BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICUTLURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

GRADUATE PROGRAM

ASSESSMENT OF POST-HARVEST METHODS AND EVALUATION OF

BREAD WHEAT SEED (Triticuam astivum L.) QUALITY, IN
WENBERMA DISTRICT, NORTH WESTERN ETHIOPIA

M.Sc. Thesis Research report

By

Addisu Birhanu Gelaw

January 2021

Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

 BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICUTLURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

GRADUATE PROGRAM

ASSESSMENT OF POST-HARVEST METHODS AND EVALUATION OF

BREAD WHEAT SEED (Triticuam astivum L.) QUALITY, IN
WENBERMA DISTRICT, NORTH WESTERN ETHIOPIA

M.Sc. Thesis Research report

By

Addisu Birhanu Gelaw

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE (M.Sc.) IN SEED SCIENCE AND
TECHONOLOGY

January 2021

Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

 THESIS APPROVAL SHEET

As member of the Board of Examiners of the M.Sc. Thesis Open Defense Examination, We
certify that we have read, and evaluated the Thesis prepared by Addisu Birhanu entiteled
ASSESSMENT OF POST-HARVEST METHODS AND EVALUATION OF BREAD
WHEAT SEED (Triticuam astivum  L.) QUALITY, IN WENBERMA DISTRICT,

NORTH, WESTERN ETHIOPIA, We hereby certify that, the thesis is accepted for
fulfilling the requirements for the award of the degree of Master of Sciences (Seed Science
and Technology).

Board of Examiners

_______________ _______________ _______________

Name of External Examiner Signature Date

____________________ _____________ _______________

Name of Internal Examiner Signature Date

____________________ _________________ _______________

Name of Chairman Signature Date

i
 DECLARATION

This is to certify that entitled “ASSESSMENT OF POST-HARVEST METHODS AND

EVALUATION OF BREAD WHEAT SEED (Triticuam astivum L.) QUALITY, IN
WENBERMA DISTRICT, NORTH WESTERN ETHIOPIA

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Master of
Science in Seed Science and Technology to the Graduate Program of College of Agriculture
and Environmental Sciences, Bahir Dar University by Mr. Addisu Birhanu,(ID:
BDU1100671) is an authentic work carried out by him under our guidance. The matter
embodied in this project work has not been submitted earlier for award of any degree or
diploma to the best of our knowledge and belief.

Name of the Student

Addisu Birhanu

Signature and date _____________________

Name of the Advisors

1) Tesfaye Melak (PhD) (Major advisor)

Signature and date_____________________

2) Dereje Ayalew (PhD) (Co-adviser)

Signature and date___________________

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all I am thankful to the Almighty God that helped me to cross all the ups and downs,
the rough and difficult times and gave me the strength and patience to reach this time. It gives
me great pleasure to express my gratitude to my advisors Dr. Tesfaye melak and Dr.Dereje
Ayalew for their constant guidance, support, motivation and tireless help during the
implementation and write up of my thesis research. I would be highly indebted to Bahir Dar
University for giving me the chance to pursue this postgraduate Education, and also for
creating conducive learning environment and providing residence and internet facilities during
my stay and at the Job seeker position.

Furthermore, it is unfair to forget acknowledgement of Wenberma woreda Agriculture and

Rural Transformation staffs Mr. Tadele Yitayh (leaders of the staff) and Melikamu (wereda
seed multiplication Expert ) for their unforgettable help in questioner preparing by giving
sufficient amount of peper for record the respondent answer by giving pertinent information
about the study area.

I am grateful Thanks for respondents for giving relevant information based on my question
procedures. and also my appreciation going to Ethiopian Seed Enterprise (ESE) Experts and
laboratory Expert Mr. Solomon by helping me by giving germination dish, Seed for Sample
test and supporting any confusion idea for me and also Bahir Dar University and
Environmental Science plant Science laboratory Assistance to help me during physical purity
test Mr.Abrham, Bekele and Zemenu by giving necessary equipments and time for help me in
case of Physical Laboratory Experiment.

At the last not the least I am grateful thanks for my families and others.

iii
 DEDICATION

I dedicated this thesis manuscript to my kind and beloved families for treating and nursing me
and to those who cannot afford basic needs and education, because of born from poor
families.

iv
 ACCRONYMS AND ABBEREVATIONS
ASE Amhara Seed Enterprise
CSA Central Statistical Agency
ESE Ethiopian Seed Enterprise
ESSP Ethiopian Seed Strategies Program
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization
IPMS Improving Productivity and Market Success of Ethiopian Farmers
MHTM Modern harvesting and threshing method
MoARD Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
NGO Nongovernmental Organization
PHM Post harvest manegment
PHT Post Harvest Technology
PICS Purdue Improved Crop Storage
PSG Private Seed Grower
QSAE Quality Standard authority of Ethiopia
StPics Storage Stracture of Purdue Improved Crop Storage
StQ Storage Stracture of Quintal
StSG Storage Stracture of Gota
StSWH Storage Strrcture of ware house
THTM Traditional Harvesting and threshing Method
VBSE Village based Seed Enterprise
WFP World Food programme

WWBoARD Wenberma Wereda Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development

ASSESSMENT OF POST-HARVEST TECHNOLOGIES AND EVALUATION OF BREAD

WHEAT SEED (Triticuam astivum L.) QUALITY, IN WENBERMA DISTRICT, AMHARA
ETHIOPIA

By: Addisu Birhanu

Major Advisor: Tesfaye Melak (PhD) and Co-Advisor: Dereje Ayalew (PhD)

v
 ABSTRACT
Bread Wheat (Triticuam astivum  L.) belongs to the group of grasses called cereals. it is one of the most
important crop grown in Ethiopia . study was conducted in wenberma wereda 2019/2020 main cropping season,
with the objective of assesses the overall status of post-harvest methods and to evaluate bread wheat seed
quality in the target are. The thesis contains an assessment method and laboratory tests. Assesment method
was contained quistonery By considering this the survey was analyzed by SPSS version 20 and the laboratory
was analyzed by SAS version 9.2. from the survey result , the farmers perception and Experience for seed
production were medium and poor (60% and 23.5, respectively), and also the farmers in the study area were
less in hand weeding, the majority of the farmers were using selective 2,4,D and richway) and non selective
(round up and Glycel) herbicides, on the other hand in the storage area the farmers applied i.e. malaathion
powder and celphose was highly dominated. In rhe study area the respondents use two post harvet technologies
were domintated for harvesting and threshing of bread wheat seeds(manual/traditional and combine hrvestor).
The storage materials used Storage in Gota, Sorage in quantal, Storage in PICS and Storage in warehouse
(40.4%,48.2%,11.5% and 0%), respectively , this indicates that the majority of the respondents use quintals bag
for storage seed in the study area rather than use PICs bag and ware house. the respondants put their idea for
reduce post harveste lose were use appropriate PHM,use appropriate ecology and pesticide use and correct
loan services to purchase seed were 54.1%,41.0% and 4.9%, respectively .The laboratory result from StG (94.94
% and74. 0%) for Pure seed and Standard Germination and Storage in Quantal (and 92.9% and 82.5%) for
PS and StDG, while StPICS (97.09% and 89.75%) and StWH (98.87 and 95.5) Pure seed and Standard
germinatin, respectively, from laboratory test of MHM and THM in MHM pure seed in modern harvesting
physical purity less and weed seeds were less greater than traditional harvesting due to in appropriate
Agronomic practice and the combiner crushes the seed lack of awareness to the farmers and the combiner
drivers, with in addition of their lose in case yield and high cost price in THM in THM the respondents lose
5340 ETB /ha only by comparison of mowing up to threshing from the respondents response. As conclude from
this study from the survey result the respondents use only StG,StQU and some of them use pics bag and none of
used to well ventilated StWH. From the laboratory result conclude that StG is less pure because does not full fill
minimum requirement for Germination (<85% ) ,StWH and StPICS bag highly important seeds without
deteriorate viability of the seed, and the farmers highly profitable when they collect the seeds by using
combiners with respect to Good agronomic and good combine harvester. By considering it some
recommendations put i.e. give the awareness about seed production for the farmers, Good agronomic practice
and good combine harvester to get high amount of quality seed and for minimizationof cost . Furthermore this
study will be detailed studying by another institution, to put further recommendation.

Key words; Storage in Gota,Storage in PICS,Storage in Quantal and Storage in Ware house

TABLE CONTENTS

vi
 1.1.Background and Justification 1
THESIS APPROVAL SHEET i
DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
DEDICATION iv
ACCRONYMS AND ABBEREVATIONS v
ABSTRACT vi
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURE xii
LIST OF APPENDIX TABLE xiii
LIST OF APPENDIX FIGURE ii
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 . Statement of the Problem 3
1.2. Objectives of the study 4
1.2.1. General objective 4
1.2.2. Specific Objectives 4
2.1. Seed 5
Chapter 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 5

2.2. Wheat yields in Ethiopia 6

2.3. Wheat Production and Ecology in Ethiopia 7
2.4. Bread wheat seed production Constraints 8
2.4.1. Post-harvest system 8
2.4.2. Post-harvest losses 9
2.5. Technologies and Practices to Reduce Post-Harvest Losses 10
2.6. Factors that initiate post-harvest Lose and Seed deterioration 12
2.6.1 Biotic Factors 12
2.6.2. Abiotic factors 13
2.7. External Factors 13
2.7.1. Socio-economic factors 14
2.7.2. Temperature 14
2.8. Effect of storage on viability and vigor 15

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 2.9. Role of Seed Quality in Seed Production Systems 16
2.9.1. Seed quality test 16
2.9.2. Physical quality 16
2.9.3. Thousand Seed Weight 17
2.9.4. Moisture Content 17
2.9.5. Physiological seed quality test 18
2.10. Seed Deterioration 19
3.1. Description of the Study Area 21
3.2. Survey of seed for post harvest Technology 21
3.2.1. Seed sampling 23
3.3. Methods of Data Collection 23
3.4. Laboratory Tests 23
3.4.1. Physical purity test 24
3.4.2. Thousand seed weight determination 24
3.4.3. Moisture determination 24
3.4.4. Physiological quality test 25
3.4.5. Germination test 25
3.4.6. Speed of germination 25
3.4.7. Seedling shoots and root length 26
3.4.8. Seedling dry weight 26
3.4.9. Vigor index 26
3.5. Experimental Design 27
3.6. Method of Data Analysis 27
4.1. Demographic and Household Characteristics 27
Chapter 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 27

4.1.1. Distributions of household by sex 27

4.1.2. Distribution of sample household by age and family size 28
4.1.3 Educational level of the household 29
4.1.4. Number of cattle production and land resource the farmers 29
4.1.5. Source of labor for seed production 30
4.1.7. Seed Source and reasons for select quality seed 32

viii
 4.1.8. Farmers Agronomic Practices of Wheat Production 33
4.1.9. Sowing time and the appearance of herb 34
4.1.9. Farmers seed management and threshing methods at Wenberma district during
2019/2020 Main cropping season 35
4.1.10. Sources of information for wheat Technology in study area 36
4.1.11. Seed Management and harvesting Methods 38
4.1.12 . Bread wheat seed Storage Area and structure and duration of Time 38
4.1.13. Duration of bread wheat storage time, transportation system and moisture
identification 39
4.1.14. Farmers estimation for post-harvest lose of bread wheat at different stage 41
4.1.15. Packaging and labeling of bread wheat seed 42
4.1.16. Reasons for food insecurity and farmers suggest for post-harvest lose
reduction 43
4.2. Cost -benefit analysis 45
4.3. Laboratory Test 46
4.2.1. Physical purity of the bread wheat collected from different storage methods
46
4.2.3. Thousand Seed weight 47
4.2.4. Standard Germination test different materials that the farmers used 48
4.2.5. Physiological seed quality (vigor) of bread wheat seed collected from farmers
and ESE 49
4.3. Physical and physiological Seed quality test in Traditional and Modern
harvesting 49
5.1. Conclusions 52
Chapter 5 :- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 52

5.2. Recommendations 53
6. REFFERENCES 54
Appendices 63
APPENDIX FIGURE 71
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 72

ix
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1:- Wheat production regions of Ethiopia under private peasant holdings for 2018/19 Meher Season (CSA,
2018) 8
Table 2:-Number and proportion of sample households by sex 29
Table 3:- Distribution of sample household by age and family size 30
Table 4: Educational level of the household 31
Table 5:- Amount of cattle production and land resource in hactar the farmers 32

x
Table 6 :-Source of labor for seed production 32
Table 7:- Grown Bread wheat in the target Areas 33
Table 8:- Seed Source and reasons for select quality seed 34
Table 9:-Agronomic practice of bread wheat 35
Table 10:-Sowing time and the appearance of herb 36
Table 11:-Reasons clean bread wheat seed and Threshing Condition of bread wheat floor 38
Table 12:-Sources of information for wheat Technology in study areas 39
Table 13:-Seed Management and harvesting Methods 40
Table 14: Farmers estimation for Bread wheat seed yield and structure and duration of Time 41
Table 15:- Duration of bread wheat storage time, transportation system and moisture identification 42
Table 16:-farmers estimation during post harvest lose in traditional methods and Estimation of post harvest
lose/ha in kg in modern methods 43
Table 17:-Packaging and labeling of bread wheat seed 44
Table 18:-Reasons of Marketing problem and Seed buyers 45
Table 19:-Reasons for food insecurity and suggestions to reduce post-harvest seed loss 46
Table 20:-Simple example for cost comparisons farmers use MHM and THM 47
Table 21:-Mean percentage comparison of Physical purity of the bread wheat collected from different storage
methods 48
Table 22:-Mean percentage comparison of standard germination parameters among different Storage Methods
and ESE 50
Table 23:-Mean percentage comparison Physiological seed quality (vigor) of bread wheat seed collected from
farmers and ESE 51
Table 24:-Mean percentage comparision b/n Modern and Tradional/Manual harvesting and threshing methods 52

LIST OF FIGURE

Figure 1:- Geographical map of the Study Area....................................................................................................22

xi
 LIST OF APPENDIX TABLE

Appendix Table 1:- ANOVA table for Mean percentages of physical, physiological, vigour
and of different storage methods.......................................................................................64
Appendix table 2: A standard questionnaire for wheat bread production by postharvest
technology farm owners and their Experience for seed production..................................65
Appendix Table 3:- Minimum Seed Certification Standards of Wheat seed in Ethiopia
QSAE,2000........................................................................................................................71

xii
 LIST OF APPENDIX FIGURE

Appendix figure 1: an example of pictures in the study area, seedling measure and laboratory
Equipment..........................................................................................................................72

xiii
 Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1.Background and Justification

Bread Wheat belongs to the family Poaceae and the genus Triticum. The global annual wheat
production is 731.6 million metric tons from an area of 215.87 million hectares giving an
average yield of 3.39 metric tons ha-1 (USDA, 2019). In Ethiopia, it is one of the major staple
and strategic food security crop with an average annual production and productivity of 4.64
million tones and 2.73 tons ha-1, respectively (CSA, 2018).

