Part (A) Theory

Q.1 What is an operational amplifier (OP-amp)? Give the block diagram of an operational
amplifier.
Answer: An operational amplifier (OP-Amp) is a circuit that can perform such mathematical
operations as; addition, subtraction, integration and differentiation.
The main properties of an op-amp include:
(i) a very high open-loop voltage gain Ao of around 105 for d.c. and low frequency a.c.,
which decreases with frequency increase
(ii) a very high input impedance, typically 10 6 Ω to 1012Ω, such that current drawn from
the device, or the circuit supplying it, is very small and the input voltage is passed on
to the op amp with little loss
(iii) a very low output impedance, around100 Ω,such that its output voltage is transferred
efficiently to any load greater than a few kilohms. The circuit diagram symbol for an
op amp is shown in Figure given below. It has one output, Vo, and two inputs; the
inverting input, V1 is marked −, and the non-inverting input, V2, is marked+

Circuit Diagram Symbol for an op-amp

Block Diagram of Op-amp:

Q.2 What is a differential amplifier? Draw the basic circuit of a differential amplifier. And
Discuss the operation of a differential amplifier.
Answer: Differential Amplifier is a device which is used to amplify the difference between the
voltages applied at its inputs.
Basic Circuit of a Differential Amplifier

Operation of Differential Amplifier

For simplicity, the operation of single-ended input (i.e., signal is applied to one input of DA and
the other input is grounded) and double-ended output DA is elaborated as under;
(i) Suppose the signal is applied to input 1 (i.e., base of transistor Q 1) and input 2 (i.e.,
base of transistor Q2) is grounded as shown in Fig below. The transistor Q 1 will act in
two ways: as a common emitter amplifier and as a common collector amplifier. As a
common emitter amplifier, the input signal to Q1 (input 1) will appear at output 1 (i.e.,
collector of Q1) as amplified inverted signal as shown in Fig. below. As a common
collector amplifier, the signal appears on the emitter of Q1 in phase with the input and
only slightly smaller. Since the emitters of Q1 and Q2 are common, the emitter signal
becomes input to Q2. Therefore, Q2 functions as a common base amplifier. As a result,
the signal on the emitter of Q2 will be amplified and appears on output 2 (i.e.,
collector of Q2) in phase with the emitter signal and hence in phase with the input
signal (signal at input 1). This is illustrated in Fig. below.
 (ii) Now suppose the signal is applied to input 2(i.e., base of transistor Q2) and input
1(base of transistor Q1) is grounded. As explained above, now Q2 acts as a common
emitter amplifier and common collector amplifier while Q1 functions as a common
base amplifier. Therefore, an inverted and amplified signal appears at output 2 (i.e., at
collector of Q2) and non-inverted, amplified signal appears at output 1(i.e., at
collector of Q1). This is illustrated in Fig. below.

The following points are worth noting about single-ended input DA;
(a) When signal is applied to input 1 (i.e., base of transistor Q1 in Fig. 25.5), an
inverted, amplified signal appears at output 1 and non-inverted, amplified
signal appears at output 2. Reverse happens when signal is applied to input 2
and input 1 is grounded.
(b) When only one output terminal is available, the phase of the output of
singleended input DA depends on which input receives the input signal. This is
illustrated in Fig. below.

When signal applied to the input of DA produces no phase shift in the output, it is called
noninverting input. In other words, for noninverting input, the output signal is in phase with the
input signal. When the signal applied to the input of DA produces 180° phase shift, it is called
inverting input. In other words, for inverting input, the output signal is 180° out of phase with the
input signal. Since inverting input provides 180° phase shift, it is often identified with –sign. The
noninverting input is then represented by +sign. It may be noted that terms noninverting input
and inverting input are meaningful when only one output terminal of DA is available.
Q.3 What do you mean by noninverting and inverting input of a differential amplifier?
what are common- mode and differential-mode signals?

