Session 3.1 - Soil Classification and Description

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Soil Classification and Description

This topic will include,


1. Soil phase relationships
2. Soil classification
• Particle size distribution (PSD) analysis
• Atterberg limits
• Unified soil classification system (USCS)
3. Soil description

Dr Wasantha, 2020 1
1. Soil phase relationships
• Soil is a 2 – phase or 3 – phase material
— Solid phase → soil particles
— Spaces between particles → air (gaseous phase) or water (liquid phase) or
both
▪ All spaces (voids) are filled with water → saturated
▪ All voids are filled with air → dry
▪ Voids contain both air and water → unsaturated

— Key relationships exist between these phases, and form the basis of
calculations for soils as engineering materials
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1. Soil phase relationships
• Consider the relative volumes of soil particles, water and air in a cube of three-
phase soil sample below (Phase Diagram)

• In this diagram and forthcoming definitions, M, V and W represent mass,


volume and weight (note that air is assumed to have negligible mass)
• It should be noted that Weight = Mass x acceleration due to gravity (i.e. W =
Mg) and the Unit weight = Density x g (i.e. 𝜸 = 𝝆𝒈)
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1. Soil phase relationships
• Important definitions:
1 Bulk density (kg/m3) 𝜌 = 𝑀Τ𝑉 9 Water (or
𝑤 = (𝑀𝑤 Τ𝑀𝑠 )100 %
2 Saturated density – moisture)
𝑤 = (𝑊𝑤 Τ𝑊𝑠 )100 %
when soil saturated, 𝜌𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 𝑀Τ𝑉 content
i.e., 𝑉𝑎 = 0 (kg/m3) 10 Void ratio 𝑒 = 𝑉𝑣 Τ𝑉𝑠
3 Particle density 11 Porosity 𝑛 = 𝑉𝑣 Τ𝑉
𝜌𝑠 = 𝑀𝑠 Τ𝑉𝑠
(kg/m3) 12 Degree of
𝑆𝑟 = (𝑉𝑤 Τ𝑉𝑣 )100 %
4 Density of water saturation
𝜌𝑤 = 𝑀𝑤 Τ𝑉𝑤
(kg/m3) 13 Percent
= (𝑉𝐴 Τ𝑉𝑣 )100 %
5 Dry density (kg/m3) 𝜌𝑑 = 𝑀𝑠 Τ𝑉 air voids
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
6 Submerged 14 Specific 𝐺𝑠 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

(buoyant) density 𝜌𝑠𝑢𝑏 = 𝜌𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝜌𝑤 Gravity 𝐺𝑠 = 𝜌𝑠 Τ𝜌𝑤 = 𝛾𝑠 Τ𝛾𝑤
(kg/m3)
7 Bulk unit weight
𝛾 = (𝑀Τ𝑉)𝑔 = 𝑊 Τ𝑉
(kN/m3)
8 Dry unit weight
𝛾𝑑 = (𝑀𝑠 Τ𝑉)𝑔 = 𝑊𝑠 Τ𝑉
(kN/m3)
Dr Wasantha, 2020 4
1. Soil phase relationships
• Relationships between different quantities defined above are practically useful
(the required relationships can be derived with the aid of their fundamental
definitions).
• Some of the example relationships are (try to derive them?);
𝑛 = 𝑒Τ(1 + 𝑒) or e = 𝑛Τ(1 − 𝑒)
𝜌𝑑 = 𝜌Τ(1 + 𝑤) or 𝛾𝑑 = 𝛾Τ(1 + 𝑤)
𝑒𝑆𝑟 = 𝑤𝐺𝑠
(In deriving phase relationships it is often helpful to consider a unit total volume
of soil i.e. V = 1m3)
• Exercise:- Based on the fundamental definitions given and considering a unit
volume of soil, derive the following relationships:
(𝐺𝑠 + 𝑒𝑆𝑟 )
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝜌 = 𝜌𝑤
(1 + 𝑒)
𝐺𝑠
𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝜌𝑑 = 𝜌𝑤
(1 + 𝑒)
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2. Soil classification
Particle size distribution (PSD) analysis
• A soil may consist of a mixture of particle sizes, or be of only one size of
particles, or of several size groups with others missing
• Engineering behavior is greatly influenced by the grading of the soil, so an
analysis of the particle sizes present in a soil sample is one of the first tests
done on most soils
• Sieve analysis test is the common laboratory test used for particle size analysis
(Australian standards AS 1289.3.6.1) – *watch the video

Dr Wasantha, 2020 6
2. Soil classification
Particle size distribution (PSD) analysis ctd…
• A typical table for data recording and calculations looks like;

