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Update to Recent Advances in Iodine Nutrition

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Recent Advances in Iodine Nutrition
Michael Donaldson, PhD
Summary
Though iodine is known for its importance for the thyroid, little has been publicized
about its other roles. Iodine is needed in microgram amounts for the health of the
thyroid. For the rest of the body iodine is needed in larger amounts, hundreds of
micrograms or even milligram amounts; perhaps as much as 100 times as much as the
RDA.

Iodine supports the health of many organs in the body. It is taken up by most every
gland and, when taken in milligram quantities, is found in nearly every tissue of the
body. The thyroid cannot function properly without an adequate supply of iodine, and
much of the subclinical hypothyroidism in the USA is likely just a shortage of iodine.
The immune system uses iodine to fight infections, so many chronic illnesses tax the
body’s iodine supply. The reproductive glands and tissues have high levels of iodine in
them, if iodine is provided. This iodine is necessary for optimal function of the breasts,
ovaries, endometrium, and prostate. Research has shown that milligram amounts of
iodine can reverse fibrocystic breast disease. Iodine suppresses chemically-induced
breast cancer in rats. Iodine balances estrogen levels, thus supporting ovary health.
Sufficient iodine is needed for a stable rhythmic heart beat. Iodine, directly or indirectly,
can normalize serum cholesterol levels and normalize blood pressure. Iodine attaches to
insulin receptors and improves glucose metabolism, which is good news for people with
diabetes. Iodine is essential for the development of the central nervous system; women
need a good supply before becoming pregnant. Iodine may also play a role in bone
health and lung function. Even the skin needs iodine. Iodine has been shown to help
remove heavy metals from the body along with bromide.

Iodine can be obtained as a dietary supplement, as Hallelujah Diet’s Nascent Iodine,

Iosol or Iodoral. Nascent Iodine is the form that the body uses the easiest, and is the best
way to get the most out of supplemental iodine. For general health maintenance an
intake of one to three milligrams of iodine is likely to be healthful. For people with
lower organ function and in greater need of optimization of body iodine stores intakes
up to 50 mg per day can be done safely. If intakes of more than 10 mg per day are used
continually it is highly recommended that a person has their thyroid function checked
twice a year.

Introduction
In many ways the American population has not been well served by those who make
food policies and dietary guidelines. Sometimes this is for selfish reasons, desiring
personal gain at the expense of others. Sometimes there is genuine ignorance mixed in
with an incredible lack of interest in new ideas or ways to bring health to the world’s
people.

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Such is the case with iodine. There is some ignorance about how larger intakes can be
beneficial to people while there is a “professional” skepticism gathered from medical
school and university days that high levels of iodine are “toxic.” But here at Hallelujah
Diet we are always looking for ways to empower people to take care of their own bodies
in a way that is safe and effective. After quite some time examining the evidence around
iodine, its use in milligram amounts, and the benefits of iodine, we are ready to pass
along our findings to you.

The human body has a requirement for iodine (discussed in detail below) that must be
met from what we eat. Land vegetables, unfortunately, have very, very little iodine in
them as there is very little iodine in the soil. If the soil is fertilized with kelp, or irrigated
with iodine-rich water then garden produce can contain substantial amounts of iodine.
Sea vegetables have the ability to concentrate iodine out of sea water, making them an
excellent source of iodine. Dairy products, eggs, and iodized salt are generally where
Americans get their iodine. Dairy products contain iodine because iodine is
concentrated by all mammary glands.

In order to control goiter, David Marine conducted controlled studies with school
children, supplying them with iodine in the 1930s. After these trials showed
conclusively that iodine could prevent and reverse simple goiter the public was offered
iodized salt as a way to prevent goiter. And so now we associate iodine with the
prevention of goiter and proper thyroid function. And that is all that most of us know
about the action of iodine. But some research has brought to light that iodine plays a
much greater role in the body than just keeping the thyroid functioning properly. Much
more.

Where is Iodine Found in the Body

The primary role of iodine is to make thyroid hormones. But there are several other
roles that iodine also plays in the body. Iodine has the ability to attach to tyrosine and
histidine amino acid residues on proteins throughout the body. Iodine also reacts with
double carbon bonds in lipids, making it possible to form iodolipids. Iodine also
functions as an antioxidant in the body, raising the serum total antioxidant capacity. So,
you can see that iodine’s chemistry is much more than just the production of thyroid
hormones.

The thyroid gland is the main iodine-concentrating gland of the body. It is widely stated
that the body contains between 15 and 20 mg of iodine and that two-thirds of this iodine
is found in the thyroid gland1. Under microgram intakes this is true, but under high
intakes of iodine much of the rest of the body also contains iodine, up to 1,500 mg or so2.
This is one area of ignorance. Where does all of this iodine go?

Other organs are also able to take up iodine, too, by the same transport protein as the
thyroid. Research has shown that the receptor for iodine uptake is in the thyroid gland,
salivary gland, parotid gland, submandibular gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, testis,

2
mammary gland, gastric mucosa, prostate, ovary, adrenal gland, heart, thymus, lung,3
bladder, kidney, endometrium,4 and also breast, ovary and colon5 and the lacrimal
gland6. The ovaries hold the second highest concentration of iodine, after the thyroid.
The breasts also have a high concentration of iodine. Most secretions in the body,
whether gastric, nasal, tears, sweat, etc., have iodine in them if sufficient iodine is
present in the body. The skin also contains quite a bit of iodine, though its exact role
isn’t clear. Dr. Flechas tells that clinically the ability to sweat is related to iodine and
extremely low body iodine stores prevent sweating, opening the body to the spread of
cancer7. Many of the functions of iodine are separate from its role as part of thyroid
hormones. Iodine has a major impact on the thyroid, but it will also have a direct impact
on all of the other tissues of the body that utilize iodine.

