Python (programming language)

Python is a high-level, general-purpose programming language. Its design philosophy

emphasizes code readability with the use of significant indentation.[32]

Python is dynamically typed and garbage-collected. It supports multiple programming

paradigms, including structured (particularly procedural), object-oriented and functional
programming. It is often described as a "batteries included" language due to its
comprehensive standard library.[33][34]

Guido van Rossum began working on Python in the late 1980s as a successor to the ABC
programming language and first released it in 1991 as Python 0.9.0.[35] Python 2.0 was
released in 2000. Python 3.0, released in 2008, was a major revision not completely
backward-compatible with earlier versions. Python 2.7.18, released in 2020, was the last
release of Python 2.[36]

Python consistently ranks as one of the most popular programming languages, and has
gained widespread use in the machine learning community.[37][38][39][40]

History

The designer of Python,

Guido van Rossum, at
OSCON 2006

Python was invented in the late 1980s[41] by Guido van Rossum at Centrum Wiskunde &
Informatica (CWI) in the Netherlands as a successor to the ABC programming language, which
was inspired by SETL,[42] capable of exception handling and interfacing with the Amoeba
operating system.[12] Its implementation began in December 1989.[43] Van Rossum
shouldered sole responsibility for the
Python
project, as the lead developer, until 12 July
2018, when he announced his "permanent
vacation" from his responsibilities as
Python's "benevolent dictator for life"
(BDFL), a title the Python community bestowed
upon him to reflect his long-term
commitment as the project's chief decision-
Paradigm Multi-paradigm:
[44]
maker (he has since come out of object-oriented,[1]
retirement and is self-titled "BDFL- procedural
emeritus"). In January 2019, active Python (imperative),
core developers elected a five-member functional,
Steering Council to lead the project.[45][46] structured,
reflective
Python 2.0 was released on 16 October 2000,
Designed by Guido van Rossum
with many major new features such as list
comprehensions, cycle-detecting garbage Developer Python Software
collection, reference counting, and Unicode Foundation
support.[47] Python 3.0 was released on 3
First appeared 20 February 1991[2]
December 2008, with many of its major
features backported to Python 2.6.x[48] and
Stable release 3.13.0 / 7 October
2.7.x. Releases of Python 3 include the 2to3
2024
utility, which automates the translation of
Python 2 code to Python 3.[49] Typing discipline duck, dynamic,
strong;[3] optional
Python 2.7's end-of-life was initially set for type annotations
2015, then postponed to 2020 out of concern (since 3.5, but

that a large body of existing code could not those hints are
ignored, except
easily be forward-ported to Python 3.[50][51]
with unofficial
No further security patches or other
tools)[4]
[52][53]
improvements will be released for it.
Currently only 3.9 and later are supported OS Tier 1: 64-bit Linux,
(2023 security issues were fixed in e.g. 3.7.17, macOS; 64- and 32-

the final 3.7.x release[54]). While Python 2.7 bit Windows 10+[5]
Tier 2: E.g. 32-bit
and older is officially unsupported, a
WebAssembly (WASI)
different unofficial Python implementation,
Tier 3: 64-bit
PyPy, continues to support Python 2, i.e.
Android,[6] iOS,
"2.7.18+" (plus 3.10), with the plus meaning FreeBSD, and (32-

(at least some) "backported security bit) Raspberry Pi OS

Unofficial (or has
updates".[55]
been known to
In 2021 (and again twice in 2022, and in work): Other Unix-

September 2024 for Python 3.12.6 down to like/BSD variants)

and a few other
3.8.20), security updates were expedited,
platforms[7][8][9]
since all Python versions were insecure
(including 2.7[56]) because of security issues License Python Software
[57]
leading to possible remote code execution Foundation License
and web-cache poisoning.[58] In 2022,
Filename .py, .pyw, .pyz,[10]
Python 3.10.4 and 3.9.12 were expedited[59] extensions .pyi, .pyc, .pyd
and 3.8.13, because of many security
issues.[60] When Python 3.9.13 was released in Website python.org (http
s://www.python.or
May 2022, it was announced that the 3.9 series
g/)
(joining the older series 3.8 and 3.7) would
only receive security fixes in the future.[61] Major implementations
On 7 September 2022, four new releases were
CPython, PyPy, Stackless Python,
made due to a potential denial-of-service
MicroPython, CircuitPython, IronPython,
attack: 3.10.7, 3.9.14, 3.8.14, and
Jython
3.7.14.[62][63]
Dialects
Every Python release since 3.5 has added some
Cython, RPython, Starlark[11]
syntax to the language. 3.10 added the |
union type operator[64] and the match and Influenced by
case keywords (for structural pattern
ABC,[12] Ada,[13] ALGOL 68,[14]
matching statements). 3.11 expanded APL,[15] C,[16] C++,[17] CLU,[18] Dylan,[19]
exception handling functionality. Python 3.12 Haskell,[20][15] Icon,[21] Lisp,[22]
added the new keyword type . Notable Modula-3,[14][17] Perl,[23] Standard ML[15]
changes in 3.11 from 3.10 include increased
Influenced
program execution speed and improved error
reporting.[65] Python 3.11 claims to be Apache Groovy, Boo, Cobra,
between 10 and 60% faster than Python 3.10, CoffeeScript,[24] D, F#, GDScript, Go,

and Python 3.12 adds another 5% on top of JavaScript,[25][26] Julia,[27] Mojo,[28] Nim,
Ring,[29] Ruby,[30] Swift[31]
that. It also has improved error messages,
and many other changes. Python Programming at Wikibooks
Python 3.13 introduces more syntax for types, a new and improved interactive interpreter
(REPL), featuring multi-line editing and color support; an incremental garbage collector
(producing shorter pauses for collection in programs with a lot of objects, and addition to
the improved speed in 3.11 and 3.12), and an experimental just-in-time (JIT) compiler (such
features, can/needs to be enabled specifically for the increase in speed),[66] and an
experimental free-threaded build mode, which disables the global interpreter lock (GIL),
allowing threads to run more concurrently, that latter feature enabled with python3.13t
or python3.13t.exe .

