Space frame

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The roof of this industrial building is supported by a space frame structure.

A space frame or space structure is a truss-like, lightweight rigid structure constructed

from interlocking struts in a geometric pattern. Space frames can be used to span large
areas with few interior supports. Like the truss, a space frame is strong because of the
inherent rigidity of the triangle; flexing loads (bending moments) are transmitted as
tension and compression loads along the length of each strut.

Contents
[hide]

 1 Overview
 2 History
 3 Applications
o 3.1 Construction
o 3.2 Vehicles
 4 Design methods
 5 See also
 6 External links

[edit] Overview

Simplified space frame roof with the half-octahedron highlighted in blue

The simplest form of space frame is a horizontal slab of interlocking square pyramids
built from aluminium or tubular steel struts. In many ways this looks like the horizontal
jib of a tower crane repeated many times to make it wider. A stronger purer form is
composed of interlocking tetrahedral pyramids in which all the struts have unit length.
More technically this is referred to as an isotropic vector matrix or in a single unit width
an octet truss. More complex variations change the lengths of the struts to curve the
overall structure or may incorporate other geometrical shapes.

[edit] History
Space frames were independently developed by Alexander Graham Bell around 1900
and Buckminster Fuller in the 1950s. Bell's interest was primarily in using them to make
rigid frames for nautical and aeronautical engineering. Few of his designs were realised.
Buckminster Fuller's focus was architectural structures; his work had greater influence.

[edit] Applications

If a force is applied to the blue node, and the red bar is not present, the behaviour of the
structure depends completely on the bending rigidity of the blue node. If the red bar is
present, and the bending rigidity of the blue node is negligible compared to the
contributing rigidity of the red bar, the system can be calculated using a rigidity matrix,
neglecting angular factors.

[edit] Construction

Space frames are a common feature in modern construction; they are often found in
large roof spans in modernist commercial and industrial buildings.

Notable examples of buildings based on space frames include:

 Stansted airport in London, by Foster and Partners

 Bank of China Tower and the Louvre Pyramid, by I. M. Pei
 Rogers Centre by Rod Robbie and Michael Allan
 McCormick Place East in Chicago
 Eden Project in Cornwall, England
  Globen, Sweden - Dome with diameter of 110 m, (1989)
 Biosphere 2 in Oracle, Arizona

Large portable stages and lighting gantries are also frequently built from space frames
and octet trusses.

In February 1986, Paul C. Kranz walked into the U. S. Department of Transportation

office in Fort Worth, Texas, with a model of an octet truss. He showed a staff person
there how the octet truss was ideal for holding signs over roads. The idea and model
was forwarded to the US Department of Transportation in Washington, D. C. Today, the
octet truss is the structure of choice for holding signs above roads in the United States.

[edit] Vehicles

Space frames are sometimes used in the chassis designs of automobiles and
motorcycles. In a space-frame, or tube-frame, chassis, the suspension, engine, and body
panels are attached to a skeletal space frame, and the body panels have little or no
structural function. By contrast, in a monocoque design, the body serves as part of the
structure. Tube-frame chassis are frequently used in certain types of racing cars.

British manufacturers TVR were particularly well known for their tube-frame chassis
designs, produced since the 1950s. Other notable examples of tube-frame cars include
the Audi A8, Lotus Seven, Ferrari 360, Lamborghini Gallardo, and Mercedes-Benz SLS
AMG.

Space frames have also been used in bicycles, such as those designed by Alex Moulton.

[edit] Design methods

Space frames are typically designed using a rigidity matrix. The special characteristic of
the stiffness matrix in an architectural space frame is the independence of the angular
factors. If the joints are sufficiently rigid, the angular deflections can be neglected,
simplifying the calculations.

[edit] See also

 Platonic solids
 Body-on-frame
 Monocoque
 Backbone chassis
 Tensegrity

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Space frames

 Information about space structures from the University of Surrey

  octet truss 3D animation

http://www3.surrey.ac.uk/eng/research/ems/ssrc/intro.htm

What is
a
Space
Structur
e?
Introduction
Grids
Double layer grids
Biform grids
Barrel vaults
Domes
Biform and continuous domes and barrel vaults
References

Introduction

The term 'space structure' refers to a structural system that involves three
dimensions. This is in contrast with a 'plane structure', such as a plane truss, that
involves no more than two dimensions. To elaborate, in the case of a plane
structure, the external loads as well as the internal forces are in a single plane.
This is the plane that also contains the (idealised) structure itself, both in its
initial unloaded state and in its deformed loaded state. In the case of a space
structure, the combination of the configuration, external loads, internal forces and
displacements of the structure extends beyond a single plane.