Now we will look at different glands and systems of the body that are affected by iodine
in more detail.

Thyroid

The thyroid utilizes iodine to make thyroxine, or T4 as it is commonly called, and

triiodothyronine, or T3. Thyroxine contains 4 iodine atoms and triiodothyronine
contains 3 iodine atoms. The thyroid secretes about 10% T3 and 90% T4 into the
bloodstream. The organs of the body can convert the T4 into the more active T3 form
via enzymes called deiodenases. Release of the thyroid hormones is controlled by
thyroid releasing hormone, from the hypothalamus, which is sent to the pituitary, which
secretes thyroid stimulating hormone, TSH, which causes the activity of the thyroid to
increase and secrete more T3 and T4. Elevated levels of T3 in the blood downregulate
the hormones from the hypothalamus and pituitary. High levels of iodine temporarily
(26-40 hours) inhibit release of T3 and T4 from the thyroid (acute Wolff-Chaikoff effect),
but then normal function of the thyroid continues as previously (escape from the Wolff-
Chaikoff effect) after the thyroid down-regulates the number of sodium-iodide
symporters in the cell membranes of the thyroid.

The thyroid hormones regulate your metabolic rate, and thus energy production, of the
entire body. The effects are felt in every system and cell of the body. A glance at the
symptoms of hypothyroidism (see Table 1) gives an idea of the wide range of effects.

In infants and children theses hormones are necessary for normal growth and
development, both physically and mentally. Very severe hypothyroidism in the womb
and in infancy leads to cretinism, a dwarfed and mentally retarded state that quickly
becomes permanent.

Goiters used to be more common in the USA before the iodination of salt. Simple goiter
is an enlargement of the thyroid due to the lack of iodine. The thyroid expands so that it
can better capture iodine from a very scarce blood supply. Goiters can also be due to an
autoimmune reaction as well, but even here a lack of iodine probably still plays a role.

3
Table 1. Signs and Symptoms of Hypothyroidism.
Brittle Nails Hypotension
Cold hands and feet Inability to concentrate
Cold intolerance Infertility
Constipation Irritability
Depression Menstrual irregularities
Difficulty swallowing Muscle cramps
Dry skin Muscle weakness
Elevated cholesterol Nervousness
Essential hypertension Poor memory
Eyelid swelling Puffy eyes
Fatigue Slower heartbeat
Hair loss Throat pain
Hoarseness Weight gain

Hypothyroidism can be caused by a multitude of factors, including a lack of iodine. The

Hallelujah Diet takes care of most of the other factors, except for iodine.
Hypothyroidism slows down your entire metabolism and causes many symptoms that
vary in different people. Not everyone has all of the symptoms. Some of the common
symptoms are given in Table 1, taken from Dr. Brownstein’s book, Iodine: Why You Need
It, Why You Can’t Live Without It 8. Two of the most common symptoms are fatigue and
being cold when everyone else is warm.

Fibromyalgia and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome may be a manifestation of a hypothyroid

condition. It is no coincidence that hypothyroidism, fibromyalgia, and chronic fatigue
syndrome are all much more common in women. There is a common link—women
need more iodine than men. This is true not only during pregnancy and lactation, but
for every women. Breast tissue requires iodine for maintenance of structure9 and to
keep cells exposed to hormone surges from multiplying out of bounds.

Since iodine is an integral part of the thyroid hormones, it is obvious that a lack of iodine
is going to have a direct effect on the ability of the thyroid to produce these hormones.
Even if a doctor prescribes replacement thyroid hormone, iodine is always still needed
to fully support the function of the thyroid. The prescription hormone takes care of the
symptom, but sufficient iodine will meet the underlying cause of many cases of
subclinical hypothyroidism all.

Autoimmune disorders of the thyroid are also more common when people lack
sufficient iodine. Both hyperthyroid and hypothyroid conditions can result from a lack
of iodine, in combination with other factors. Dr. Brownstein mentioned that 92% of his
patients with Hashimoto’s or Grave’s disease also were deficient in iodine8. Further,
symptoms improved dramatically when they took high amounts of iodine to build up
their body’s supply of iodine.

4
Breast
In Japan seaweed, a concentrated source of iodine, has a legendary history for protecting
women’s health. In Korea new mothers are traditionally fed seaweed soup10. We are
beginning to understand what these cultures have known for a long time. Lactating
women actively take up the iodide ion by the same symporter protein that is in the
thyroid. However, molecular iodine is also taken up by the breasts, and not just when a
woman is nursing. The concentration in the breast tissue is not as high as in the thyroid
or ovaries, but because of their much larger size a substantial portion of iodine can be
present in the breasts, if supplied to the body.

A link between thyroid function and breast disease was reported in the Western medical
literature over 100 years ago. Since then there has been some controversy over this link,
but some very clear results have now demonstrated that there is a connection that can be
ignored only to the peril of women’s health. The hypothesis being put forward here is
that a lack of iodine changes the architecture of the tissue of the breast by not being
available to cause differentiation of cells or apoptosis of abnormal breast cells that
respond to hormonal surges. The connection between breast disease, including cancer,
and thyroid disease is a lack of iodine, which negatively affects both of them
independently. There are four lines of evidence: (1) thyroid disease-breast cancer link,
(2) iodine content in breast tumors and normal breast tissue, (3) animal models wherein
iodine suppressed breast tumors, and (4) resolution of fibrocystic breast disease in
women.