• The smallest AS sieve has an opening of 75μm (0.075 mm), and the common
sieve openings (in mm) going upwards from this are 0.15, 0.3, 0.6, 1.18, 2.36,
4.75, 9.50, 19.0, 37.5, 63 and 75.0.
• Because there is a continuum of particle sizes, and because it is necessary to
classify soils into groups having noticeably different engineering properties,
groups of particles falling within specific size ranges are given names as follows
→ refer to the standard PSD chart
• Only sands and larger sizes can be separated by sieving Dr Wasantha, 2020 7
2. Soil classification
Particle size distribution (PSD) analysis ctd…
• Soils are usually termed well-graded if they are a mixture of all sorts of sizes
and show a smooth S-shaped curve
• Poorly-graded soils may have a steep, almost vertical curve (“single-sized” or
uniformly graded), or have an S-shaped curve with steps in it, indicating
missing size ranges (gap-graded)
• To help decide whether to term the soil well- or poorly-graded, two
coefficients are made use of:
𝑪𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑼, 𝑼𝑪 𝒐𝒓 𝑪𝒖 = 𝒅𝟔𝟎 Τ𝒅𝟏𝟎
𝑪𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑪, 𝑪𝑪 𝒐𝒓 𝑪𝒄 = 𝒅𝟐𝟑𝟎 Τ𝒅𝟏𝟎 . 𝒅𝟔𝟎
Where, 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑥% 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟
• The distribution of fine-grained particles (silts and clays) is found by a different
method, as they are so small.
Dr Wasantha, 2020 8
2. Soil classification
Atterberg limits
• Clayey soils’ behaviour when mixed with water
Little or no soil adhere to Soil adheres to both fingers Soil adheres firmly to
fingers after release of after release of pressure both fingers after release
pressure → Non-sticky with little stretching on of pressure with stretches
separation of fingers → greatly on separation of
Slightly-sticky fingers → Very-sticky

Dr Wasantha, 2020 9
2. Soil classification
Atterberg limits ctd…
• Although particle size distribution analysis gives satisfactory information
regarding the coarse-grained soils, it is not very helpful for fine-grained soils.
Its main value is to obtain the percentage clay fraction in a soil
• Sands and silts are the result of mechanical weathering of rock. Silt particles
are mostly miniature sand particles, and made of the same minerals as sand
(mostly quartzite),
• Clay particles are very different (products of chemical weathering of rock
minerals) - they are less than 2 μm in size and are mostly silicates of
aluminium, iron and magnesium
• The clay minerals are mostly arranged in sheets and layers and have a net
electrical charge which attracts a layer of water molecules to their surface
• Because of this sheet structure, the adsorbed water layer, and the net charges
on the particles, they can be attracted to each other, and also slip past each
other quite easily
Dr Wasantha, 2020 10
2. Soil classification
Atterberg limits ctd…
• This leads to their being plastic, i.e. able to be molded into permanent
shapes. Clays can exist at a wide range of water contents in this plastic state
— If the clay is dried out from this state, it becomes a brittle solid
— If wetting continued, it eventually becomes a liquid mud
• The plastic limit (PL or wp) is defined as the water content below which the
soil ceases to be plastic and becomes brittle
• The liquid limit (LL or wL) is defined as the water content above which the soil
acts as a liquid, i.e. flows or oozes and takes the shape of its container
• The difference between these limits is called the Plasticity Index (PI)
𝑷𝑰 = 𝒘𝑳 − 𝒘𝑷 = 𝑳𝑳 − 𝑷𝑳
PI gives a measure of the range of water contents over which the soil remains a
plastic solid and moldable. A soil with high PI can absorb a lot of water before
becoming mud. Dr Wasantha, 2020 11
2. Soil classification
Atterberg limits ctd…
• The shrinkage limit (SL) is defined as the water content below which no
further reduction of volume occurs

Dr Wasantha, 2020 12
2. Soil classification
Atterberg limits ctd…
• Laboratory determination of Atterberg limits (*watch the video)
— Plastic limit: It is measured as the water content at
which 3mm diameter threads of soil cannot be
rolled any thinner without breaking up
— Liquid limit: It is measured (1) as the water content
at which a standard cone of 80 gm mass penetrates
a distance of 20 mm into the clay in 5s under its
own weight, (2) using Casagrande apparatus
— Shrinkage limit: As this is a difficult test to perform,
a simpler version is commonly performed, called the
linear shrinkage test (clay soil at the liquid limit is
placed in a long mould of semi-circular cross-section
and dried in the oven at 105 ˚C. The decrease in
length is measured, and expressed as a percentage
of the original length)

Dr Wasantha, 2020 13
2. Soil classification
Atterberg limits ctd…
• The results of Atterberg Limit tests are usually plotted on a Plasticity chart,
with PI on the y-axis and LL on the x-axis. The A-line is plotted as PI= 0.73(LL -
20), and serves as a dividing line between silts of lower plasticity and clays of
higher plasticity
• Because these limits were empirically
defined, it is important that they are
performed in a standard way world-
wide, so the methods are closely
controlled and considerable skill is
required to achieve repeatable
results. (Note that soils can have
liquid limits much greater than 100%
- some clays are as high as 300%. This
only means that they can absorb a lot
of water!)