According to Bogale Ayana (2020) report traditionally, the crop is used for making bread,
Dabokolo, porridge, Kinche and other types of foods. The straw is good source for animal
feed and also used for thatching roofs in rural areas.

In Ethiopia, Meher Season Post-harvest Crop Production Survey indicate that a total land area
of about 12,727,191.21 hectares are covered by grain crops i.e. cereals, pulses and oilseeds,
from which a total volume of about 315,602,058.49 quintals of grains are obtained, from
private peasant holdings (CSA, 2018), Out of the total grain crop area, 81.39%
(10,358,890.13 hectares) was under cereals. Teff, maize, sorghum and wheat took up 24.17%
(about 3,076,595.02 hectares), 18.60% (about 2,367,797.39 hectares), 14.38% (1,829,662.39
hectares) and 13.73% (1,747,939.31 hectares) of the grain crop area, respectively. As to
production, the tables paint similar picture as that of the area (CSA, 2018). Cereals
contributed 87.97% (about 277,638,380.98 quintals) of the grain production. Maize, teff,
wheat and sorghum made up 30.08% (94,927,708.34 quintals), 17.12% (54,034,790.51
quintals), 15.33% (48,380,740.91 quintals) and 15.92% (50,243,680.72 quintals) of the grain
production, in the same order (CSA, 2019).

Ethiopia’s wheat farmers are the greatest producer of wheat in sub-Saharan Africa, yet
Ethiopia is not self-sufficient in its wheat production and imports an average >1 million tons
per annum for the years 2006-2015 (Index Mundi, 2016). Once a net exporter of wheat,

1
Ethiopia is now a net importer of wheat due to many factors including war and crop failures
(Hailu 1991), postharvest loss and population growth out pacing increases in production
(Reuben et al., 2005). Increasing yield is frequently cited as an important issue for increasing
food security (Bekele et al., 2009) ,and also in 2020/2021 main cropping season in wenberma
wereda 215.3ha was used for seed multiplication purpose, from these coverge area of bread
wheat 7333quantal of bread wheat were harvested (WWBoARD,2021) . This bread wheat not
sufficient for consumption by different factors, among those post-harvest is the major factor
to reduce it.

Postharvest loss can be defined as the degradation in both quantity and quality of
seed/grain/food Production from harvest to consumption. Quality losses include those that
affect the nutrient/caloric composition, the acceptability, and the edibility of a given product.
These losses are generally more common in developed countries (Kader, 2002). Quantity
losses refer to those that result in the loss of the amount of a product. Loss of quantity is more
common in developing countries (Kitinoja and Gorny, 2010). Crop yield per area (amount of
crop harvested per amount of land cultivated) is the most commonly used impact indicator for
agricultural productivity activities. Crop yields are inevitably affected by many factors, these
are weather, input price, changes in farming practices, amounts of fertilizer used quality of
seed varieties, post harvest lose,and use of irrigation (CSA, 2018). According to Mohamed
Ali and abriham Taddese (2018) Postharvest losses occur at different points (harvesting,
drying, threshing, winnowing, transportation and storage and they put for Reduction of
postharvest losses requires an appropriate intervention through the well-coordinated effort of
many governmental and non-governmental institutions.

The Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), universities and colleges, the
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MoARD) and state agricultural development
corporations produce seeds to meet the national seed demand. However, seed production and
supply is less efficient and the majority of farmers use their own saved seed (96%). Moreover
farmers, particularly those in the remote areas, have no access to modern inputs including
seed (Zewdie et al., 2008).

2
In case of seed production Seed deterioration is a serious problem in developing countries
where seeds are usually stored in places without a proper control of humidity and temperature.
Temperature and seed moisture content (and/or relative humidity) are the main factors
influencing seed deterioration and viability loss in storage (Abbas et al., 2004). Low
temperature and humidity result in delayed seed deteriorative process and aging there by leads
to extended viability period. Seed ageing is generally marked by reduction in vigor (Gupta
and Aneja, 2004), viability, rate and capacity of germination (Arefi and Abdi, 2003),
increased solute leakage and susceptibility to stresses and reduced tolerance to storage under
adverse conditions. High seed vigor, i.e., rapid, uniform and complete emergence of vigorous
seedling, leads to high grain yield potential of crop, by enhancing the establishment of
optimum canopy structure that minimizes interplant competition and maximizes crop yield.
Rapid emergence provides the plants temporal and spatial advantages to compete with weeds
(Soltani et al., 2001).

1.2 . Statement of the Problem

Bread Wheat is one of the major cereals and a staple crop in Wenberma. Demand for wheat is
increasing in Wenberma. because of income growth, urbanization and dietary diversification.
However, most of Wenberma farmers are not using appropriate post-harvest technologies and
lack of used to quality seed (WWBoARD, 2020).

However, most of Wenberma farmers are not using appropriate post-harvest technologies and
lack of used to quality seed. The main factors contributing to such low yield include
inappropriate use of modern post-harvest technologies and use of quality seed during sowing
time and lack of agronomic management practices among the smallholder farmers
(WWBoARD, 2020).

The main factors contributing to such low yield include inappropriate use of modern post-
harvest technologies and use of quality seed during sowing time and lack of agronomic

3
management practices among the smallholder farmers. Ethiopian farmers are producing low
amount of bread wheat in large plot of land because they are using less quality seed and didn’t
use proper post-harvest technologies of seed. Hence, there is a need to evaluate proper post-
harvest technologies of bread wheat to increase bread wheat production in the study area.
Majority of the farmers have been using traditional way of agricultural practices such as old
harvesting and threshing methods. Due to this farmers do not get sufficient Amount of yield
and also crops are susceptible to disease and pest. There are few farmers who grow bread
wheat for only seed production purpose and use proper post-harvest technologies. This
indicates that there is different factors directly or indirectly influencing production of bread
wheat seed production. The main reasons why most of the farmers failed to utilize proper
post-harvest modern and traditional post-harvest technologies. However, there is little or no
data on evaluation of technologies used for improved bread wheat variety (oglocho and
kekeba) in the study area, and also little care take for post harvest technologies and in
appropriate storage structure in the study areas.

Therefore, the current study would be focus on identification and evaluation of technologies
for harvesting and storage Materials used by smallholder farmers for seed quality parameters
of bread wheat.

1.2. Objectives of the study

1.2.1. General objective

To assess the overall status of post-harvest Methods and to evaluate bread wheat seed quality
in the target area.

1.2.2. Specific Objectives

 To identify farmers’ experience and perception for bread wheat seed production and post
harvest lose.
 To determine physical and physiological quality of seeds in case of harvesting techniques

4
 To investigate physical and physiological quality of seeds in equal storage duration of
time in different storage structures.
 To investigate the respondents used for harvesting and threshing technologies for cost
minimization.

Chapter 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Seed

Seeds play a key role in human history and agriculture. It is instrumental in the domestication
of wild species into cultivated plants. Prehistoric humans (probably women) were the first to
recognize the values of seeds as planting materials (Dominguez et al., 2001). Since the early
days of agriculture the importance of seed as the carrier of most important characteristics for
crop production has been recognized. Harvesting seed from preferred plants has been the
basis of crop domestication and consequently of agriculture (Tripp, 2001).

5
It is a critical input in crop production whether agriculture is practiced at commercial or
subsistence levels, by large or small-scale producers or in favourable or less favourable
environments (Louwaars and Gam, 1999). The domestication of wild species into crop plants
probably started with the collection, storage and utilization of the seed not only for food, but
also for planting a major step in the evolution of settled agriculture (EIAR, 2010).
In modern agriculture, seed is a vehicle to deliver almost all agriculture-based technological
innovations to farmers so that they can exploit the genetic potential of new varieties. It is
considered to be the most affordable external input for farmers, and many of its benefits are
assumed to be ‘scale-neutral (vangastel and Zewdie, 2004).

2.2. Wheat yields in Ethiopia

Wheat is one of Ethiopia’s main staple crops in terms of both production and consumption.
For caloric intake, wheat is the second-most important food in the country behind maize
(FAO 2014a). Wheat is mainly grown in the highlands of Ethiopia, and the two main wheat-
producing regions (Oromia and Amhara) account for about 85 percent of the national wheat
production (CSA, 2018). Wheat is typically grown by smallholder farmers in Ethiopia.
According to CSA (2019) report in the 2018/2019 meher 4 season, about 4,761,643 farmers
grew wheat, and more than 1,747,939.31 hectares (ha) of land were dedicated to wheat
cultivation, 15.39 % (48,380,740.91 quintals) percent of the national grain area an average
yield of 27.64 Qt/ha.

Ethiopian wheat growers utilize the long rainy season (meher) as most wheat is rain fed, the
main growing season which starts in June and starts decreasing in rainfall events in October,
with the wheat harvest starting in December (CSA, 2018). Ethiopian wheat is predominantly
grown in the mid- to highlands, at elevations of 1900-2700 m ; soil types across Ethiopia
include clay rich Vertisoils, less clay rich Nit sols, black soils, red soils and brown soils; and
annual temperatures of the wheat growing regions range from 6 – 23 ˚C (White et al., 2001).
While wheat is an important cereal in Ethiopia’s production systems, wheat yields are
relatively low. Recent estimates show that wheat farmers in Ethiopia produce, on average, 2.1
t/ha, 5 well below the experimental yield of above 5 t/ha (MOA, 2012).

6
According to wenberma bureau of Agriculture and Rural development report, 2020 the
district have 35095 hactares, from those amount of hactares 1,878485 quantal of yield was
harvested. On the other hand, in the study area, bread wheat was one of the most popular
crop. Eventhough only 215.3 hactare the land coverd by bread wheat seed production
purpose from this amount of seed 7333 quantal of bread wheat seed harvested in 2020/2021
main cropping season (WWBoARD, 2021).

2.3. Wheat Production and Ecology in Ethiopia

Wheat was planted to 13.38% (1,696,907.05 hectares) of the grain crop area in 2018/19
cropping season (CSA, 2018). The production obtained from wheat was 15.17%
(46,429,657.12 quintals) of the grain production and yield of 2.73 t ha-1 (CSA, 2018). Some
of the common bread wheat varieties under production in Ethiopia includes: Dendea, Digelu,
Kekeba, Galema, Alidoro, Hidassie, Kubsa, Batu, Mitike, Wabe, Simba, Hawi, Warera, Dure,
Dodota, Meraro,ogolocho,shorima Abolla, Pavon, Dashen, Kenya -1, Densa, Simbo, Megal,
Enkoy and Laketch (CSA, 2018).

Table 1:- Wheat production regions of Ethiopia under private peasant holdings for 2018/19
Meher Season (CSA, 2018)
Regions No of Area of production Yield ton/ha
holders Production(ha) tone/ha
Tigray 312708 107929.86 214003.14 1.98
Afar - - - -
Amhara 1645432 554661.74 1404707.481 2.53
Oromia 1713504 898682.57 2669917.77 2.97
Somali - - - -
Beninshangul Gumz 8455 2455.71 5908.35 2.41
SNNP 525386 127246.59 34919.60 2.67
Gambella - - - -
Harari 3405 - - -

Wheat can be cultivated in a wide range of agricultural environments (Farooq et al., 2009). It
can grow over a wide range of elevations, climatic conditions, and soil fertility conditions.
The crop is grown at an altitude ranging from 1500 to 3000 meters above sea level (m.a.s.l.)

7
between 6-16oN latitude and 35-42°C longitude in Ethiopia. The most suitable agro-
ecological zones, however, fall between 1900 and 2700 m.a.s.l. (Bekele et al., 2000). Even
though the optimal growing temperature is 25°C, it can be grown in temperatures ranging
from 3 to 32°C. The ideal daily temperature for different stages of wheat development varies
from 20-25°C for germination, 16-20°C for good tillering and 20-26°C for proper plant
development. The optimal rainfall for wheat is between 900-1100 mm throughout the growing
season, but wheat can be grown in xerophytic to littoral moisture regimes with average annual
rainfall between 250 to 1750 mm. Wheat can be grown under different soil types but well-
drained fertile loamy to sandy loam soil with a PH of 6 to 7.5 is suitable for its growth (Tana
et al., 2018).