A recent study investigated the question of whether there was an increased risk for
breast cancer for women who had already had thyroid cancer. Using the National
Cancer Institute’s large database they found that white premenopausal women had a
42% higher risk of developing breast cancer than expected if the two cancers were not
related11. Having breast cancer first did not lead to higher levels of thyroid cancer.
Though the radioactive iodine treatment was detrimental to the breasts as well, there is
more to the connection than that.

Smyth and coworkers12 looked at thyroid volumes in 200 patients with breast cancer, 354
with benign breast disease, and 124 healthy premenopausal women in a control
comparison group. Mean thyroid volumes were 21.2 ± 1.4 ml in the breast cancer group,
14.5 ± 0.34 ml in the benign breast disease group, and 12.5 ± 0.38 ml in the healthy
control group, all being significantly different from each of the other groups. The breast
cancer group was also significantly different from age-matched controls. Smyth and
coworkers had seen similar results in a previous study13, which is consistent with the
hypothesis that a lack of iodine causes an enlarged thyroid and also leads to breast
disease.

In a study from the University of Pisa in Italy researchers looked for thyroid disease in
102 consecutive breast cancer patients right after their surgery for breast cancer. The
overall prevalence of thyroid disease in the breast cancer patients was 46%, compared to

5
just 14% in their control group14. Nodular goiter (27%) and Hashimoto’s thyroiditis
(14%) accounted for most of the thyroid disease. Another study found a significantly
higher incidence of thyroid antibodies in breast cancer patients (50%) compared to age-
matched healthy controls15. Turken and coworkers examined 150 breast cancer patients
(without known thyroid disease) and 100 age-matched control women for thyroid
abnormalities. They, too, found an association between high levels of autoimmune
thyroiditis (38% versus 17%, breast cancer vs. control group), nodular goiter (50% versus
26%), and breast cancer16. Thyroid disease is often associated with breast cancer. More
direct evidence below shows the link is low iodine intake.

Interestingly, in all four of the studies just mentioned, values for thyroid function (T3,
T4, TSH) were all normal in all groups, showing that these tests do not accurately catch
early stages of thyroid disease. Normal levels of thyroid hormones are very important
for the body, so the thyroid gland is designed to accommodate many levels of iodine
intake, both very low and very high, before hormone levels are changed. Dr. David
Derry suggests that the TSH test, which is the standard used by endocrinologists for
monitoring thyroid health, is useless since it doesn’t correlate with symptoms of the
patient17. Possibly thyroid volume, measured ultrasonically, would be a better indicator
of optimal thyroid function.

More direct evidence of iodine levels in breast tumors was seen in a study by Kilbane
and coworkers18. Total tissue iodine levels in 23 benign tumors was 80.9 ± 9.5 ng I/mg
protein, compared to a value of 18.2 ± 4.2 ng I/mg protein in 19 breast cancers. Thyroid
antibodies in the blood, an indication of autoimmune thyroid disease, was much more
common in the breast control group than in the female age-matched control group. So,
here there is a link between breast cancer, low iodine, and thyroid disease. Iodine
induces apoptosis of abnormal cells, so low levels of iodine in tissue can allow abnormal
cells to develop into tumors, if not caught by other defense mechanisms of the body.

A third line of evidence comes from animal studies. Indeed, animal studies by Japanese
researchers have shown that Lugol’s iodine solution19 as well as Wakame seaweed20 and
a water extract of Mekabu seaweed21 all were able to suppress growth of mammary
tumors in rats fed the carcinogen 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene. The water extract of
Mekabu clearly induced apoptosis, or programmed cell death, in human breast cancer
cell lines as well21,22. Molecular work by Eskin’s group has shown that iodine
downregulates the estrogen receptors in breast cancer cells and changes the expression
of genes involved in differentiation, cell cycle, hormone metabolism, and cancer
growth23. Together these animal and in vitro studies show how iodine could be working
at a molecular level and give plausibility to the iodine-breast cancer link.

In addition to breast cancer, Bernard Eskin published several studies showing that
iodine was necessary just for normal breast tissue structure in higher vertebrates9. When
rats were given low iodine diets their breast tissue changed in ways very similar to what
is seen in fibrocystic breast disease in women. Also, the rats’ breasts were more

6
susceptible to carcinogens and promoted lesions earlier and in greater abundance. This
led Eskin’s group to pursue clinical studies of women with fibrocystic breast disease,
supplementing their diet with iodine.

Fibrocystic breast disease is associated with lumps in the breasts and cyclical breast pain.
About 70 percent of reproductive-aged women regularly experience cyclical breast pain,
and 10-30 percent of them have pain severe enough to interfere with normal activities24–
26. Fibrocystic breast disease, which is benign and not cancerous, increases the risk of

breast cancer. The greater the changes in the tissue the higher the risk, almost double for
proliferative changes and a four-fold increased risk for atypical hyperplasia27. In a study
of 111 women with benign fibrocystic breast disease they were given iodine at different
levels for 6 months. Their own ratings of pain fell significantly by 3 months in the 3 mg
iodine/day and the 6 mg iodine/day groups, but not in the placebo or the 1.5 mg
iodine/day. Physician assessments of breast pain, tenderness, and nodularity were also
significantly less in the 3 and 6 mg iodine/day groups28. At least 3 mg of iodine per day
were needed to get a response. William Ghent and Bernard Eskin together treated over
1,300 patients with fibrocystic breast disease using iodine in 3 different forms, with over
70% improvement in pain and objective evaluations using elemental iodine at 4
months29, and over 90% recovery after 16 months of treatment30. Treatment usually was
in the range of 3-6 mg of iodine, though some clinicians have also found higher amounts
to work safely and faster.

