Python (Programming Language)

Python (programming language)
Python is a high-level, general-purpose programming language. Its design philosophy emphasizes code readability with the use of significant
indentation.[32]
Python is dynamically type-checked and garbage-collected. It supports multiple programming paradigms, including structured (particularly
procedural), object-oriented and functional programming. It is often described as a "batteries included" language due to its comprehensive
standard library.[33][34]
Guido van Rossum began working on Python in the late 1980s as a successor to the ABC programming language and first released it in 1991
as Python 0.9.0.[35] Python 2.0 was released in 2000. Python 3.0, released in 2008, was a major revision not completely backward-compatible
with earlier versions. Python 2.7.18, released in 2020, was the last release of Python 2.[36]
Python consistently ranks as one of the most popular programming languages, and has gained widespread use in the machine learning
community.[37][38][39][40]
History
The designer of Python,

Guido van Rossum, at
OSCON 2006
Python was conceived in the late 1980s[41] by Guido van Rossum at Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica (CWI) in the Netherlands as a successor
to the ABC programming language, which was inspired by SETL,[42] capable of exception handling and interfacing with the Amoeba operating
system.[12] Its implementation began in December 1989.[43] Van Rossum shouldered sole responsibility for the project, as the lead developer,
until 12 July 2018, when he announced his "permanent vacation" from his responsibilities as Python's "benevolent dictator for life" (BDFL), a title
the Python community bestowed upon him to reflect his long-term commitment as the project's chief decision-maker[44] (he has since come
out of retirement and is self-titled "BDFL-emeritus"). In January 2019, active Python core developers elected a five-member Steering Council to
lead the project.[45][46]
The name Python is said to come from the Monty Python's Flying Circus.[47]
Python 2.0 was released on 16 October 2000, with many major new features such as list comprehensions, cycle-detecting garbage collection,
reference counting, and Unicode support.[48] Python 2.7's end-of-life was initially set for 2015, then postponed to 2020 out of concern that a
large body of existing code could not easily be forward-ported to Python 3.[49][50] No further security patches or other improvements will be
released for it.[51][52] While Python 2.7 and older versions are officially unsupported, a different unofficial Python implementation, PyPy,
continues to support Python 2, i.e. "2.7.18+" (plus 3.10), with the plus meaning (at least some) "backported security updates".[53]
Python 3.0 was released on 3 December 2008, with some new semantics and changed syntax. At least every Python release since (now
unsupported) 3.5 has added some syntax to the language, and a few later releases have dropped outdated modules, or changed semantics, at
least in a minor way.
Since 7 October 2024, Python 3.13 is the latest stable release, and it and, for few more months, 3.12 are the only releases with active support
including for bugfixes (as opposed to just for security) and Python 3.9,[54] is the oldest supported version of Python (albeit in the 'security
support' phase), due to Python 3.8 reaching end-of-life.[55][56] Starting with 3.13, it and later versions have 2 years of full support (up from one
and a half), followed by 3 years of security support (for same total support as before).
Security updates were expedited in 2021 (and again twice in 2022, and more fixed in 2023 and in September 2024 for Python 3.12.6 down to
3.8.20), since all Python versions were insecure (including 2.7[57]) because of security issues leading to possible remote code execution[58] and
web-cache poisoning.[59]
Python 3.10 added the | union type operator[60] and the match and case keywords (for
Python
structural pattern matching statements). 3.11 expanded exception handling functionality.
Python 3.12 added the new keyword type . Notable changes in 3.11 from 3.10 include
increased program execution speed and improved error reporting.[61] Python 3.11 claims to
be between 10 and 60% faster than Python 3.10, and Python 3.12 adds another 5% on top of
that. It also has improved error messages (again improved in 3.14), and many other changes.
Python 3.13 introduces more syntax for types, a new and improved interactive interpreter
Paradigm Multi-paradigm:
(REPL), featuring multi-line editing and color support; an incremental garbage collector
object-oriented,[1]
(producing shorter pauses for collection in programs with a lot of objects, and addition to the
procedural
improved speed in 3.11 and 3.12), and an experimental just-in-time (JIT) compiler (such (imperative),
features, can/needs to be enabled specifically for the increase in speed),[62] and an functional, structured,
experimental free-threaded build mode, which disables the global interpreter lock (GIL), reflective
allowing threads to run more concurrently, that latter feature enabled with python3.13t or
Designed by Guido van Rossum
python3.13t.exe .
Developer Python Software
Python 3.13 introduces some change in behavior, i.e. new "well-defined semantics", fixing Foundation
bugs (plus many removals of deprecated classes, functions and methods, and removed
First appeared 20 February 1991[2]
some of the C API and outdated modules): "The [old] implementation of locals() and
frame.f_locals is slow, inconsistent and buggy [and it has] has many corner cases and
Stable release 3.13.1 / 3 December
oddities. Code that works around those may need to be changed. Code that uses
2024
locals() for simple templating, or print debugging, will continue to work correctly."[63]
Typing discipline duck, dynamic,
Some (more) standard library modules and many deprecated classes, functions and strong;[3] optional
methods, will be removed in Python 3.15 or 3.16.[64][65] type annotations
(since 3.5, but those
Python 3.14 is now in alpha 2;[66] regarding possible change to annotations: "In Python 3.14, hints are ignored,
from __future__ import annotations will continue to work as it did before, converting except with unofficial
[67]
annotations into strings." tools)[4]
PEP 711 proposes PyBI: a standard format for distributing Python Binaries.[68] OS Tier 1: 64-bit Linux,
macOS; 64- and 32-
[69]
Python 3.15 will "Make UTF-8 mode default", the mode exists in all current Python bit Windows 10+[5]
versions, but currently needs to be opted into. UTF-8 is already used, by default, on Windows Tier 2: E.g. 32-bit
(and elsewhere), for most things, but e.g. to open files it's not and enabling also makes WebAssembly
(WASI)
code fully cross-platform, i.e. use UTF-8 for everything on all platforms.
Tier 3: 64-bit
Android,[6] iOS,
Design philosophy and features FreeBSD, and (32-bit)
Raspberry Pi OS
Python is a multi-paradigm programming language. Object-oriented programming and Unofficial (or has
structured programming are fully supported, and many of their features support functional been known to work):
[70]
programming and aspect-oriented programming (including metaprogramming and Other Unix-like/BSD
metaobjects).[71] Many other paradigms are supported via extensions, including design by variants) and a few
contract[72][73] and logic programming.[74] Python is known as a glue language,[75] able to other platforms[7][8][9]
work very well with many other languages with ease of access. License Python Software
Foundation License
Python uses dynamic typing and a combination of reference counting and a cycle-detecting
garbage collector for memory management.[76] It uses dynamic name resolution (late Filename extensions .py, .pyw, .pyz,[10]
binding), which binds method and variable names during program execution. .pyi, .pyc, .pyd
Its design offers some support for functional programming in the Lisp tradition. It has Website python.org (https://w
ww.python.org/)
filter , map and reduce functions; list comprehensions, dictionaries, sets, and
generator expressions.[77] The standard library has two modules ( itertools and Major implementations
[78]
functools ) that implement functional tools borrowed from Haskell and Standard ML.
CPython, PyPy, Stackless Python,
MicroPython, CircuitPython, IronPython,
Its core philosophy is summarized in the Zen of Python (PEP 20), which includes aphorisms
Jython
such as:[79]
Beautiful is better than ugly. Dialects
Explicit is better than implicit. Cython, RPython, Starlark[11]