2.4. Bread wheat seed production Constraints

In Ethiopia, the present huge volume and the rapid growth in production and demand offers a
unique opportunity for the development of the seed sector and trade in varieties and planting
materials (Abebe Atilaw et al.,2011). Unlike grain production, seed production requires great
care, more precision in procedures and more technical skill. In order to have access to quality
seed, it is important to follow plant breeding rules and regulations; undertake systematic
increase of the limited quantity of breeder seed to obtain larger quantity of seed to be
distributed to seed growers; and introduce internal quality control procedures within genetic
and physiological quality of seed during the process of multiplication, post-harvest
management, storage, and labeling until the time for subsequent sowing ( Abebe Atilaw et al.,
2011).
Quality seed production involves temporary storage and raw seed sampling, sample
transportation to the labs and testing. The currently existing problems in this respect are
serious since the subsequent operations are related to both quality of the seed and cost of
production ( Abebe Atilaw et al., 2011).

2.4.1. Post-harvest system

8
Post harvest system is the delivery of a crop from the time and place of harvest to the time and
place of consumption, with minimum loss, maximum efficiency, and maximum return for all
involved (Mohamed Ali and Abrham Taddese , 2018).

The post-harvest system consists of a set of operations which cover the period from harvest
through to consumption. An efficient post-harvest system aims to minimize losses and
maintain the quality of the crop until it reaches the final consumer. When food losses are
minimized, both food security and income increase, and this are of vital importance for small
and medium farmers, particularly in developing countries. From a socio-economic point of
view, the implementation of an efficient post-harvest system in any community must provide
equitable benefit to all those involved in the system (Grolleaud, 2002)

2.4.2. Post-harvest losses

Postharvest loss can be defined as the degradation in both quantity and quality of a food
production from harvest to consumption. Quality losses include those that affect the
nutrient/caloric composition, the acceptability, and the edibility of a given product. These
losses are generally more common in developed countries (Kader, 2002). Quantity losses
refer to those that result in the loss of the amount of a product. Loss of quantity is more
common in developing countries (Gorny, 2010).

Post-harvest loss can occur at any stage along the post-harvest chain affecting crop quality
and food security efforts. Understanding the circumstances around harvest and post-harvest of
a given crop may help reduce post-harvest losses and improve income of farm households
(Tesfaye Sololmon et al., 2014).

According to the FAO, food production will need to grow by 70% to feed world population
which will reach 9 billion by 2050. Further trends like increasing urban population, shift of
lifestyle and diet patterns of the rising middle class in emerging economies along with climate
change put considerable pressure strain on the planet’s resources: declining freshwater
resources and biodiversity, loss of fertile land, etc. Consequently, there is a need for an

9
integrated and innovative approach to the global effort of ensuring sustainable food
production and consumption (Nellemann et al., 2009).

In the meantime, while the number of food insecure population remains unacceptably high
(FAO, 2012), each year and worldwide, massive quantities of food are lost due to spoilage
and infestations on the journey to consumers (FAO, 2011). In some African, Caribbean and
Pacific ACP countries, where tropical weather and poorly developed infrastructure contribute
to the problem, wastage can regularly be as high as 40-50% (SPORE, 2011). Obviously, one
of the major ways of strengthening food security is by reducing these losses.

2.5. Technologies and Practices to Reduce Post-Harvest Losses

Harvesting: is the first step of postharvest and is the last step of crop production. The method
and condition of the harvest affect the further handling, processing, and storage of crops.
Premature harvest causes loss of quality of seeds, and due to high water content, they will
deteriorate in the store. Nonetheless, Ethiopian farmers commonly harvest most crops after
physiological maturity is attained and when the moisture content reaches as low as 13% or
below (Ashagari, 2000). Over mature crop harvest causes biological and physical losses of
crops by consistent wetting and drying of crops (kiaya, 2014).

Different parts of plant are harvested by different harvesting methods; in case of forage, the
whole plant is trimmed off; in case of cereal seeds, partial or part of the plant is threshed and
cleaned; and straw or chaff is removed for further processing. Small scale produces performed
threshing and harvesting by threshing combines harvesters (equipped through community
groups) while in developing countries threshing and harvesting carried out by hand unlikely
cause damage or deterioration of crops in store. Large-scale commercial producers use
mechanical harvester equipment; their use is limited due to the production of cash crops. Post-
harvest risk of crop damage in storage is reduces by manual harvesting Small scale produces
performed threshing and harvesting by threshing combiners (kiya , 2014).

10
Conventionally, seeds are beaten with stick or against hard surface (wooden bar, log of wood,
stone, and wooden metal or tub) for the sake of threshing. The methods can cause damage or
cracks on the seeds, while seeds that are trodden under foot will be a less damaging method
for the seeds. However, manual harvesting is laborious, and economical process has the risk
of physical damage (kiya , 2014).

Wheat harvesting is often done manually, with the exception of places like Gedeb Hassasa
(Oromia) and Debre Elias (Amhara), where combiners are used to harvest and thresh
simultaneously. More than 80% of farmers in Gedeb Hassasa and Debre Elias do both
harvesting and threshing at the same time using hired combine harvesters. A negligible
percentage (less than 20%) of farmers in these areas use manual sickle-based harvesting and
oxen-trampled threshing (Mohammed Ali and Abriham Tadesse, 2018).

Drying: Physiological maturity attained by the cereal and legumes at moisture content
between 35 and 45% is crop dependent. Temperature affects the storage of seeds at moisture
content between 10 and 14%. For high-quality yield of crops, timely harvesting and drying
are necessary. Losses during grain/seed drying may occur due to birds, rodents, insect pests,
and other animals. Grain molds cause severe damage to inadequately dried grain. The
recommended moisture content for safe storage of most grains is 13% or below. Moisture
meters are used to determine the optimum moisture content of grains. The use of the salt
technique that simply indicates whether the moisture content of the grain is less than 15% was
suggested (WFP, 2012). Kiaya (2014) reported that , Biologically active seeds deteriorate
readily under most of the circumstances due to fungal contamination and attack of insects and
other pests. The main purpose of drying is to reduce the respiration in seeds (Drying can itself
affect the quality of the seeds. Extensive drying under very high temperature can damage the
seed. In summer season, simple drying methods are used through exposure to sun and
adequate wind. The alternative drying methods have been devised for high-yielding varieties
and improved farming practices and irrigation to deal with increased production or harvesting
in wet season in multi-cropping (Mujumdar, 2010).

11
Threshing: In the Ethiopian context, the common methods of threshing under small-scale
farmers’ conditions are: (i) manually using hands, mainly for maize (shelling); (ii) manually
beating with sticks; (iii) animal trampling; and (iv) at times pounding with mortar and pestle.
However, the most common method is animal trampling (Alemu, 2016) . Primary processing
starts with pod threshing and de-hulling of the whole seeds. During threshing/shelling, the
grains are separated from the husk (in the case of small cereals) or from the cob (in the case of
maize). This operation can be done manually or mechanically by threshers (Mohammed Ali
and Abriham Tadesse, 2018).

Cleaning: The threshed seeds are generally impure, due to the presence of straw, stones, inert
matter, etc. Traditionally in rural areas, sieves are used for small-scale primary processing.
The simplest cleaning method in cereal seeds involves tossing the beans into the air and
letting the wind carry off the lightest impurities (Mohammed Ali and Abriham Tadesse,
2018). The traditional way of threshing and winnowing leads to contamination of grains/
Seeds with foreign matter (pebbles, dirt, and cow dung) and loss of grains due to the foreign
matter dropping in to grains and the wind blowing grains/ Seeds away with chaff. Some
innovative farmers have started to use canvas or plastic sheeting on their threshing and
winnowing floor to minimize these risks.

2.6. Factors that initiate post-harvest Lose and Seed deterioration

2.6.1 Biotic Factors

Hodge et al. (2014) reported that Pest problems and these natural chemical changes
generally proceed more rapidly under higher temperatures and greater relative humidity. For
every 10ºC rise in temperature the speed of a chemical change is doubled. Besides happening
more rapidly at higher temperatures and humidity, these changes can also happen more
quickly due to pest attack. Good postharvest handling and storage can slow down all these
loss making changes.

The rate of biotic factors depends on several environmental factors, including temperature,
relative humidity, air velocity, and atmospheric composition (concentration of oxygen, carbon

12
dioxide, and ethylene), and sanitation procedures (Kader, 2002). bio-deterioration generally
occurs during storage, losses due to mechanical damage, scattering, or spillage are
characteristics of the different post-production operations, from harvest to processing by
Mohammed Ali and Abrham Tadesse (2018).

2.6.2. Abiotic factors

Abiotic factors, such as low and poor distribution of rainfall in lowland areas, plant lodging in
half of the highlands, soil erosion, disease, and weeds also contribute to significant wheat
yield losses in the country. For instance, an estimate suggests that plant lodging can cause 10
to 30 percent of yield losses (Lemma et al., 1990) . Furthermore, post-harvest losses may
undermine wheat yields in Ethiopia (Dereje, 2000). According to the African Post Harvest
Loss Information System, wheat grain yield losses in Ethiopia during harvesting, drying,
handling operations, farm storage, transportation, and market storage in 2012 were estimated
at 14.2 percent. Finally, the way farmers’ plant wheat seed also contributes to low wheat
productivity. Traditionally, Ethiopian farmers plant wheat seeds using hand broadcasting.
Compared with direct seeding, broadcasting reduces yields due to poorer seed-to-soil contact
and delayed germination, higher competition between plants for inputs because of uneven
seed distribution, and difficulty in controlling grassy weeds. While row planting can reduced
these limits of broadcasting, its higher labor requirement undermine economic viability
(Vandercasteelen et al. 2013).

2.7. External Factors

a) Temperature In general, the higher the temperature the shorter the storage life of
horticultural products and the greater the amount of loss within a given time, as most factors
that destroy the produce or lower its quality occur at a faster rate as the temperature increases
(Atanda et al., 2011).

b) Humidity There is movement of water vapour between stored food and its surrounding
atmosphere until equilibrium of water activity in the food and the atmosphere. A moist food
will give up moisture to the air while a dry food will absorb moisture from the air. Fresh

13
horticultural products have high moisture content and need to be stored under conditions of
high relative moisture loss and wilting (except for onions and garlic). Dried or dehydrated
products need to be stored under conditions of low relative humidity in order to avoid
adsorbing moisture to the point where mold growth occurs (Atanda et al., 2011).

c) Altitude within given latitude the prevailing temperature is dependent upon the elevation
when other factors are equal. There is on the average a drop in temperature of 6.5°C (Atanda
et al., 2011) for each kilometer increase in elevation above sea level. Storing seed at high
altitudes will therefore tend to increase the storage life and decrease the losses in seed
provided it is kept out of direct rays of the sun (FAO, 1983).

2.7.1. Socio-economic factors

Social trend such as urbanization has driven more and more people from rural area to large
cities, resulting in a high demand for food products at urban centers, increasing the need for
more efficient and extended food supply chains (Muhammad Ali and A brhamTadesse, 2018).
Other socio-economic factors are linked with seed importation which can introduce new
insect species, hence posing a very significant problem (Boxal, 1986). Not only is the
imported seed at risk, but the native seed as well. For example, in 1980, the introduction of a
new insect species to Africa along with seed/grain importation created weight losses of up to
30% in just 3-6 months of storage (Boxall, 2001).

2.7.2. Temperature

High temperature hastens the rate of biochemical processes and triggers more rapid
deterioration that results in rapid losses, especially in seeds with high moisture content (Shelar
et al., 2008). High temperatures are well known to result in increased rates of respiration,
deterioration and water loss in fresh produce, leading to reduced market value and decreased
nutritional value. According to (USDA, 2004) reported that, Measured air and pulp
temperatures in Sub Saharan Africa and India were so much higher than the optimum
postharvest handling temperatures recommended for maintaining optimum quality that shelf
life theoretically would be only one half or even one quarter of the potential.

14
2.8. Effect of storage on viability and vigor

Quality of seeds can be maintained by especially designing the small stores to silo or ware‐
houses which play a protective role against adverse temperature conditions, ground water,
rain water, pests, and thefts. The structure and contents of the store should be managed (Boxal
et al., 2002).

According to Kiya (2014). Facilities, hygiene, and monitoring must all be adequate for
effective, long‐term storage. In closed structures (granaries, warehouses, hermetic bins, silos),
control of cleanliness, temperature, and humidity is particularly important. It also very
important to manage pests and diseases since damage caused by pests (insects, rodents) and
molds can lead to deterioration of facilities (e.g. mites in wooden posts) and result in losses in
quality and food value as well as quantity.

The highest seed yield in agriculture achieved in normal condition of nutrition and
environmental conditions (Kiani et al., 2013). The storage condition affected on seed quality
and in final on seed yield after cultivation. The storage potential of seed lots is related to their
stage of deterioration (vigour status) on entering storage. If the storage environment exerts
any form of stress (e.g. changes in temperature or relative humidity in uncontrolled storage),
high vigour seed lots will be better able to withstand such environmental stresses and will
decline in quality at a slower rate than lower vigor seed lots. Even under controlled storage
conditions (i.e. low temperature and low seed moisture content), performance after storage is
dependent on the vigor status of the seed lot ( ISTA, 2009).

Besides the harvest season, storage conditions are also extremely important for the
maintenance of seed physiological performance from the field. Under inadequate conditions,
seeds may suffer a considerable loss in quality up to the sowing time (Scariot et al., 2017).
One of the factors that may influence storage quality is the ability of the system to avoid gas
exchange with ambient air, since it directly influences the respiratory rates of the seeds. Thus,
the hermetic storage may conserve the seeds for a longer period of time, in comparison to the
conventional storage, because it diminishes the gas exchanges between the seed mass and the

15
external environment, thus reducing the respiratory rate, the attack of pests and, consequently,
deterioration (Jonfia-Essien et al., 2010).

