wouldn’t be my role to discuss with [her] staff that are not doing their job. But in this
particular role, other agencies around the table saw it as my role as a leader of this group to carry
this forward. I was the leader of the group. [animated, emphatic] So! What I had to do was this. I
had to isolate the issue, remove it from the person, describe the situation, and then let the
director do what she had to do.
Seeking emotional understanding can require re-envisioning

to include a broader perspective on the emotions and
motivations of others.
Linda, having felt frustrated and somewhat anxious about how to deal
with the situation, reframed her perspective, diffusing the emotional
intensity of it. She did this by considering the problem person who was
‘dropping bombs’ on her meetings, ‘sabotaging the agenda’ as follows:
The real issue was that he didn’t understand the broader picture and so he would focus on the
little bit that he could that had a relationship to him.
Repress, deny or remove emotions.

John tells of learning to ‘remove’ his emotions as an internal coping

device:
I arrived at the idea that I had to remove my emotions from my work and my passion for change
from my work because the emotional energy I was expending was enormous and was affecting
me in terms of draining me emotionally and it was also having a very negative and reactive result
in terms of the kids. . . . so I became a lot more controlled in terms of managing my emotions
better and started dealing with kids more neutrally and objectively.
Pragmatism is a way of understanding human experience to

manage the emotional power of disappointment over a
thwarted intention or pre-empted passion.
John shares his formula for internal management of otherwise

debilitating disappointment:
[Pragmatism] is just a way of understanding human experience. I think human experience is
contextual. I think human emotions are contextual. So in terms of contextualizing your
understanding of life I think pragmatism is one aspect of understanding life experience.. . . a
good balance for passion.
4. Emotional support contributes to the emotional quality of

organizational life
The information-withholding leader causes frustration while the sharing

leader reduces frustration in subordinates and creates a support system for
herself.
Sharing the way you see and feel about things creates
emotional as well as rational understanding.
Linda’s story:
If I have frustration it’s with the people I work for. Once you understand the big picture then it’s
not so frustrating . . . if everybody has a piece of it then it will work.
Carol speaks of feeling supported by her subordinates for having shared

her emotional conflicts with them:
What also helped me was hearing from some of them, the fact that we know why you’re on the
committee and we know that you may not be able to change the decision and I think that was
comforting and I felt some relief. . . . They said we know that you’re going to do the right thing,
and that was reaffirming for me and I just felt like, ‘whew!’ I just felt good about that.
Significant others.
Joan speaks of a personal relationship beyond the organization as vital

to her emotional well being within the organization:
I can probably get three quarters of the way through it but probably only with my spouse. I turn
to him to get the rest of the way. I can do it on my own determination because I haven’t always
had him around, but it’s easier. It helps you reflect and see things more objectively
5. Emotional conflict of interest
Intrinsic conflicts of emotional interest characterize a central challenge for

the leader. Dissonance in selves and relationships to others creates
discomfort and makes heavy demands on the leader.
Reconciling conflicting personal professional and organi-

zational needs places heavy emotional demands on the
leader.
Carol:
I just felt it’s one thing if you’re responsible for your own actions and you know what the
outcome can be. But when you have the burden of others as well and knowing that some of them
are single parents and they’ve got all this anxiety and they’ve lost their job, you just feel all that
and it’s very hard to separate caring for them as individuals and also realizing how much
everyone cared about their job.
Working beyond the comfort zone—out of my juris-

diction, pushing the envelope—is an emotionally challenging,
often thankless part of leadership, requiring creativity and
courage.
Linda speaks of working beyond her mandate as creating emotional

discomfort, but recognizes this is the stuff of real leadership:
It was uncomfortable because I wasn’t . . . I was clear on what my leadership was within the
group but this was outside of the group, and I had a different relationship outside of the
group.
John on challenging the status quo:

I tend to be somebody who is passionate and so I tend to challenge the status quo and challenge
the system to improve itself . . .
Emotionless organizational culture is dysfunctional to the

individual and to the organization itself.
John on the conflict between the norms of emotion in organizational

culture and personal and professional intensity/passion:
I think that the organizational culture, personally, I feel it is very repressive, and it is very
repressive to the honest expression of emotions, whether it is personal emotions or professional
emotions about issues that we’re involved in education. And as a result, you have a very clinical
or scientific model of organizational management that still persists in school systems and in
education and it’s a fairly emotionless model. So people with passion or with drive and
excitement and interest for projects or ideas are not encouraged or supported or reciprocated at
any level of the organization. And I think that’s a big roadblock to the passion of education and
achieving goals in education. The organization itself operates in a way that represses or
suppresses emotion in our work and I think that’s a really negative aspect of our work and I think
that’s really a negative aspect of organizational culture.
Conclusions—theoretical implications
Emotional intrasubjectivity and the self
Among the leaders interviewed, clearly the protection of the self from
emotional hurt, which might undermine confidence, was of paramount
importance. Emotional well being was associated with the ability to do the
job even when it was a painful or distasteful task. While often emotional
management was an almost completely private endeavour, it had been
discovered to work even more effectively in the process of sharing and
collaborating with trusted others. In contrast, leadership styles that were
isolated, controlling and perfectionistic were associated with high anxiety,
fear and reticence to risk. The evolution towards letting go and sharing the
responsibility and credit was described as a personal awakening accom-
panied by satisfaction and relief. Being known, acknowledged, seen, able to
be real, able to feel included, understood and accepted were all important to
the self of these leaders.
Self-control was central to each leader’s story of the nature of the job.
Essential to the nature of these leaders’ work was the ability to manage
emotions both internally and in display. This theme was held in common
by all participants. Some spoke matter-of-factly about this as a necessity,
while others lamented the need to deny or repress emotions. Clearly these
leaders’ work requires the authentic emotional self to be heavily guarded
and carefully hidden at most times, a clear indication of emotional labour
(Hochschild 1983).
The need to control others, something that is not possible, led to
feelings of insecurity and anxiety. Living with ambiguity was threatening to
the self of the leader if the self was controlling and perfectionistic. The
antidote seemed to be a distributed leadership and collaborative synergy
enjoyed in group. Learning not to take things personally was a first step in
effective problem solving and conflict resolution for these leaders. For
some, this seemed to involve a dual process of emotional integration—
accepting one’s own feelings—and seeking emotional understanding of the
‘other’. Others preferred a kind of rational overdrive. However, this
emotionally repressed culture takes its toll. The only male participant spoke
adamantly about the emotionless organizational culture as dysfunctional to
change and to achieving goals in education. This, he offered, was a function
of the repressive culture’s effect on the individual’s self. Nevertheless, he
claimed his ability to deny his emotions had been crucial to his survival as a
leader. This dichotomy continues to challenge the interpersonally creative
leader. Remaining sensitive and connected is work.
Intersubjectivity and emotional understanding
Authentic collaboration was a successful anxiety reducer and optimizing

strategy. A recurring motif among the stories, shared emotional under-
standing, achieved through communicating openly about emotions, held
distinctive, highly valued and intensely recalled pleasure for these leaders.
However, assumptions about what others were feeling were more often
made than was a shared emotional understanding through communication.
A more thorough application of Denzin’s (1984) construct is warranted in
further research as the quality of the emotional understanding is strongly
associated with some of the most emotionally pleasurable experiences of
these leaders. Distanced, disconnected, misunderstood and unappreciated
leaders, who did not feel they could do other than theorize about others’
attitudes and motivations, characterized some of the most emotionally
unpleasant experiences chosen. It would seem that leaders and led benefit
from access to sharing about emotional realities among the individuals in
the organizations. A culture of communication, as opposed to the dominant
culture of silence, about emotions, could support such sharing; the current
culture of emotional repression and control, generally, does not. These
leaders chose most often to speak of interactions with superiors or parents
as examples of unpleasant interchanges. They spoke more often with
pleasure about interactions with peers or subordinates. It would seem,
quite naturally, that, like the rest of us, leaders are most emotionally
vulnerable to those over whom they have the least authority.
The process of reflection
Patterns of similarity among the four women are noteworthy. All the
women demonstrated a strong capacity to use language and to relive the
emotional experience of self with others by recall. The high level of
accessibility to the emotional memory of these women was consistent
throughout the sample. This may suggest that the emotionality of women’s
experience is unique or, rather, it may indicate that differences, if any, may
lie mainly in the assimilation, memory, recall or articulation of remembered
emotionality of experience. The relevance of the gender of the researcher is
another variable to be explored. Further research is required.
Micropolitics
To describe leadership styles and the use of power, one may use Ball’s
(1987: 87) ‘four styles’ of leadership: interpersonal, managerial, political–
adversarial and political–authoritarian; Blase and Anderson (1995: 18) four
quadrants of measuring leadership style, namely relatively open or closed
and relatively transactional or tranformative; or Leithwood et al.’s (1999)
‘instructional, transformational, moral, participative, managerial and
contingent’. No matter which model you use, the emotions of leadership
are omnipresent. It is not surprising that the emotions caused by having a
leader exercise ‘power over’ or even ‘power through’ others, are different
from those experienced in a ‘power with’ situation. Teachers report feeling
intensely unpleasant emotion states in association with adversarial
authoritarian styles (Blase and Anderson 1995: 40–41, Beatty 1999c).
However, the emotions of the leaders themselves associated with their
preferred leadership styles are just beginning to emerge. Consistent with
Blase and Blase’s (1997) findings, these leaders felt anxious and afraid at
losing control, until they developed a new view of shared responsibility.
This reframing of the risk as something borne by all, while rare, seemed to
characterize a significant source of comfort and enjoyment for these
leaders. Being highly controlling was both an emotionally driven
predilection and an emotionally costly one. Attempting to retain control
was anxiety-inducing for these leaders, complementing what we already
know about the emotional effects of these leadership regimes on teachers
(Blase and Anderson, 1995, Beatty 1999c). One reason that these styles
persist can be inferred from leaders’ unanimous acceptance of the
assumption that emotions must be heavily masked in order to retain power
and control, especially when they were threatened. However, when, on
exceptional occasions, these leaders deviated from this norm, and counter-
intuitively disclosed to the person concerned what they were experiencing
emotionally, they found this surprisingly rewarding. It would seem that
pseudo-rationality used to mask real inner emotional realities, the stock-in-
trade of the experienced traditional leader, is something that would have to
be unlearned in order to begin to redefine leadership. As Diamond (1993)
argues
The contribution of mastery in communications to organizational change may rest on the