Simple is better than complex. Influenced by
Complex is better than complicated.

ABC,[12] Ada,[13] ALGOL 68,[14]
Readability counts. APL,[15] C,[16] C++,[17] CLU,[18] Dylan,[19]

Haskell,[20][15] Icon,[21] Lisp,[22]
However, Python features regularly violate these principles and have received criticism for
Modula-3,[14][17] Perl,[23] Standard ML[15]
adding unnecessary language bloat.[80] Responses to these criticisms are that the Zen of
Python is a guideline rather than a rule.[81] The addition of some new features had been so Influenced
controversial that Guido van Rossum resigned as Benevolent Dictator for Life following vitriol Apache Groovy, Boo, Cobra, CoffeeScript,[24] D,
over the addition of the assignment expression operator in Python 3.8.[82][83] F#, GDScript, Go, JavaScript,[25][26] Julia,[27]
Mojo,[28] Nim, Ring,[29] Ruby,[30] Swift[31]
Nevertheless, rather than building all of its functionality into its core, Python was designed to
be highly extensible via modules. This compact modularity has made it particularly popular Python Programming at Wikibooks
as a means of adding programmable interfaces to existing applications. Van Rossum's vision

of a small core language with a large standard library and easily extensible interpreter stemmed from his frustrations with ABC, which
espoused the opposite approach.[41]
Python claims to strive for a simpler, less-cluttered syntax and grammar while giving developers a choice in their coding methodology. In
contrast to Perl's "there is more than one way to do it" motto, Python embraces a "there should be one—and preferably only one—obvious way to
do it." philosophy.[79] In practice, however, Python provides many ways to achieve the same task. There are, for example, at least three ways to
format a string literal, with no certainty as to which one a programmer should use.[84] Alex Martelli, a Fellow at the Python Software Foundation
and Python book author, wrote: "To describe something as 'clever' is not considered a compliment in the Python culture."[85]
Python's developers usually strive to avoid premature optimization and reject patches to non-critical parts of the CPython reference
implementation that would offer marginal increases in speed at the cost of clarity.[86] Execution speed can be improved by moving speed-
critical functions to extension modules written in languages such as C, or by using a just-in-time compiler like PyPy. It is also possible to cross-
compile to other languages, but it either doesn't provide the full speed-up that might be expected, since Python is a very dynamic language, or a
restricted subset of Python is compiled, and possibly semantics are slightly changed.[87]
Python's developers aim for it to be fun to use. This is reflected in its name—a tribute to the British comedy group Monty Python[88]—and in
occasionally playful approaches to tutorials and reference materials, such as the use of the terms "spam" and "eggs" (a reference to a Monty
Python sketch) in examples, instead of the often-used "foo" and "bar".[89][90] A common neologism in the Python community is pythonic, which
has a wide range of meanings related to program style. "Pythonic" code may use Python idioms well, be natural or show fluency in the
language, or conform with Python's minimalist philosophy and emphasis on readability. Code that is difficult to understand or reads like a rough
transcription from another programming language is called unpythonic.[91]
Syntax and semantics
An example of Python code and