So, iodine appears to be the primary link between thyroid health and breast health. Both
organs independently require iodine and a shortage of it will cause disease in either one
or both of them.

Ovaries

After the thyroid gland the ovaries contain the highest concentration of iodine. Dr.
Flechas has seen that iodine reverses polycystic ovarian syndrome. Ghent and Eskin
reported the reversal of ovarian cysts with iodine30, along with reversal of endometriosis
and prementstrual syndrome. Iodine is necessary for normal ovarian function. Dr.
Jonathan Wrights reports that iodine elevates the amount of anti-carcinogenic estriol
made and lowers the amount of estrone and estradiol, so that the three forms of estrogen
are more balanced in favor of cancer prevention30.

In the process of treating fibrocystic breast disease Ghent and Eskin also found that the
elemental iodine was also an effective treatment for endometriosis, ovarian cysts, and
premenstrual syndrome30. Iodine appears to normalize ovarian function and estrogen
production to alleviate these female problems as well.

Prostate
Many glands in the body concentrate iodine from the blood. There is very little known
about any connection between iodine deficiency and the prostate gland. Some

7
researchers suspect a link similar to what is seen with breast health, and there is proof
that the prostate gland expresses the sodium iodine symporter4 (4), albeit at a lower level,
thus having a method of concentrating iodine. Iodine causes apoptosis of abnormal cells
and functions as an antioxidant, both of which would favor better health of whatever
organ takes up iodine.

Cardiovascular System
Iodine is critical to the heart and arterial system. Iodine (as well as omega 3 fats) is
critical to the stabilization of the electrical pulses of the heart. Lack of iodine is related to
atrial fibrillation. An iodine-containing drug called amiodarone is used to prevent atrial
and ventrical fibrillation and releases about 9 mg of iodine per day31. It is a complex,
toxic drug and is stored in the fatty tissues of the body, but part of its mechanism of
action appears to be the iodine that is being released slowly by the drug.

Bruce West is a chiropractic doctor who has found iodine to be very helpful in helping
patients with arrhythmia problems. He says, “The body needs adequate stores of iodine
for the heart to beat smoothly. After close to a year now of using Iodine Fulfillment
Therapy, I can attest to this fact. Most of the stubborn cases of cardiac arrhythmias and
atrial fibrillation that we were unable to completely correct with our cardiac protocols
have now been resolved with adequate supplies of iodine added to the protocol.”32

The country of Finland is an excellent case study of cardiovascular disease and iodine, as
reviewed by Stephen Cann33. Endemic goiter was common in the early 1900s in people
and in domestic animals, particularly in the eastern part of Finland away from the sea.
Studies in the 1950s revealed that the major dietary difference between eastern and
western Finland was iodine. The risk of death from coronary heart disease was 3.5 times
higher for people with a goiter in Finland. Iodized salt was introduced in the 1963 for
people and also for animals, with over 90% of household salt now being iodized. Iodine
intake on the population level is about 300 µg/day, the highest level in Europe34. Much
of their iodine comes from dairy products and hen eggs. Selenium was also added as a
crop fertilizer because their soil selenium levels were very low. (Selenium has a unique
synergistic interaction with iodine discussed more below.) People were also encouraged
to eat less saturated fats and to stop smoking.

And the results of these population interventions with iodine and selenium? Goiter has
virtually disappeared. Serum cholesterol levels and blood pressures have both dropped
significantly and cardiovascular disease mortality has declined more than 50% and life
expectancy has increased by about 5 years33. Other countries have likewise reduced
saturated fat intake, but not had this kind of national success in disease reduction.
Though iodine and selenium haven’t been given official credit for this success, it is likely
that they are the unsung heroes of Finland. Iodine has an indirect effect via thyroid
hormones, but it is likely to have a direct effect as well.

8
So, iodine stabilizes the heart rhythm, lowers serum cholesterol, lowers blood pressure,
and is known to make the blood thinner as well, judging by longer clotting times seen by
clinicians. Iodine is not only good for the cardiovascular system, it is vital.

Insulin Receptors
Iodine also has an impact on glucose metabolism. There have been no studies on this to
date, only observations of clinicians who have patients taking high amounts of iodine. It
appears that iodine increases the sensitivity of the insulin receptor, which improves
glucose control. Lower amounts of insulin are needed to keep blood glucose levels in
the normal range. Dr. Flechas has found that iodine can reduce the need for insulin in
diabetic patients, using 50 to 100 mg of iodine per day. Of 12 patients, 6 were able to
completely come off their medications with random glucose readings below 100 mg/dl
and a HbA1c less than 5.8 (normal), and the other 6 were able to reduce the amount
and/or number of medications needed to control their diabetes35. More research should
be done in this area to confirm and expand these results. In the same way that iodine
modifies insulin receptors it is possible for iodine to modify other receptors as well. This
is as yet an unexplored area of research.

Bones
Iodine and fluoride are both halides, so they share some chemistry, but they have very
opposing effects in the body. For example, iodine and fluoride are both taken up by
bone tissue. Radioactive iodine scans show the full outline of the skeletal system.
Fluoride also goes to the bones, but it makes bones brittle and susceptible to fractures36.
It is likely that natural iodine is what is supposed to be in our bones, not fluoride, for
which there is no known need in our body. Fluoride is toxic to bones as well as to the
central nervous system, while iodine nourishes both. Very little research has been done
in the area of iodine sufficiency and bone strength, but these ideas need to be evaluated
clinically and in research studies.

Lungs
Iodine goes to sites of inflammation or infections, including pulmonary or bronchial
infections. Dr. Jonathan Wright recommends using iodine for chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD)37, as it helps loosen up secretions and makes them easier to
expel, and also helps prevent bacteria from growing in the mucus secretions.