2.9. Role of Seed Quality in Seed Production Systems

Seed quality defined as a collection of seed properties that are considered to be of importance
for sowing purposes and/or a multiple concept made up of different attributes (Ebso, 2009).
Quality seed is at the core of the technology package needed to increase agricultural
production, food production, and rural economic development (Alemu, 2011),and also
Quality seed should have the: high germination and vigour, genetically and physically pure,
free from seed born disease and insect pest with relatively low moisture contain (Verma et al.,
2007). Seed quality attributes namely physical purity; physiological quality and seed health
contribute towards realizing potentials of the variety. Recognition of these quality parameters
led to the establishment of field and seed standards, and different test methods and procedures
to verify whether the seed for sale meets these standards (Zewdie, 2004).

2.9.1. Seed quality test

To identify the quality problems and their probable cause through determine their quality that
is their suitability for planting, to determine the need for drying and processing and specific
procedures that should be used (singh, 2015).

The primary aim of the seed testing is to obtain accurate and reproducible results regarding
the quality status of the seed samples submitted to the seed testing laboratories. Seed testing is
determining the standards of a seed lot viz. physical purity, moisture and germination there by
enabling the farming community to get quality seeds. The methods involved in seed testing
have been described as moisture testing and germination testing ( Singh, 2011).

2.9.2. Physical quality

Purity analysis is to determine the percentage composition by weight of pure seeds, seeds of
other species, and inert particles that make up the sum total of the sample (Government of

16
Alberta, 2009). Analytical purity indicates the proportion of a seed lot that is pure seed of the
species concerned. The laboratory analysis also identifies and quantifies impurities (seeds of
other crops, weeds and inert matter) that may occur in the seed lot (ISTA, 2004). According to
Umarani et al., (2006) purity test is the first test to be made. Seed samples can contain
impurities such as weed seeds, seeds of other crop species, detached seed structures, leaf
particles and other materials. Pure seed is defined as seeds of the cultivar stated by the sender
or found to predominate in the purity test (Khare and Bhale, 2005). It is the seed of an
allotted crop produced by a grower, which includes all botanical varieties and cultivars of that
particular species (ISTA, 2004).

2.9.3. Thousand Seed Weight

Thousand seed weight is usually performed at the same time during the purity test (ISTA,
1996). It can be determined through two methods such as eight replications of 100 seeds each
were taken randomly from the pure seed fraction and weighed and then calculate the average
weight per 100 seeds and directly counting thousand seed and weighing (Ralph, 1997). A
thousand seed weight within the seed lot may vary due to different factors such as varietal
differences, interplant competition for light, water, and nutrient and the effect of diseases that
contribute to a wide range of seed size (Zewdie, 2004). The sample of seed lot is screened to
simulate what would happen when the seed lot is cleaned and processed, and then 1000 seeds
are weighed to produce the weight of 1000 seeds in grams. It has the advantage to calculate
sowing rates accurately a 1000-seed weight is needed with a germination test. During
screening a small seeds are removed with processing (Fuziana, 2011).

2.9.4. Moisture Content

Moisture content is one of the most important factors determining grain/seed quality during
harvesting, storage, trading, processing, and transportation because high moisture will create
problems for farmers, especially during postharvest activities such as mold growth, higher
insect infestation, loss in seed germination, and low market price( Hossain, 2016). Moisture
content of cereal grains/seeds is one of the most important characteristics for determining

17
quality. It is important in determining the proper time for harvest and the potential for safe
storage. It is also an important factor in determining the market price, because the dry matter
of grain/seeds has more value than the water it contains and because costs of drying for safe
storage must be taken into account (Weinberga et al., 2008).

Traditionally, cereal grain/seeds has maximum moisture content (MC) of 12.5 percent at
receivable and this has been set to comply with the international shipping standard of 12%
moisture content (Nigel, 2006). Grains (barley, corn, millets, oats, rice, rye, sorghum, triticale,
and wheat) containing 12 percent moisture or less and pulses (beans, soybean, chickpeas,
lentils, and dry peas) containing 10 percent moisture or less can be safely stored for food
purposes indefinitely (Ralph, 1997). The ability of stored seeds to germinate will decline
with time but food value is only slightly reduced. When a crop is exposed to rain after
physiological maturity, the process of quality loss occurs more quickly. Mould and fungi
development increase, colour darkens and the exposure of the grain to moisture starts to
stimulate germination, commonly referred to as sprouting (Stuart et al., 2000). In the
processing of grain for flour and other food products and for animal feeds, moisture content of
the materials is important information for efficient processing, achieving desired behavior of
the materials, and in obtaining desired high-quality products (Fuziana et al., 2011). Standard
methods for determining moisture in grain/seed require oven drying for specific time periods
at specified temperatures by prescribed methods. Because such methods are tedious and time
consuming, they are not suitable for general use in the grain trade, and other rapid testing 12
methods have been developed. Most of the modern practical grain moisture testers work on
the principle of sensing electrical characteristics of the grain, which are highly correlated with
moisture content (Stuart et al., 2000).

2.9.5. Physiological seed quality test

The physiological quality of the seed includes germination capacity, viability, and vigor.
Germination capacity refers to the ability of the seed to emerge and develop into a normal
plant under favorable conditions (Dekker, 2004). It is a complex process which leads to the
resumption of active growth of the embryonic axis and continued growth and development

18
until a potentially independent seedling is formed (Vanangamudi et al., 2006). ISTA (2004),
define germination as the emergence and development of the seedling to a stage where the
aspects of its essential structures indicate whether it is able to develop further into a
satisfactory plant under favorable conditions. Seed vigor becomes important when
environmental stresses occur at sowing and it is particularly relevant in species that are more
sensitive, or when species are sown in mixtures and seedling competition becomes a factor.
According to ISTA (2004), seed vigor is the sum total of those properties of seeds which
determines the level of activities and performance of the seed lot during germination and
seedling emergence. Geneve (2008) described seed vigor as the inherent ability of seeds
within a seed lot to establish normal seedlings under diverse growing environments.

2.10. Seed Deterioration

Seed deterioration can also be defined as deteriorative alterations occurring with time that
increase the seed’s exposure to external challenges and decrease the ability of the seed to
survive (Kapoor et al., 2010). Seed deterioration causes loss of seed quality with time. It is a
natural process which involves cytological, physiological, biochemical and physical changes
in seeds. These changes reduce viability and ultimately cause death of the seed. Seed
deterioration is an undesirable attribute of agriculture and is the basic cause of poor seed
quality, and thus low productivity (Shelar et al., 2008). Several other factors such as
environmental conditions during seed producing stage, pests, diseases, seed oil content,
storage longevity, mechanical damages of seed in processing, fluctuations in moisture
(including drought), weathering, nutrient deficiencies, packaging, pesticides, improper
handling, drying and biochemical injury of seed tissue can affect vigor of seeds (Astegar et
al., 2011). Seeds can serve as a vehicle for the dissemination of plant pathogens resulting in
serious disease out-breaks. Seed-borne pathogens are infectious agents with a potential to
cause disease of seedlings and plants. They can be transmitted as contaminants with seed or
on seed surface or through seed infection which could be in the pericarp, endosperm or
embryo (Diekmann, 1993). Infected seeds may fail to germinate, have low germination
capacity, may produce abnormal seedlings and may result in reduced seedling vigor affecting
its planting value.

19
20
 Chapter 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1. Description of the Study Area

The study was carried out in Wenberma District west Gojjam zone of Amhara region of
Ethiopia, during 2019/2020 main cropping season. It is located 36º49’O” E longitude and 10
º 41 ‘O”N Latitude with an altitude of 2500 a.s.l .the administrative town of Wenberma
is Shendi.
It is located at about 165 km Southwest of Bahir Dar and 426 km from Addis Ababa.
Its annual rain fall is 1100-1500 mm, the agro ecology also Weina dega. Wenberma has ideal
soil and climatic condition for the production of many crops. Maize, bread wheat, teff, pepper,
finger millet, potato, vegetables, coffee, sugarcane, haricot bean and sesame are grown in the
farming system (WWBoARD, 2020).

Figure 1:- Geographical map of the Study Area

3.2. Survey of seed for post harvest Technology

A questionnaire was designed to gather information on farmers’ perception of seed quality,

adoption modern post harvest technologies, storage condition of their seeds, farmers’ seed

21
sources, agronomic practices of wheat production and socio-economic factors limiting
adoption of modern post harvest technologies, factors that affect post harvest seed
management and reasons for increase food insecurity in the target area by converting English
Language to Amharic to easily understand the farmers to each questions.
The study was included a household survey to collect qualitative information on wheat seed
sources, agronomic practices, new technologies adoption, farmers seed quality perception
and constraints in using new technologies. This was done with the help of semi-structured
questionnaires. The source of qualitative data was farmers, peasant association leaders, and
District Agriculture and Rural Development office experts.

The study was conducted in Wenberma wereda in West Gojjam zone of Amhara region
North western Ethiopia during 2019/2020 cropping season. This wereda was selected
purposively on the basis of their large wheat seed production area, number of seed growers
and representativeness of the farming system. Sample wheat seed growers would be purposely
selected from the list of farm households in the study areas, Markuma (211 seed producers),
Waz (269 seed producers) and Dend (69seed producers) according to (WWBoARD, 2012).
The sample size was determined proportional to the size of wheat seed grower farmers and
use of post-harvest technologies. The structured questionnaire is administered via these
sampling units. By the formula
N
n= (Yamane, 1967)
1+ N ( E) 2

Where n =sample size; N=total seed producers and E= level precision

When N=549; E=8%
549
n= =122
1+549 ( 0.08 ) 2

From this total sampling distribute each kebele with in the proportion of their amount of seed
multiplier persons. Markuma 47 , Waz zinges 60 respondents’ and also from Dend kebele 15
seed multipliers.

22
3.2.1. Seed sampling

The post harvest methods used in the study area were Traditional post harvest method and
Modern post harvest Methods. For laboratory test, seed samples were collected from 22
farmers all kebeles (11 from MHTM and 11 THTM). On the other hand four samples were
taken (one kg Store in Gota and one kg store Quantal in (quantal and Gota famers use
malthion powder with celphose simultaneously chemicals), one store in PICS (without any
chemicals) and ware house store from Ethiopian Seed Enterprise (ESE). A Seed sample of
1kg was taken from twenty Two farmers for quality analysis, on the other hand four Samples
were taken for Storage structure quality.

3.3. Methods of Data Collection

A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect pertinent information on wheat

agronomic practices and seed quality parameters. Both primary and secondary data were
collected and used for this study. Primary data were collected from the sample farmer
respondents, Wereda Agricultural Experts, Federal Seed Enterprise Experts and personal
communication and secondary data from published and unpublished materials, internet,
District and zonal Agricultural offices. To realize the interview schedule, enumerators were
first recruited and trained on methods of data collection and the contents of the interview
schedule. Questionnaire was pre-tested prior to the implementation of the interview.

3.4. Laboratory Tests

All samples were analyzed for seed quality (physical purity, thousand seed weight,
germination). All tests were conducted according to ISTA rules (ISTA, 2004). The samples
collected during the survey, from modern harvesting and Threshing method (MHTM) the
second sampling is Traditional harvesting and Threshing method (THTM) and were analyze
for seed quality within Four replication for Storage Methods and three replication for post
harvest technologies, tests outside tolerance limits were repeated (ISTA, 1999). sampling
techniques was by using mathematical calculation from the total survey (549 respondents to

23
each kebele Respondent number). purity test and physiological quality tests were conducted
at the seed testing laboratory of seed science and technology in BahirDar university college of
Agriculture and Environmental sciences, Bahirdar, Ethiopia and physiological quality tests to
be conducted at Ethiopian seed Enterprise Seed laboratory test room . In addition to test the
post harvest , storage Stracture (storage in quantal,storage in Gota,Storage in pics and storage
in Ware house) also tested with in four replication. All storage stractures were equal
duration time of storage with the same procedures to analysis of PHT).The samples were
collected during the survey for analyze for moisture content, physical purity, thousand seed
weight and germination.
3.4.1. Physical purity test

Samples were collected from PHT during survey were subjected to the physical quality
analysis. A sample of 1kg from each source was well mixed and reduced to sub-sample
(working sample) of 120g using mechanical seed divider post harvest with three replication
of 40g were divided into four fractions (pure seed, other crop seed, weed seed and inert
matter) and analyzed. For testing Seed storage stracture quality test was Four replication 25g
were divided into four fractions (pure seed, other crop seed, weed seed and inert matter) and
analyzed After analysis, the percentage of each fraction (based on weight) was calculated as
follows (ISTA, 1996).

weight of Pure Seed

Purity = x100
Weight of total Sample

3.4.2. Thousand seed weight determination

Thousand seed weight was determined by counting thousand seed by manual counting
techniquies from pure seed fraction in three and four replicates of 1000 seed and the average
seed weight was calculated (ISTA, 1996).

3.4.3. Moisture determination

24
Four replicates each with 13-15 g of seed were used for determination of seed moisture
content following ISTA rules (ISTA, 1996) samples collected from different storage stracture.
Three (PHT) and four (storage structure) replication The sample seeds collected from
different post harvest technologies were determined by Direct seed Moisture Taster
(Hydrometer G 86 From ESE Seed Laboratory).

3.4.4. Physiological quality test

The physiological seed quality test is the Germination Test and Speed of Germination of was
determined, and also which determines the germination and subsequent seedling emergence
and the storage potential of the seed lot.