Answer:
Non-inverting input: When signal applied to the input of DA produces no phase shift in the
output, it is called noninverting input. In other words, for noninverting input, the output signal is
in phase with the input signal.
Inverting input: When the signal applied to the input of DA produces 180° phase shift, it is
called inverting input.
Common-mode signals: When the input signals to a DA are in phase and exactly equal in
amplitude, they are called common-mode signals as shown in Fig. below. The common-mode
signals are rejected (not amplified) by the differential amplifier. It is because a differential
amplifier amplifies the difference between the two signals (v1 – v2) and for common-mode
signals, this difference is zero. Note that for common-mode operations, v1 = v2.

Differential-mode signals: When the input signals to a DA are 180° out of phase and exactly equal
in amplitude, they are called differential-mode signals as shown in Fig below. The
differentialmode signals are amplified by the differential amplifier. It is because the difference in
the signals is twice the value of each signal. For differential-mode signals, v1 = –v2.

Q.4 What do you mean by CMRR? What is the importance of CMRR?

Answer:

CMRR: A differential amplifier should have high differential voltage gain (ADM) and very low
common mode voltage gain (ACM). The ratio ADM/ACM is called common-mode rejection ratio
(CMRR) i.e.,

Very often, the CMRR is expressed in decibels (dB). The decibel measure for CMRR is given by;
The following table shows the relation between the two measurements:
CMRR CMRRdB
10 20dB
103 60dB
105 100dB
107 140dB

Importance of CMRR: The CMRR is the ability of a DA to reject the common-mode signals.
The larger the CMRR, the better the DA is at eliminating common-mode signals. Let us illustrate
this point. Suppose the differential amplifier in Fig. adjacent has a differential voltage gain of
1500 (i.e., ADM =1500) and a common-mode gain of 0.01 (i.e., ACM = 0.01).

This means that the output produced by a difference between the inputs would be 150,000 times
as great as an output produced by a common-mode signal. The ability of the DA to reject
commonmode signals is one of its main advantages. Common mode signals are usually
undesired signals caused by external interference. For example, any RF signals picked up by the
DA inputs would be considered undesirable. The CMRR indicates the DA’s ability to reject such
unwanted signals.

Q.5 Derive an expression for (a) differential-mode voltage gain (b) Common-mode voltage
gain of a differential amplifier.

Answer:
(a)
Expression for differential-mode voltage gain
The figure below shows the a.c. equivalent circuit of a differential amplifier. This is how a
differential amplifier looks to an a.c. signal. Note that r′e (= 25 mV/d.c. emitter current) is the a.c.
emitter resistance. Since the two r′e are in series, the same a.c. emitter current exists in both
transistors. The a.c. emitter current is given by;
This expression is easy to remember because it is almost identical to a CE amplifier where 𝒊𝑒 =

. The only difference is the factor 2 because a differential amplifier uses two transistors. The
a.c. collector current is approximately equal to the a.c. emitter current i.e. 𝒊𝑐 ≃ 𝒊𝑒−

∴ Output Voltage, [ ]

∴ Voltage gain,
𝒆
This gain of DA is referred to as differential-mode voltage gain and is usually denoted by 𝐴𝑫𝑴.

∴ Differential voltage gain,

𝑒

(b)
Expression for Common-mode voltage gain

The common-mode signals are equal in amplitude and have the same phase. Figure below shows
the common-mode operation of a differential amplifier (DA). Note that the same input voltage,
vin(CM) is being applied to each base. Ideally, there is no a.c. output voltage with a common-mode
input signal. It is because a differential amplifier is designed to respond to the difference between
two input signals. If there is no difference between the inputs, the output of DA is zero. In
practice, the two halves of the differential amplifier are never completely balanced and there is a
very small a.c. output voltage for the common-mode signal.
The two parallel resistances of 2 RE produce an equivalent resistance of RE. Therefore, this
equivalent circuit will not affect the output voltage. Assuming identical transistors, the two
emitter currents will be equal and produce the same voltage across emitter resistors. Therefore,
there is no current through the wire between the emitters.
A.C. equivalent circuit. To get the a.c. equivalent circuit, we can reduce both supply voltages to
zero i.e., we ground each supply point. Replacing the transistors by their a.c. equivalent circuits,
we get a.c. equivalent circuit of differential amplifier for common-mode operation. We can
derive the voltage gain of an unbypassed CE circuit. Here we will use 2 RE in place of RE.
∴ Common-mode voltage gain,
e

Where

In most cases, is very small compared to Re it (re′ ) is dropped from the formula.
Thus the common voltage gain becomes;

Q.6 What do you-mean by (i) open-loop voltage gain (ii) closed-loop voltage gain of an
OPamp?

