Python Programming

Python (programming language)
Python is an interpreted high-level general-purpose programming

language. Python's design philosophy emphasizes code readability Python
with its notable use of significant indentation. Its language
constructs as well as its object-oriented approach aim to help
programmers write clear, logical code for small and large-scale
projects.[30]
Paradigm Multi-paradigm:
Python is dynamically-typed and garbage-collected. It supports object-oriented,[1]
multiple programming paradigms, including structured
procedural
(particularly, procedural), object-oriented and functional
(imperative),
programming. Python is often described as a "batteries included"
language due to its comprehensive standard library.[31] functional,
structured, reflective
Guido van Rossum began working on Python in the late 1980s, as Designed by Guido van Rossum
a successor to the ABC programming language, and first released
Developer Python Software
it in 1991 as Python 0.9.0.[32] Python 2.0 was released in 2000
and introduced new features, such as list comprehensions and a Foundation
garbage collection system using reference counting. Python 3.0 First appeared February 1991[2]
was released in 2008 and was a major revision of the language
that is not completely backward-compatible and much Python 2 Stable release 3.9.5[3] / 3 May
code does not run unmodified on Python 3. Python 2 was 2021
discontinued with version 2.7.18 in 2020.[33] Preview release 3.10.0b1[3] / 3 May
2021
Python consistently ranks as one of the most popular programming
languages.[34][35][36][37][38] Typing Duck, dynamic,
discipline strong typing;[4]
gradual (since 3.5,
but ignored in
Contents CPython)[5]
History OS Windows,
Design philosophy and features Linux/UNIX, macOS
and more[6]
Syntax and semantics
Indentation License Python Software
Statements and control flow Foundation License
Expressions Filename .py, .pyi, .pyc, .pyd,
Methods extensions .pyo (prior to 3.5),[7]
Typing .pyw, .pyz (since
Arithmetic operations 3.5)[8]
Programming examples Website www.python.org (htt

ps://www.python.or
Libraries
g/)
Development environments
Major implementations
Implementations
CPython, PyPy, Stackless Python,
Reference implementation
Other implementations MicroPython, CircuitPython,
Unsupported implementations IronPython, Jython
Cross-compilers to other languages Dialects
Performance Cython, RPython, Starlark[9]
Development Influenced by
API documentation generators ABC,[10] Ada,[11] ALGOL 68,[12] APL,[13]
Naming C,[14] C++,[15] CLU,[16] Dylan,[17]
Popularity Haskell,[18] Icon,[19] Java,[20] Lisp,[21]
Modula-3,[15] Perl, Standard ML[13]
Uses
Influenced
Languages influenced by Python
Apache Groovy, Boo, Cobra,
See also
CoffeeScript,[22] D, F#, Genie,[23] Go,
References JavaScript,[24][25] Julia,[26] Nim, Ring,[27]
Sources Ruby,[28] Swift[29]
Further reading Python Programming at Wikibooks
External links
History
Python was conceived in the late 1980s[39] by Guido van Rossum at Centrum
Wiskunde & Informatica (CWI) in the Netherlands as a successor to ABC
programming language, which was inspired by SETL,[40] capable of exception
handling and interfacing with the Amoeba operating system.[10] Its
implementation began in December 1989.[41] Van Rossum shouldered sole
responsibility for the project, as the lead developer, until 12 July 2018, when he
announced his "permanent vacation" from his responsibilities as Python's
Benevolent Dictator For Life, a title the Python community bestowed upon him
to reflect his long-term commitment as the project's chief decision-maker.[42] In
January 2019, active Python core developers elected a 5-member "Steering
Council" to lead the project.[43] As of 2021, the current members of this council
are Barry Warsaw, Brett Cannon, Carol Willing, Thomas Wouters, and Pablo
Galindo Salgado.[44] Guido van Rossum at
OSCON 2006
Python 2.0 was released on 16 October 2000, with many major new features,
including a cycle-detecting garbage collector and support for Unicode.[45]
Python 3.0 was released on 3 December 2008. It was a major revision of the language that is not completely
backward-compatible.[46] Many of its major features were backported to Python 2.6.x[47] and 2.7.x version
series. Releases of Python 3 include the 2to3 utility, which automates (at least partially) the translation of
Python 2 code to Python 3.[48]
Python 2.7's end-of-life date was initially set at 2015 then postponed to 2020 out of concern that a large body
of existing code could not easily be forward-ported to Python 3.[49][50] No more security patches or other
improvements will be released for it.[51][52] With Python 2's end-of-life, only Python 3.6.x[53] and later are
supported.
Python 3.9.2 and 3.8.8 were expedited[54] as all versions of Python (including 2.7[55]) had security issues,
leading to possible remote code execution[56] and web cache poisoning.[57]
Design philosophy and features