Python 3.13 introduces some change in behavior, i.e. new "well-defined semantics", fixing
bugs (plus many removals of deprecated classes, functions and methods, and removed some
of the C API and outdated modules): "The [old] implementation of locals() and
frame.f_locals is slow, inconsistent and buggy [and it has] has many corner cases and
oddities. Code that works around those may need to be changed. Code that uses locals()
for simple templating, or print debugging, will continue to work correctly."[67]

Since 7 October 2024, Python 3.13 is the latest stable release, and 3.13 and 3.12 are the only
versions with active (as opposed to just security) support and Python 3.9 is the oldest
supported version of Python (albeit in the 'security support' phase), due to Python 3.8
reaching end-of-life.[68] Starting with 3.13, it and later versions have 2 years of full support
(up from one and a half); followed by 3 years of security support (for same total support as
before).

Some (more) standard library modules and many deprecated classes, functions and methods,
will be removed in Python 3.15 or 3.16.[69][70]

Python 3.14 (now in alpha 1)[71] has changes for annotations, with PEP 649 "[preserving]
nearly all existing behavior of annotations from stock semantics".[72]

Design philosophy and features

Python is a multi-paradigm programming language. Object-oriented programming and

structured programming are fully supported, and many of their features support
functional programming and aspect-oriented programming (including metaprogramming[73]
and metaobjects).[74] Many other paradigms are supported via extensions, including design
by contract[75][76] and logic programming.[77] Python is known as a glue language,[78] able to
work very well with many other languages with ease of access.
Python uses dynamic typing and a combination of reference counting and a cycle-detecting
garbage collector for memory management.[79] It uses dynamic name resolution (late
binding), which binds method and variable names during program execution.

Its design offers some support for functional programming in the Lisp tradition. It has
filter , map and reduce functions; list comprehensions, dictionaries, sets, and
generator expressions.[80] The standard library has two modules ( itertools and
functools ) that implement functional tools borrowed from Haskell and Standard ML.[81]

Its core philosophy is summarized in the Zen of Python (PEP 20), which includes aphorisms
such as:[82]

Beautiful is better than ugly.

Explicit is better than implicit.

Simple is better than complex.

Complex is better than complicated.

Readability counts.

However, Python features regularly violate these principles and have received criticism for
adding unnecessary language bloat.[83] Responses to these criticisms are that the Zen of
Python is a guideline rather than a rule.[84] The addition of some new features had been so
controversial that Guido van Rossum resigned as Benevolent Dictator for Life following
vitriol over the addition of the assignment expression operator in Python 3.8.[85][86]

Nevertheless, rather than building all of its functionality into its core, Python was designed
to be highly extensible via modules. This compact modularity has made it particularly
popular as a means of adding programmable interfaces to existing applications. Van
Rossum's vision of a small core language with a large standard library and easily extensible
interpreter stemmed from his frustrations with ABC, which espoused the opposite
approach.[41]

Python claims to strive for a simpler, less-cluttered syntax and grammar while giving
developers a choice in their coding methodology. In contrast to Perl's "there is more than
one way to do it" motto, Python embraces a "there should be one—and preferably only one—
obvious way to do it." philosophy.[82] In practice, however, Python provides many ways to
achieve the same task. There are, for example, at least three ways to format a string literal,
with no certainty as to which one a programmer should use.[87] Alex Martelli, a Fellow at the
Python Software Foundation and Python book author, wrote: "To describe something as
'clever' is not considered a compliment in the Python culture."[88]

Python's developers usually strive to avoid premature optimization and reject patches to
non-critical parts of the CPython reference implementation that would offer marginal
increases in speed at the cost of clarity.[89] Execution speed can be improved by moving
speed-critical functions to extension modules written in languages such as C, or by using a
just-in-time compiler like PyPy. It is also possible to cross-compile to other languages, but
it either doesn't provide the full speed-up that might be expected, since Python is a very
dynamic language, or a restricted subset of Python is compiled, and possibly semantics are
slightly changed.[90]

Python's developers aim for it to be fun to use. This is reflected in its name—a tribute to the
British comedy group Monty Python[91]—and in occasionally playful approaches to tutorials
and reference materials, such as the use of the terms "spam" and "eggs" (a reference to a
Monty Python sketch) in examples, instead of the often-used "foo" and "bar".[92][93] A
common neologism in the Python community is pythonic, which has a wide range of meanings
related to program style. "Pythonic" code may use Python idioms well, be natural or show
fluency in the language, or conform with Python's minimalist philosophy and emphasis on
readability. Code that is difficult to understand or reads like a rough transcription from
another programming language is called unpythonic.[94]

Syntax and semantics

An example of Python code and

indentation
 Example of C# code with curly braces
and semicolons

Python is meant to be an easily readable language. Its formatting is visually uncluttered and
often uses English keywords where other languages use punctuation. Unlike many other
languages, it does not use curly brackets to delimit blocks, and semicolons after statements
are allowed but rarely used. It has fewer syntactic exceptions and special cases than C or
Pascal.[95]