The above definition is the 'formal' definition of a space structure. However, in

practice, the term 'space structure' is simply used to refer to a number of families
of structures that include grids, barrel vaults, domes, towers, cable nets,
membrane systems, foldable assemblies and tensegrity forms. Space structures
cover an enormous range of shapes and are constructed using different materials
such as steel, aluminium, timber, concrete, fibre reinforced composites, glass, or
a combination of these.
Space structures may be divided into three categories, namely
 'lattice space structures' that consist of discrete, norma
elements,
 'continuous space structures' that consist of componen
shells, membranes, and
 'biform space structures' that consist of a combination
continuous parts.

There are numerous examples of space structures that are bui

stadiums, gymnasiums, cultural centres, auditoriums, shoppin
stations, aircraft hangars, leisure centres, transmission towers
supernal structures (that is, structures for outer space) and ma

The term 'spatial structure' is sometimes used instead of 'spac

terms are considered to be synonymous.

Space structure forms are at the centre of attention in the pres

emphasis on the geometric characteristics of lattice space stru
particular, the families of grids, barrel vaults and domes.
Grids
A 'grid' is a structural system involving one or more planar la
A 'single layer grid', or 'flat grid', consists of a planar arran
connected beam elements. The external loading system for a
forces perpendicular to the plane of the grid and/or moment
the plane of the grid. The reason for classification of a fla
structure is that its external loads and displacements do not
contains its (idealised) configuration.

A number of basic grid patterns are illustrated in Fig. 1. The

shown in Fig. 1a, is the simplest pattern for a flat grid. It con
interconnected beams that run parallel to the boundary lin
pattern, shown in Fig. 1b, consists of two parallel sets of int
that are disposed obliquely with respect to the boundary lines
some basic three-way and four-way grid patterns. The basic
1 are frequently used in practice. However, there are also
patterns that are commonly used. These patterns are normally
of some elements from the basic patterns of Fig. 1. Two exam
operation are shown in Fig. 2. The grid pattern in Fig. 2a i
three-way pattern by omitting every other beam line. This is
showing a part of the grid of Fig. 2a with the omitted beam li
lines. The grid of Fig. 2b is obtained from a four-way patte
number of beam lines as indicated in Fig. 2
 Figure 1: Some basic patterns

Figure 2: Pattern creation by element removal

In designing a grid configuration, one would like to find the most suitable pattern
for the particular application. A question that arises naturally in this relation is:
Are there some general principles or guidelines through which the structural
behaviour of different grid patterns can be classified and used for selecting the
'right' pattern for every design case? The answer is that different grid patterns do
indeed have their own characteristics. However, there are no inherent 'good' or
'bad' grid patterns and the suitability of a pattern for each particular case should
 be considered with regard to the shape and size of the bo
positions, loading characteristics, material(s) to be used and
the structure is to be constructed. These comments also app
other space structure forms.

Double layer grids

A 'double layer grid' consists of two (nominally) parallel lay
are interconnected together with 'web' elements [1]. Views
used patterns of double layer grids are shown in Fig. 3. In t
layer elements are shown by thick lines and the 'bottom' laye
the 'web' elements are shown by thin lines. The double lay
consists of a two-way top layer and a two-way bottom laye
grid of Fig. 3b, both the top and bottom layers have a diagon
also many double layer grids built with a two-way pattern f
and a diagonal pattern for the other layer

A double layer grid of a different kind is shown in Fig. 3c.

bottom layers are of an identical shape and are positioned s
views are coincident. Also, in this case all the web elements l
The result is a double layer grid that effectively consists
intersecting plane trusses. A grid of this type is referred to as
grid may be regarded as a flat grid whose elements

A primary double layer grid pattern, such as the one shown

used as a basis for the creation of various 'reduced forms' by
of elements. An example of this is shown in Fig. 3d. This gr
the grid of Fig. 3a by removing the bottom layer and web
connected to a number of bottom layer nodes. A similar p
obtaining the reduced grid of Fig. 3e from the grid of Fig. 3b
truss grid of Fig. 3f is obtained by removing the non-bound
trusses of the grid of Fig. 3c.
 Figure 3: Examples of double layer grids

Grids may also involve more than two layers of elements, a

structural depth to cater for longer spans.

(Courtesy of Tomoe Corporation)

(Click on it to enlarge 180k)

There is a fundamental difference between the structural beh

and that of double layer (or multilayer) grids. Namely, flat
dominated' with the elements being under bending moment
torques. In contrast, the main internal forces in the elements
multilayer) grids are axial forces. Bending moments, shear fo
also present in the elements of double layer (or multilayer
proportions depending on the cross-sectional properties of th
jointing system. However, the non-axial force effects in thes
secondary.