3.4.5. Germination test

Germination test was conducted according to the ISTA (2004) rules, by taking three hundred
seed from pure seed fraction of each seed samples and planted on Germination Dish. Three
replicates of 100 seeds were planted (PHT) and four replication (storage structure) placed at
room temperature for 8th days until the final count was taken. On 8th days of the final count
seedlings were classified into normal, abnormal seedlings and dead seeds. The germination
percentage was calculated as follows

Number of Normal Seed lings

Germination (%) = ×100
Total Number of seed sown

3.4.6. Speed of germination

Three replicates each with 50 seeds were planted from each sources and kept at room
temperature until no further germination took place. Starting at fourth day of planting, each
day normal seedlings were counted until all seeds capable to produce normal seedlings had
germinated. An index was calculated by dividing the number of seedlings counted each day
for number of the days in which they were counted as follows (Maguire, 1962).

25
 No . of normal Seedlings++…+ No. of Normal Seedlings
Speed of Germination (%) =
Days of first count days of Final count

3.4.7. Seedling shoots and root length

The seedling shoot and root length were assessed after the final count in the standard
germination test. Ten normal seedlings were randomly selected from each replicate. The shoot
length was measured from the point of attachment to the cotyledon to the tip of the seedling.
In the same way, the root length was measured from the point of attachment to the cotyledon
to the tip of the root. The average shoot or root length were calculated by dividing the total
shoot or root lengths by the total number of normal seedlings measured (Fiala, 1987).

3.4.8. Seedling dry weight

The seedling dry weight was measured after the final count in the standard germination test.
Ten randomly selected seedlings from each replicate were cut free from their cotyledons and
placed in envelopes and dried in an oven at 80 ± 1 °C for 24 h. The dried seedlings were
weighed to the nearest two place milli-gram and the average seedling dry weight was
calculated according to (Fiala, 1987).

3.4.9. Vigor index

For each seed sources two vigor indices were calculated. Seedling vigor index I was
calculated by multiplying the standard germination percentage with the average sum of the
seedling length at final day of germination test. Seedling vigor index II was calculated by
multiplying the standard germination percentage with mean seedling dry weight (Fiala, 1987).

V.I = (G %) X (L), where G % is the standard germination percentage L is the seedling

length in (cm) V.II = (G %) X (DW), where G% is the standard germination percentage DW
is the seedling dry weight in (g)

26
3.5. Experimental Design

Seed harvest technologies and storage structures were used as treatment of the study, in
laboratory test. Complete Randomize design with Four replication for laboratory test for
storage quality test and Three replication PHT quality test.

3.6. Method of Data Analysis

The process of survey data analysis involved several stages. Questionnaires were edited for
completeness and consistency followed by data cleaning and explanation. The datas were
coded and checked for any errors and omissions. The Statistical Package for Social Science
(SPSS) Version 20 were used to analyze the collected survey using both descriptive and
inferential statistics. Data collected from laboratory test were analyzed using the hypothesizes
T-test for Sample collected From postharvest technologies a procedure of SAS software for
analysis of variance (ANOVA) Sampled collected from Different Storage structures.

Chapter 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1. Demographic and Household Characteristics

House hold characteristics in the study area were classified based on distribution of household
by sex, age, family size and educational level.

4.1.1. Distributions of household by sex

The distribution of household by sex in the study areas were mainly male headed. About
87.7% households were male headed in three kebeles in the survey areas (Table 2). Any
changes in farming and post-harvest technologies need to take into account the effects on both
genders to maintain this balance. Similarly Tiruneh et al. (1999) found that the decision to
grow improved Bread wheat varieties is a joint decision by over half of male-headed
27
households in Central Ethiopia.The survey result showed that female headed household
contribution in wheat production is only about 12.3% from sample farmers (Table 2). This
was attributed to various reasons including the problem of economic position of female
headed households such as shortage of labor, land, limited access to information and required
inputs, and other cultural influences. Men have an overall responsibility and contribute to all
farm operations and decision-making whereas; women can usually give their opinion (Stroud
and Mekuria, 1992).

Table 2: Number and proportion of sample households by sex at Wenberma district during
2019/2020 Main cropping season

Gender
Male % Female % Total %
Kebele Dend 15 12.3 0 0 15 12.30
Markuma 38 31.15 9 7.34 47 38.52
Waz 54 44.26 6 4.92 60 49.18
Total 107 87.71 15 12.30 122 100

4.1.2. Distribution of sample household by age and family size

The average age of household was 34.44 years and ranges from 17 to 67years (Table 3). More
than half of the sample farmers were below average age, indicating the involvement of young
generation in farming activities, which has a positive effect on technology adoption and
practical application of extension services i.e. 34.33,34.4 and 34.98 were Dend ,Markuma and
waz, respectively (Table 3).

The mean family size of the respondents was about 3.47 persons per household with a range
from 1 to 8 persons. On the basis of the kebele, the average family size was 2.53, 3.72 and
4.02 for dend, markuma and waz, respectively (Table 3). According to Gezahagn, (2008) as
the size of the household increases the adoption of new technology also increases. This is
because a family with large number of household affords to provide greater amount of labor
than that might be required by improved wheat technologies.

28
Table 3:- Distribution of sample household by age and family size
Kebele N Mini Max Mean family size in N Min Max Mean
Age Number
Dend 15 25 50 34.33 Dend 15 1 5 2.53

Markuma 47 19 67 34.4 Markuma 47 1 8 3.72

Waz 60 17 65 34.98 Waz 60 1 7 4.15

Total 122 17 67 34.44 Total 122 1 8 3.47

4.1.3 Educational level of the household

The educational level of individuals in the study areas were observed that, about 80.33 % of
farmers could be read and write and also 19.67 % could not be read and write (Table 4).
Rahmeto (2007) reported that farmer educational level influenced the adoption of new
agricultural technologies. Farmers with better education should be aware of information
sources and are more efficient in evaluating and interpreting available information about
innovations than those with less education (farmers those could not be read and write).

Table 4: Educational level of the household at Wenberma district during 2019/2020 Main
cropping season
Educational level
can read and write % cannot read and write % Total
Kebele Dend 11 9.02 4 3.28 15
Markuma 34 27.87 13 10.66 47
Waz 53 46.72 7 5.74 60
Total 98 80.33 24 19.67 122

4.1.4. Number of cattle production and land resource the farmers

The average number of cattle 7.15 and ranges from 0 to 26 (Table 5). Those indicating
that the Number of cattle was very important for generation in farming activities, although the
farmers have no cattle production was difficult to generating farming activities i,e during
ploughing, threshing and planting time cattle’s have it own advantage , in addition to this

29
cattle’s have advantageous for income and food consumption. From the survey result
markuma was highest cattle production (9.4) catteles, i.e. 6.47, 9.4 and 5.58 dend, markuma
and Waz, respectively (Table 5). In the study area land resource was the pillars for seed
production, 1.99 was the average allocation in the study area from 0 to 8 hectare (table 5).
Even though some farmers were have not self-land resource, i.e. they produce seed by buying
the land from other farmers in the form of contract from 1-3 cropping season. The 1.67, 2.29
and 2.02 for dend, markuma and Waz was the average land allocation each kebele,
respectively (Table 5). According to Abrham Assefa et al, (2010) reported that Livestock
and land remain the most important component in Ethiopian farmers’ lives for daily survival
and economic security. However, cereal cropping is highly prioritized at government and
farm level at the cost of the livestock subsector, the environment, and natural resources.

Table 5: Number of cattle production and land resource in ha at Wenberma district during
2019/2020 Main cropping season

Cattle prod N Min Max mean land resource N Mini Max Mean
Dend 15 3 13 6.47 Dend 15 0 3 1.67
Markuma 47 0 18 9.4 Markuma 47 0 8 2.29
Waz 60 0 26 5.58 Waz 60 0 4 2.02
Total 122 0 26 7.15 Total 122 0 8 1.99

4.1.5. Source of labor for seed production

Wheat production is follow the sequential farming operations such as land preparation,
sowing, weeding, harvesting, threshing, winnowing, seed storage and marketing. Family was
the minor source of farm labor for bread wheat seed production in the study areas. The survey
result showed that the contribution of family labor in wheat production is about 22.95 %,
whereas hired labor contribution of farm activities was 77.05% (Table 6). The Result nearly
Similarly aginst to Girma Boliso (2018) , reported that hired labor contribution of both family
and hired labor together for farm activities were 66.6% and 68.6% at Bore and Anna Sora
Districts, respectively. This implies that the majority of the respondents in the study areas
mainly used hired labour contribution.

30
 Buy worker for seed production total
Yes % no % %
Kebele Dend 14 11.48 1 0.82 15 12.30
Marku 29 23.77 18 14.75 47 38.52
Waz 51 48.80 9 7.34 60 49.18
Total 94 77.05 28 22.95 122 100
Table 6 : Source of labor for seed production at Wenberma district during 2019/2020 Main
cropping season

4.1.6. Grown Bread wheat, Varities and criteria’s to selection

During the 2019/2020 cropping season, two improved varieties of bread wheat (i.e. Kekeba
and oglocho) were grown by farmers in the study area. About 51.6% and 48.4% of farmers
had produced bread wheat varieties, respectively (Table 7). The local landrace covers the
highest wheat production in the study area. On the other hand the farmers were selected
those two improved bread wheat verities were based on there get higher yield ,size of the
seed, resistance to hard wind and quality of the food 64.8%, 31.1% ,3.3% and 0.8%
,respectively (Table 7). This finding is in agremment with Karta Kaske Kalsa et al, (2019) the
main reason why those obsolete varieties were dominant in the studied area attributed to
farmers’ perception that these varieties are relatively high yielding, despite their susceptibility
to rust diseases.

Table 7: Grown Bread wheat at Wenberma district during 2019/2020 Main cropping season

N % Criteria’s to selection N %
No 0 0 quality of food 1 0.8
Yes 122 100 size of the seed 38 31.1
Kekeba 63 51.6 get higher yield 79 64.8
Ogolocho 59 48.4 cannot drop by wind during maturity 4 3.3
Total 122 100 Total 122 100.0

4.1.7. Seed Source and reasons for select quality seed

Small-scale farmers grow as many diverse crops as possible dictated by their domestic
circumstances including the provision of household food security all farmers in the target area
31
, Since distribution of formal (MoA and universities/research center) seed sources were not
enough to meet the increased demand of the farmers for improved seed, they were used
informal sources such as own saved seed, local market/relatives, which accounts 73.8% and
1.6%, 6.6% and 18% for all three kebeles , respectively (Table 8). In agreement with Girma
Boliso ,(2018) reported that distribution of formal seed sources were not enough to meet the
increased demand of the farmers for improved seed, they were used informal sources such as
own saved seed, local market and relatives, which accounts 52.9% and 29.5%, 33.3% and
49% and 15.7 % and 21.6% in Bore and Anna Sorra Districts, respectively .

The study area farmers’ select quality seed in varies reasons to get more production, to
replace the old variety, to get better quality and to get more production 9%, 45.9%and 45.1%
respectively (Table 8).

Table 8: Seed Source and reasons for select quality seed at Wenberma district during
2019/2020 Main cropping season

reason for select qty seed N % Source of Seed N %

to replace the old type from Ministry of
11 9.0 90 73.8
agriculture
to get better quality university/research
56 45.9 2 1.6
center
to get more produce 55 45.1 own seed 8 6.6
Total from relatives/local
122 100.0 22 18.0
market

4.1.8. Farmers Agronomic Practices of Wheat Production

In the study area farmers’ perception for Agronomic practice was 20.5 %, 60.7% and18.7%
Good, Medium and poor, respectively (Table 9).

Farmers use traditional land preparation method where the soil is worked by four to five
passes each perpendicular to the first with a local plough called maresha drawn by a pair of
oxen and hand cutting the reforested land by using gejera or sickles and hand hoes. About
71.3% farmers used oxen, 24.6% farmers plough more than five times through use pair of

32
oxen, 2.5%,three to four times by oxen 1.6 two times by tractor. Bekele et al. (2000) reported
that the farmers, use ox plow, tractors and hand hoe for land preparation of wheat production.

Farmers generally plant their crop following the first showers of rain to make use of the
available moisture in the soil. The survey result showed that farmers start planting wheat with
the onset of the rain which is in most cases is from June 20 to August 30, with the optimum
rain falling from or the maximum concentration of planting date from July 15 to August 7.
Regarding the method of planting, the respondents indicated that they carryout wheat sowing
by 100.0 % use row planting (Table 9).
On the other hand the respondents were minimize their weeds by herbicide Application
(75.4%) and some of them were hand weeding (24.6%) (Table 9). This idea inlined with
(Beyene et al., 1991). Application of herbicides or hand weeding is the most commonly
recommended weed control measure in wheat farm.

There was a variation in the seed rate used by farmers in the study area that range from 100 kg
ha-1 to 400 kg ha-1. The majority of the farmers 60.5%were responded that they used seed
rate of 251-300 kg ha-1), while those farmers that sow wheat at rate of 151-200kg,201-250
kg and 301-400 kg were 1.6 %,11.5%and 26.2, respectively (Table 9). The recommended
seed rate is 150 kg ha−1 for hand broadcasting and 125 kg ha−1 for drilling both for bread
and durum wheat (IAR, 1990). The justification given by farmers for using the highest seed
rate is due to poor quality of the seed and in appropriate land preparation. In the study area all
of the sample farmers(100%) have applied inorganic (DAP and/or Urea) fertilizers to their
wheat crop as a single dose at planting time only.