Indentation

Python uses whitespace indentation, rather than curly brackets or keywords, to delimit
blocks. An increase in indentation comes after certain statements; a decrease in indentation
signifies the end of the current block.[96] Thus, the program's visual structure accurately
represents its semantic structure.[97] This feature is sometimes termed the off-side rule.
Some other languages use indentation this way; but in most, indentation has no semantic
meaning. The recommended indent size is four spaces.[98]

Statements and control flow

Python's statements include:

The assignment statement, using a single equals sign =

The if statement, which conditionally executes a block of code, along with else and
elif (a contraction of else-if)

The for statement, which iterates over an iterable object, capturing each element to a
local variable for use by the attached block

The while statement, which executes a block of code as long as its condition is true

The try statement, which allows exceptions raised in its attached code block to be caught
and handled by except clauses (or new syntax except* in Python 3.11 for exception
 groups[99]); it also ensures that clean-up code in a finally block is always run
regardless of how the block exits

The raise statement, used to raise a specified exception or re-raise a caught exception

The class statement, which executes a block of code and attaches its local namespace to
a class, for use in object-oriented programming

The def statement, which defines a function or method

The with statement, which encloses a code block within a context manager (for example,
acquiring a lock before it is run, then releasing the lock; or opening and closing a file),
allowing resource-acquisition-is-initialization (RAII)-like behavior and replacing a
common try/finally idiom[100]

The break statement, which exits a loop

The continue statement, which skips the rest of the current iteration and continues
with the next

The del statement, which removes a variable—deleting the reference from the name to
the value, and producing an error if the variable is referred to before it is redefined

The pass statement, serving as a NOP, syntactically needed to create an empty code block

The assert statement, used in debugging to check for conditions that should apply

The yield statement, which returns a value from a generator function (and also an
operator); used to implement coroutines

The return statement, used to return a value from a function

The import and from statements, used to import modules whose functions or variables
can be used in the current program

The match and case statements, an analog of the switch statement construct, that
compares an expression against one or more cases as a control-of-flow measure.

The assignment statement ( = ) binds a name as a reference to a separate, dynamically

allocated object. Variables may subsequently be rebound at any time to any object. In
Python, a variable name is a generic reference holder without a fixed data type; however, it
always refers to some object with a type. This is called dynamic typing—in contrast to
statically-typed languages, where each variable may contain only a value of a certain type.
Python does not support tail call optimization or first-class continuations, and, according
to Van Rossum, it never will.[101][102] However, better support for coroutine-like
functionality is provided by extending Python's generators.[103] Before 2.5, generators were
lazy iterators; data was passed unidirectionally out of the generator. From Python 2.5 on, it
is possible to pass data back into a generator function; and from version 3.3, it can be
passed through multiple stack levels.[104]

Expressions

Python's expressions include:

The + , - , and * operators for mathematical addition, subtraction, and multiplication

are similar to other languages, but the behavior of division differs. There are two types of
divisions in Python: floor division (or integer division) // and floating-
point / division.[105] Python uses the ** operator for exponentiation.

Python uses the + operator for string concatenation. Python uses the * operator for
duplicating a string a specified number of times.

The @ infix operator. It is intended to be used by libraries such as NumPy for matrix
multiplication.[106][107]

The syntax := , called the "walrus operator", was introduced in Python 3.8. It assigns
values to variables as part of a larger expression.[108]

In Python, == compares by value. Python's is operator may be used to compare object

identities (comparison by reference), and comparisons may be chained—for example, a
<= b <= c .

Python uses and , or , and not as Boolean operators.

Python has a type of expression named a list comprehension, and a more general
expression named a generator expression.[80]

Anonymous functions are implemented using lambda expressions; however, there may be
only one expression in each body.
[109]
Conditional expressions are written as x if c else y (different in order of
operands from the c ? x : y operator common to many other languages).

Python makes a distinction between lists and tuples. Lists are written as [1, 2, 3] , are
mutable, and cannot be used as the keys of dictionaries (dictionary keys must be
immutable in Python). Tuples, written as (1, 2, 3) , are immutable and thus can be used
as keys of dictionaries, provided all of the tuple's elements are immutable. The +
operator can be used to concatenate two tuples, which does not directly modify their
contents, but produces a new tuple containing the elements of both. Thus, given the
variable t initially equal to (1, 2, 3) , executing t = t + (4, 5) first evaluates t
+ (4, 5) , which yields (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) , which is then assigned back to t —thereby
effectively "modifying the contents" of t while conforming to the immutable nature of
tuple objects. Parentheses are optional for tuples in unambiguous contexts.[110]

Python features sequence unpacking where multiple expressions, each evaluating to

anything that can be assigned (to a variable, writable property, etc.) are associated in an
identical manner to that forming tuple literals—and, as a whole, are put on the left-hand
side of the equal sign in an assignment statement. The statement expects an iterable object
on the right-hand side of the equal sign that produces the same number of values as the
provided writable expressions; when iterated through them, it assigns each of the
produced values to the corresponding expression on the left.[111]

Python has a "string format" operator % that functions analogously to printf format
strings in C—e.g. "spam=%s eggs=%d" % ("blah", 2) evaluates to "spam=blah
eggs=2" . In Python 2.6+ and 3+, this was supplemented by the format() method of the
str class, e.g. "spam={0} eggs={1}".format("blah", 2) . Python 3.6 added "f-
strings": spam = "blah"; eggs = 2; f'spam={spam} eggs={eggs}' .[112]

Strings in Python can be concatenated by "adding" them (with the same operator as for
adding integers and floats), e.g. "spam" + "eggs" returns "spameggs" . If strings
contain numbers, they are added as strings rather than integers, e.g. "2" + "2"
returns "22" .