Python is a multi-paradigm programming language. Object-oriented programming and structured programming
are fully supported, and many of its features support functional programming and aspect-oriented
programming (including by metaprogramming[58] and metaobjects (magic methods)).[59] Many other
paradigms are supported via extensions, including design by contract[60][61] and logic programming.[62]
Python uses dynamic typing and a combination of reference counting and a cycle-detecting garbage collector
for memory management.[63] It also features dynamic name resolution (late binding), which binds method and
variable names during program execution.
Python's design offers some support for functional programming in the Lisp tradition. It has
filter,mapandreduce functions; list comprehensions, dictionaries, sets, and generator expressions.[64]
The standard library has two modules (itertools and functools) that implement functional tools borrowed from
Haskell and Standard ML.[65]
The language's core philosophy is summarized in the document The Zen of Python (PEP 20), which includes
aphorisms such as:[66]
Beautiful is better than ugly.

Explicit is better than implicit.
Simple is better than complex.
Complex is better than complicated.
Readability counts.
Rather than having all of its functionality built into its core, Python was designed to be highly extensible (with
modules). This compact modularity has made it particularly popular as a means of adding programmable
interfaces to existing applications. Van Rossum's vision of a small core language with a large standard library
and easily extensible interpreter stemmed from his frustrations with ABC, which espoused the opposite
approach.[39]
Python strives for a simpler, less-cluttered syntax and grammar while giving developers a choice in their
coding methodology. In contrast to Perl's "there is more than one way to do it" motto, Python embraces a
"there should be one— and preferably only one —obvious way to do it" design philosophy.[66] Alex Martelli,
a Fellow at the Python Software Foundation and Python book author, writes that "To describe something as
'clever' is not considered a compliment in the Python culture."[67]
Python's developers strive to avoid premature optimization, and reject patches to non-critical parts of the
CPython reference implementation that would offer marginal increases in speed at the cost of clarity.[68] When
speed is important, a Python programmer can move time-critical functions to extension modules written in
languages such as C, or use PyPy, a just-in-time compiler. Cython is also available, which translates a Python
script into C and makes direct C-level API calls into the Python interpreter.
An important goal of Python's developers is keeping it fun to use. This is reflected in the language's name—a
tribute to the British comedy group Monty Python[69]—and in occasionally playful approaches to tutorials and
reference materials, such as examples that refer to spam and eggs (from a famous Monty Python sketch)
instead of the standard foo and bar.[70][71]
A common neologism in the Python community is pythonic, which can have a wide range of meanings related
to program style. To say that code is pythonic is to say that it uses Python idioms well, that it is natural or
shows fluency in the language, that it conforms with Python's minimalist philosophy and emphasis on
readability. In contrast, code that is difficult to understand or reads like a rough transcription from another
programming language is called unpythonic.[72][73]
Users and admirers of Python, especially those considered knowledgeable or experienced, are often referred to
as Pythonistas.[74][75]
Syntax and semantics

Python is meant to be an easily readable language. Its formatting is visually uncluttered, and it often uses
English keywords where other languages use punctuation. Unlike many other languages, it does not use curly
brackets to delimit blocks, and semicolons after statements are allowed but are rarely, if ever, used. It has fewer
syntactic exceptions and special cases than C or Pascal.[76]
Indentation
Python uses whitespace indentation, rather than curly brackets or keywords, to delimit blocks. An increase in
indentation comes after certain statements; a decrease in indentation signifies the end of the current block.[77]
Thus, the program's visual structure accurately represents the program's semantic structure.[2] This feature is
sometimes termed the off-side rule, which some other languages share, but in most languages indentation
doesn't have any semantic meaning. The recommended indent size is four spaces.[78]
Statements and control flow
Python's statements include (among others):
The assignment statement, using a single equals sign =.