indentation
Example of C# code with curly braces

and semicolons
Python is meant to be an easily readable language. Its formatting is visually uncluttered and often uses English keywords where other
languages use punctuation. Unlike many other languages, it does not use curly brackets to delimit blocks, and semicolons after statements are
allowed but rarely used. It has fewer syntactic exceptions and special cases than C or Pascal.[92]
Indentation
Python uses whitespace indentation, rather than curly brackets or keywords, to delimit blocks. An increase in indentation comes after certain
statements; a decrease in indentation signifies the end of the current block.[93] Thus, the program's visual structure accurately represents its
semantic structure.[94] This feature is sometimes termed the off-side rule. Some other languages use indentation this way; but in most,
indentation has no semantic meaning. The recommended indent size is four spaces.[95]
Statements and control flow
Python's statements include:
The assignment statement, using a single equals sign =
The if statement, which conditionally executes a block of code, along with else and elif (a contraction of else-if)
The for statement, which iterates over an iterable object, capturing each element to a local variable for use by the attached block
The while statement, which executes a block of code as long as its condition is true
The try statement, which allows exceptions raised in its attached code block to be caught and handled by except clauses (or new
syntax except* in Python 3.11 for exception groups[96]); it also ensures that clean-up code in a finally block is always run regardless
of how the block exits
The raise statement, used to raise a specified exception or re-raise a caught exception
The class statement, which executes a block of code and attaches its local namespace to a class, for use in object-oriented programming
The def statement, which defines a function or method
The with statement, which encloses a code block within a context manager (for example, acquiring a lock before it is run, then releasing
the lock; or opening and closing a file), allowing resource-acquisition-is-initialization (RAII)-like behavior and replacing a common try/finally
idiom[97]
The break statement, which exits a loop
The continue statement, which skips the rest of the current iteration and continues with the next
The del statement, which removes a variable—deleting the reference from the name to the value, and producing an error if the variable is
referred to before it is redefined
The pass statement, serving as a NOP, syntactically needed to create an empty code block
The assert statement, used in debugging to check for conditions that should apply
The yield statement, which returns a value from a generator function (and also an operator); used to implement coroutines
The return statement, used to return a value from a function
The import and from statements, used to import modules whose functions or variables can be used in the current program
The match and case statements, an analog of the switch statement construct, that compares an expression against one or more cases
as a control-of-flow measure.
The assignment statement ( = ) binds a name as a reference to a separate, dynamically allocated object. Variables may subsequently be
rebound at any time to any object. In Python, a variable name is a generic reference holder without a fixed data type; however, it always refers to
some object with a type. This is called dynamic typing—in contrast to statically-typed languages, where each variable may contain only a value
of a certain type.
Python does not support tail call optimization or first-class continuations, and, according to Van Rossum, it never will.[98][99] However, better
support for coroutine-like functionality is provided by extending Python's generators.[100] Before 2.5, generators were lazy iterators; data was
passed unidirectionally out of the generator. From Python 2.5 on, it is possible to pass data back into a generator function; and from version
3.3, it can be passed through multiple stack levels.[101]
Expressions
Python's expressions include:

The + , - , and * operators for mathematical addition, subtraction, and multiplication are similar to other languages, but the behavior of
division differs. There are two types of divisions in Python: floor division (or integer division) // and floating-point / division.[102] Python
uses the ** operator for exponentiation.
Python uses the + operator for string concatenation. Python uses the * operator for duplicating a string a specified number of times.
The @ infix operator is intended to be used by libraries such as NumPy for matrix multiplication.[103][104]
The syntax := , called the "walrus operator", was introduced in Python 3.8. It assigns values to variables as part of a larger expression.[105]
In Python, == compares by value. Python's is operator may be used to compare object identities (comparison by reference), and
comparisons may be chained—for example, a <= b <= c .
Python uses and , or , and not as Boolean operators.
Python has a type of expression named a list comprehension, and a more general expression named a generator expression.[77]
Anonymous functions are implemented using lambda expressions; however, there may be only one expression in each body.
Conditional expressions are written as x if c else y [106] (different in order of operands from the c ? x : y operator common to
many other languages).
Python makes a distinction between lists and tuples. Lists are written as [1, 2, 3] , are mutable, and cannot be used as the keys of
dictionaries (dictionary keys must be immutable in Python). Tuples, written as (1, 2, 3) , are immutable and thus can be used as keys of
dictionaries, provided all of the tuple's elements are immutable. The + operator can be used to concatenate two tuples, which does not
directly modify their contents, but produces a new tuple containing the elements of both. Thus, given the variable t initially equal to (1,
2, 3) , executing t = t + (4, 5) first evaluates t + (4, 5) , which yields (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) , which is then assigned back to t
—thereby effectively "modifying the contents" of t while conforming to the immutable nature of tuple objects. Parentheses are optional for
tuples in unambiguous contexts.[107]
Python features sequence unpacking where multiple expressions, each evaluating to anything that can be assigned (to a variable, writable
property, etc.) are associated in an identical manner to that forming tuple literals—and, as a whole, are put on the left-hand side of the equal
sign in an assignment statement. The statement expects an iterable object on the right-hand side of the equal sign that produces the same
number of values as the provided writable expressions; when iterated through them, it assigns each of the produced values to the
corresponding expression on the left.[108]
Python has a "string format" operator % that functions analogously to printf format strings in C—e.g. "spam=%s eggs=%d" %
("blah", 2) evaluates to "spam=blah eggs=2" . In Python 2.6+ and 3+, this was supplemented by the format() method of the
str class, e.g. "spam={0} eggs={1}".format("blah", 2) . Python 3.6 added "f-strings": spam = "blah"; eggs = 2;
f'spam={spam} eggs={eggs}' .[109]
Strings in Python can be concatenated by "adding" them (with the same operator as for adding integers and floats), e.g. "spam" +
"eggs" returns "spameggs" . If strings contain numbers, they are added as strings rather than integers, e.g. "2" + "2" returns "22" .
Python has various string literals:

Delimited by single or double quotes; unlike in Unix shells, Perl, and Perl-influenced languages, single and double quotes work the same.
Both use the backslash ( \ ) as an escape character. String interpolation became available in Python 3.6 as "formatted string
literals".[109]
Triple-quoted (beginning and ending with three single or double quotes), which may span multiple lines and function like here documents
in shells, Perl, and Ruby.
Raw string varieties, denoted by prefixing the string literal with r . Escape sequences are not interpreted; hence raw strings are useful
where literal backslashes are common, such as regular expressions and Windows-style paths. (Compare " @ -quoting" in C#.)
Python has array index and array slicing expressions in lists, denoted as a[key] , a[start:stop] or a[start:stop:step] . Indexes
are zero-based, and negative indexes are relative to the end. Slices take elements from the start index up to, but not including, the stop index.
The third slice parameter, called step or stride, allows elements to be skipped and reversed. Slice indexes may be omitted—for example,
a[:] returns a copy of the entire list. Each element of a slice is a shallow copy.
In Python, a distinction between expressions and statements is rigidly enforced, in contrast to languages such as Common Lisp, Scheme, or
Ruby. This leads to duplicating some functionality. For example:
List comprehensions vs. for -loops
Conditional expressions vs. if blocks