Answer:
i. The open-loop voltage gain, Aol, of an op-amp is the internal voltage gain of the device
and represents the ratio of output voltage to input voltage when there are no external
components. The open-loop voltage gain is set entirely by the internal design. Open-loop
voltage gain can range up to 200,000 (106 dB) and is not a well-controlled parameter.
Datasheets often refer to the open-loop voltage gain as the large-signal voltage gain. A
CMRR of 100,000, for example, means that the desired input signal (differential) is
amplified 100,000 times more than the unwanted noise (common-mode). If the
amplitudes of the differential input signal and the common-mode noise are equal, the
 desired signal will appear on the output 100,000 times greater in amplitude than the
noise. Thus, the noise or interference has been essentially eliminated.
ii. The Closed-loop Voltage Gain of an OP-amp is the voltage gain of an op-amp with
external feedback. The amplifier configuration consists of the op-amp and an external
negative feedback circuit that connects the output to the inverting input. The closed-loop
voltage gain is determined by the external component values and can be precisely
controlled by them.
Q.7. Derive an expression for the voltage gain of an inverting and noninverting amplifier

Answer:
Expression for The Voltage Gain of an Inverting Amplifier

An OP-amp has an infinite input impedance. This means that there is zero current at the inverting
input. If there is zero current through the input impedance, then there must be no voltage drop
between the inverting and noninverting inputs. This means that voltage at the inverting input (–)
is zero (point A) because the other input (+) is grounded. The 0V at the inverting input terminal
(point A) is referred to as virtual ground. This condition is illustrated in figure below. The point
A is said to be at virtual ground because it is at 0V but is not physically connected to the ground

(i.e. VA = 0V).
Referring to above figure (ii), the current I1 to the inverting input is zero. Therefore, current Iin
flowing through Ri entirely flows through feedback resistor
Rf. In other words, If = Ii .

Now
And 𝐈 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞
𝒊 𝑨 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝐚𝐜𝐫𝐨𝐬𝐬 𝑹 𝑽 −𝑽 𝟎−𝑽
−𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕

Since

∴ Voltage gain,

Expression for The Voltage Gain of a Non-Inverting Amplifier

If we assume that we are not at saturation, the potential at point A is the same as Vin. Since the
input impedance of OP-amp is very high, all of the current that flows through Rf also flows
through Ri. Keeping these things in mind, we have,

Voltage across 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 – 0 ; Voltage across 𝑅𝑓 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 – 𝑉𝑖𝑛

Now Current through 𝑅𝑖 = Current through 𝑅𝑓
Or
Or 𝑽 𝒊𝒏𝑹𝒇 = 𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕𝑹𝒊 −𝑽𝒊𝒏 −𝑹𝒊
Or

Or

∴ Closed-loop voltage gain,

The following points may be noted about the noninverting amplifier:

1.
The voltage gain of noninverting amplifier also depends upon the values of Rf and Ri.
2. The voltage gain of a noninverting amplifier can be made equal to or greater than 1.
3. The voltage gain of a noninverting amplifier will always be greater than the gain of an
equivalent inverting amplifier by a value of 1. If an inverting amplifier has a gain of 150,
the equivalent noninverting amplifier will have a gain of 151.
4. The voltage gain is positive. This is not surprising because output signal is in phase with
the input signal.
Q.8. What is a voltage follower? Draw the circuit of multistage OP-amp.
Answer:
Voltage Follower
The voltage follower arrangement is a special case of
noninverting amplifier where all of the output voltage is
fed back to the inverting input as shown in Fig. 25.56.
Note that we remove Ri and Rf from the noninverting
amplifier and short the output of the amplifier to the
inverting input. The voltage gain for the voltage
follower is calculated as under:

(𝑹𝒇 = 𝟎𝛀)
𝒊 𝒊
Thus the closed-loop voltage gain of the voltage follower is 1. The most important features of the
voltage follower configuration are its very high input impedance and its very low output
impedance. These features make it a nearly ideal buffer amplifier to be connected between
highimpedance sources and low-impedance loads.