development of linguistic and interpersonal competence for sending and receiving affective
messages. Communication of feelings rooted in, but not exclusive to, organizational experience
presents the opportunity to alter activities and relationships that cause errors, distortions,
demoralization, and ineffectiveness at work. The aptitude for transmitting affective messages
within institutions and among participants is essential to organizational change and long-term
effectiveness. (p.118)
Among the participants in this study, while emotional authenticity was

considered special and usually a pleasant change, it was rare.
Summary
While emotions are omnipresent in any human endeavour, they had been
largely marginalized and considered, for the most part, in such contexts as
motivators, dissatisfiers, stress and burnout in the discourse of leadership
until Goleman’s (1995) popularization of emotional intelligence rekindled
the business community’s interest in the affective domain. The familiar
definition of leadership as ‘influence’ easily integrated emotional manage-
ment techniques into its arsenal of productivity devices. Nevertheless, day
to day, real emotions, the cooked and the raw, continued to be
characterized as unwelcome guests and unfortunate intruders at an
otherwise rational organizational party. Contrary to the Cartesian notion
of emotion as a polar opposite to cognition, Damasio (1994) and others help
to recast our vision of the whole body as mind, with new findings in brain
research repositioning the emotions as fundamental to every aspect of
human mind. Revisiting leadership research and theory helps to reveal the
foundationally emotional underpinnings to many recommended leadership
behaviours thought to be capable of promoting transformation and
organizational change. Hochschild’s (1983) interactional model of emotion