The if statement, which conditionally executes a block of code, along with else and elif (a
contraction of else-if).
The for statement, which iterates over an iterable object, capturing each element to a local
variable for use by the attached block.
The while statement, which executes a block of code as long as its condition is true.
The try statement, which allows exceptions raised in its attached code block to be caught and
handled by except clauses; it also ensures that clean-up code in a finally block will
always be run regardless of how the block exits.
The raise statement, used to raise a specified exception or re-raise a caught exception.
The class statement, which executes a block of code and attaches its local namespace to a
class, for use in object-oriented programming.
The def statement, which defines a function or method.
The with statement, which encloses a code block within a context manager (for example,
acquiring a lock before the block of code is run and releasing the lock afterwards, or opening a
file and then closing it), allowing resource-acquisition-is-initialization (RAII)-like behavior and
replaces a common try/finally idiom.[79]
The break statement, exits from a loop.
The continue statement, skips this iteration and continues with the next item.
The del statement, removes a variable, which means the reference from the name to the value
is deleted and trying to use that variable will cause an error. A deleted variable can be
reassigned.
The pass statement, which serves as a NOP. It is syntactically needed to create an empty
code block.
The assert statement, used during debugging to check for conditions that should apply.
The yield statement, which returns a value from a generator function and yield is also an
operator. This form is used to implement coroutines.
The return statement, used to return a value from a function.
The import statement, which is used to import modules whose functions or variables can be
used in the current program.
The assignment statement (=) operates by binding a name as a reference to a separate, dynamically-allocated
object. Variables may be subsequently rebound at any time to any object. In Python, a variable name is a
generic reference holder and doesn't have a fixed data type associated with it. However at a given time, a
variable will refer to some object, which will have a type. This is referred to as dynamic typing and is
contrasted with statically-typed programming languages, where each variable may only contain values of a
certain type.
Python does not support tail call optimization or first-class continuations, and, according to Guido van
Rossum, it never will.[80][81] However, better support for coroutine-like functionality is provided, by
extending Python's generators.[82] Before 2.5, generators were lazy iterators; information was passed
unidirectionally out of the generator. From Python 2.5, it is possible to pass information back into a generator
function, and from Python 3.3, the information can be passed through multiple stack levels.[83]
Expressions
Some Python expressions are similar to those found in languages such as C and Java, while some are not:
Addition, subtraction, and multiplication are the same, but the behavior of division differs. There
are two types of divisions in Python. They are floor division (or integer division) // and floating-
point/division.[84] Python also uses the ** operator for exponentiation.
From Python 3.5, the new @ infix operator was introduced. It is intended to be used by libraries
such as NumPy for matrix multiplication.[85][86]
From Python 3.8, the syntax :=, called the 'walrus operator' was introduced. It assigns values
to variables as part of a larger expression.[87]
In Python, == compares by value, versus Java, which compares numerics by value[88] and
objects by reference.[89] (Value comparisons in Java on objects can be performed with the
equals() method.) Python's is operator may be used to compare object identities
(comparison by reference). In Python, comparisons may be chained, for example a <= b <=
c.
Python uses the words and, or, not for its boolean operators rather than the symbolic &&, ||,
! used in Java and C.
Python has a type of expression termed a list comprehension as well as a more general
expression termed a generator expression.[64]
Anonymous functions are implemented using lambda expressions; however, these are limited
in that the body can only be one expression.
Conditional expressions in Python are written as x if c else y[90] (different in order of
operands from the c ? x : y operator common to many other languages).
Python makes a distinction between lists and tuples. Lists are written as [1, 2, 3], are
mutable, and cannot be used as the keys of dictionaries (dictionary keys must be immutable in
Python). Tuples are written as (1, 2, 3), are immutable and thus can be used as the keys of
dictionaries, provided all elements of the tuple are immutable. The + operator can be used to
concatenate two tuples, which does not directly modify their contents, but rather produces a
new tuple containing the elements of both provided tuples. Thus, given the variable t initially
equal to (1, 2, 3), executing t = t + (4, 5) first evaluates t + (4, 5), which
yields (1, 2, 3, 4, 5), which is then assigned back to t, thereby effectively "modifying
the contents" of t, while conforming to the immutable nature of tuple objects. Parentheses are
optional for tuples in unambiguous contexts.[91]
Python features sequence unpacking wherein multiple expressions, each evaluating to
anything that can be assigned to (a variable, a writable property, etc.), are associated in an
identical manner to that forming tuple literals and, as a whole, are put on the left-hand side of
the equal sign in an assignment statement. The statement expects an iterable object on the
right-hand side of the equal sign that produces the same number of values as the provided
writable expressions when iterated through and will iterate through it, assigning each of the
produced values to the corresponding expression on the left.[92]
Python has a "string format" operator %. This functions analogously to printf format strings in
C, e.g. "spam=%s eggs=%d" % ("blah", 2) evaluates to "spam=blah eggs=2". In
Python 3 and 2.6+, this was supplemented by the format() method of the str class, e.g.
"spam={0} eggs={1}".format("blah", 2). Python 3.6 added "f-strings": blah =
"blah"; eggs = 2; f'spam={blah} eggs={eggs}'.[93]
Strings in Python can be concatenated, by "adding" them (same operator as for adding integers
and floats). E.g. "spam" + "eggs" returns "spameggs". Even if your strings contain
numbers, they are still added as strings rather than integers. E.g. "2" + "2" returns "22".
Python has various kinds of string literals:
Strings delimited by single or double quote marks. Unlike in Unix shells, Perl and Perl-
influenced languages, single quote marks and double quote marks function identically.
Both kinds of string use the backslash (\) as an escape character. String interpolation
became available in Python 3.6 as "formatted string literals".[93]
Triple-quoted strings, which begin and end with a series of three single or double quote
marks. They may span multiple lines and function like here documents in shells, Perl and
Ruby.
Raw string varieties, denoted by prefixing the string literal with an r. Escape sequences are
not interpreted; hence raw strings are useful where literal backslashes are common, such
as regular expressions and Windows-style paths. Compare "@-quoting" in C#.
Python has array index and array slicing expressions on lists, denoted as a[key],
a[start:stop] or a[start:stop:step]. Indexes are zero-based, and negative indexes
are relative to the end. Slices take elements from the start index up to, but not including, the
stop index. The third slice parameter, called step or stride, allows elements to be skipped and
reversed. Slice indexes may be omitted, for example a[:] returns a copy of the entire list.
Each element of a slice is a shallow copy.
In Python, a distinction between expressions and statements is rigidly enforced, in contrast to languages such
as Common Lisp, Scheme, or Ruby. This leads to duplicating some functionality. For example:
List comprehensions vs. for-loops