Immune System
Iodine also plays a role in the immune system. Many years ago it was noted that
bacterial infections cause an increase in the metabolism of thyroxine38,39. In particular,
leukocytes use halogens such as chloride and iodide to help destroy bacteria that they
engulf via phagocytosis. Chloride is used because it is available in abundance, but
experiments have shown that leukocytes will use iodide just as well as thyroxine as a
source of halogens for destroying the engulfed bacteria40. The mechanism requires three
players—a peroxidase enzyme, hydrogen peroxide, and iodide for destroying the

9
bacteria with by-products of the oxidation of iodide and not just free iodine playing an
important role. Leukocytes also use other means of destroying bacteria, but the
halogens (chloride and iodide) are an important part of this process.

One application of this is that iodine needs will increase while a person is fighting a
bacterial or viral infection. Elevated levels of diiodotyrosine, created from thyroxine by
leukocytes as they phagocytose bacteria, were found in critically ill patients fighting
sepsis and severe non-systemic infections41. Having sufficient iodine present in the body
to fight infections will improve a person’s overall health and disease resistance.

What if that iodine is not supplied? Since chronic infections use up thyroxine faster than
normal, is it possible that chronic bacterial or viral infections lead to a hypothyroid
condition? Could a shortage of iodine be the connection between Epstein-Barr infections
and other infections and chronic fatigue or fibromyalgia?

Central Nervous System

Though sufficiency of iodine nutrition is taken for granted here in the USA, in many
parts of the world iodine deficiency is still a top nutrition issue. In 2003 36.5 percent of
the world’s population had insufficient iodine intake, ranging from 10 percent in the
Americas to 60 percent in Europe42.

Infants in particular are vulnerable, especially in the womb, to iodine deficiency. The
infant’s brain requires iodine for proper development. There is a whole continuum of
effects from mild mental retardation to gross neurological impairment43. Even if the
mother just has a hypothyroid condition the child can be adversely affected mentally.
One study found that seven years later, mothers who had an untreated hypothyroid
condition while pregnant gave birth to children that scored an average of 7 points lower
on intelligence tests compared to a age-matched control group of children; 19 percent of
the children had a score of 85 or less, compared to just 5 percent of the control group44.
Another review of 18 studies comparing iodine-deficient children to iodine-sufficient
children found an average drop in intelligence quotient of 13.5 points45. In a small
Italian study ADHD disorder was found to more common in a moderately iodine-
deficient area (11/16 children) compared with a iodine-sufficient area (0/11 children)46.

A big effect of iodine deficiency is infant mortality. A study in an iodine-deficient area

in China showed that adding iodine to the irrigation water (the people wanted to
continue using their coarse salt and wouldn’t use iodized salt) used for crops resulted in
a 65% drop in risk of neonatal mortality over a 3-year period, compared to a control city
in the same area47 (47). In an Indonesia study of 617 infants, survival was improved 72%
by giving 6-10 week old infants iodized oil48. There was also a delay in the average time
to death in this study (48 vs. 17.5 days). Survival improvements were also seen in infant
studies in the Congo and in Papua, New Guinea.

10
So, the result of lack of iodine in children is much more than goiter—intelligence and
neonatal survival are the really important issues. This is very uncommon in the USA,
but it is possible that the intelligence of children can be enhanced by having sufficient
iodine in women before they become pregnant, followed by the iodine-sufficient mother
nursing her infant with her breast milk, which would abundantly supply iodine.

Organs with Heavy Metal Accumulations

Heavy metals accumulate in various organs of the body. Now it appears that there is
another weapon in our gallery. When Dr. Abraham was checking the bioavailability of
Iodoral, a tableted iodine supplement, he found that some individuals had several-fold
increased levels of mercury, lead, and cadmium after taking Iodoral (12.5 mg
iodide/iodine) for one day49. Arsenic and aluminum were also reported to be detoxified
with Iodoral50 (50), along with the halides bromide and fluoride. Iodine can replace the
other halides and cause them to be removed from the body. In fact, many of the
symptoms that are reported when high doses of iodine are taken are actually from the
detoxification of bromide. The use of a natural sea salt (1/4 teaspoon of salt taken 3
times, about 6 hours apart) will increase the renal clearance of bromide and reduce
detoxification symptoms due to bromide.

Bromide is used as a pesticide, and now fluoride is also being used as a pesticide on
crops. Bromide also makes into our diets as brominated vegetable oil in citrus flavored
sodas like Mountain Dew. Bromide resides in the fatty tissue of the body, making it
difficult to lose weight as well. Iodine has a very noticeable effect at removing bromide
from the body. Iodine will replace bromide and allow the fat to be burned away
normally.

In a pilot study of 8 patients Dr. Brownstein found that bromide excretion increased by
an average of more than 50% when the patients took 50 mg/day of iodine as Iodoral8 (8).
Dr. William Shevin, a medical and homeopathic doctor, has also seen benefits of iodine
in getting rid of the bromide burden of the body, assisted with the natural sea salt to
enhance the removal of bromide by the kidneys51.

Most Effective Forms of Iodine

There are basically three forms of iodine used for supplements—elemental or molecular
iodine (I2), ionic iodine, usually potassium iodide or ammonium iodide, and protein-
bound iodide, such as Standard Process’s Prolamine. These forms are all utilized by the
body, although there is evidence that they are not exactly equivalent. Research by Drs.
Eskin and Ghent found that the I2 was the most beneficial form of iodine for fibrocystic
breast disease28,29, and that it had less affinity for the thyroid. They did research with
protein-bound iodine as well and found that it did not work as well for fibrocystic breast
disease as the molecular iodine.