Python has various string literals:

Delimited by single or double quotes; unlike in Unix shells, Perl, and Perl-influenced
languages, single and double quotes work the same. Both use the backslash ( \ ) as an
escape character. String interpolation became available in Python 3.6 as "formatted
string literals".[112]

Triple-quoted (beginning and ending with three single or double quotes), which may
span multiple lines and function like here documents in shells, Perl, and Ruby.

Raw string varieties, denoted by prefixing the string literal with r . Escape sequences
are not interpreted; hence raw strings are useful where literal backslashes are
 common, such as regular expressions and Windows-style paths. (Compare " @ -
quoting" in C#.)

Python has array index and array slicing expressions in lists, denoted as a[key] ,
a[start:stop] or a[start:stop:step] . Indexes are zero-based, and negative
indexes are relative to the end. Slices take elements from the start index up to, but not
including, the stop index. The third slice parameter, called step or stride, allows elements
to be skipped and reversed. Slice indexes may be omitted—for example, a[:] returns a
copy of the entire list. Each element of a slice is a shallow copy.

In Python, a distinction between expressions and statements is rigidly enforced, in contrast

to languages such as Common Lisp, Scheme, or Ruby. This leads to duplicating some
functionality. For example:

List comprehensions vs. for -loops

Conditional expressions vs. if blocks

The eval() vs. exec() built-in functions (in Python 2, exec is a statement); the
former is for expressions, the latter is for statements

Statements cannot be a part of an expression—so list and other comprehensions or lambda

expressions, all being expressions, cannot contain statements. A particular case is that an
assignment statement such as a = 1 cannot form part of the conditional expression of a
conditional statement.

Methods

Methods on objects are functions attached to the object's class; the syntax
instance.method(argument) is, for normal methods and functions, syntactic sugar for
Class.method(instance, argument) . Python methods have an explicit self
parameter to access instance data, in contrast to the implicit self (or this ) in some other
object-oriented programming languages (e.g., C++, Java, Objective-C, Ruby).[113] Python also
provides methods, often called dunder methods (due to their names beginning and ending
with double-underscores), to allow user-defined classes to modify how they are handled by
native operations including length, comparison, in arithmetic operations and type
conversion.[114]
Typing

The standard type hierarchy in

Python 3

Python uses duck typing and has typed objects but untyped variable names. Type constraints
are not checked at compile time; rather, operations on an object may fail, signifying that it
is not of a suitable type. Despite being dynamically typed, Python is strongly typed,
forbidding operations that are not well-defined (for example, adding a number to a string)
rather than silently attempting to make sense of them.

Python allows programmers to define their own types using classes, most often used for
object-oriented programming. New instances of classes are constructed by calling the class
(for example, SpamClass() or EggsClass() ), and the classes are instances of the
metaclass type (itself an instance of itself), allowing metaprogramming and reflection.

Before version 3.0, Python had two kinds of classes (both using the same syntax): old-style
and new-style;[115] current Python versions only support the semantics of the new style.

Python supports optional type annotations.[4][116] These annotations are not enforced by the
language, but may be used by external tools such as mypy to catch errors.[117][118] Mypy also
supports a Python compiler called mypyc, which leverages type annotations for
optimization.[119]
Summary of Python 3's built-in types

Type Mutability Description Syntax examples

True
bool immutable Boolean value
False

bytearray(b'Some
ASCII')
bytearray(b"Some
bytearray mutable Sequence of bytes
ASCII")
bytearray([119,
105, 107, 105])

b'Some ASCII'
b"Some ASCII"
bytes immutable Sequence of bytes
bytes([119, 105,
107, 105])

Complex number with real and 3+2.7j

complex immutable
imaginary parts 3 + 2.7j

Associative array (or dictionary) of key

{'key1': 1.0, 3:
and value pairs; can contain mixed types
dict mutable False}
(keys and values), keys must be a
{}
hashable type

An ellipsis placeholder to be used as an ...

types.EllipsisType immutable
index in NumPy arrays Ellipsis

Double-precision floating-point
number. The precision is machine-
float immutable dependent but in practice is generally 1.33333
implemented as a 64-bit IEEE 754
number with 53 bits of precision.[120]

Unordered set, contains no duplicates; frozenset([4.0,

frozenset immutable
can contain mixed types, if hashable 'string', True])

int immutable Integer of unlimited magnitude[121] 42

[4.0, 'string',
list mutable List, can contain mixed types True]
[]

An object representing the absence of a

types.NoneType immutable value, often called null in other None
languages

A placeholder that can be returned

types.NotImplementedType immutable from overloaded operators to indicate NotImplemented
unsupported operand types.
 An immutable sequence of numbers
range(−1, 10)
range immutable commonly used for looping a specific
range(10, −5, −2)
number of times in for loops[122]

{4.0, 'string',
Unordered set, contains no duplicates;
set mutable True}
can contain mixed types, if hashable
set()

'Wikipedia'
"Wikipedia"

"""Spanning
multiple
A character string: sequence of Unicode lines"""
str immutable
codepoints

Spanning
multiple
lines

(4.0, 'string',
True)
tuple immutable Can contain mixed types ('single
element',)
()

Arithmetic operations

Python has the usual symbols for arithmetic operators ( + , - , * , / ), the floor division
operator // and the modulo operation % (where the remainder can be negative, e.g. 4 %
-3 == -2 ). It also has ** for exponentiation, e.g. 5**3 == 125 and 9**0.5 == 3.0 ,
and a matrix‑multiplication operator @ .[123] These operators work like in traditional math;
with the same precedence rules, the operators infix ( + and - can also be unary to
represent positive and negative numbers respectively).