Conditional expressions vs. if blocks
The eval() vs. exec() built-in functions (in Python 2, exec is a statement); the former is for
expressions, the latter is for statements.
Statements cannot be a part of an expression, so list and other comprehensions or lambda expressions, all
being expressions, cannot contain statements. A particular case of this is that an assignment statement such as
a = 1 cannot form part of the conditional expression of a conditional statement. This has the advantage of
avoiding a classic C error of mistaking an assignment operator = for an equality operator == in conditions: if
(c = 1) { ... } is syntactically valid (but probably unintended) C code but if c = 1: ...
causes a syntax error in Python.
Methods
Methods on objects are functions attached to the object's class; the syntax
instance.method(argument) is, for normal methods and functions, syntactic sugar for
Class.method(instance, argument). Python methods have an explicit self parameter to
access instance data, in contrast to the implicit self (or this) in some other object-oriented programming
languages (e.g., C++, Java, Objective-C, or Ruby).[94]
Typing
Python uses duck typing and has typed objects but untyped variable
names. Type constraints are not checked at compile time; rather,
operations on an object may fail, signifying that the given object is not
of a suitable type. Despite being dynamically-typed, Python is
strongly-typed, forbidding operations that are not well-defined (for
example, adding a number to a string) rather than silently attempting
to make sense of them.
Python allows programmers to define their own types using classes,

which are most often used for object-oriented programming. New
instances of classes are constructed by calling the class (for example,
SpamClass() or EggsClass()), and the classes are instances
of the metaclass type (itself an instance of itself), allowing
metaprogramming and reflection.
Before version 3.0, Python had two kinds of classes: old-style and
new-style.[95] The syntax of both styles is the same, the difference The standard type hierarchy in
being whether the class object is inherited from, directly or Python 3
indirectly (all new-style classes inherit from object and are
instances of type). In versions of Python 2 from Python 2.2
onwards, both kinds of classes can be used. Old-style classes were eliminated in Python 3.0.
The long-term plan is to support gradual typing[96] and from Python 3.5, the syntax of the language allows
specifying static types but they are not checked in the default implementation, CPython. An experimental
optional static type checker named mypy supports compile-time type checking.[97]
Summary of Python 3's built-in types
Type Mutability Description Syntax examples
True
bool immutable Boolean value
False
bytearray(b'Some ASCII')
bytearray mutable Sequence of bytes bytearray(b"Some ASCII")
bytearray([119, 105, 107, 105])
b'Some ASCII'
bytes immutable Sequence of bytes b"Some ASCII"
bytes([119, 105, 107, 105])
Complex number 3+2.7j

complex immutable with real and
3 + 2.7j
imaginary parts
Associative array
(or dictionary) of
key and value
pairs; can contain {'key1': 1.0, 3: False}
dict mutable
mixed types (keys {}
and values), keys
must be a
hashable type
An ellipsis
placeholder to be ...
ellipsisa immutable
used as an index Ellipsis
in NumPy arrays
Double-precision
floating-point
number. The
precision is
machine-
dependent but in
float immutable practice is 1.414
generally
implemented as a
64-bit IEEE 754
number with 53
bits of
precision.[98]
Unordered set,
contains no
frozenset immutable duplicates; can frozenset([4.0, 'string', True])
contain mixed
types, if hashable
Integer of unlimited
int immutable 42
magnitude[99]
List, can contain [4.0, 'string', True]

list mutable
mixed types []
An object
representing the
absence of a
NoneTypea immutable None
value, often called
null in other
languages
NotImplementedTypea immutable A placeholder that NotImplemented

can be returned
from overloaded
operators to
indicate
unsupported
operand types.
A Sequence of
numbers
commonly used for range(1, 10)
range immutable looping specific range(10, -5, -2)
number of times in
for loops[100]
Unordered set,
contains no {4.0, 'string', True}
set mutable duplicates; can
set()
contain mixed
types, if hashable
'Wikipedia'
"Wikipedia"
A character string:
sequence of
str immutable """Spanning
Unicode
multiple
codepoints lines"""
(4.0, 'string', True)