Biform grids
Certain types of biform grids are frequently used in practice:

 Flat grids are often built in reinforced concrete with a

the top. Also, a steel flat grid may be combined with a
slab.
 There are many instances of steel double layer (or mu
the top layer replaced by (or embedded in) reinforced
 There are also many examples of double layer (and m
incorporated membrane parts.

A biform space structure that consists of a combination of dis

 and continuous reinforced concrete parts is traditionally refer
'composite space structure'. Also, a biform space structure tha
combination of discrete elements (in any material) and contin
parts is referred to as a 'hybrid space structure'. However, it s
normally, a space structure is considered to be biform provide
discrete and continuous parts play significant structural roles.
layer grid, which has a reinforced concrete slab at the top, wi
as a composite double layer grid unless the slab and the grid a
interact structurally. Also, in the case of a hybrid space struct
of the structure is expected to be self-contained (that is, to be
itself). Thus, a membrane structure with a number of individu
will not be regarded as a hybrid structure.

Barrel vaults

(Courtesy of Taiyo Kogyo Corporation)

(Click on it to enlarge 180k)

A 'barrel vault' is obtained by 'arching' a grid along one directio

cylindrical form that may involve one, two or more layers of ele
examples of barrel vault configurations are shown in Fig. 4. Fig
layer barrel vault that is obtained by arching a diagonal flat grid
diagonal pattern is often referred to as a 'lamella barrel vault'. T
4b is similar to the one in Fig. 4a but has a three-way pattern. A
vault is shown in Fig. 4c with both the top and bottom layers ha
pattern. Also, the barrel vault of Fig. 4d has a top layer and a bo
interconnecting web elements. However, in this case the disposi
results in a 'truss barrel vault', that is, a barrel vault that consists
trusses.
The shape of the cross-section of a barrel vault may vary along
Examples of this are shown in Figs 4e and 4f. The surface of the
of Fig. 4e is a part of a hyperboloid of revolution. Also, the surf
of Fig. 4f is a part of an ellipsoid of revolution.

An example of a 'compound barrel vault' is shown in Fig. 4g. A

vault consists of two or more barrel vaults that are connected to
sides. The compound barrel vault of Fig. 4g is obtained by com
vaults identical to the one in Fig. 4b.

Figure 4 : Examples of barrel vaults

The cross-sections of the barrel vaults in Fig. 4 are circular. How

may have a cross-section which has an elliptic, a parabolic or m
Domes
A 'dome' is a structural system that consists of one or more la
that are 'arched' in all directions [3]. The surface of a dome m
single surface such as a sphere or a paraboloid, or it may con
of different surfaces. Some commonly used basic single layer
configurations are shown in Fig. 5. The dome shown in Fig. 5
A ribbed dome consists of a number of intersecting 'ribs' and
group of elements that lie along a meridional line and a ring i
elements that constitute a horizontal polygon. A ribbed dome
structurally stable unless it is designed as a rigidly-jointed sy
number of ribs is large then there could be a problem regardin
'overcrowding' of the elements near the crown. One way of av
is to cut back the upper parts of some of the ribs. Such an ope
as 'trimming'. An example of a 'trimmed ribbed dome' is show
every other rib is 'trimmed' to the level of the fourth ring from
 (Courtesy of Tomoe Corporation)

(Click on it to enlarge 180k)

A modified form of a ribbed dome is obtained by 'bracing' the quadrilateral

panels of the dome. The result is a dome configuration that is referred to as a
'Schwedler dome' (after the nineteenth century German engineer J. W. Schwedler
who built many domes of this kind). A simple example of a Schwedler dome is
shown in Fig. 5c. Another example is shown in Fig. 5d. This dome configuration
also involves trimming to avoid overcrowding of the elements at the upper part of
the dome.

An example of a 'lamella dome' is shown in Fig. 5e. A lamella dome has a

diagonal pattern and may involve one or more rings. An example of a trimmed
lamella dome with rings is shown in Fig. 5f.