Table 9: Agronomic practice of bread wheat at Wenberma district during 2019/2020 Main
cropping season

Farmer perception % plouphing time N

100.0
For Agronomic Practice N
Good 25 20.5 two time by tractor 22 18.0
Medium three-four times by
74 60.7 30 24.5
oxen
Poor 18.9 four-five times by
23 70 57.3
oxen
Total 122 100.0 Total 122.0 100.0
33
 Freq Per
uency cent
Weeding practice of Yes 30 24.6
No 92 75.4
Bread wheat
151-200 2 1.6
201-250 14 11.5
250-300 kg 74 60.7
300-400 32 26.2
Seed rate Total 122 100.0
Planting Line
122 100.0
Method
Broad 0 0.0
Fertilizer No
0 0
Application
122 100.0
Yes
Source field surveying 2020

4.1.9. Sowing time and the appearance of herb

Farmers generally plant their crop following the first showers of rain to make use of the
available moisture in the soil. The survey result showed that farmers start planting bread
wheat with the onset of the rain which is in most cases is from first July-August 30, with the
optimum rain falling from or the maximum concentration of planting date from July 15 to
August 7 (Table 9).

Farmers reported different rates of pesticide measured in liters, in packet, grams and
measuring spoons depending on the type of agrochemical use. 100 % of respondents used
herbicides, with 2.4, D, crop star and richway most commonly used. According to
Williamson et al, (2008) repored that different rates per unit area were used but not justified,
with some farmers determining their own preferred rates, a common practice which can result
in unnecessary costs (too frequent spraying), pest resistance, and human health issues
(excessive pesticide use).

34
Table 10: Sowing time and the appearance of herb

Time of bread Wheat seed sown N % when herb appear N %

first July 65 53.3 very young 4 3.3
at the end of July 31 25.4 Blooming 88 72.1
first august 21 17.2 during harvesting 17 13.9
at the end of august
5 4.1 in all stage 13 10.7
Total 122 100.0 Total 122 100.0

4.1.9. Farmers seed management and threshing methods at Wenberma district during
2019/2020 Main cropping season

Seed management is the reflection of farmers’ perception and the value they attach to seed
planted to raise the next year crop. Farmers’ were used seed cleaning and storage of seed
management approaches to maintain the quality of their seed. This idea inline with
(Dessalegn et al., 2017) Farmers store their grain/ seed after harvesting, cleaning and drying
it. The most popular storage methods were fertilizer bags, traditional Gotera (made from local
materials), jute bags, polypropylene bags and ware houses. The purpose of seed cleaning is to
improve the physical quality of the seed by removing inertmatter, weed seed and other crop
seeds, broken seeds or disease/insect damaged seeds. Seed cleaning is carried out at different
stages, right after threshing of the crop using wooden implements (mantarebia, lameda) or at a
later stage just before planting using homemade tools (sefed, won fit). The study showed that
about 49.2%, 25.4%, 12.3% and 13.1% of the farmers clean the seed to improve quality,
remove inert matter and other crop seeds, remove broken seeds and avoid insect and disease
damaged seeds, respectively (Table 11). The result confirm to Girma Boliso (2012) showed
that about 37.2%, 18. 6%, 16.3% and 29.9% of the farmers clean the seed to improve quality,
remove inert matter and other crop seeds, remove broken seeds and avoid insect and disease
damaged seeds, respectively. On the other hand, in the study area the respondents threshing
condition of their floor were different floor for different crop, prepare floor for new crop,
using large polyethylene and the same for every year were (55.7%,36.9%,7.4% and also
0%) , respectively (Table 11).

35
 Table 11: Reasons clean bread wheat seed and Threshing Condition of bread wheat floor at
Wenberma district during 2019/2020 Main cropping season

Reasons clean bread wheat seed N % Threshing Condition N %

to improve quality prepare new floor for new
60 49.2 45 36.9
crop
remove /damaged seeds 25.4 the same for every year
31 0 0

to remove weed seeds 15 12.3 different for different crop 68 55.7

to remove insects that cause
16 13.1 Clean polyethylene 9 7.4
disease
Total 122 100.0 122 100.0

4.1.10. Sources of information for wheat Technology in study area

Most wheat growers were aware of and had information on improved wheat varieties,
agrochemical inputs, agronomic packages and seed storage. From the survey area the
respondents had information from kebele agri experts about farm, weed, seed storage and
seed threshing, where as the farmers have no information about herbicides. The formal
agricultural extension service was the main source of information for new technologies such
as improved varieties, wheat agronomy, and fertilizers like medias/radio/TVs’ and mobile
phone (25.4%) ,traders for weed control and researchers 9.8% and 6.6%, respectively a good
source for farmers agricultural practice in the study area (Table 12). This result nearly similar
to Zewdie (2004) reported that about 90% of farmers get information about new technologies
such as improved varieties, wheat agronomy, fertilizers, and herbicides through formal
agricultural extension services in major wheat producing parts of the Ethiopia and also
Tilahun Alaye (2019) reported that, there is no formal system of disseminating market
information to beneficiaries. The result also showed that 25.8% and 98.1% of the respondents
have access to credit and storage facilities respectively.

However, the survey results show that farmers use multiple sources of information such as
neighbors and other farmers. These appeared to be the second most important informal source
of information next to the extension services. Particularly information concerning improved

36
varieties, wheat agronomy and fertilizer a farmer gets from his/her neighbor of other farmers
play significant role in wheat production. According to World Bank (2011) places
government researchers and extension officers, and farmers in good stead for further capacity
building in post-harvest loss preventions, an area in need of improvement across sub-Saharan
Africa.

Table 12: Sources of information for wheat production at Wenberma district during
2019/2020 Main cropping season
58.2
60
40
25.4
20 6.6 9.8
0

4.1.11. Seed Management and harvesting Methods

In the the study area, about 48.4%, 30.3% and 21.3% of the farmers in the survey area were
male and female farmers, male farmer only and all family members i.e. including medium
children’s, respectively (Table 13). This indicate the respondents participate all family
members in seed planting.

In the study area collection method the farmers were by hand/traditional method, by using
both manual and machines (threshing and collection methods of ) 18.9%,45.9 %and 35.2%,
respectively (Table 14), those indicates that the majority of the farmers in seed producer area
were used machine (45.9%) for seed production. (Mohamed Ali and Abraham
Taddese,2018) reported that bread wheat harvesting is often done manually, with the

37
 exception of places like Gedeb Hassasa (Oromia) and Debre Elias (Amhara), where
combiners are used to harvest and thresh simultaneously. More than 80% of farmers in
Gedeb Hassasa and Debre Elias do both harvesting and threshing at the same time using hired
combine harvesters.

Table 13: Seed Management and harvesting Methods at Wenberma district during 2019/2020
Main cropping season

Collection Method %
seed sowing in your family N % N
male farmer only 37 30.3 by hand 23 18.9
male and female farmers 59 48.4 modern harvester 56 45.9
all family members by both modern harvester
26 21.3 43 35.2
and using hand
Total 122 100.0 122 100.0

4.1.12 . Bread wheat seed Storage Area and structure and duration of Time

The storage structures used were observed during the survey ,fertilizer bags with Chemicals
(malathion powder,Actyline 2%,celphose),Gota plastered by cow dung(malathion
powder,Actyline 2%,celphose) and recently introduce storage bag (PICS) were the most
common and popular storage structures in the area, pics(Purdue Improved crop storage)
48.4%,40.4 % and 11.5% respectively (Table 15). According to karta kaska kalsa, 2019
reported that Traditional storage containers of wheat seed in the surveyed area included
woven bags (jute bags and polypropylene bags) (90.7%, n=150), gota or gotera (8.0%) and
metal/plastic drums (1.3%).

In the study area the majority of the respondents 28.7% had gotten the amount of yield from
their wheat cover area were, 3000-4000kg/hac (30-40 quintals/hec) (Table 14). This finding
result greater than CSA, 2018 data ( 27.36 qu/ha) and CSA,2019 (27.64 qu/ha) studies all
over the countries, and also nearly confirm to WWBoARD,2021 report the famer gets
34.1qu/ha was recorded Actual data stated.

38
Table 14: Farmers estimation for Bread wheat seed yield and structure and duration of Time
at Wenberma district during 2019/2020 Main cropping season

Storage structure N % Yield/ha N %

sack/ quantal with chemicals 1000-2000kg/ha 12 9.8

48.2
59
Gota/made from mud 49 40.3 2000-3000kg/ha 30 24.6
using pick without any chemicals 14 11.5 3000-4000kg/ha 60 49.2
Ware house 0 0 4000-5000kg/ha 20 16.4
Total 122 100.0 122 100.0

4.1.13. Duration of bread wheat storage time, transportation system and moisture
identification

Respondents stored bread wheat seed 0-18 months for different purposes i.e. for sale, for seed
and store due to big harvest. The majority of respondents’ were store their seeds seven to nine
months (46.7%), to the duration of harvesting to sowing time (December -July), and also
some farmers were store zero to three months (1.6%). Farmers store their seeds 0-3,4-6,7-
9,10-12,13-15 and 16-18 1.6%,26.2%,41.7%,11.5%,10.7% and 3.3%, respectively (Table 15).
Dessalegn et al,(2017) reported that a good harvest and good storage conditions equate to a
better income for the farmers than rain at harvest and poor storage of grains, especially for
storage of 3-12 months. On the other hand the study area the farmer was transport their seeds
after harvest (field to their house and their house to sales market) were by Gary, donkey and
human power 45.1%, 42.6% and 12.3%, respectively. The majority of the farmers were
transport their seeds by using Gary 45% (Table 15), in the study area there was no transport
by car and airplane (0%) (Table 16).

Farmers inspected their seed identifying moisture content was different at the field and
storage area the respondents check their moisture content by visual observation (change
colour of the seed), from the study area the respondents check moisture content of the seed
by touch using their hand, using tooth, measure their weight and other method 52.5%, 47.5%,

39
0% and 0% (Table 16), respectively. From the study area the majority of the farmers were
check the moisture content of seed using hand and tooth (52.5%) and (47.5%), respectively,
This indicates that there is no moisture tester in the study area and supportive organ to give
guideline of moisture measurement /Technology for the impact of moisture contents. This
idea contrast According to Dessalegn et al, (2017) reported that Farmers expressed their
interest of monitoring moisture control at storage using moisture meter and dryer if the price
of moisture meter was a limiting factor.

duration of bread transportation N % moisture N %

wheat storage time N % system identify
0-3 month Donkey touch by 47.
2 1.6 52 42.6 58
tooth 5
4-6 month Gary measure by
32 26.2 55 45.1 0 0
weight
7-9 month Human 15 12.3
By hand 52.
57 46.7 Car 0 0 64
touch 5
Air plan 0 0
10-12 month by other
14 11.5 0 0
method
13-15 month 13 10.7
16-18 month 4 3.3
Total 122 100.0 100 122
122 100.0
.0
Table 15: Duration of bread wheat storage time, transportation system and moisture
identification at Wenberma district during 2019/2020 Main cropping season

4.1.14. Farmers estimation for post-harvest lose of bread wheat at different stage

From the data in the target area post-harvest losses mostly occurred in case of Tradtional
harvesting method (10-60kg /hectare (Table 16). This lose due to Harvesting (by left the seeds
by carless collection methods of the labours, climate change during rainy time difficult to
manage it ),during field storage (by rodents,animals,climate change),threshing (by Animal
feeding inappropriate quality of floor/Awdma, climate change, shortage of sorting materials
(mantarebia and lameda), transportation (sacks are destroyed by over loading in gari or
donkey then lost the seeds ), in storage area (by faulty store their house their seeds are

40
affected by rodents, weevils ). According to Dessalegn et al, (2017) reported that the overall
seed/ grain losses due to harvesting and threshing operation in wheat were estimated to be high. It
was mainly due to use of traditional methods of threshing by the farmers. i.e. The majority of
surveyed farmers used oxen trampling for threshing and some losses were due to the oxen eating
grains while working.

On the other hand in Modern post-harvest method (5-20kg/hectare) generally this loses during
harvesting and threshing time ( by passed the fallen wheat in the field and near to the trees are
not harvesting by combiners and also partially some combiners crack the kernel of seeds
during threshing time. This is similar to Boxal et al, (2002) Mechanized threshers are made to
reduce the damage of seeds, in case of combine harvester it requires take care during
harvesting and threshing with respect to quality ,harvesting of the kernel when the machine
passed due to any obstacles (near to filed trees ,up down places and others) generally it
requires minimum manual harvesting (field serving, 2020).

Table 16: Farmers estimation during post harvest lose in traditional methods and Estimation
of post harvest lose/ha in kg in modern methods at Wenberma district during 2019/2020 Main
cropping season

farmers estimation during N % Estimation of post harvest N %

post harvest lose in lose/ha in kg in modern
traditional methods methods
Harvesting 10-20 kg 1 0.8 10-20 kg 21 17.2
field storage 20-30 kg 31 25.4 0 kg 122 100.0
threshing 31-40 kg 35 28.7 5-10 kg 41 33.6
Transport 41-50kg 8 6.6 1-5kg 8 6.6
Storage at
51 -60kg 47 38.5 0kg 30 24.6
house

4.1.15. Packaging and labeling of bread wheat seed

From the study area the respondents were no experienced to fill and marked the bread wheat
seed due to improper quality management of seed, No legal assurance all and also lack of any
training for marked the seed respondents said NO (100.00%) Table 18). kiaya V, (2014)

41
reported that Packaging should be designed to prevent premature deterioration in product
quality, in addition to serving as a handling unit.