Circuit of Multistage OP-Amp

Q.9 Discuss the operation and applications of a summing amplifier.

Answer:
Operation of a summing Amplifier: Summing amplifier is an inverted OP-amp that can accept
two or more inputs. The output voltage of a summing amplifier is proportional to the negative of
the algebraic sum of its input voltages. Hence the name summing amplifier. Figure shows a
threeinput summing amplifier but any number of inputs can be used. Three voltages V1, V2 and V3
are applied to the inputs and produce currents I 1, I2 and I3. Using the concepts of infinite
impedance and virtual ground, you can see that inverting input of the OP-amp is at virtual ground
(0V) and there is no current to the input. This means that the three input currents I 1, I2 and I3
combine at the summing point A and form the total current (I f) which goes through Rf as shown
in Figure below. ∴ If = I1 + I2 + I3
When all the three inputs are applied, the output voltage is
𝐎𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞, 𝐕𝐨𝐮𝐭 = −𝐈𝐟𝐑𝐟 = −𝐑𝐟(𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 + 𝐈𝟑)

𝐕𝟏 𝐕𝟐 𝐕𝟑
= −𝐑 [
+]

If R1=R2=R, then, we have,

Thus the output voltage is proportional to the algebraic sum of the input voltages (of course
neglecting negative sign). An interesting case results when the gain of the amplifier is unity. In
that case, Rf = R1 = R2 = R3 and output voltage is
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = – (𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑)
Thus, when the gain of summing amplifier is unity, the output voltage is the algebraic sum of the
input voltages.

Summing amplifier with gain greater than unity

When Rf is larger than the input resistors, the amplifier has a gain of Rf /R where R is the value of
each input resistor. The general expression for the output voltage is

As you can see, the output voltage is the sum of input voltages multiplied by a constant
determined by the ratio Rf /R.

Applications of Summing Amplifiers:

By proper modifications, a summing amplifier can be made to perform many useful functions.
There are a number of applications of summing amplifiers. However, we shall discuss the
following two applications by way of illustration:
1. As averaging amplifier
2. As subtractor
1. As averaging amplifier. By using the proper input and feedback resistor values, a
summing amplifier can be designed to provide an output voltage that is equal to the
 average of input voltages. A summing amplifier will act as an averaging amplifier
when both of the following conditions are met:
1. All input resistors (R1, R2 and so on) are equal in value.
2. The ratio of any input resistor to the feedback resistor is equal to the number of
input circuits.
The output voltage is given by;

Now

∴
Note that Vout is equal to the average of the three inputs. The negative sign shows the phase
reversal.
2. As subtractor. A summing amplifier can be used to provide an output voltage that is
equal to the difference of two voltages. Such a circuit is called a subtractor. As we shall
see, this circuit will provide an output voltage that is equal to the difference between V1
and V2.
The voltage V1 is applied to a standard inverting amplifier that has unity gain. Because of this,
the output from the inverting amplifier will be equal to –V1. This output is then applied to the
summing amplifier (also having unity gain) along with V2. Thus output from second OP-amp is
given by;
𝑽𝒐𝒖𝒕 = – (𝑽𝑨 + 𝑽𝑩) = – (– 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐) = 𝑽𝟏 – 𝑽𝟐
It may be noted that the gain of the second stage in the subtractor can be varied to provide an
output that is proportional to (rather than equal to) the difference between the input voltages.
However, if the circuit is to act as a subtractor, the input inverting amplifier must have unity gain.
Otherwise, the output will not be proportional to the true difference between V1 and V2.

Q.10. Discuss the operation and applications of an OP-amp integrator.