The eval() vs. exec() built-in functions (in Python 2, exec is a statement); the former is for expressions, the latter is for statements
Statements cannot be a part of an expression—so list and other comprehensions or lambda expressions, all being expressions, cannot contain
statements. A particular case is that an assignment statement such as a = 1 cannot form part of the conditional expression of a conditional
statement.
Methods
Methods on objects are functions attached to the object's class; the syntax instance.method(argument) is, for normal methods and
functions, syntactic sugar for Class.method(instance, argument) . Python methods have an explicit self parameter to access
instance data, in contrast to the implicit self (or this ) in some other object-oriented programming languages (e.g., C++, Java, Objective-C,
Ruby).[110] Python also provides methods, often called dunder methods (due to their names beginning and ending with double-underscores), to
allow user-defined classes to modify how they are handled by native operations including length, comparison, in arithmetic operations and type
conversion.[111]
Typing
The standard type hierarchy in

Python 3
Python uses duck typing and has typed objects but untyped variable names. Type constraints are not checked at compile time; rather,
operations on an object may fail, signifying that it is not of a suitable type. Despite being dynamically typed, Python is strongly typed, forbidding
operations that are not well-defined (for example, adding a number to a string) rather than silently attempting to make sense of them.
Python allows programmers to define their own types using classes, most often used for object-oriented programming. New instances of
classes are constructed by calling the class (for example, SpamClass() or EggsClass() ), and the classes are instances of the metaclass
type (itself an instance of itself), allowing metaprogramming and reflection.
Before version 3.0, Python had two kinds of classes (both using the same syntax): old-style and new-style;[112] current Python versions only
support the semantics of the new style.
Python supports optional type annotations.[4][113] These annotations are not enforced by the language, but may be used by external tools such
as mypy to catch errors.[114][115] Mypy also supports a Python compiler called mypyc, which leverages type annotations for optimization.[116]
Summary of Python 3's built-in types
Type Mutability Description Syntax examples
True
bool immutable Boolean value
False
bytearray(b'Some
ASCII')
bytearray(b"Some
bytearray mutable Sequence of bytes
ASCII")
bytearray([119, 105,
107, 105])
b'Some ASCII'
b"Some ASCII"
bytes immutable Sequence of bytes
bytes([119, 105, 107,
105])
3+2.7j
complex immutable Complex number with real and imaginary parts
3 + 2.7j
Associative array (or dictionary) of key and value pairs; can contain mixed types (keys {'key1': 1.0, 3: False}
dict mutable
and values), keys must be a hashable type {}
...
types.EllipsisType immutable An ellipsis placeholder to be used as an index in NumPy arrays
Ellipsis
Double-precision floating-point number. The precision is machine-dependent but in

float immutable practice is generally implemented as a 64-bit IEEE 754 number with 53 bits of 1.33333
[117]
precision.
frozenset([4.0,
frozenset immutable Unordered set, contains no duplicates; can contain mixed types, if hashable
'string', True])
int immutable Integer of unlimited magnitude[118] 42
[4.0, 'string', True]

list mutable List, can contain mixed types
[]
types.NoneType immutable An object representing the absence of a value, often called null in other languages None
A placeholder that can be returned from overloaded operators to indicate unsupported
types.NotImplementedType immutable NotImplemented
operand types.
An immutable sequence of numbers commonly used for looping a specific number of range(−1, 10)
range immutable [119]
times in for loops range(10, −5, −2)
{4.0, 'string', True}

set mutable Unordered set, contains no duplicates; can contain mixed types, if hashable
set()
'Wikipedia'
"Wikipedia"
"""Spanning
multiple
lines"""
str immutable A character string: sequence of Unicode codepoints
Spanning
multiple
lines
(4.0, 'string', True)

tuple immutable Can contain mixed types ('single element',)
()
Arithmetic operations
Python has the usual symbols for arithmetic operators ( + , - , * , / ), the floor division operator // and the modulo operation % (where the
remainder can be negative, e.g. 4 % -3 == -2 ). It also has ** for exponentiation, e.g. 5**3 == 125 and 9**0.5 == 3.0 , and a
matrix‑multiplication operator @ .[120] These operators work like in traditional math; with the same precedence rules, the operators infix ( +
and - can also be unary to represent positive and negative numbers respectively).
The division between integers produces floating-point results. The behavior of division has changed significantly over time:[121]
Current Python (i.e. since 3.0) changed / to always be floating-point division, e.g. 5/2 == 2.5 .
The floor division // operator was introduced. So 7//3 == 2 , -7//3 == -3 , 7.5//3 == 2.0 and -7.5//3 == -3.0 . Adding
from __future__ import division causes a module used in Python 2.7 to use Python 3.0 rules for division (see above).
In Python terms, / is true division (or simply division), and // is floor division. / before version 3.0 is classic division.[121]
Rounding towards negative infinity, though different from most languages, adds consistency. For instance, it means that the equation
(a + b)//b == a//b + 1 is always true. It also means that the equation b*(a//b) + a%b == a is valid for both positive and
negative values of a . However, maintaining the validity of this equation means that while the result of a%b is, as expected, in the half-open
interval [0, b), where b is a positive integer, it has to lie in the interval (b, 0] when b is negative.[122]
Python provides a round function for rounding a float to the nearest integer. For tie-breaking, Python 3 uses round to even: round(1.5)
and round(2.5) both produce 2 .[123] Versions before 3 used round-away-from-zero: round(0.5) is 1.0 , round(-0.5) is −1.0 .[124]
Python allows Boolean expressions with multiple equality relations in a manner that is consistent with general use in mathematics. For
example, the expression a < b < c tests whether a is less than b and b is less than c .[125] C-derived languages interpret this
expression differently: in C, the expression would first evaluate a < b , resulting in 0 or 1, and that result would then be compared with c .[126]
Python uses arbitrary-precision arithmetic for all integer operations. The Decimal type/class in the decimal module provides decimal
floating-point numbers to a pre-defined arbitrary precision and several rounding modes.[127] The Fraction class in the fractions module
provides arbitrary precision for rational numbers.[128]
Due to Python's extensive mathematics library, and the third-party library NumPy that further extends the native capabilities, it is frequently used
as a scientific scripting language to aid in problems such as numerical data processing and manipulation.[129][130]
Function syntax
Functions are created in Python using the def keyword. In Python, you define the function as if you were calling it, by typing the function name
and then the attributes required. Here is an example of a function that will print whatever is given:
def printer(input, input2="already there"):