Table 17: Packaging and labeling of bread wheat seed at Wenberma district during 2019/2020
Main cropping season

Marketing 2019 2020

Packaging bread wheat N % problem N % N %
Yes yes 122 100. 0 0.0
0 0
0
No 122 100.00 No 0 0.0 122 100.0
Seed labor test yes 24 19.7
No 98 80.3

The study area indicates that marketing problem was the major challenge due to lack of seed
quality, absence of marketing chain (producer to consumer) and inflation and defilation of
seed price (56.6%, 28.7% and 14.8%), respectively (Table 18) were the bottleneck for farmer
seed production on the target areas, respectively. This is similar to Gebremedhin et al. (2019)
also revealed that sesame farmers in Humera district (Northern Ethiopia) sell the produce
immediately after harvest when the price is the lowest. Price instability, lack of awareness,
absence of appropriate storage materials, lack of infrastructure, the exploitive influence of
middlemen and limited access to market linkage and information are market problems
indicated by respondents. Marketing is the final and decisive element in the post-harvest
system, although it can occur at various points in the agro-food chain, particularly at some
stage in processing (kiaya, 2014).

42
Table 18: Reasons of Marketing problem and Seed buyers
Reasons of Marketing problem Seed buyers 2019 2020
N %
N % N %
lack of quality of seed 69 56.6 Merchants 91 74.6 22 18.03
absence of marketing
chain(producer to consumer) 35 28.7 Farmers 31 25.6

inflation and defilation of Ethio-seed 50 41.0

18 14.8 0
seed price Enterprise
ASE 0 0 50 41.0

PSG 0 122 18.03

o

4.1.16. Reasons for food insecurity and farmers suggest for post-harvest lose reduction

Post-harvest loss can occur at any stage along the post-harvest chain affecting crop quality
and food security efforts. Understanding the circumstances around harvest and post-harvest of
a given crop may help reduce post-harvest losses and improve income of farm household. At
the study area the respondents were reflect some points cause food insecurity in given area i.e.
drought, disease, lack of peace ,inappropriate post-harvest technology , weed problem and
fluctuation of weathering condition 1.6%,10.7%,6.6%,21.3%,12.3% and 47.5%, respectively
(Table 19). This idea inclined (Mccann, 1995) uncertain rainfall and very low levels of
irrigation make intensive cultivation with improved seeds and fertilizer risky.
In the study area the majority of the respondents were states inappropriate post-harvest
technology (47.5%) lack of peace (21.3%) bottlenecks for food security ,the result similar to
(FAO, 2017), Post-harvest losses in seeds can lead to a significant economic loss to the food
supply chain actors and the nation at large.

43
 Table 19: Reasons for food insecurity and suggestions to reduce post-harvest seed loss at
Wenberma district during 2019/2020 Main cropping season

Suggestions to reduce N %
Reasons for food insecurity N % post-harvest loss
Drought use appropriate post-
2 1.6 harvest management 66 54.1

Disease use appropriate ecology

13 10.7 and pesticide use 50 41.0

lack of peace correct loan services to

8 6.6 6 4.9
purchase seed
post-harvest technology
problem during crop 26 21.3
production
weed problem 15 12.3
imbalance weathering
58 47.5
condition
Total 122 100.0 122 100.0

In the study area the farmers suggest to minimize post-harvest lose put different directions i.e.
use appropriate post-harvest management, use appropriate ecology and pesticide use correct
loan services to purchase of seed were 54.1%, 41% and 4.9% %, respectively (Table 20)
according to (Mohamed Ali and Abrham Tadesse, 2018) cultural practices such as prompt
harvesting, proper drying before storage, etc., use of resistant crop varieties, admixing grain
with teff, finger millet, or inert dusts, use of hermetic storage containers, treatment of grain
with pesticides, and use of combination of different compatible options in an integrated
manner using integrated pest management (IPM). However, more efforts are needed to utilize
the existing technologies and to develop new, affordable, and more effective technologies to
mitigate PHLs of the selected commodities based on a value chain approach.

4.2. Cost -benefit analysis

The two major harvesting & threshing technologies of Modern harvesting of bread Wheat in
the study area is Manual harvesting methods (filed surveying, 2020). From the survey result
the famers harvesting and threshing by modern harvester have been a great benefit than the

44
farmers harvesting and threshing by manually, with excluding oxen power cost, overtime
duration,the oxen during threshing and lose of their seed by the oxens dung and urine. This
data only compared mowing to threshing processes because other procedures were taken the
same. The data recorded from the farmers that use both manual and traditional harvesting
4390 profit and 50 kg sell price 950/ha ETB when the farmers sold thir seed 2246 ETB/Q
(during interview time) (Table 20) when farmers used modern harvesting techniques totally
7140 ETB NP were profitable (according to the the farmers interview).

Table 20: Simple example for cost comparisons farmers use MHM and THM at Wenberma
district during 2019/2020 Main cropping season

In manual harvesting MH
Total yield 35.5 quantals ETB fFC/per TCP TY CP ETB NP
HL/per
threshing 20 hl/hec 150 60
TCP 3000 1200 4200 36qu 135
Harvesting 10 hl/Hec 130 60
TCP 1300 600 1900
mowing 15 Hl/hec 150 60
sickle 15 120 1800
TCP 2250 900 3150
Total cost 6550 2700 11050 4860 7140
ETB

TCP=total cost price, ETB=Ethiopian Birr, ffFC=for food consumption, MHM, modern
combine harvester, CPETB=cost price in Ethiopian Birr, HL=hired labour and NP=net
profit , TY=total yield

4.3. Laboratory Test

With the assumption that seed collected from 22 farmers, 11 for each PHT modern PHT and
manuals PHT and four treatment from different storage Stractures (storage in Gota, Storage
in quintals, Storage in PICS and Storage in ware house) could vary in terms of their physical
purity, standard germination, physiological performance, laboratory experiments were
conducted to determine those quality performances of the seed two PHT and four storage
structures.

45
4.2.1. Physical purity of the bread wheat collected from different storage methods

The results of physical quality showed variation between different Storage methods, weed
seed and inert matter (P ≤0.01) Apendix Table 1. This is due to Agronomic practice, weed
management system and harvesting and threshing methods of the farmers were rarely
intermediated but there storage methods were highly significantly affect on physical purity.

The mean percentage of pure seed of 94.94 %, 97.14%, 97.1% and 98.8% for StG, StQ, StPIC
and StWh, respectively (Table 21). From the table result showed that 94.94% (the lowest )
and 98.8% (the heighest) mean percentages were recorded from storage in Gota and
Storage in ware house, respectively (Table 21) and the farmers were store their seed in PICS
it showed that 97.1% of seed has been pure seed. According to ( Kalsa et al.,2019) reported
that farmers can benefit from the introduction and the scaling up of improved storage
technologies such as hermetic bags.

Table 21:-Mean percentage comparison of Physical purity of the bread wheat collected from
different storage methods

Storage stractures PS WS IM OCS MC TSW

StG 94.94b 1.13 2.38 0.81 11.38 30.54

StQU 97.14ab 0.94 1.63 0.29 11.38 31.25
StPIC 97.09ab 0.75 1.68 0.49 10.93 32.95
StWH 98.87a 0.33 0.69 0.13 11.13 32.33
LSD 2.67 1.09 1.95 0.56 0.71 12.67
StG=Storage in Gota, StQU=Storage in quintal, StPIC=Storage in pics bag, Store in Ware
House, PS=pure seed, WS=Weed seed, IM=inert matter, OCS=other crop seed,
MC=moisture contents, TSW=Thousands Seed Weight
4.2.2. Moisture Content

The moisture content determination did not showed significant difference between different
storage methods at ( (p≤0.01) (Apendix Table 1). The mean percentage of moisture content
of each storage methods were 11.38%, 11.38%, 10.93% and 11.13% of storage in Gota,
Storage In quantal, Storage in PICS and Storage in Ware house, respectively (Table 21).
Gupta and Aneja (2004) has been reported that the moisture content of seeds did not vary

46
much amongst the different storage Stracture due to previous harvesting content of the
moisture content .

4.2.3. Thousand Seed weight

Thousand seed weight were not significantly different (P ≤ 0.01) (Apendix Table 1) for ach
storage materials when the farmers used. Each Storage materials mean percentage TSW were
30.54%, 31.25%, 32.95a% and 32.33% for StG, StQ, Stpic and StWH, respectively, recorded
from the (Table 21).

Storage in Gota and Storage in PIcs were (32.95 and 30.54) g the maximum and the
minimum TSW recorded, respectively (Table 21), this idea similar to Scariot, et al. (2017)
report. The report explains that seeds stored in the hermetic system present a better
physiological performance and thousand seed weight when compared to those stored in the
conventional system.

4.2.4. Standard Germination test different materials that the farmers used

The study recorded the proportion of normal and abnormal seedlings and dead seed in
working samples. The Storage Materials show significantly different Standard Germination
and dead seedlings (P ≤ 0.01 ) (Appendix Table 1).

The germination percentage of storage in Gota and storage in Ware house were show the
lowest and the highest germination percentage (74% and 95.5%), respectively (Table 22).
Similarily, Alemayehu et al. (1999) reported that germination of seed samples collected from
farmers (with few exceptions) met the minimum germination standard for certified wheat seed
in Ethiopia. The data recorded in Gota storage structure does not showed the minimum
standard germination percentage (85%) (QASE, 2000). These results agree with Chattha et
al. (2012) report , which verified a decrease in the germination percentage of wheat seeds
stored in the conventional system over 12 months.

47
Among Different Seed storage Stractures abnormal seedling does not show significantly
different in case of Storage in Gota and Storagea in ware house show the highest and lowest
(3.75 and 0.75) mean of abnormal seedling, respectively (Table 22) . Alimatu, (2016)
reported that different storage stractures (polythene bags, cotton bags and glass containers)
the mean percentage seed vigour and germination irrespective found to different.

Table 22:-Mean percentage comparison of standard germination parameters among different

Storage Methods and ESE

Storage methods StDG Abs DS

StG 74.0c 3.75a 19.75a
StQua 92.5ab 1.75a 5.75b
StPic 89.75b 3.5a 6.75b
StWH 95.50a 0.75a 3.75b
LSD 3.93 4.8 5.50
StG=storage in gota, StQu=Storage in quintals, StPiC=Storage in pics, StWH=Storage in
Ware House, StDG=Standard Germination, Abs=abnormal seedling,DS=dead seedling

4.2.5. Physiological seed quality (vigor) of bread wheat seed collected from farmers and ESE

Storage methods show variation at (p≤ 0 .01) Appendix Table 1. Root length, Vig I and VIG II
for different Seed Storage methods and show significantly Difference, but SHL, SDW and
SPD were does not show significantly difference among them (Table 23) and (Appendix
Table 1), ths idea inclined to suma et al,2013. The changes in seedling vigour index also
closely followed the changes in viability, since vigour index is directly depending on
germination percentage and seedling vigor, The mean percentage shoot length the highest and
the lowest 12.38 and 11.88 for Storage in pics and storage quintals, respectively. In case of
Speed of Germination storage the highest and the lowest was recorded from Storage in ware
house and Storage in quintals (26.98 and 11.01), respectively (Table 23).

Table 23:-Mean percentage comparison Physiological seed quality (vigor) of bread wheat
seed collected from farmers and ESE

Storage SHL RL SDW ViG I SpDG ViG II

methods

48
 StG 12.3 17.63c 0.06 909.5b 11.15 4.60b
StQua 11.88 18.22bc 0.07 1093.13ab 11.01 6.40a
StPic 12.38 20.9a 0.07 1108.25ab 11.91 6.13ab
StWH 12.00 20.0ab 0.06 1147.75a 26.98 5.86ab
LSD 1.97 2.14 0.02 164.04 32.60 1.34
StG=storage in gota, StQu=Storage in quintals, StPiC=Storage in pics, StWH=Storage in
Ware House, SpD=Speed of Germination, SHL=shoot length, RL=Root length,
SDW=Seedling Dry Weight, ViG I=VIGII

4.3. Physical and physiological Seed quality test in Traditional and Modern harvesting

Post harvest technologies that the farmers used in the study area were showed Variation (p
≤ 0.01) (Appendix table 1) For Weed seed, moisture content, thousand seed weight and speed
of germination while others were not significantly difference, i.e. pure seed, inert matter,
other crop seeds, Standard Germination, Abnormal seed, dead seedling, shoot length and Root
length (Table 24). By considering the Table below 93.28 and 94.62 for modern and traditional
means for physical purity test, by this consideration traditional /manual harvesting method
was great than modern harvesting method. Because of less agronomic practice, the combiner
cracks the seeds and also Non selective Techniques of modern harvesting methods (by visual
field observation on the study area, 2020 and 2019). According to Bishaw and van Gastel
(2008), Appropriate agronomic practices, including selecting suitable land, planting, roguing,
and controlling weeds and pests, are factors in producing quality seed.

But when study result indicates that on physiological Quality tests there mean percentages
were relatively the same (Table 24), this Indicates that there is no different effect on bread
wheat variety when the farmers harvest and threshing their cereal crops like bread wheat
excluding speed of Germination (Table 24). When study report indicates that there were a
variation between only on four parameters i.e. weeds seed, moisture content, thousand seed
weight and speed of germination in the given study area.

49
Table 24:-Mean percentage comparision b/n Modern and Tradional/Manual harvesting and
threshing methods

Variables Treatment means P-Value

Modern Manual
PS 93.52 94.23 0.19
WS 2.6 1.33 0.0006
IM 3.02 3.94 0.89
OCS 0.86 0.50 0.15
MC 12.70 11.54 0.0001
TSW 43.98 35.18 0.0001
SpDG 7.85 16.50 0.0001
StG 89.18 91.34 0.09
Abs 2.63 2.06 0.93
Ds 8.15 6.64 0.15
SL 12.77 12.74 0.93
RL 20.69 20.68 0.99
PS=pure seed, WS=Weed seed, IM=inert matter, OCS=other crop seed, MC=moisture
contents, TSW=Thousands Seed Weight, SpD=Speed of Germination, SHL=shoot length,
RL=Root length, StDG=Standard Germination, Abs=abnormal seedling, DS=dead seedling

50
 Chapter 5 :- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. Conclusions

From the survey result the farmers perception and experience for seed production was
medium and poor this indicates that there is Gap on Agronomic practice, Effect of post
harvest lose and seed production. From this finding the respondents found in the study area
were used traditional/manual harvesting technologies and and the majority of the seed
producers were used combine harvestor.