It is generally taught that molecular iodine is reduced to ionic iodide before it is

absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. However, a series of studies with rats

11
compared the uptake and distribution in the body of iodide (as NaI) and elemental
iodine (I2). The researchers found that the thyroid much preferred the iodide form
compared to I252, that the iodine was distributed differently in the body, depending on
the form used53, and that I2 could alter T4 levels54, presumably by reacting with
metabolites of T4 in the GI tract, thus reforming T455. Eskin and coworkers56 found that
this was true in laboratory rats as well. Thyroid gland hyperplasia was reduced with I2,
but eliminated with I-, while mammary gland hyperplasia was decreased with I2 but
increased with I-, and fibrosis of the breast was reduced with I2 but remained the same
with I-. Rats with chemically-induced breast cancer had 30 percent incidence of breast
cancer when they were fed I2, compared to a 72% incidence of breast cancer in the
control group, along with fewer tumors and longer time until cancer developed. The
rats fed T4 or I- did not differ in incidence of breast cancer from the control group57. So,
different tissues of the body take up the I2 and I- differently and they are not exactly
equivalent.

Elemental iodine is quite reactive and can disassociate in the GI tract and iodinate
various proteins and lipids, unlike iodide that is taken up as a free ion into the
bloodstream. For about 2 hours elemental iodine is detected in the serum, but only
iodide is detected thereafter49.

So, for supplementing iodine it appears that a mix of elemental iodine and iodide (as in
Iodoral or Iosol) is called for to supply the thyroid and the rest of the body.

Optimal Amounts of Iodine

The RDA for iodine is 150 µg/day for non-pregnant adults, 220 µg/day during
pregnancy, and 290 µg/day during lactation. The RDA for adults is based on the
amount of iodine that the thyroid normally accumulates from day to day, and on the
prevention of goiter in children. The tolerable upper intake level (an upper limit of
intake that is very unlikely to harm anyone) is 1,100 µg/day. The tolerable upper intake
level in Japan is provisionally set at 3,000 µg/day, since they do not have sufficient data
to determine the optimal iodine intake for the Japanese population58. There have never
been any studies done on the optimal amounts of iodine needed for the whole body.

Drs. Ghent and Eskin, and others treated fibrocystic breast disease with 6 to 10 mg/day
of iodine in order to reverse this condition. Other female disorders disappeared along
with the breast disease, too. From the research presented here it is clear that the role of
iodine in the body goes far and beyond simply making thyroid hormones.

Japanese Experience

As a nation, Japan consumes more iodine than any other nation. The Japanese women
have very low rates of breast cancer and fibrocystic breast disease and are one of the
healthiest nations in the world. There are many factors that contribute to this record, but
it is quite possible that their tradition of using seaweed is one of them.

12
Also, national surveys of food intake in Japan, show that seaweed intake has been
around 4.5 gram dry weight from 1950 to 1963, with a intake of 14 grams in 200159. Exact
intake of iodine from this source isn’t known. But, with a reported average
concentration of 0.3% iodine, these seaweed intakes imply that Japanese iodine intakes
are between 6 and 20 mg, and higher for some people. Balance surveys such as these are
not known for giving accurate measurements of individual intakes of nutrients. Direct
measurements of iodine excretion are more reliable. Various studies have shown
average urinary iodine excretion to range from 740 µg – 3,290 µg/day, with a very wide
range of total excretion, from 90 µg/day to 19 mg/day60. A recent study of thyroid
volume and iodine excretion in Japanese children aged 6-12 years showed they had the
smallest thyroid volumes in the world compared to other iodine-sufficient areas58. In this
study the mean urinary excretion was 282 µg/l, with 16% of the children excreting more
than 1,000 µg/l. This “high” level of intake did not have a negative effect on thyroid
volume.

Other researchers who have more thoroughly examined food surveys, diet records, and
urine spot tests estimated that intake of iodine from seaweed is actually about 1 to 3 mg
per day.61 This is the population with the highest intake of iodine in the world, and they
will need at least this much to help protect them from the devastating effects of the
Fukushima nuclear disaster that is still unfolding. So, in Japan it is uncommon to get
more than 3 mg per day. The Japanese experience cannot scientifically be used to justify
taking more than 3 mg per day.

Gerson’s Protocol
Dr. Max Gerson’s therapy for cancer included the use of Lugol’s solution, initially for the
purpose of stimulating the metabolism and then because “iodine seemed to counteract
the neoplastic effect of hormones”62. Large amounts were given for the first 3-4 weeks of
the therapy (56 mg/day), with smaller maintenance doses (9 mg/day) thereafter63. In the
conditions of the therapy Dr. Gerson did not experience negative complications from
these “high” doses, possibly because the detoxification pathways are very strongly
supported with the Gerson Therapy.

Too Much Iodine?

There have been reports of too much iodine being harmful, most of which could be
undone by using less iodine. These reports include intakes above 500 µg/day in 6-12
year-old children in coastal Hokkaido64, between 50 and 90 mg/day in Peace Corps
workers using iodine-resin water filters65, 32 mg/day from tetraglycine hydroperiodide
water purification tablets66, 27 mg/day for 4 weeks in 10 normal male volunteers67, and
elevated intakes of iodine in three counties of Jiangsu Province, China (median urine
iodine level 1,053 µg/L) due to high levels of iodine in both shallow and deep water
wells68. Thirty-three Japanese men and women with hypothyroidism stopped taking
any iodine-containing food or medications for a few months. The median TSH level
went from 21.9 mU/l (range 5.4-285 mU/l) to 5.3 mU/l (range, 0.9-52.3 mU/l) in the

13
group. Twenty-one patients showed a more than 50% reduction in TSH just from
eliminating iodine. Eleven of them became euthyroid69. These studies indicate that
there are cases where high intakes of iodine have caused harm, usually reversed by
reducing the iodine intake. It is possible that proper nutritional support (high
antioxidant intake, especially selenium) was not given to accompany this high iodine
intake in these cases. Another possibility is that high levels of bromine caused thyroid
complications. Some safety testing and clinical observations have been done with high
levels of iodine35,70,71, but not enough to satisfy all of the critics.