print(input)
print(input2)
printer("hello")
# Example output:
# hello
# already there
If you want the attribute to have a set value if no value is given, use the variable-defining syntax inside the function definition.
Programming examples
"Hello, World!" program:
print('Hello, world!')
Program to calculate the factorial of a positive integer:
1 n = int(input('Type a number, and its factorial will be printed: '))

2
3 if n < 0:
4 raise ValueError('You must enter a non-negative integer')
5
6 factorial = 1
7 for i in range(2, n + 1):
8 factorial *= i
9
10 print(factorial)
Libraries
Python's large standard library[131] provides tools suited to many tasks and is commonly cited as one of its greatest strengths. For Internet-
facing applications, many standard formats and protocols such as MIME and HTTP are supported. It includes modules for creating graphical
user interfaces, connecting to relational databases, generating pseudorandom numbers, arithmetic with arbitrary-precision decimals,[127]
manipulating regular expressions, and unit testing.
Some parts of the standard library are covered by specifications—for example, the Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) implementation
wsgiref follows PEP 333[132]—but most are specified by their code, internal documentation, and test suites. However, because most of the
standard library is cross-platform Python code, only a few modules need altering or rewriting for variant implementations.
As of 17 March 2024, the Python Package Index (PyPI), the official repository for third-party Python software, contains over 523,000[133]
packages with a wide range of functionality, including:
Automation Multimedia
Data analytics Computer networking
Databases Scientific computing
Documentation System administration
Graphical user interfaces Test frameworks
Image processing Text processing
Machine learning Web frameworks
Mobile apps Web scraping
Development environments
Most Python implementations (including CPython) include a read–eval–print loop (REPL), permitting them to function as a command line
interpreter for which users enter statements sequentially and receive results immediately.
Python also comes with an Integrated development environment (IDE) called IDLE, which is more beginner-oriented.
Other shells, including IDLE and IPython, add further abilities such as improved auto-completion, session state retention, and syntax
highlighting.
As well as standard desktop integrated development environments including PyCharm, IntelliJ Idea, Visual Studio Code etc, there are web
browser-based IDEs, including SageMath, for developing science- and math-related programs; PythonAnywhere, a browser-based IDE and
hosting environment; and Canopy IDE, a commercial IDE emphasizing scientific computing.[134]
Implementations
Reference implementation
CPython is the reference implementation of Python. It is written in C, meeting the C89 standard (Python 3.11 uses C11[135]) with several select
C99 features. CPython includes its own C extensions, but third-party extensions are not limited to older C versions—e.g. they can be
implemented with C11 or C++.[136][137] CPython compiles Python programs into an intermediate bytecode[138] which is then executed by its
virtual machine.[139] CPython is distributed with a large standard library written in a mixture of C and native Python, and is available for many
platforms, including Windows (starting with Python 3.9, the Python installer deliberately fails to install on Windows 7 and 8;[140][141] Windows XP
was supported until Python 3.5) and most modern Unix-like systems, including macOS (and Apple M1 Macs, since Python 3.9.1, with
experimental installer), with unofficial support for VMS.[142] Platform portability was one of its earliest priorities.[143] (During Python 1 and 2
development, even OS/2 and Solaris were supported,[144] but support has since been dropped for many platforms.)
All current Python versions (i.e. since 3.7) only support operating systems with multi-threading support.
Other implementations
All alternative implementations have at least slightly different semantics (e.g. may have unordered dictionaries, unlike all current Python
versions), e.g. with the larger Python ecosystem, such as with supporting the C Python API of with PyPy:
PyPy is a fast, compliant interpreter of Python 2.7 and 3.10.[145][146] Its just-in-time compiler often brings a significant speed improvement
over CPython, but some libraries written in C cannot be used with it.[147] It has e.g. RISC-V support.
Codon (https://github.com/exaloop/codon) is a language with an ahead-of-time (AOT) compiler, that (AOT) compiles a statically-typed
Python-like language with "syntax and semantics are nearly identical to Python's, there are some notable differences"[148] e.g. it uses 64-bit
machine integers, for speed, not arbitrary like Python, and it claims speedups over CPython are usually on the order of 10–100x. It compiles
to machine code (via LLVM) and supports native multithreading.[149] Codon can also compile to Python extension modules that can be
imported and used from Python.
Stackless Python is a significant fork of CPython that implements microthreads; it does not use the call stack in the same way, thus allowing
massively concurrent programs. PyPy also has a stackless version.[150]
MicroPython and CircuitPython are Python 3 variants optimized for microcontrollers, including Lego Mindstorms EV3.[151]
Pyston is a variant of the Python runtime that uses just-in-time compilation to speed up the execution of Python programs.[152]
Cinder is a performance-oriented fork of CPython 3.8 that contains a number of optimizations, including bytecode inline caching, eager
evaluation of coroutines, a method-at-a-time JIT, and an experimental bytecode compiler.[153]
[154][155][156]
Snek (https://sneklang.org/) Embedded Computing Language (compatible with e.g. 8-bit AVR microcontrollers such as ATmega
328P-based Arduino, as well as larger ones compatible with MicroPython) "is Python-inspired, but it is not Python. It is possible to write Snek
programs that run under a full Python system, but most Python programs will not run under Snek."[157] It is an imperative language not
including OOP / classes, unlike Python, and simplifying to one number type with 32-bit single-precision (similar to JavaScript, except smaller).
No longer supported implementations
Other just-in-time Python compilers have been developed, but are now unsupported:
Google began a project named Unladen Swallow in 2009, with the aim of speeding up the Python interpreter five-fold by using the LLVM, and
of improving its multithreading ability to scale to thousands of cores,[158] while ordinary implementations suffer from the global interpreter
lock.
Psyco is a discontinued just-in-time specializing compiler that integrates with CPython and transforms bytecode to machine code at runtime.
The emitted code is specialized for certain data types and is faster than the standard Python code. Psyco does not support Python 2.7 or
later.
PyS60 was a Python 2 interpreter for Series 60 mobile phones released by Nokia in 2005. It implemented many of the modules from the