Answer:
Operation of an OP-amp integrator:
An integrator is a circuit that performs integration of the input signal. The most popular
application of an integrator is to produce a ramp output voltage (i.e. a linearly increasing or
decreasing voltage). It consists of an OP-amp, input resistor R and feedback capacitor C. Note
that the feedback component is a capacitor instead of a resistor. As we shall see, when a signal is
applied to the input of this circuit, the output-signal waveform will be the integration of input-
signal waveform.
Circuit Analysis: Because of virtual ground and infinite impedance of the OP-amp, all of the
input current i flows through the capacitor i.e. i = ic.
Now 𝟎

Also voltage across capacitor is 𝐯𝐜 = 0 − v0 = −v0

∴
From the above two equation follows;
Or
To find output voltage, the last equation is integrated to get;

The above equation shows the output is the integral of the input with an inversion and scale
multiplier of .
Output voltage: If a fixed voltage is applied to the input of an integrator, the last equation above
shows that the output voltage grows over a period of time, providing a ramp voltage. The
equation also shows that the output voltage ramp (for a fixed input voltage) is opposite in
polarity to the input voltage and is multiplied by the factor . As an example, consider an input
voltage v1 = 1V to the integrator.\ The scale factor of 1/RC is

So that the output is a negative ramp voltage as shown in the figure below;

If the scale factor is changed by making R=100KΩ then,

And output is then a steeper ramp voltage as shown in the above figure.

Applications of an OP-Amp Integrator

• Op-amp integrating amplifiers are used to perform calculus operations in analogue

computers.
• Integrating circuits are most commonly used in analogue-to-digital converters,
ramp generators and also in wave shaping applications.
• Another application would be to integrate a signal representing water flow,
producing a signal representing the total quantity of water that has passed by the
flow meter. This application of an integrator is sometimes called a totalizer in the
industrial instrumentation trade.
 Part B Problems

Q.1 A differential amplifier has a voltage gain of 150 and a CMRR of 90 dB. The input
signals are 50 mV and 100 mV with 1 mV of noise on each input. Find (i) the output signal
(ii) the noise on the output.

Solution:
i. Output signal, 𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝐷𝑀(𝑣1 − 𝑣2) = 150(100𝑚𝑉 − 50𝑚𝑉) = 7.5 𝑉 ii.

Q. 2 The differential amplifier shown in Fig. 25.14 has a differential voltage gain of 2500
and a CMRR of 30,000. A single-ended input signal of 500 μV r.m.s. is applied. At the same
time, 1V, 50 Hz interference signal appears on both inputs as a result of radiated pick-up
from the a.c. power system.
(i) Determine the common-mode gain.
(ii) Express the CMRR in dB.
(iii) Determine the r.m.s. output signal.
(iv) Determine the r.m.s. interference voltage on the output.

Solution:
i.

ii.

iii. In figure the differential input voltage is the difference between the voltage on input 1
and that on input 2. Since input 2 is grounded, its voltage is zero.
∴ 𝑫𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝝁𝑽 − 𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝝁𝑽 The
output signal in this case is taken at output 1.
∴ 𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒕𝟏 = 𝑨𝑫𝑴 × (𝟓𝟎𝟎𝝁𝑽) = (𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝟓𝟎𝟎)𝝁𝑽 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝑽
iv. The common mode input is V r.m.s and the common mode gain is 𝑨𝐶𝑀 = 0.083.
∴ 𝑵𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝑨𝑪𝑴 × (𝟏𝑽) = (𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟑)(𝟏𝑽) = 𝟖𝟑 𝒎𝑽
Q. 3. Most differential amplifiers are biased with a current source as shown in Fig. Find the
bias currents and voltages.

Solution:
In this circuit, the current IE is given by the current source. Ignoring base current, the potential at
each emitter is VE = -0.7V.
Emitter current in each transistor
Also
𝑰𝑪𝟏 ≃ 𝑰𝑬𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒎𝑨; 𝑰𝑪𝟐 ≃ 𝑰𝑬𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝒎𝑨
∴ 𝑉𝐶1 = 𝑉𝐶2 = 15 − 0.5𝑚𝐴 × 10𝐾Ω = 10𝑉

Q. 4. Determine the output voltage for the circuit of Figure given below:

Solution:

∴ 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆, 𝒗𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑨𝑪𝑳 × 𝒗𝒊𝒏 = (−𝟏𝟎𝟎) × (𝟐. 𝟓 𝒎𝑽) = −𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝒎𝑽 = −𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝑽

Q. 5. Calculate the output voltage from the noninverting amplifier circuit shown in Fig. for an input of 120 μV.