The division between integers produces floating-point results. The behavior of division has
changed significantly over time:[124]

Current Python (i.e. since 3.0) changed / to always be floating-point division, e.g.
5/2 == 2.5 .

The floor division // operator was introduced. So 7//3 == 2 , -7//3 == -3 , 7.5//3

== 2.0 and -7.5//3 == -3.0 . Adding from __future__ import division causes
a module used in Python 2.7 to use Python 3.0 rules for division (see above).
In Python terms, / is true division (or simply division), and // is floor division. / before
version 3.0 is classic division.[124]

Rounding towards negative infinity, though different from most languages, adds
consistency. For instance, it means that the equation (a + b)//b == a//b + 1 is always
true. It also means that the equation b*(a//b) + a%b == a is valid for both positive and
negative values of a . However, maintaining the validity of this equation means that while the
result of a%b is, as expected, in the half-open interval [0, b), where b is a positive
integer, it has to lie in the interval (b, 0] when b is negative.[125]

Python provides a round function for rounding a float to the nearest integer. For tie-
breaking, Python 3 uses round to even: round(1.5) and round(2.5) both produce
2 .[126] Versions before 3 used round-away-from-zero: round(0.5) is 1.0 ,
round(-0.5) is −1.0 .[127]

Python allows Boolean expressions with multiple equality relations in a manner that is
consistent with general use in mathematics. For example, the expression a < b < c tests
whether a is less than b and b is less than c .[128] C-derived languages interpret this
expression differently: in C, the expression would first evaluate a < b , resulting in 0 or 1,
and that result would then be compared with c .[129]

Python uses arbitrary-precision arithmetic for all integer operations. The Decimal
type/class in the decimal module provides decimal floating-point numbers to a pre-
defined arbitrary precision and several rounding modes.[130] The Fraction class in the
fractions module provides arbitrary precision for rational numbers.[131]

Due to Python's extensive mathematics library, and the third-party library NumPy that
further extends the native capabilities, it is frequently used as a scientific scripting
language to aid in problems such as numerical data processing and manipulation.[132][133]

Programming examples

"Hello, World!" program:

print('Hello, world!')
Program to calculate the factorial of a positive integer:

1 n = int(input('Type a number, and its factorial will be printed:

'))
2
3 if n < 0:
4 raise ValueError('You must enter a non-negative integer')
5
6 factorial = 1
7 for i in range(2, n + 1):
8 factorial *= i
9
10 print(factorial)

Libraries

Python's large standard library[134] provides tools suited to many tasks and is commonly
cited as one of its greatest strengths. For Internet-facing applications, many standard
formats and protocols such as MIME and HTTP are supported. It includes modules for
creating graphical user interfaces, connecting to relational databases, generating
pseudorandom numbers, arithmetic with arbitrary-precision decimals,[130] manipulating
regular expressions, and unit testing.

Some parts of the standard library are covered by specifications—for example, the Web
Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) implementation wsgiref follows PEP 333[135]—but most
are specified by their code, internal documentation, and test suites. However, because most
of the standard library is cross-platform Python code, only a few modules need altering or
rewriting for variant implementations.

As of 17 March 2024, the Python Package Index (PyPI), the official repository for third-party
Python software, contains over 523,000[136] packages with a wide range of functionality,
including:

Automation

Data analytics

Databases

Documentation

Graphical user interfaces

 Image processing

Machine learning

Mobile apps

Multimedia

Computer networking

Scientific computing

System administration

Test frameworks

Text processing

Web frameworks

Web scraping

Development environments

Most Python implementations (including CPython) include a read–eval–print loop (REPL),

permitting them to function as a command line interpreter for which users enter
statements sequentially and receive results immediately.

Python also comes with an Integrated development environment (IDE) called IDLE, which is
more beginner-oriented.

Other shells, including IDLE and IPython, add further abilities such as improved auto-
completion, session state retention, and syntax highlighting.

As well as standard desktop integrated development environments including PyCharm,

IntelliJ Idea, Visual Studio Code etc, there are web browser-based IDEs, including SageMath,
for developing science- and math-related programs; PythonAnywhere, a browser-based IDE
and hosting environment; and Canopy IDE, a commercial IDE emphasizing scientific
computing.[137]
Implementations

Reference implementation

CPython is the reference implementation of Python. It is written in C, meeting the C89

standard (Python 3.11 uses C11[138]) with several select C99 features. CPython includes its own
C extensions, but third-party extensions are not limited to older C versions—e.g. they can be
implemented with C11 or C++.[139][140] CPython compiles Python programs into an
intermediate bytecode[141] which is then executed by its virtual machine.[142] CPython is
distributed with a large standard library written in a mixture of C and native Python, and is
available for many platforms, including Windows (starting with Python 3.9, the Python
installer deliberately fails to install on Windows 7 and 8;[143][144] Windows XP was supported
until Python 3.5) and most modern Unix-like systems, including macOS (and Apple M1 Macs,
since Python 3.9.1, with experimental installer), with unofficial support for VMS.[145]
Platform portability was one of its earliest priorities.[146] (During Python 1 and 2
development, even OS/2 and Solaris were supported,[147] but support has since been dropped
for many platforms.)