Can contain mixed
tuple immutable ('single element',)
types
()
^a Not directly accessible by name
Arithmetic operations
Python has the usual symbols for arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /), the floor division operator // and the
modulo operation % (where the remainder can be negative, e.g. 4 % -3 == -2). It also has ** for
exponentiation, e.g. 5**3 == 125 and 9**0.5 == 3.0, and a matrix multiply operator @ .[101] These
operators work like in traditional math; with the same precedence rules, the operators infix ( + and - can also
be unary to represent positive and negative numbers respectively).
The division between integers produces floating-point results. The behavior of division has changed
significantly over time:[102]
Python 2.1 and earlier used C's division behavior. The / operator is integer division if both
operands are integers, and floating-point division otherwise. Integer division rounds towards 0,
e.g. 7/3 == 2 and -7/3 == -2.
Python 2.2 changed integer division to round towards negative infinity, e.g. 7/3 == 2 and
-7/3 == -3. The floor division // operator was introduced. So 7//3 == 2, -7//3 ==
-3, 7.5//3 == 2.0 and -7.5//3 == -3.0. Adding
from __future__ import division causes a module to use Python 3.0 rules for
division (see next).
Python 3.0 changed / to always be floating-point division, e.g. 5/2 == 2.5.
In Python terms, / is true division (or simply division), and // is floor division. / before version 3.0 is classic
division.[102]
Rounding towards negative infinity, though different from most languages, adds consistency. For instance, it
means that the equation (a + b)//b == a//b + 1 is always true. It also means that the equation
b*(a//b) + a%b == a is valid for both positive and negative values of a. However, maintaining the
validity of this equation means that while the result of a%b is, as expected, in the half-open interval [0, b),
where b is a positive integer, it has to lie in the interval (b, 0] when b is negative.[103]
Python provides a round function for rounding a float to the nearest integer. For tie-breaking, Python 3 uses
round to even: round(1.5) and round(2.5) both produce 2.[104] Versions before 3 used round-away-
from-zero: round(0.5) is 1.0, round(-0.5) is −1.0.[105]
Python allows boolean expressions with multiple equality relations in a manner that is consistent with general
use in mathematics. For example, the expression a < b < c tests whether a is less than b and b is less than
c.[106] C-derived languages interpret this expression differently: in C, the expression would first evaluate a <
b, resulting in 0 or 1, and that result would then be compared with c.[107]
Python uses arbitrary-precision arithmetic for all integer operations. The Decimal type/class in the
decimal module provides decimal floating-point numbers to a pre-defined arbitrary precision and several
rounding modes.[108] The Fraction class in the fractions module provides arbitrary precision for
rational numbers.[109]
Due to Python's extensive mathematics library, and the third-party library NumPy that further extends the
native capabilities, it is frequently used as a scientific scripting language to aid in problems such as numerical
data processing and manipulation.[110][111]
Programming examples
Hello world program:
print('Hello, world!')
Program to calculate the factorial of a positive integer:
n = int(input('Type a number, and its factorial will be printed: '))
if n < 0:
raise ValueError('You must enter a non negative integer')
factorial = 1
for i in range(2, n + 1):
factorial *= i
print(factorial)
Libraries
Python's large standard library, commonly cited as one of its greatest strengths,[112] provides tools suited to
many tasks. For Internet-facing applications, many standard formats and protocols such as MIME and HTTP
are supported. It includes modules for creating graphical user interfaces, connecting to relational databases,
generating pseudorandom numbers, arithmetic with arbitrary-precision decimals,[113] manipulating regular
expressions, and unit testing.
Some parts of the standard library are covered by specifications (for example, the Web Server Gateway
Interface (WSGI) implementation wsgiref follows PEP 333[114]), but most modules are not. They are
specified by their code, internal documentation, and test suites. However, because most of the standard library
is cross-platform Python code, only a few modules need altering or rewriting for variant implementations.
As of March 2021, the Python Package Index (PyPI), the official repository for third-party Python software,
contains over 290,000[115] packages with a wide range of functionality, including:
Automation
Data analytics
Databases
Documentation
Graphical user interfaces
Image processing
Machine learning
Mobile App
Multimedia
Computer Networking
Scientific computing
System administration
Test frameworks
Text processing
Web frameworks
Web scraping
Development environments
Most Python implementations (including CPython) include a read–eval–print loop (REPL), permitting them to