standard library and some additional modules for integrating with the Symbian operating system. The Nokia N900 also supports Python with
GTK widget libraries, enabling programs to be written and run on the target device.[159]
Cross-compilers to other languages
There are several compilers/transpilers to high-level object languages, with either unrestricted Python, a restricted subset of Python, or a
language similar to Python as the source language:
Brython,[160] Transcrypt[161][162] and Pyjs (latest release in 2012) compile Python to JavaScript.
Cython compiles (a superset of) Python to C. The resulting code is also usable with Python via direct C-level API calls into the Python
interpreter.
PyJL compiles/transpiles a subset of Python to "human-readable, maintainable, and high-performance Julia source code".[87] Despite
claiming high performance, no tool can claim to do that for arbitrary Python code; i.e. it's known not possible to compile to a faster language
or machine code. Unless semantics of Python are changed, but in many cases speedup is possible with few or no changes in the Python
code. The faster Julia source code can then be used from Python, or compiled to machine code, and based that way.
Nuitka compiles Python into C.[163] It works with Python 3.4 to 3.12 (and 2.6 and 2.7), for Python's main supported platforms (and Windows 7
or even Windows XP) and for Android. It claims complete support for Python 3.10, some support for 3.11 and 3.12 and experimental support
for Python 3.13. It supports macOS including Apple Silicon-based. It's a free compiler, though it also has commercial add-ons (e.g. for hiding
source code).
Numba is used from Python, as a tool (enabled by adding a decorator to relevant Python code), a JIT compiler that translates a subset of
Python and NumPy code into fast machine code.
Pythran compiles a subset of Python 3 to C++ (C++11).[164]
RPython can be compiled to C, and is used to build the PyPy interpreter of Python.
The Python → 11l → C++ transpiler[165] compiles a subset of Python 3 to C++ (C++17).
Specialized:
MyHDL is a Python-based hardware description language (HDL), that converts MyHDL code to Verilog or VHDL code.
Older projects (or not to be used with Python 3.x and latest syntax):
Google's Grumpy (latest release in 2017) transpiles Python 2 to Go.[166][167][168]
IronPython allows running Python 2.7 programs (and an alpha, released in 2021, is also available for "Python 3.4, although features and
behaviors from later versions may be included"[169]) on the .NET Common Language Runtime.[170]
Jython compiles Python 2.7 to Java bytecode, allowing the use of the Java libraries from a Python program.[171]
Pyrex (latest release in 2010) and Shed Skin (latest release in 2013) compile to C and C++ respectively.
Performance
Performance comparison of various Python implementations on a non-numerical (combinatorial) workload was presented at EuroSciPy '13.[172]
Python's performance compared to other programming languages is also benchmarked by The Computer Language Benchmarks Game.[173]
Development
Python's development is conducted largely through the Python Enhancement Proposal (PEP) process, the primary mechanism for proposing
major new features, collecting community input on issues, and documenting Python design decisions.[174] Python coding style is covered in
PEP 8.[175] Outstanding PEPs are reviewed and commented on by the Python community and the steering council.[174]
Enhancement of the language corresponds with the development of the CPython reference implementation. The mailing list python-dev is the
primary forum for the language's development. Specific issues were originally discussed in the Roundup bug tracker hosted at by the
foundation.[176] In 2022, all issues and discussions were migrated to GitHub.[177] Development originally took place on a self-hosted source-
code repository running Mercurial, until Python moved to GitHub in January 2017.[178]
CPython's public releases come in three types, distinguished by which part of the version number is incremented:
Backward-incompatible versions, where code is expected to break and needs to be manually ported. The first part of the version number is
incremented. These releases happen infrequently—version 3.0 was released 8 years after 2.0. According to Guido van Rossum, a version 4.0
is very unlikely to ever happen.[179]
Major or "feature" releases are largely compatible with the previous version but introduce new features. The second part of the version
number is incremented. Starting with Python 3.9, these releases are expected to happen annually.[180][181] Each major version is supported by
bug fixes for several years after its release.[182]
Bugfix releases,[183] which introduce no new features, occur about every 3 months and are made when a sufficient number of bugs have been
fixed upstream since the last release. Security vulnerabilities are also patched in these releases. The third and final part of the version
number is incremented.[183]
Many alpha, beta, and release-candidates are also released as previews and for testing before final releases. Although there is a rough
schedule for each release, they are often delayed if the code is not ready. Python's development team monitors the state of the code by running
the large unit test suite during development.[184]
The major academic conference on Python is PyCon. There are also special Python mentoring programs, such as PyLadies.
Python 3.12 removed wstr meaning Python extensions[185] need to be modified,[186] and 3.10 added pattern matching to the language.[187]
Python 3.12 dropped some outdated modules, and more will be dropped in the future, deprecated as of 3.13; already deprecated array 'u'
format code will emit DeprecationWarning since 3.13 and will be removed in Python 3.16. The 'w' format code should be used instead.
Part of ctypes is also deprecated and http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler will emit a DeprecationWarning, and will be removed in
3.15. Using that code already has a high potential for both security and functionality bugs. Parts of the typing module are deprecated, e.g.
creating a typing.NamedTuple class using keyword arguments to denote the fields and such (and more) will be disallowed in Python 3.15.
API documentation generators
Tools that can generate documentation for Python API include pydoc (available as part of the standard library), Sphinx, Pdoc and its forks,
Doxygen and Graphviz, among others.[188]
Naming
Python's name is derived from the British comedy group Monty Python, whom Python creator Guido van Rossum enjoyed while developing the
language. Monty Python references appear frequently in Python code and culture;[189] for example, the metasyntactic variables often used in
Python literature are spam and eggs instead of the traditional foo and bar.[189][190] The official Python documentation also contains various
references to Monty Python routines.[191][192] Users of Python are sometimes referred to as "Pythonistas".[193]