All current Python versions (i.e. since 3.7) only support operating systems with multi-
threading support.

Other implementations

All alternative implementations have at least slightly different semantics (e.g. may have
unordered dictionaries, unlike all current Python versions), e.g. with the larger Python
ecosystem, such as with supporting the C Python API of with PyPy:

PyPy is a fast, compliant interpreter of Python 2.7 and 3.10.[148][149] Its just-in-time
compiler often brings a significant speed improvement over CPython, but some libraries
written in C cannot be used with it.[150] It has e.g. RISC-V support.

Codon (https://github.com/exaloop/codon) is a language with an ahead-of-time (AOT)

compiler, that (AOT) compiles a statically-typed Python-like language with "syntax and
semantics are nearly identical to Python's, there are some notable differences"[151] e.g. it
uses 64-bit machine integers, for speed, not arbitrary like Python, and it claims speedups
over CPython are usually on the order of 10–100x. It compiles to machine code (via LLVM)
 and supports native multithreading.[152] Codon can also compile to Python extension
modules that can be imported and used from Python.

Stackless Python is a significant fork of CPython that implements microthreads; it does

not use the call stack in the same way, thus allowing massively concurrent programs. PyPy
also has a stackless version.[153]

MicroPython and CircuitPython are Python 3 variants optimized for microcontrollers,

including Lego Mindstorms EV3.[154]

Pyston is a variant of the Python runtime that uses just-in-time compilation to speed up
the execution of Python programs.[155]

Cinder is a performance-oriented fork of CPython 3.8 that contains a number of

optimizations, including bytecode inline caching, eager evaluation of coroutines, a
method-at-a-time JIT, and an experimental bytecode compiler.[156]
[157][158][159]
Snek (https://sneklang.org/) Embedded Computing Language (compatible with
e.g. 8-bit AVR microcontrollers such as ATmega 328P-based Arduino, as well as larger ones
compatible with MicroPython) "is Python-inspired, but it is not Python. It is possible to
write Snek programs that run under a full Python system, but most Python programs will
not run under Snek."[160] It is an imperative language not including OOP / classes, unlike
Python, and simplifying to one number type with 32-bit single-precision (similar to
JavaScript, except smaller).

No longer supported implementations

Other just-in-time Python compilers have been developed, but are now unsupported:

Google began a project named Unladen Swallow in 2009, with the aim of speeding up the
Python interpreter five-fold by using the LLVM, and of improving its multithreading ability
to scale to thousands of cores,[161] while ordinary implementations suffer from the global
interpreter lock.

Psyco is a discontinued just-in-time specializing compiler that integrates with CPython

and transforms bytecode to machine code at runtime. The emitted code is specialized for
certain data types and is faster than the standard Python code. Psyco does not support
Python 2.7 or later.

PyS60 was a Python 2 interpreter for Series 60 mobile phones released by Nokia in 2005. It
implemented many of the modules from the standard library and some additional modules
for integrating with the Symbian operating system. The Nokia N900 also supports Python
 with GTK widget libraries, enabling programs to be written and run on the target
device.[162]

Cross-compilers to other languages

There are several compilers/transpilers to high-level object languages, with either

unrestricted Python, a restricted subset of Python, or a language similar to Python as the
source language:

Brython,[163] Transcrypt[164][165] and Pyjs (latest release in 2012) compile Python to

JavaScript.

Cython compiles (a superset of) Python to C. The resulting code is also usable with Python
via direct C-level API calls into the Python interpreter.

PyJL compiles/transpiles a subset of Python to "human-readable, maintainable, and high-

performance Julia source code".[90] Despite claiming high performance, no tool can claim
to do that for arbitrary Python code; i.e. it's known not possible to compile to a faster
language or machine code. Unless semantics of Python are changed, but in many cases
speedup is possible with few or no changes in the Python code. The faster Julia source code
can then be used from Python, or compiled to machine code, and based that way.

Nuitka compiles Python into C.[166] It works with Python 3.4 to 3.12 (and 2.6 and 2.7), for
Python's main supported platforms (and Windows 7 or even Windows XP) and for Android. It
claims complete support for Python 3.10, some support for 3.11 and 3.12 and experimental
support for Python 3.13. It supports macOS including Apple Silicon-based. It's a free
compiler, though it also has commercial add-ons (e.g. for hiding source code).

Numba is used from Python, as a tool (enabled by adding a decorator to relevant Python
code), a JIT compiler that translates a subset of Python and NumPy code into fast machine
code.

Pythran compiles a subset of Python 3 to C++ (C++11).[167]

RPython can be compiled to C, and is used to build the PyPy interpreter of Python.

The Python → 11l → C++ transpiler[168] compiles a subset of Python 3 to C++ (C++17).

Specialized:

MyHDL is a Python-based hardware description language (HDL), that converts MyHDL code
to Verilog or VHDL code.

Older projects (or not to be used with Python 3.x and latest syntax):
 Google's Grumpy (latest release in 2017) transpiles Python 2 to Go.[169][170][171]

IronPython allows running Python 2.7 programs (and an alpha, released in 2021, is also
available for "Python 3.4, although features and behaviors from later versions may be
included"[172]) on the .NET Common Language Runtime.[173]

Jython compiles Python 2.7 to Java bytecode, allowing the use of the Java libraries from a
Python program.[174]

Pyrex (latest release in 2010) and Shed Skin (latest release in 2013) compile to C and C++
respectively.