Selenium-Iodine Connection
Another factor in how much iodine can be safely used depends on other possible
mineral deficiencies. Selenium is very important for thyroid function. Selenium is part
of the antioxidant enzyme glutathione peroxidase. Glutathione peroxidase in the
thyroid helps quench free-radicals produced by the enzyme thyroid peroxidase (which
functions to organify iodide as it enters the thyroid). If high levels of iodide are present
in the thyroid without sufficient amounts of glutathione peroxidase it causes free-radical
damage to the thyroid, leading to autoimmune thyroid disease. Several of the enzymes
that convert T4 into T3 also require selenium. Studies in Zaire have found that
supplementing selenium and iodine deficient children with just selenium had adverse
effects on thyroid function72,73. Likewise, supplementing iodine when there is a
concurrent selenium supplementation could lead to elevated levels of hydrogen
peroxide within the thyroid, perhaps causing autoimmune disorders of the thyroid as
well. It is not clear that the international studies of high intakes of iodine such as those
conducted in China and Japan were done in populations with sufficient selenium status.
Indeed, high levels of iodide intake in the USA or in central Hokkaido did not have the
same negative impact that these same levels of intake did in coastal Hokkaido64. So, it is
important that other mineral interactions also be taken into account when looking at
iodine supplementation. A person with superior nutrient intake will be much more
likely to respond well to higher intakes of iodine.

The Optimal Amount

So, what is the optimal amount of iodine? There really isn’t a simple one-size-fits-all
sort of recommendation for iodine. While milligram amounts of iodine are healthy, a
few people cannot tolerate those levels. For a generally healthy person following the
Hallelujah Diet or similar diet an intake of 1-3 mg of iodine per day is quite likely to be
safe and effective without complications. Children would take less, based on body size.
The provisional tolerable upper limit in Japan for iodine is 3 mg per day, though a few
people in Japan consume more than that. If a person is allergic to iodized salt, then they
should avoid taking iodine supplements as well, until they get their allergy cleared.

More than 3 mg/day can be taken safely by many people, but it is wise to work up
slowly to higher doses, unless a person is under the direct supervision of a
knowledgeable health practitioner who can monitor thyroid function. The optimal

14
amount of iodine may well vary from person to person, and it may well be more than 3
mg/day. However, it is wise to begin slowly and monitor your progress if you increase
your iodine intake.

What about people with health conditions associated with the action of iodine? People
with cancer, (especially of the esophagus, stomach, breast, ovaries, endometrium, or
prostate), women with fibrocystic breast disease or ovarian cysts, people with diabetes,
cardiovascular disease, or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and people with
thyroid disorders (hypothyroid, hyperthyroid, and autoimmune disorders) all would
achieve better health with more iodine. Having thyroid function tests checked by a
health care professional is recommended while taking more than 10 mg of iodine per
day.

Iodine Loading Test

The iodine loading test was designed to measure the body’s saturation with iodine. In
the iodine loading test a person takes 50 mg of iodine as Iodoral. A 24-hour urinary
sample is taken to see how much is retained by the body7. However, evaluation of the
pharmacokinetics of iodine excretion by Dr. Theodore Zava showed that 24 hours is not
sufficient time to evaluate excretion of iodine, and retention of iodine by the body. On
average, about 16% of the 50-mg dose was excreted in the 2nd and 3rd day after ten people
took the 50-mg dose74. Also, if the high dose iodine is not stopped for several days before
the test (not just one or two days) the carry over excretion from previous doses would
elevate the amount of iodine excreted in 24 hours. So, the iodine loading test has been
shown to be an invalid test due to errors in methodology, and is not recommended.

Thyroid TSH Test

When going to get thyroid tests, beware that the thyroid stimulating hormone, or TSH,
test is not really the “gold-standard” that doctors have declared it to be. Just because
TSH is normal doesn’t mean that your body has optimal amounts of thyroid hormone in
all organs and tissues. Dr. David Derry states that the TSH test has little clinical value
for determining whether a person has a abnormal thyroid hormone condition or not. He
says, in an interview with Mary Shomon17, “the pituitary cells, which have TSH in them,
are the most sensitive cells in the body circulating thyroid hormone. Therefore when
one treats hypothyroidism by following the TSH and trying to make it normal the
pituitary cells are happy but the rest of the body is short-changed by a considerable
amount.” In other words, when the TSH is normal, this only means that the pituitary
gland has the right amount of hormone for its needs. The rest of the body may not have
enough, and clinical experience indicates that this is so. A recent review pointed out
that during iodine deficiency, there can be normal, elevated, or low levels of T3, the
active form of thyroid hormone, in different tissues of the body75. So, a hypothyroid
condition can exist in some organs while having normal TSH measurement.

15
Sources of Iodine
We have examined most available forms of iodine supplements since the fall of 2005.
There are three main sources that we can recommend to you. Two of these are a mix of
iodine and iodide to supply all parts of the body with the form of iodine best suited for
each part, and one is a newer form of energized singlet iodine.