The prefix Py- is used to show that something is related to Python. Examples of the use of this prefix in names of Python applications or
libraries include Pygame, a binding of Simple DirectMedia Layer to Python (commonly used to create games); PyQt and PyGTK, which bind Qt
and GTK to Python respectively; and PyPy, a Python implementation originally written in Python.
Popularity
Since 2003, Python has consistently ranked in the top ten most popular programming languages in the TIOBE Programming Community Index
where as of December 2022 it was the most popular language (ahead of C, C++, and Java).[39] It was selected as Programming Language of the
Year (for "the highest rise in ratings in a year") in 2007, 2010, 2018, and 2020 (the only language to have done so four times as of 2020[194]).
Large organizations that use Python include Wikipedia, Google,[195] Yahoo!,[196] CERN,[197] NASA,[198] Facebook,[199] Amazon, Instagram,[200]
Spotify,[201] and some smaller entities like Industrial Light & Magic[202] and ITA.[203] The social news networking site Reddit was written mostly
in Python.[204] Organizations that partially use Python include Discord[205] and Baidu.[206]
Uses
Python Powered
Python can serve as a scripting language for web applications, e.g. via mod_wsgi for the Apache webserver.[207] With Web Server Gateway
Interface, a standard API has evolved to facilitate these applications. Web frameworks like Django, Pylons, Pyramid, TurboGears, web2py,
Tornado, Flask, Bottle, and Zope support developers in the design and maintenance of complex applications. Pyjs and IronPython can be used
to develop the client-side of Ajax-based applications. SQLAlchemy can be used as a data mapper to a relational database. Twisted is a
framework to program communications between computers, and is used (for example) by Dropbox.
Libraries such as NumPy, SciPy and Matplotlib allow the effective use of Python in scientific computing,[208][209] with specialized libraries such
as Biopython and Astropy providing domain-specific functionality. SageMath is a computer algebra system with a notebook interface
programmable in Python: its library covers many aspects of mathematics, including algebra, combinatorics, numerical mathematics, number
theory, and calculus.[210] OpenCV has Python bindings with a rich set of features for computer vision and image processing.[211]
Python is commonly used in artificial intelligence projects and machine learning projects with the help of libraries like TensorFlow, Keras,
Pytorch, scikit-learn and the Logic language ProbLog.[212][213][214][215][216] As a scripting language with a modular architecture, simple syntax,
and rich text processing tools, Python is often used for natural language processing.[217]
The combination of Python and Prolog has proved to be particularly useful for AI applications, with Prolog providing knowledge representation
and reasoning capabilities. The Janus system, in particular, exploits the similarities between these two languages, in part because of their use
of dynamic typing, and the simple recursive nature of their data structures. Typical applications of this combination include natural language
processing, visual query answering, geospatial reasoning, and handling of semantic web data.[218][219] The Natlog system, implemented in
Python, uses Definite Clause Grammars (DCGs) as prompt generators for text-to-text generators like GPT3 and text-to-image generators like
DALL-E or Stable Diffusion.[220]
Python can also be used for graphical user interface (GUI) by using libraries like Tkinter.[221][222]
Python has been successfully embedded in many software products as a scripting language, including in finite element method software such
as Abaqus, 3D parametric modelers like FreeCAD, 3D animation packages such as 3ds Max, Blender, Cinema 4D, Lightwave, Houdini, Maya,
modo, MotionBuilder, Softimage, the visual effects compositor Nuke, 2D imaging programs like GIMP,[223] Inkscape, Scribus and Paint Shop
Pro,[224] and musical notation programs like scorewriter and capella. GNU Debugger uses Python as a pretty printer to show complex structures
such as C++ containers. Esri promotes Python as the best choice for writing scripts in ArcGIS.[225] It has also been used in several video
games,[226][227] and has been adopted as first of the three available programming languages in Google App Engine, the other two being Java
and Go.[228]
Many operating systems include Python as a standard component. It ships with most Linux distributions,[229] AmigaOS 4 (using Python 2.7),
FreeBSD (as a package), NetBSD, and OpenBSD (as a package) and can be used from the command line (terminal). Many Linux distributions
use installers written in Python: Ubuntu uses the Ubiquity installer, while Red Hat Linux and Fedora Linux use the Anaconda installer. Gentoo
Linux uses Python in its package management system, Portage.
Python is used extensively in the information security industry, including in exploit development.[230][231]
Most of the Sugar software for the One Laptop per Child XO, developed at Sugar Labs as of 2008, is written in Python.[232] The Raspberry Pi
single-board computer project has adopted Python as its main user-programming language.
LibreOffice includes Python and intends to replace Java with Python. Its Python Scripting Provider is a core feature[233] since Version 4.0 from 7
February 2013.
Languages influenced by Python
Python's design and philosophy have influenced many other programming languages:
Boo uses indentation, a similar syntax, and a similar object model.[234]
Cobra uses indentation and a similar syntax, and its Acknowledgements document lists Python first among languages that influenced it.[235]
CoffeeScript, a programming language that cross-compiles to JavaScript, has Python-inspired syntax.
ECMAScript–JavaScript borrowed iterators and generators from Python.[236]
GDScript, a scripting language very similar to Python, built-in to the Godot game engine.[237]
Go is designed for the "speed of working in a dynamic language like Python"[238] and shares the same syntax for slicing arrays.
Groovy was motivated by the desire to bring the Python design philosophy to Java.[239]
Julia was designed to be "as usable for general programming as Python".[27]
Mojo is a non-strict[28][240] superset of Python (e.g. still missing classes, and adding e.g. struct).[241]
Nim uses indentation and similar syntax.[242]
Ruby's creator, Yukihiro Matsumoto, has said: "I wanted a scripting language that was more powerful than Perl, and more object-oriented than
Python. That's why I decided to design my own language."[243]
Swift, a programming language developed by Apple, has some Python-inspired syntax.[244]
Kotlin blends Python and Java features, minimizing boilerplate code for enhanced developer efficiency.[245]
Python's development practices have also been emulated by other languages. For example, the practice of requiring a document describing the
rationale for, and issues surrounding, a change to the language (in Python, a PEP) is also used in Tcl,[246] Erlang,[247] and Swift.[248]
See also
Python syntax and semantics Computer programming