Performance

Performance comparison of various Python implementations on a non-numerical

(combinatorial) workload was presented at EuroSciPy '13.[175] Python's performance
compared to other programming languages is also benchmarked by The Computer Language
Benchmarks Game.[176]

Development

Python's development is conducted largely through the Python Enhancement Proposal (PEP)
process, the primary mechanism for proposing major new features, collecting community
input on issues, and documenting Python design decisions.[177] Python coding style is covered
in PEP 8.[178] Outstanding PEPs are reviewed and commented on by the Python community and
the steering council.[177]

Enhancement of the language corresponds with the development of the CPython reference
implementation. The mailing list python-dev is the primary forum for the language's
development. Specific issues were originally discussed in the Roundup bug tracker hosted at
by the foundation.[179] In 2022, all issues and discussions were migrated to GitHub.[180]
Development originally took place on a self-hosted source-code repository running
Mercurial, until Python moved to GitHub in January 2017.[181]

CPython's public releases come in three types, distinguished by which part of the version
number is incremented:

Backward-incompatible versions, where code is expected to break and needs to be

manually ported. The first part of the version number is incremented. These releases
happen infrequently—version 3.0 was released 8 years after 2.0. According to Guido van
Rossum, a version 4.0 is very unlikely to ever happen.[182]
 Major or "feature" releases are largely compatible with the previous version but
introduce new features. The second part of the version number is incremented. Starting
with Python 3.9, these releases are expected to happen annually.[183][184] Each major
version is supported by bug fixes for several years after its release.[185]

Bugfix releases,[186] which introduce no new features, occur about every 3 months and are
made when a sufficient number of bugs have been fixed upstream since the last release.
Security vulnerabilities are also patched in these releases. The third and final part of the
version number is incremented.[186]

Many alpha, beta, and release-candidates are also released as previews and for testing
before final releases. Although there is a rough schedule for each release, they are often
delayed if the code is not ready. Python's development team monitors the state of the code by
running the large unit test suite during development.[187]

The major academic conference on Python is PyCon. There are also special Python mentoring
programs, such as PyLadies.

Python 3.12 removed wstr meaning Python extensions[188] need to be modified,[189] and 3.10
added pattern matching to the language.[190]

Python 3.12 dropped some outdated modules, and more will be dropped in the future,
deprecated as of 3.13; already deprecated array 'u' format code will emit
DeprecationWarning since 3.13 and will be removed in Python 3.16. The 'w' format code
should be used instead. Part of ctypes is also deprecated and
http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler will emit a DeprecationWarning, and will be
removed in 3.15. Using that code already has a high potential for both security and
functionality bugs. Parts of the typing module are deprecated, e.g. creating a
typing.NamedTuple class using keyword arguments to denote the fields and such (and
more) will be disallowed in Python 3.15.

API documentation generators

Tools that can generate documentation for Python API include pydoc (available as part of the
standard library), Sphinx, Pdoc and its forks, Doxygen and Graphviz, among others.[191]
Naming

Python's name is derived from the British comedy group Monty Python, whom Python creator
Guido van Rossum enjoyed while developing the language. Monty Python references appear
frequently in Python code and culture;[192] for example, the metasyntactic variables often
used in Python literature are spam and eggs instead of the traditional foo and bar.[192][193]
The official Python documentation also contains various references to Monty Python
routines.[194][195] Users of Python are sometimes referred to as "Pythonistas".[196]

The prefix Py- is used to show that something is related to Python. Examples of the use of
this prefix in names of Python applications or libraries include Pygame, a binding of Simple
DirectMedia Layer to Python (commonly used to create games); PyQt and PyGTK, which bind Qt
and GTK to Python respectively; and PyPy, a Python implementation originally written in
Python.

Popularity

Since 2003, Python has consistently ranked in the top ten most popular programming
languages in the TIOBE Programming Community Index where as of December 2022 it was the
most popular language (ahead of C, C++, and Java).[39] It was selected as Programming
Language of the Year (for "the highest rise in ratings in a year") in 2007, 2010, 2018, and 2020
(the only language to have done so four times as of 2020[197]).

Large organizations that use Python include Wikipedia, Google,[198] Yahoo!,[199] CERN,[200]
NASA,[201] Facebook,[202] Amazon, Instagram,[203] Spotify,[204] and some smaller entities like
Industrial Light & Magic[205] and ITA.[206] The social news networking site Reddit was written
mostly in Python.[207] Organizations that partially use Python include Discord[208] and
Baidu.[209]
Uses

Python Powered

Python can serve as a scripting language for web applications, e.g. via mod_wsgi for the
Apache webserver.[210] With Web Server Gateway Interface, a standard API has evolved to
facilitate these applications. Web frameworks like Django, Pylons, Pyramid, TurboGears,
web2py, Tornado, Flask, Bottle, and Zope support developers in the design and maintenance
of complex applications. Pyjs and IronPython can be used to develop the client-side of Ajax-
based applications. SQLAlchemy can be used as a data mapper to a relational database.
Twisted is a framework to program communications between computers, and is used (for
example) by Dropbox.