The farmer’s seed storage structure also Quintals, Gota plastered with cow dung ,PICs bag
common used storage structure in the study area , among them quintal also major storage
material and amount of yield average in each kebele was 30-40 quintal/hectare Storage time
of the seed also 0-18 months, and also transport majorly by Gary and donkey.

The causes of postharvest losses reported include limited awareness, limited availability of
and access to postharvest technologies, and limited attention given to postharvest research and
extension, infrastructure, etc.

The laboratory result in the study area also for Storage Stractures (STQ, StG,StPIC and
StWH) were significantly different for each storage methods Storage in Gota was physically
impure and weak germination percentage, while storage in Ware house was best performance
among them. Storage in PICS also good performance during physical purity and germination
percentage with excluding previouse harvesting condition

This research would be conducted relatively similar agro ecologies and on a single Wereda it
should be conducted at different Agro ecologies and all over the country, region, Zones and
over the weredas, to put further recommendations for quality seed production and minimize
food insecurity all over the country.

51
 5.2. Recommendations

 Giving continues training for farmers, extension experts and development agents by
concerned staff, on time and method of land preparation, time of sowing for seed
production, protection, quality maintenance, post harvest seed lose effect, processing,
storage, marketing that leads to improve seed production and how to take care for
seed production during harvesting and threshing time to increase the quality of seed
assurance.
 Improved and accessible means of storing wheat for a year or more, gender sensitive
consultation and innovations, and continued capacity building in post-harvest research
and development are the way forward to reducing Ethiopia’s wheat post-harvest
losses.
 Administrative of the wenberma wereda will be looking for helping organization that
has participation in agricultural development to assist production and distribution of
farm tractors, and also combiners separately for seed harvesting and Grain harvesting
in the wereda all over the region to minimize contamination of seed and grain.
 Giving continues training for Combiner drivers/owners how to help the farmers rather
than think their money, and to equal contribution for all farmers during harvesting and
threshing time.
 Hence, there is an urgent need to devise appropriate tactics for protecting the losses in
farm and house -stored wheat in Ethiopia in order to increase extensive farming.

52
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 Appendices

Appendix Table 1:- ANOVA table for Mean percentages of physical, physiological, vigour
and of different storage methods

Sources of Variation DF ps ws im Ocs mc TSW

Trt 3 0.19 ns 0.47ns 0.47ns 0.35 ns 0.19ns 4.65ns
error 12 0.32 ns 0.75ns 2.40ns 0.20 0.32ns 100.9ns
total 15
cv 2.19 11.4 7.3 10.4 5.03 13.69
Trt=treatment,Df=degree of freedom,Ps=pure seed,WS=weed seed,im=inert
matter,Mc=moisture content , Cv=coefficient of variance and TSW=thousand seed weight

Sources of DF StdG SpDG Abs DS SL RL

Variation
Trt 3 367.40** 668.91ns 0.47ns 211.67*** 0.22 ns 2.89ns
error 12 9.73** 658 .61 ns 0.75ns 19.08*** 2.45ns 9.28ns
total 15
cv 3.55 14.8 11.4 48.54 12.9 8.85

Continued (appendix table 1)

Trt=treatment,Df=degree of freedom, Cv=coefficient of variance,StdG=standard
Germination,Abs=abnormal seed,DS=damaged seed,SL=shoot length and Root legth

Continued(appendix 1)
Sources of DF Sdwt Vig I Vig II
Variation
Trt 3 0.00ns 45105.95 ns 1.14 ns
error 12 0.00ns 16941.77 ns 1.13ns
total 15
cv 18.72 12.22 18.5

Trt=treatment,Df=degree of freedom, Cv=coefficient of variance,SDWt=seedling dry

weight,Vig I=vigour index one and Vig II=vigor index two

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Appendix table 2: A standard questionnaire for wheat bread production by postharvest
technology farm owners and their Experience for seed production

Part one: Identification

Apart from

1.1. ZONE: ____________ 1.2. District: _______________

1.4.village: _________________1.5. Date: ___________________ 1.6. The farmer's

Name_______________

Part Two: The Behavior of the Farmer

2.1. Gender

1. Male 2. Female

2.2.: Marital status 0. single 1.maried

2.3. The education of the farmer

0. No learned 1. Who can read and write

2.4. Your age: ___ _______ years

Part Three: The Origins of Racial Development

 3.1 How Much of the Land You Produced in 2011 1. (by immersion) 2: Own land

Rented: _______

3.2. How many cattle do you have? Calf ________ cow ------ bull

3.4 house size, male ___ female ___ total__

Gender / Age Number

0. Female> 15 -------- 2. Female> 15----------

1. male>15 ---------- 3. Male <15---------------

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4. Male>45 ………. 5. Female >45……………

3.5. Do you usually buy workers for crop production? Yes (1) No (2)

3.6. If yes, how many employees will you buy? _________

3.7. Did you get credit when buying seeds? Yes (1) No (2) QNA (3)

3.8. If yes, where do you get the credit?

 0. own 1. Rich farmers 2.Traders 3.Cooperatives 4. Microfinance

5.others

Part Four:

4. Grown bread wheat varieties

4.1. Do you usually grow bread wheat? Yes (1) No (2)

 4.2. If yes, which varieties of bread wheat are currently planted?

4.3. Did you grow other types of bread wheat in the past?

4.4. From 2018 to 2019, how much land was allocated to wheat production? ____

 4.4. Did you use improved breeds? Yes (1) No (2)

4.5. If yes, what varieties do you have to follow for improved species?

What criteria did you use?

0. Because of the quality of the food 1 size of seed. 2. The color of the grain is good 3. the
yield is 4. The quality of the straw.5.Because it sells at a good price 6. It is resistant to flood .7
Because it is stored so much 8. It is easy to collect 9. To be pesticide tolerant

Part Five: Seed Source

5.1. What was your first source of wheat seed?

0. Ministry of Agriculture 1. University / Research Center

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2. Trader 3. Non-Governmental Organizations

4. Buy from the farmer 5. Exchange with other crop-workers

6. Others (specify) ----------------------

 5.2. Buy For Sale Yes (1) No (2)

5.3. If yes, how often do you buy wheat seeds?

1. Period 2. Every year

3. Passed (every three or more years)

5.4. Reasons to buy quality seed, sources)?

1. To replace the old type 2. To get better seed quality

3. To get more produce 4. Others ……………… ..

Part Six: Farm Packages

6.1. Are suitable farm packages provided for each of the different types of upgrades? 1. Yes 2.
No

6.3.2. Time to sow _____________ Method of sowing

 6.3.3. Line (1) Scatter (2) 6.3.4 Seed Rate Kg / ha _____________

6.4. A farmer's perspective on the use of fertile land? Good (1) Medium (2) Poor (3)

6.4.1. If soil fertility is low, fertilizer will be applied (1) yes 2 (No).

6.4. If yes, what do you use fertilizer for wheat production? 1. Animalfrog 2. Compost 3. Urea
(4): No fertilizer

 6.4.3. If you use urea and / or DAP, what do you mean per kg / ha

To DAP________ to urea

6.5 Weed Control

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6.5.1. When does weeding first occur? ____________________

6.5.2. How often do you correct?

 6.5.3. Do they apply herbal remedies? Yes (1), no (2)

6.6 Seed Production

 6.6.1. Do you have a separate farm for bread wheat seed? Yes (1) No (2)

6.6.2. If yes, how long is it? -------------- And distance from the other? ------------------------

6.6.3. Is there a specific product activity to seed production? Yes (1) No (2)

 6.6.4. Your answer

If yes, list details ---------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------

6.6.5. If not, why not experience a particular movement of seed production?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________ ______________________________________________________

 6.5.6. Produce by contract seed with Agricultural Ministries, NGOs, Research Centers, or
Universities Yes (1) No (2)

 6.5.8. If yes, when? ____________ 6.5.9. If yes, which crop? ___________

6.5.10. If not, do you want to produce seed by contract? Yes (1) No (2)

6.5.11. If yes, why? ______________________________

6.7. Crop

6.7.1. Do you identify wheat-like plants? Yes (1) No (2)

6.7.2. If yes, how do you get rid of such plants?

 6.7.3. When is it (at what stage) when does the herb appear?

 Very young (1) blooming (2) during harvesting (3)

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Part - 7 Seed Management and production

7.1. Who is sowing seed in your family? 1. Female farmer only 2. Male farmer only

3. Male and Female Farmer 4. Children 5. All Family Members 6. Others (specify) ----

Part 8. Harvesting Threshing and processing of wheat seeds

 8.1. What method of collection did you use? 1. Mnual 2. Combiner 3. Others (specify)

 8.2. What is the condition of your threshing floor? 1. Prepare a new crop for all crops

 2. The same goes for every year

3. Identify different crops

 8.3. What was the average bread of wheat per hectare loss --------------?

8.4. Why do they usually clean bread? 1. To improve quality 2. To remove minor / damaged
seed 3. To remove weeds (other crops) 4. To remove insects that causes disease

Part 9. Storage Area and structure

 9.1. Which storage structure did you use?

1. The barn /gota in the house 2. Chemical with in the bag/quantals

 3.PICS 4. Concrete wall and floor from air vent/ware house

 9.2 How much do you keep your storage capacity? --------------------- Qt

 9.3 Do you identify seed and grain? 1. Yes 2. No

 9.4. How Long Have You Store Bread wheat? Month 1, 0-3 2, 4-6 3,7-9 4, 10-12 5, 13-15
6,16-18 7, 19-21 8, 22-24 9, Over 24 months

If you store bread wheat, have you ever checked the quality? 1, Yes 2. If yes, how often 1 2
3 4 5

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 9.6. How and by what do you transport it to the market after storing bread of wheat? 1. by
donkey 2 by 3.gary 4.car 5.air plan

Part 10.Packaging and labeling

10.1 Have you ever filled out and marked your bread wheat? 1. Yes 2 No

10.2Who is your bread wheat / buyer? 1. Ethio seed -Sector Enterprise 2. Amhara seed-Sector
Enterprise 3, trader 4;farmers

10.3. There is a problem with the marketing of bread wheat 1. Yes 2. No

10.3.1 If yes, what are the main problems ----------------------------------------------?

Part 11.In what way the moisture content of bread wheat identified and Causes and
Damages for Bread wheat seed severity level?

0. Touch by tooth 1. Measure by weight (by weight) 2. Touch by hand 3. Mention others
3. when storage at field level (specify pests) 4.When storage in the house (specify pests)
Part 13. Field Testing and Certification

 14.1. Have you examined your farm land from outside regulatory experts? A / Yes if it counts

14.2 If yes, at what level? ----------------------------------------------- How often? ----------

14.3. Is the seed you used tested with a laboratory quality standard? A. Yes B. No

14.4 If yes, for what quality measures?

------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------

14.5. Has your organization hired or hired a specialist for internal field management research?
1 Yes 2 No

14.6 If no, who will inspect and manage your farm?

Agricultural experts ----- 1 in 1 to 5 Groups ------ 3

Regional Experts ---- 2 by Federal Experts ------- 4

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14. Reasons for food insecurity?

1. Drought 2. Disease 3.Food shortages 4. Lack of peace 5.post harvest problems In crop
production7. Weed Problem

15. What do you suggest to reduce postharvest loss?

Use an Appropriate post-harvest management (1), appropriate ecological and pesticide use
(2),

 Correct loan services to purchase seed (3)

Comments: ________________________________________________________

standard Seed
class
Breeder/ Pre- basic Certified Certified Certified Commercial/
basic C1 2 4
Pure seed ( min %) 98 98 97 97 95 95
Other varieties (max %) 0.03 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5
Other crop seed (max %) 0.03 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5
Weed seed (max %) - 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.5
Inert matter (max %) 1 2 2 2 2 3
Germination (min %) 90 90 85 85 85 80

Moisture content (max 13 13 13 13 13 13

%)
Appendix Table 3:- Minimum Seed Certification Standards of Wheat seed in Ethiopia
QSAE,2000

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 APPENDIX FIGURE
Appendix figure 1: an example of pictures in the study area, seedling measure and laboratory
Equipment

Combiner Harvester after harvesting An Example when the farmer threshing by oxen
threshing left over the seed.

Direct Measure of Moisture

Measure of shoot length

PICs storage type Well ventilated seed storage before tag

photo edited by Addisu Birhanu, (2020 and 2021)

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 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

The author, Addisu Birhanu was born from his father Birhanu Gelaw and his mother
Bitewesh Demem Kebede on December 1992 in Gimjabet wereda, in Awi Zone of the
Amhara Regional State. He attended his elementary and junior education at Dingusha
Elementary and Junior School from his birth place 2000-2007.Then,He went to Bekele
kassa Secondary and Preparatory School in 2008, where he had left for two years and he
join again and Start his education 2011 in shindy Bekele kassa secondary and
preparatory school now changed to shindy Secondary and Preparatory School and he
completed his preparatory education in 2015. After the completion of his high school
education and preparatory Education, he joined University of Gondar College Agriculture
and Rural transformation Now Changed to University of Gondar college of Agriculture
and Environmental Science in 2016 and after his Study graduated with BSc. Degree in
Plant Sciences on July 7, 2018. Soon after graduation, he joined Bahir Dar University
School of Graduate Studies to pursue his M.Sc. in Seed Science and Technology by getting
chance by scholar ship.

71