portal
pip (package manager) Free and open-source
software portal
List of programming languages
History of programming languages
Comparison of programming languages
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Summerfield, Mark (2009). Programming in Python 3 (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley Professional. ISBN 978-0-321-68056-3.
Ramalho, Luciano (May 2022). Fluent Python (https://www.thoughtworks.com/insights/books/fluent-python-2nd-edition) . O'Reilly Media.

ISBN 978-1-4920-5632-4.
External links
Official website (https://www.python.org/)

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The designer of Python,

Beautiful is better than ugly. Dialects

Explicit is better than implicit. Cython, RPython, Starlark[11]

Complex is better than complicated.

Readability counts. APL,[15] C,[16] C++,[17] CLU,[18] Dylan,[19]

as a means of adding programmable interfaces to existing applications. Van Rossum's vision

Syntax and semantics

An example of Python code and

Example of C# code with curly braces

Statements and control flow

Python's statements include:

The assignment statement, using a single equals sign =

The def statement, which defines a function or method

The break statement, which exits a loop

The return statement, used to return a value from a function

Python's expressions include:

Python uses and , or , and not as Boolean operators.

Python has various string literals:

List comprehensions vs. for -loops

Conditional expressions vs. if blocks

The standard type hierarchy in

Type Mutability Description Syntax examples

Double-precision floating-point number. The precision is machine-dependent but in

[4.0, 'string', True]

{4.0, 'string', True}

(4.0, 'string', True)

def printer(input, input2="already there"):

"Hello, World!" program:

Program to calculate the factorial of a positive integer:

1 n = int(input('Type a number, and its factorial will be printed: '))

Data analytics Computer networking

Databases Scientific computing

Documentation System administration

Graphical user interfaces Test frameworks

Image processing Text processing

Machine learning Web frameworks

Mobile apps Web scraping

No longer supported implementations

Cross-compilers to other languages

Pythran compiles a subset of Python 3 to C++ (C++11).[164]

Google's Grumpy (latest release in 2017) transpiles Python 2 to Go.[166][167][168]

API documentation generators

Languages influenced by Python

Boo uses indentation, a similar syntax, and a similar object model.[234]

CoffeeScript, a programming language that cross-compiles to JavaScript, has Python-inspired syntax.

ECMAScript–JavaScript borrowed iterators and generators from Python.[236]

Julia was designed to be "as usable for general programming as Python".[27]

Nim uses indentation and similar syntax.[242]

Swift, a programming language developed by Apple, has some Python-inspired syntax.[244]

Python syntax and semantics Computer programming

History of programming languages

Comparison of programming languages

ZIP Application Support" (https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep- seerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.38.2023) .

ylark/language.html) . Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2 eb.archive.org/web/20121023030209/http://docs.python.org/tut

18. Lundh, Fredrik. "Call By Object" (http://effbot.org/zone/call-by-obj

4 January 2024. makes Python Go" (https://www.theregister.com/2017/01/05/go

199. "Tornado: Facebook's Real-Time Web Framework for Python –

7 July 2014. 219. "SWI-Prolog Python interface" (https://www.swi-prolog.org/pldo

210. Science education with SageMath (https://web.archive.org/web/2 c/doc_for?object=section(%27packages/janus.html%27)) .

age.html) , Innovative Computing in Science Education, archived www.swi-prolog.org/pldoc/doc_for?object=section%28%27packa

from the original (http://visual.icse.us.edu.pl/methodology/why_ ges%2Fjanus.html%27%29) from the original on 15 March

4.9/d6/d00/tutorial_py_root.html) . docs.opencv.org. Archived (h expressiveness in logic-based programming languages. In

cv.org/3.4.9/d6/d00/tutorial_py_root.html) from the original on Switzerland.

on 15 July 2010. g/web/20070405085722/http://radio.weblogs.com/0112098/20

10 January 2020. y-mojo.html) . docs.modular.com. Archived (https://web.archive.

if/elif/then/else blocks are constructed)." EEP Purpose and Guidelines" (http://www.erlang.org/eeps/eep-0

"Python for Artificial Intelligence" (https://web.archive.org/web/20121101045354/http://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonForArtificialIntelligenc

Paine, Jocelyn, ed. (August 2005). "AI in Python" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120326105810/http://www.ainewsletter.com/newsletters/a

Ramalho, Luciano (May 2022). Fluent Python (https://www.thoughtworks.com/insights/books/fluent-python-2nd-edition) . O'Reilly Media.

Official website (https://www.python.org/)

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