function as a command line interpreter for which the user enters statements sequentially and receives results
immediately.
Other shells, including IDLE and IPython, add further abilities such as improved auto-completion, session
state retention and syntax highlighting.
As well as standard desktop integrated development environments, there are Web browser-based IDEs;
SageMath (intended for developing science and math-related Python programs); PythonAnywhere, a browser-
based IDE and hosting environment; and Canopy IDE, a commercial Python IDE emphasizing scientific
computing.[116]
Implementations
Reference implementation
CPython is the reference implementation of Python. It is written in C, meeting the C89 standard with several
select C99 features (with later C versions out, it's considered outdated;[117][118] CPython includes its own C
extensions, but third-party extensions are not limited to older C versions, can e.g. be implemented with C11 or
C++[119]).[120] It compiles Python programs into an intermediate bytecode[121] which is then executed by its
virtual machine.[122] CPython is distributed with a large standard library written in a mixture of C and native
Python. It is available for many platforms, including Windows (starting with Python 3.9, the Python installer
deliberately fails to install on Windows 7 and 8;[123][124] Windows XP was supported until Python 3.5) and
most modern Unix-like systems, including macOS (and Apple M1 Macs, since Python 3.9.1, with
experimental installer) and unofficial support for e.g. VMS.[125] Platform portability was one of its earliest
priorities,[126] during the Python 1 and 2 time-frame, even OS/2 and Solaris were supported;[127] support has
since been dropped for a lot of platforms.
Other implementations
PyPy is a fast, compliant interpreter of Python 2.7 and 3.6.[128] Its just-in-time compiler brings a
significant speed improvement over CPython but several libraries written in C cannot be used
with it.[129]
Stackless Python is a significant fork of CPython that implements microthreads; it does not use
the call stack in the same way, thus allowing massively concurrent programs. PyPy also has a
stackless version.[130]
MicroPython and CircuitPython are Python 3 variants optimized for microcontrollers, including
Lego Mindstorms EV3.[131]
Pyston is a variant of the Python runtime that uses just-in-time compilation to speed up the
execution of Python programs.[132]
Cinder is a performance-oriented fork of CPython 3.8 that contains a number of optimizations
including bytecode inline caching, eager evaluation of coroutines, a method-at-a-time JIT and
an experimental bytecode compiler.[133]
Unsupported implementations
Other just-in-time Python compilers have been developed, but are now unsupported:
Google began a project named Unladen Swallow in 2009, with the aim of speeding up the
Python interpreter fivefold by using the LLVM, and of improving its multithreading ability to
scale to thousands of cores,[134] while ordinary implementations suffer from the global
interpreter lock.
Psyco is a discontinued just-in-time specializing compiler that integrates with CPython and
transforms bytecode to machine code at runtime. The emitted code is specialized for certain
data types and is faster than the standard Python code. Psyco does not support Python 2.7 or
later.
PyS60 was a Python 2 interpreter for Series 60 mobile phones released by Nokia in 2005. It
implemented many of the modules from the standard library and some additional modules for
integrating with the Symbian operating system. The Nokia N900 also supports Python with
GTK widget libraries, enabling programs to be written and run on the target device.[135]
Cross-compilers to other languages
There are several compilers to high-level object languages, with either unrestricted Python, a restricted subset
of Python, or a language similar to Python as the source language:
Cython compiles (a superset of) Python 2.7 to C (while the resulting code is also usable with
Python 3 and also e.g. C++).
Nuitka compiles Python into C++.[136]
Pythran compiles a subset of Python 3 to C++.[137][138][139]
Pyrex (latest release in 2010) and Shed Skin (latest release in 2013) compile to C and C++
respectively.
Google's Grumpy (latest release in 2017) transpiles Python 2 to Go.[140][141][142]
IronPython (now abandoned by Microsoft) allows running Python 2.7 programs on the .NET
Common Language Runtime.[143]
Jython compiles Python 2.7 to Java bytecode, allowing the use of the Java libraries from a
Python program.[144]
MyHDL is a Python-based hardware description language (HDL), that converts MyHDL code to
Verilog or VHDL code.
Numba uses LLVM to compile a subset of Python to machine code.
Brython,[145] Transcrypt[146][147] and Pyjs (latest release in 2012) compile Python to JavaScript.
RPython can be compiled to C, and is used to build the PyPy interpreter of Python.
Performance
A performance comparison of various Python implementations on a non-numerical (combinatorial) workload