The dome configurations shown in Figs 5g and 5h are two examples of a family
of domes that are referred to as 'diamatic domes' [4]. The dome shown in Fig. 5g
is an example of a basic diamatic form consisting of triangulated sectors. The
pattern of the diamatic dome of Fig. 5h is obtained from a denser version of the
dome of Fig. 5g by removing every other line of elements in a manner similar to
that shown in Fig. 2c.
Figure 5: Examples of single layer domes

The domes shown in Figs 5i and 5j represent two examples of the family of 'grid
domes' [3, 5]. A grid dome is obtained by projecting a plane grid pattern onto a
curved surface. The grid dome of Fig. 5i is obtained by projection of a denser
version of the pattern of Fig. 2a onto a spherical surface. The grid dome of Fig. 5j
is obtained in a similar manner using a denser version of the pattern of Fig. 2b.
Grid domes are normally rather shallow with their rise to span ratios being
smaller than the other types of domes. A 'geodesic' dome configuration is shown
in Fig. 5k. A dome of this kind is obtained by mapping patterns on the faces of a
polyhedron and projecting the resulting configuration onto a curved surface [3,
6]. The dome of Fig. 5k is obtained by mapping a triangulated pattern on five
neighbouring faces of an icosahedron (20-faced regular polyhedron) and
projecting the result onto a sphere which is concentric with the icosahedron. The
geodesic dome of Fig. 5l is obtained in a similar manner with the initial pattern
chosen such that the resulting dome has a honeycomb appearance.

The configurations shown in Fig. 5 represent the basic dome patterns but there
are many other dome patterns that are obtained as variations of the basic forms.
Also, there are a large number of double layer (and multilayer) dome patterns
that may be obtained from the combinations of the basic patterns. Included in
these are 'truss domes' that consist of intersecting curved trusses. An important
point that should be borne in mind is that one should be careful in using single
layer domes unless the jointing system provides sufficient rigidity for the
connections and that the elements are designed for resisting bending and shear in
addition to the axial forces. Otherwise, the structures will be prone to
snapthrough buckling. This comment also applies to the case of single layer
barrel vaults.
    
Biform and continuous domes and barrel vaults
There are many examples of biform domes and barrel vaults
and hybrid forms. A composite dome or barrel vault consists
framework with an incorporated reinforced concrete shell wh
interact with the lattice part structurally. A hybrid dome or ba
of a load bearing lattice framework and structurally active me

Continuous domes and barrel vaults have been constructed in

materials since the ancient times and there exist thousands of
including some very impressive ones, throughout the globe. A
ingenious igloo which is a continuous dome structure made f

Modern continuous domes and barrel vaults are normally bui

concrete, timber and fibre reinforced composites.

References
 [1] Makowski, Z S (Editor). Analysis, Design and Co
Layer Grids, Applied Science Publishers Ltd, 1981 (O
Chapman & Hall Publishers)
 [2] Makowski, Z S (Editor). Analysis, Design and Co
Barrel Vaults, Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Lt
from Chapman & Hall Publishers)
 [3] Makowski, Z S (Editor). Analysis, Design and Co
Domes, Granada Publishing Ltd, 1984
 [4] Nooshin, H and Tomatsuri, H. Diamatic Transform
of the Symposium on Spatial Structures: Heritage, Pre
Edited by G C Giuliani, Milan, Italy, June 1995, pp 71
 [5] Nooshin, H. A Technique for Surface Generation,
International Symposium on Conceptual Design of St
K U Bletzinger et al, Published by Institute fur Konstr
II, Stuttgart, Germany, October 1996, pp 331-338
 [6] Nooshin, H, Disney, P and Champion, O. Comput
of Polyhedric Configurations, chapter 12 in the book:
The Architecture of Space Frames and Polyhedra, Edi
Gabriel, John Wiley & Sons, 1997, pp 343-384

Sources of general information about space structures

 [1] International Journal of Space Structures (currentl

volume), Editors: H Nooshin and Z S Makowski, Pub
Science Publishing Co Ltd, 107 High Street, Brentwo
4RX, UK
 [2] Makowski, Z S. Steel Space Structures, Michael J
 1965
 [3] Davies, R M (Editor). Proceedings of the First International
Conference on Space Structures (held in London, UK, September 1966),
Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1967
 [4] Supple, W J (Editor). Proceedings of the Second International
Conference on Space Structures, held at the University of Surrey, UK,
September 1975
 [5] Nooshin, H (Editor). Proceedings of the Third International
Conference on Space Structures, Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd,
1984 (Obtainable from Chapman & Hall Publishers)
 [6] Nooshin, H (Editor). Studies in Space Structures, Multi-Science
Publishing Co Ltd, 1991
 [7] Parke, G A R and Howard, C M (Editors). Proceedings of the Fourth
International Conference on Space Structures, Thomas Telford Services
Ltd, 1993
 [8] Journal of the International Association for Shell and Spatial
Structures (currently in its 38th volume), Editor: J Abel, Published by the
International Association for Shell and Spatial Structures, Alfonso XII, 3-
28014 Madrid, Spain
 [9] Proceedings of Past Conferences Organised by the International
Association for Shell and Spatial Structures, Alfonso XII, 3-28014
Madrid, Spain