NASCENT IODINE. A more recent development in iodine delivery is the ability to

produce a stable form of nascent iodine. While the properties of nascent iodine have
been known for decades, it has been difficult to produce a true and stable nascent iodine.
Iodine normally exists in nature in a dimer state as diatomic iodine, I2. It also can be
combined with potassium or sodium to form an ionic form. In a novel patented
treatment, using an intense electromagnetic field, iodine molecules, I2, can be teased
apart into singlet iodine.76 Iodine is not usually stable in this singlet form, which is why
a lot of energy is required to produce this magnetically charged form of iodine. This
singlet iodine is called nascent iodine.

That is interesting, but what is so special about nascent iodine? It turns out that iodine
has strong anti-viral, anti-bacterial, and anti-germ properties in the right form. Just as
chlorine, as in sodium hypochlorite (bleach), in the right form can be a germicide, kill-
everything kind of chemical, so iodine can be utilized to kill germs. However, iodine
molecules, unlike bleach, are used by the body’s own defenses to kill germs without
harming the body.39,40 Nascent iodine has some of these properties. It is the form that
the body uses the easiest and with the least effort.

Before the thyroid gland can use iodine, it has to activate it to a nascent form so that it
reacts and combines to form thyroid hormones. Nascent iodine can overcome barriers
that prevent the uptake of iodine by the thyroid, such as competition from fluoride,
bromide-containing molecules, or perchlorate. These are serious issues for thyroid
health and have to be overcome by supplying enough iodine to outcompete the other
molecules. Nascent iodine can be more easily taken up by the thyroid than other forms
of iodine. And since it is already activated, the necessary thyroid hormones can be
readily made.

It is likely that not all of the iodine in the bottle is in the nascent form, but it is still not
technically possible to measure exactly how much nascent iodine is in a mixture of
iodine. However, the results of the nascent iodine indicate that this iodine has
properties not found in other forms. The first results noted with this iodine were that it
had amazing results in African countries plagued with malaria. A simple treatment
regimen of nascent iodine was enabled people to successfully fight off the malaria
parasite. In a clinical study in India nascent iodine was given to people diagnosed with
malaria. Fever subsided within 24-48 hours for most of the subjects. By one week, 91%
of the men, 78% of the women, and 77% of children had a negative malaria test.77 No
other form of iodine has had this kind of effect, though to the power of iodine to kill

16
germs is well known. Iodine soap is still used by surgeons to scrub up before work, and
to disinfect the skin before cutting. It is very good, but internally you have to have the
right form to get the results. Nascent iodine is the right form.

The optimal way to take nascent iodine is to put one or two drops into a small glass of
water and then drink it about 15 minutes before consuming any food. Nascent iodine
will stay active in the body for 2 to 3 hours. For larger doses it is better to divide the
doses up and spread them out to get the benefits of iodine over a longer period of time
in the day.

The nascent iodine can also be put into an empty capsule and swallowed with water.
This method avoids the taste of iodine, which not everyone finds pleasant. Some people
have combined nascent iodine with food and still gotten acceptable results, but the best
method is to take it on an empty stomach.

While other forms of iodine do deliver much needed iodine, the nascent iodine is the
best way to get the most out of using supplemental iodine, which is why the Hallelujah
Diet form of iodine is Nascent Iodine.

LUGOL’S. Lugol’s Solution has been clinically used since Dr. Lugol made it in 1829. It is
a solution of potassium iodide (KI) and molecular iodine (I2). Lugol’s solution is also
useful as a stain for microscopy work, and is sold for this purpose, but not as dietary
supplement.

IODORAL. Iodoral is a tableted version of Lugol’s solution. Lugol’s solution is absorbed

onto a colloidal silica excipient and tableted, then coated with a thin layer of
pharmaceutical glaze. Each tablet contains 12.5 mg of total iodine, 5 mg of I2 and 7.5 mg
iodide as KI. Each tablet is scored so that it can be easily broken in half if desired. Some
people will find the tablet form of iodine more convenient than a liquid supplement.

IOSOL. Iosol is a 4% solution of ammonium iodide and iodine in glycerin. Each drop
contains 1.83 mg of iodine, about 0.8 mg as iodide in ammonium iodide and 1.0 mg as
iodine (I2). The drops can be diluted in water, of which a portion can be taken for even
lower doses. The doctors who developed Iosol in the 1940s were looking for a form of
iodine that had fewer allergic reactions compared to potassium iodide. Their claim is
that ammonium iodide is more “available” as free iodide ion compared to potassium
iodide, in which they claim the potassium and iodide ion bind more tightly together.
Some people have been able to tolerate Iosol more easily than Lugol’s solution or
Iodoral, and it is more convenient for lower doses around 1 to 3 mg per day.

SEA VEGETATION. Sea vegetation concentrates iodine from the ocean water. As
mentioned above, some species contain relatively high levels (kelp, Kombu) while others
have very little (Nori, Wakame). The iodine in sea vegetation is all iodide, so it may not
work as well as molecular iodine for some organs in the body. Nevertheless, it is a

17
natural, whole-foods source of iodide, so it comes with many other minerals and
nutrients present in whole foods. Contamination with heavy metals can be a serious
problem with sea vegetation. Recently, 8 of 9 herbal kelp supplements from a health
food store were found to have excessive levels of arsenic in them78. For this reason, and
because only iodide is present, this is not a preferred source of this mineral.

These are the main sources of iodine available, though there are others. Personal
preference and convenience may be the determining factor for which one you want to
use for yourself. The bottom line is that we need more iodine than the microgram
amounts occurring in our foods now and we need to find safe ways to incorporate more
iodine into our diets.

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