Libraries such as NumPy, SciPy and Matplotlib allow the effective use of Python in scientific
computing,[211][212] with specialized libraries such as Biopython and Astropy providing
domain-specific functionality. SageMath is a computer algebra system with a notebook
interface programmable in Python: its library covers many aspects of mathematics,
including algebra, combinatorics, numerical mathematics, number theory, and
calculus.[213] OpenCV has Python bindings with a rich set of features for computer vision and
image processing.[214]

Python is commonly used in artificial intelligence projects and machine learning projects
with the help of libraries like TensorFlow, Keras, Pytorch, scikit-learn and the Logic
language ProbLog.[215][216][217][218][219] As a scripting language with a modular architecture,
simple syntax, and rich text processing tools, Python is often used for natural language
processing.[220]

The combination of Python and Prolog has proved to be particularly useful for AI
applications, with Prolog providing knowledge representation and reasoning capabilities.
The Janus system, in particular, exploits the similarities between these two languages, in
part because of their use of dynamic typing, and the simple recursive nature of their data
structures. Typical applications of this combination include natural language processing,
visual query answering, geospatial reasoning, and handling of semantic web data.[221][222] The
Natlog system, implemented in Python, uses Definite Clause Grammars (DCGs) as prompt
generators for text-to-text generators like GPT3 and text-to-image generators like DALL-E
or Stable Diffusion.[223]

Python can also be used for graphical user interface (GUI) by using libraries like
Tkinter.[224][225]

Python has been successfully embedded in many software products as a scripting language,
including in finite element method software such as Abaqus, 3D parametric modelers like
FreeCAD, 3D animation packages such as 3ds Max, Blender, Cinema 4D, Lightwave, Houdini,
Maya, modo, MotionBuilder, Softimage, the visual effects compositor Nuke, 2D imaging
programs like GIMP,[226] Inkscape, Scribus and Paint Shop Pro,[227] and musical notation
programs like scorewriter and capella. GNU Debugger uses Python as a pretty printer to
show complex structures such as C++ containers. Esri promotes Python as the best choice
for writing scripts in ArcGIS.[228] It has also been used in several video games,[229][230] and
has been adopted as first of the three available programming languages in Google App
Engine, the other two being Java and Go.[231]

Many operating systems include Python as a standard component. It ships with most Linux
distributions,[232] AmigaOS 4 (using Python 2.7), FreeBSD (as a package), NetBSD, and OpenBSD
(as a package) and can be used from the command line (terminal). Many Linux distributions
use installers written in Python: Ubuntu uses the Ubiquity installer, while Red Hat Linux and
Fedora Linux use the Anaconda installer. Gentoo Linux uses Python in its package
management system, Portage.

Python is used extensively in the information security industry, including in exploit

development.[233][234]

Most of the Sugar software for the One Laptop per Child XO, developed at Sugar Labs as of
2008, is written in Python.[235] The Raspberry Pi single-board computer project has adopted
Python as its main user-programming language.

LibreOffice includes Python and intends to replace Java with Python. Its Python Scripting
Provider is a core feature[236] since Version 4.0 from 7 February 2013.

Languages influenced by Python

Python's design and philosophy have influenced many other programming languages:
 Boo uses indentation, a similar syntax, and a similar object model.[237]

Cobra uses indentation and a similar syntax, and its Acknowledgements document lists
Python first among languages that influenced it.[238]

CoffeeScript, a programming language that cross-compiles to JavaScript, has Python-

inspired syntax.

ECMAScript–JavaScript borrowed iterators and generators from Python.[239]

GDScript, a scripting language very similar to Python, built-in to the Godot game
engine.[240]

Go is designed for the "speed of working in a dynamic language like Python"[241] and shares
the same syntax for slicing arrays.

Groovy was motivated by the desire to bring the Python design philosophy to Java.[242]

Julia was designed to be "as usable for general programming as Python".[27]

Mojo is a non-strict[28][243] superset of Python (e.g. still missing classes, and adding e.g.
struct).[244]

Nim uses indentation and similar syntax.[245]

Ruby's creator, Yukihiro Matsumoto, has said: "I wanted a scripting language that was
more powerful than Perl, and more object-oriented than Python. That's why I decided to
design my own language."[246]

Swift, a programming language developed by Apple, has some Python-inspired syntax.[247]

Kotlin blends Python and Java features, minimizing boilerplate code for enhanced
developer efficiency.[248]

Python's development practices have also been emulated by other languages. For example,
the practice of requiring a document describing the rationale for, and issues surrounding, a
change to the language (in Python, a PEP) is also used in Tcl,[249] Erlang,[250] and Swift.[251]

See also

Python syntax and semantics Computer

programming portal
pip (package manager) Free and open-source
software portal
List of programming languages

History of programming languages

 Comparison of programming languages

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Further reading

Downey, Allen B. (May 2012). Think Python: How to Think Like a Computer Scientist (version
1.6.6 ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-72596-5.

Hamilton, Naomi (5 August 2008). "The A-Z of Programming Languages: Python" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20081229095320/http://www.computerworld.com.au/index.php/id%3B
66665771) . Computerworld. Archived from the original (http://www.computerworld.co
m.au/index.php/id;66665771) on 29 December 2008. Retrieved 31 March 2010.

Lutz, Mark (2013). Learning Python (5th ed.). O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-0-596-15806-4.

Summerfield, Mark (2009). Programming in Python 3 (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley

Professional. ISBN 978-0-321-68056-3.

Ramalho, Luciano (May 2022). Fluent Python (https://www.thoughtworks.com/insights/bo

oks/fluent-python-2nd-edition) . O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-1-4920-5632-4.

External links

Official website (https://www.python.org/)