Dr Wasantha, 2020 14
2. Soil classification
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
• In order to reduce the infinite number of soil particle combinations and
mineralogy to a workable number with fairly clearly defined engineering
behaviours, many classification systems have been devised
• The one studied here is called the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS),
and it has 15 sub-sections - 8 for coarse-grained soils, 6 for fine-grained soils,
and 1 for highly organic soils, such as peat
• For practical purposes, the “dividing line” between coarse and fine-grained soil
is usually taken as 0.075 mm to match the nearest common sieve size to the
theoretical 0.06 mm value
• In practice, various flowcharts and tables setting out the various classification
symbols, rules, etc. are used
• See, (1) the USCS chart on Diagram Page (DP) 1, (2) classification flow chart
for coarse-grained soils on DP2, (3) classification flow chart for fine-grained
soils on DP3 and (4) Engineering use chart on DP4
Dr Wasantha, 2020 15
3. Soil description
AS 1726-1993 Geotechnical Site Investigation Code provides guidelines on the
process of describing soils:
• distinguish between composition, condition and structure of the soil
• describe firstly the information which may be obtained from a disturbed soil
sample
• describe secondly the additional condition and structure properties which can
only be observed in an undisturbed sample
The composition of a soil
Can be determined from both disturbed and undisturbed samples
• soil name (in capital letters) e.g. SAND or SILTY CLAY
• USCS symbol e.g. SP or CL
• plasticity or particle characteristics e.g. medium to coarse or low plasticity
• colour e.g. light brown or medium grey
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3. Soil description
• secondary soil components - name, estimated proportion, e.g. some (15%),
plasticity or particle characteristics, colour, [e.g., coarse, dark red gravel, or
occasional lenses of fine light grey sand]
• other minor soil components - as above
The condition of a soil
• moisture condition - e.g. dry, moist, saturated
• consistency (describable only in the undisturbed state) (see table relating to
undrained shear strength (for cohesive soils) and density index (relative
density) and SPT no. of blows (cohesionless soils)– discussed later
The structure of a soil
• zoning - e.g. layers, laminations, lenses, inclusions
• defects - e.g. fissures, rootholes
• cementing
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3. Soil description
Additional observations
• soil origin - e.g. FILL, ALLUVIUM, RESIDUAL SOIL (emphasized by use of capital
letters)
• anything else thought to be significant
Further guidelines for description of soils:
1. Descriptions can be set out in the order COMPOSITION / CONDITION /
STRUCTURE with additional observations following, e.g.
• SILTY SAND (SM), fine to medium, orange and light grey, with some (15%)
ironstone gravel, moist, medium dense
• SANDY CLAY (CH), high plasticity, yellow-brown, with fine to medium sand,
moist, very stiff
2. Colour - possibilities include:
• all one colour - use adjectives, e.g. light brown, red-brown (not just 'brown').
• layered - alternating layers, e.g. light grey and dark grey layers 5 - 10 mm thick
• mottled - patches of colour on a background, e.g. yellow-brown mottled red
and black
Dr Wasantha, 2020 18
3. Soil description
Further guidelines for description of soils ctd.:
3. Soil type - usually written in capital letters
• Decided by particle size, i.e. GRAVEL, SAND, SILT or CLAY, or by behaviour
(e.g. CLAYS may contain < 30% clay-size particles). If more than one size
range is present, use the lesser fraction as a qualifier, e.g. SILTY SAND (if >
50% sand)
• If smaller quantities of other fractions are present, add as appropriate, e.g.
SILTY SAND with some clay, or SANDY GRAVEL with a trace of silt
4. Structure - any obvious features in the soil, or in the way the particles are
arranged
• stratified (i.e. layered) - very thin layers are 'laminated'
• fissured - the soil breaks into lumps on pre-existing planes
• lensed - contains lens-shaped pockets of other size fractions
• friable - has a 'dry' feeling, and crumbles easily into small lumps
• organic - presence of roots, dark brown or black colour, smell, spongy feel
• for coarse-grained soils - well-graded or poorly-graded
Dr Wasantha, 2020 19

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