was presented at EuroSciPy '13.[148] Python's performance compared to other programming languages is also
benchmarked by The Computer Language Benchmarks Game.[149]
Development
Python's development is conducted largely through the Python Enhancement Proposal (PEP) process, the
primary mechanism for proposing major new features, collecting community input on issues and documenting
Python design decisions.[150] Python coding style is covered in PEP 8.[151] Outstanding PEPs are reviewed
and commented on by the Python community and the steering council.[150]
Enhancement of the language corresponds with development of the CPython reference implementation. The
mailing list python-dev is the primary forum for the language's development. Specific issues are discussed in
the Roundup bug tracker hosted at bugs.python.org (https://bugs.python.org).[152] Development originally
took place on a self-hosted source-code repository running Mercurial, until Python moved to GitHub in
January 2017.[153]
CPython's public releases come in three types, distinguished by which part of the version number is
incremented:
Backward-incompatible versions, where code is expected to break and needs to be manually

ported. The first part of the version number is incremented. These releases happen infrequently
—version 3.0 was released 8 years after 2.0.
Major or "feature" releases, occurred about every 18 months but with the adoption of a yearly
release cadence starting with Python 3.9 are expected to happen once a year.[154][155] They
are largely compatible but introduce new features. The second part of the version number is
incremented. Each major version is supported by bugfixes for several years after its
release.[156]
Bugfix releases,[157] which introduce no new features, occur about every 3 months and are
made when a sufficient number of bugs have been fixed upstream since the last release.
Security vulnerabilities are also patched in these releases. The third and final part of the
version number is incremented.[157]
Many alpha, beta, and release-candidates are also released as previews and for testing before final releases.
Although there is a rough schedule for each release, they are often delayed if the code is not ready. Python's
development team monitors the state of the code by running the large unit test suite during development.[158]
The major academic conference on Python is PyCon. There are also special Python mentoring programmes,
such as Pyladies.
Pythons 3.10 deprecates wstr (to be removed in Python 3.12; meaning Python extensions[159] need to be
modified by then),[160] and also plans to add pattern matching to the language.[161]
API documentation generators

Tools that can generate documentation for Python API include pydoc (available as part of standard library),
Sphinx, Pdoc and its forks, Doxygen and Graphviz, among others.[162]
Naming
Python's name is derived from the British comedy group Monty Python, whom Python creator Guido van
Rossum enjoyed while developing the language. Monty Python references appear frequently in Python code
and culture;[163] for example, the metasyntactic variables often used in Python literature are spam and eggs
instead of the traditional foo and bar.[163][164] The official Python documentation also contains various
references to Monty Python routines.[165][166]
The prefix Py- is used to show that something is related to Python. Examples of the use of this prefix in names
of Python applications or libraries include Pygame, a binding of SDL to Python (commonly used to create
games); PyQt and PyGTK, which bind Qt and GTK to Python respectively; and PyPy, a Python
implementation originally written in Python.
Popularity
Since 2003, Python has consistently ranked in the top ten most popular programming languages in the TIOBE
Programming Community Index where, as of February 2021, it is the third most popular language (behind
Java, and C).[167] It was selected Programming Language of the Year (for "the highest rise in ratings in a
year") in 2007, 2010, 2018, and 2020 (the only language to do so four times[168]).[169]
An empirical study found that scripting languages, such as Python, are more productive than conventional
languages, such as C and Java, for programming problems involving string manipulation and search in a
dictionary, and determined that memory consumption was often "better than Java and not much worse than C
or C++".[170]
Large organizations that use Python include Wikipedia, Google,[171] Yahoo!,[172] CERN,[173] NASA,[174]
Facebook,[175] Amazon, Instagram,[176] Spotify[177] and some smaller entities like ILM[178] and ITA.[179]
The social news networking site Reddit was written mostly in Python.[180]
Uses
Python can serve as a scripting language for web applications, e.g., via mod wsgi for the Apache web
server.[181] With Web Server Gateway Interface, a standard API has evolved to facilitate these applications.
Web frameworks like Django, Pylons, Pyramid, TurboGears, web2py, Tornado, Flask, Bottle and Zope
support developers in the design and maintenance of complex applications. Pyjs and IronPython can be used
to develop the client-side of Ajax-based applications. SQLAlchemy can be used as a data mapper to a
relational database. Twisted is a framework to program communications between computers, and is used (for
example) by Dropbox.
Libraries such as NumPy, SciPy and Matplotlib allow the effective use of Python in scientific
computing,[182][183] with specialized libraries such as Biopython and Astropy providing domain-specific
functionality. SageMath is a computer algebra system with a notebook interface programmable in Python: its
library covers many aspects of mathematics, including algebra, combinatorics, numerical mathematics, number
theory, and calculus.[184] OpenCV has python bindings with a rich set of features for computer vision and
image processing.[185]
Python is commonly used in artificial intelligence projects and machine learning projects with the help of
libraries like TensorFlow, Keras, Pytorch and Scikit-learn.[186][187][188][189] As a scripting language with
modular architecture, simple syntax and rich text processing tools, Python is often used for natural language
processing.[190]
Python has been successfully embedded in many software products as a scripting language, including in finite
element method software such as Abaqus, 3D parametric modeler like FreeCAD, 3D animation packages such
as 3ds Max, Blender, Cinema 4D, Lightwave, Houdini, Maya, modo, MotionBuilder, Softimage, the visual
effects compositor Nuke, 2D imaging programs like GIMP,[191] Inkscape, Scribus and Paint Shop Pro,[192]
and musical notation programs like scorewriter and capella. GNU Debugger uses Python as a pretty printer to
show complex structures such as C++ containers. Esri promotes Python as the best choice for writing scripts in
ArcGIS.[193] It has also been used in several video games,[194][195] and has been adopted as first of the three
available programming languages in Google App Engine, the other two being Java and Go.[196]
Many operating systems include Python as a standard component. It ships with most Linux distributions,[197]
AmigaOS 4 (using Python 2.7), FreeBSD (as a package), NetBSD, OpenBSD (as a package) and macOS and
can be used from the command line (terminal). Many Linux distributions use installers written in Python:
Ubuntu uses the Ubiquity installer, while Red Hat Linux and Fedora use the Anaconda installer. Gentoo Linux
uses Python in its package management system, Portage.
Python is used extensively in the information security industry, including in exploit development.[198][199]
Most of the Sugar software for the One Laptop per Child XO, now developed at Sugar Labs, is written in
Python.[200] The Raspberry Pi single-board computer project has adopted Python as its main user-
programming language.
LibreOffice includes Python, and intends to replace Java with Python. Its Python Scripting Provider is a core
feature[201] since Version 4.0 from 7 February 2013.
Languages influenced by Python