and feeling quells the controversy over what happens when we feel
emotions, and Loader’s (1997) The Inner Principal paves the way for other
leaders to break the silence about the emotional realities of leadership.
Designed to allow leaders to contribute their voices to the discourse,
this study reveals some of the emotional intricacies of leadership life. Five
experienced leaders in the middle years of their careers shared their
emotional experiences in leadership. For the leaders in this study, the
freedom to communicate openly at work about their own emotions had
been all but eliminated, replaced by a repertoire of more emotionally
managed techniques. This was a matter of reluctant resignation for some
and lamentation for others, but ultimately it was accepted by all
participants as the way power and control is traditionally maintained.
Distributed leadership and letting go of control came only with experience,
deliberate effort and initial stress. But in these cases, the leaders’ efforts
were rewarded with reduced anxiety through a shared burden of
responsibility and the mutual joy of success. Early experiences of letting
go of control did not come easily, and maintaining strict emotional
management of the self and of others remained for a long time, central to
the work. However, some of the leaders thrived on experiencing ‘flow’
through their own empowerment and collaboration with others. They
needed emotional support and the affirmation of being known, which
boosted their confidence.
Disempowerment created the anxieties of a threatened self, often
causing these leaders to revert to strict control tactics and the careful
management of emotional display. Sometimes it was simply the work itself
that was distasteful. Other times it was disillusionment with the system.
Also, the emotions of others impacted the feelings of these leaders.
Sometimes, the emotional display of the ‘other’ coupled with the leader’s
own ‘fellow feelings’, created the necessity of detachment in order to
balance justice and care. Revealing a pattern of mixed emotions, coupled with
issues of control, emotional support, emotional management and emotional
conflict of interest, the findings lend support to the relevance of a number of
theoretical constructs including Hochschild’s (1983) ‘emotional labor’,
Blase and Anderson’s (1995) ‘micropolitics’, Mead’s (1934) ‘self’ and
‘other’ and Denzin’s (1984) ‘emotional understanding’.
Many educational administrators have decided to leave the field.
Perhaps the emotional price that school leaders have to pay is just too high.
While providing only a beginning, these results do offer a valuable glimpse
into this largely uncharted territory, and reveal the promise of meaningful
exploration through further study of the emotions of leadership.
Note
This study was undertaken at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education at the University of
Toronto, as part of the Education Doctoral Program. An earlier version of this paper was presented at
the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, April 18–23, 1999, Montreal,
Canada (Beatty 1999b).
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INT. J. LEADERSHIP IN EDUCATION, 2000, VOL . 3, NO .

The emotions of educational leadership: breaking the

This study examines the emotionality of educational leadership by exploring administrators’

The emotional experience of educational leadership has not been

International Journal of Leadership in Education

Hochschild’s approach to defining emotion is particularly useful in its

While the applicability to educational leadership of the principles

There are exceptions. In a revealing narrative reflection of his own

Loader’s candor about his personal and professional self is

Emotions and the social sciences

In educational administration and leadership theory and research, the

This dualist paradigm continues to pervade our consciousness,

Emotions are political. The hierarchical relationship between reason

Despite their apparently ‘unpleasant’ or ‘dangerous’ qualities for

Emotions and organizations

This denial of the emotionality of experience may also be limiting the

collaborative professional learning and creative risk taking (Beatty 1999a).

Emotions and transformational leadership

organizational success and leadership flexibility which are essentially

administration journal articles since 1988 is useful, offering several

The internal experience of emotions by leaders often results in felt

(2) Emotional intersubjectivity, as explored by Denzin (1984) is helpful

Denzin (p. 146) reminds us that ‘As recurring fields of common

Each of five participants shared in 35–45 minutes of focused reflective

involved in leadership positions in various locations in Canada. Their

The generalizability of these findings is difficult to determine. The sample

1. Kinds of emotions and their provocations

‘Flow’ through empowerment and collaboration. Among the emotions

Support. Leaders also needed the emotional support of validation. One

sharing the responsibility and credit as a facilitator of a committee. Shared

Being known. Sharing an important update with subordinates and being

Self-affirmation. The leader’s self is challenged in the line of work and

Disempowerment. Leaders who felt pressure to succeed but had to

Threatened self. A critical, threatening and limiting boss was described as

Control and emotional display. A defiant aggressive accusatory parent who

In other words ‘this interview is over’. One leader’s worst memory of an

Disillusionment with the system. The unpleasant emotions experienced on

2. The process of reflection on self and work

Gender. The initial approach to the task of trying to articulate their

Age. While the limited sample size prevents any generalization of

3. Emotional understanding and leadership

In addition to references to their own emotions, in several instances,

Emotions of others impact feelings of affirmation. Carol spoke of having an

Leader’s emotional responses to perceptions about others’ emotions and lack

How do leaders experience, express, reflect upon and understand the

following: mixed emotions, control, emotional management, emotional

1. Passion and peril: leadership is a matter of mixed emotions.

Passion of purpose and determination are key to providing the

Joan characterized some of the emotional aspects of leadership:

Sustaining passion is often intertwined with troubling anxiety

Carol referred to these mixed emotions:

The passion of purpose in the leader may exceed that of others

2. Control of self and others and learning to share responsibility

Control of self and of others and learning to let go of control present

Linda, who considers herself an empowering leader, offers her working

Sue shares her beliefs about emotional control and leadership:

Managing others’ emotions and one’s own reaction to them is

Sue illustrates her way of keeping control of a situation by managing

Sue offers perceptions about attempts at emotional control-taking by