Python's design and philosophy have influenced many other programming languages:
Boo uses indentation, a similar syntax, and a similar object model.[202]

Cobra uses indentation and a similar syntax, and its Acknowledgements document lists Python
first among languages that influenced it.[203]
CoffeeScript, a programming language that cross-compiles to JavaScript, has Python-inspired
syntax.
ECMAScript/JavaScript borrowed iterators and generators from Python.[204]
GDScript, a scripting language very similar to Python, built-in to the Godot game engine.[205]
Go is designed for the "speed of working in a dynamic language like Python"[206] and shares
the same syntax for slicing arrays.
Groovy was motivated by the desire to bring the Python design philosophy to Java.[207]
Julia was designed to be "as usable for general programming as Python".[26]
Nim uses indentation and similar syntax.[208]
Ruby's creator, Yukihiro Matsumoto, has said: "I wanted a scripting language that was more
powerful than Perl, and more object-oriented than Python. That's why I decided to design my
own language."[209]
Swift, a programming language developed by Apple, has some Python-inspired syntax.[210]
Python's development practices have also been emulated by other languages. For example, the practice of
requiring a document describing the rationale for, and issues surrounding, a change to the language (in Python,
a PEP) is also used in Tcl,[211] Erlang,[212] and Swift.[213]
See also
Python syntax and semantics
pip (package manager)
Differentiable programming
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Russell, Stuart J. & Norvig, Peter (2009). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (3rd ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-604259-4.
Further reading
Downey, Allen B. (May 2012). Think Python: How to Think Like a Computer Scientist (Version
1.6.6 ed.). ISBN 978-0-521-72596-5.
Hamilton, Naomi (5 August 2008). "The A-Z of Programming Languages: Python" (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20081229095320/http://www.computerworld.com.au/index.php/id%3B6666577
1). Computerworld. Archived from the original (http://www.computerworld.com.au/index.php/id;6
6665771) on 29 December 2008. Retrieved 31 March 2010.
Lutz, Mark (2013). Learning Python (5th ed.). O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-15806-4.
Pilgrim, Mark (2004). Dive into Python (https://archive.org/details/diveintopython0000pilg).
Apress. ISBN 978-1-59059-356-1.
Pilgrim, Mark (2009). Dive into Python 3. Apress. ISBN 978-1-4302-2415-0.
Summerfield, Mark (2009). Programming in Python 3 (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley Professional.
ISBN 978-0-321-68056-3.
External links
Official website (https://www.python.org/)
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This page was last edited on 10 June 2021, at 18:16 (UTC).
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Python Programming

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Python Programming

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Python (programming language)

Python is an interpreted high-level general-purpose programming

Programming examples Website www.python.org (htt

Design philosophy and features

Beautiful is better than ugly.

Syntax and semantics

Statements and control flow

Python's statements include (among others):

The assignment statement, using a single equals sign =.

List comprehensions vs. for-loops

Python allows programmers to define their own types using classes,

Complex number 3+2.7j

List, can contain [4.0, 'string', True]

NotImplementedTypea immutable A placeholder that NotImplemented

(4.0, 'string', True)

^a Not directly accessible by name

Program to calculate the factorial of a positive integer:

n = int(input('Type a number, and its factorial will be printed: '))

Cross-compilers to other languages

A performance comparison of various Python implementations on a non-numerical (combinatorial) workload

Backward-incompatible versions, where code is expected to break and needs to be manually

API documentation generators

Languages influenced by Python

Boo uses indentation, a similar syntax, and a similar object model.[202]

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Python_(programming_language)&oldid=1027909128"

This page was last edited on 10 June 2021, at 18:16 (UTC).

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