Hydraulic Formulae for

Design of Hydraulic Systems

 Contents
a. Hydraulic Formulae
1. Pressure 1.
2. Volume 2.
3. Density 2.
4. Weight of an object 2.
5. Weight density or specific weight 2.
6. Instantaneous Velocity 2.
7. Average velocity 3.
8. Instantaneous Acceleration 3.
9. Acceleration 3.
10. Linear acceleration 3.
11. Force 3.
12. Work 3.
13. Kinetic energy 3.
14. Potential Energy 3.
15. Flow rate 3.
16. Power 3.
17. Hydraulic Power 4.
18. Mechanical power of a rotating object 4.
19. Pressure transmission 4.
20. Continuity Equation 4.
21. Law of conservation of Energy 4.
22. Law of Conservation of Mass 4.
23. Viscosity 5.
24. Viscosity Index 5.
25. Bulk Modulus 6.
26. Compressibility 6.
27. Effective Bulk Modulus of oil with air 6.
28. Natural frequency of a fluid column 6.
29. Reynolds Number 6.
30. Friction head loss 7.
31. Hagen-Poiseuille equation 7.
32. Pressure Losses in Fittings 7.
33. Pressure Losses 8.
34. Minor Losses 10..
35. Resistance coefficient for pipe bends 10..
36. Pressure loss in tubing bends 10..
37. Branching pressure loss coefficient 10.
38. Flow area and flow of a conical poppet valve 13.
39. Flow Forces 13.
40. Leakage Flow 14.
41. Orifice Equation 15.
42. Contraction coefficient for round and slot type orifice 16.
43. Coefficient of discharge for short tube orifices 16.
44. Orifice area of a circular port in a flat plate 17.
 45. Lateral Force acting on the tapered piston 17.
46. Forces in flapper nozzle valves 17.
47. Single jet flapper valve 18.
48. Double jet Flapper valve 18.
49. Stresses in pipe and tubes 19.
50. Maximum Working pressures for imperial tubes as per BS 3602 21.
CDS23
51. Maximum Working pressures for metric tubes as per BS 3602 21.
CDS23
52. American hydraulic pipe sizes 21.
53. Hydrostatic bearings 22.
54. Conical bearing 22.
55. Sizing of Hydraulic cylinders 23.
56. Sizing of Hydraulic Motors 24.
57. Accumulator Sizing 25.
58. Hydraulic pumps 27.
59. Filters 28.
60. Heat exchanger selection and sizing 28.
54. Labyrinth Seals 29.
55. Application Oriented 31.

b. Pneumatic Formulae
1. Velocity of sound 32.
2. Boyle’s law 32.
3. Charle’s law 32.
4. Amonton’s law 32.
5. Dalton’s law 33.
6. Work done 33.
7. Efficiency 33.
8. Reciprocating compressor 33.
9. Screw compressor 33.
10. Receiver design 34.
11. Pneumatic Cylinders 36.
12. Cylinder design 36.
13. Pneumatic valves 38.
14. Pneumatic Motor 39.

c. References 40.

Annexure – 1 – Selection of Accumulators

Annexure – 2 – Selection of Filters
Annexure – 3 – Selection of Heat Exchanger
 Hydraulic Formulae
Property Formulae Units
Pressure Force( F ) Pascal (Pa)
Pressure ( P) =
Area( A) N
or 2
Other units of pressure are kg/cm2, psi, atm, bar, cm of H2O column, mm of water m
column, feet of water column, inches of mercury etc.
Following chart gives conversion table for converting pressure from one unit to other.
To convert from: to: multiply by
atmosphere, standard (atm) pascal (Pa) 1.01325 x 105
atmosphere, standard (atm) kilopascal (kPa) 1.01325 x 102
bar (bar) pascal (Pa) 1.0 x 105
bar (bar) kilopascal (kPa) 1.0 x 102
centimeter of mercury (0 °C) pascal (Pa) 1.33322 x 103
centimeter of mercury (0 °C) kilopascal (kPa) 1.33322
centimeter of mercury, conventional (cmHg) pascal (Pa) 1.333224 x 103
centimeter of mercury, conventional (cmHg) kilopascal (kPa) 1.333224
centimeter of water (4 °C) pascal (Pa) 9.80638 x 101
centimeter of water, conventional (cmH2O) pascal (Pa) 9.80665x 101
2
dyne per square centimeter (dyn/cm ) pascal (Pa) 1.0 x 10-1
foot of mercury, conventional (ftHg) pascal (Pa) 4.063666 x 104
foot of mercury, conventional (ftHg) kilopascal (kPa) 4.063666x 101
foot of water (39.2 °F) pascal (Pa) 2.98898x 103
foot of water (39.2 °F) kilopascal (kPa) 2.98898
foot of water, conventional (ftH2O) pascal (Pa) 2.989067 x103
foot of water, conventional (ftH2O) kilopascal (kPa) 2.989067
2
gram-force per square centimeter (gf/cm ) pascal (Pa) 9.80665 x101
inch of mercury (32 °F) pascal (Pa) 3.38638 x103
inch of mercury (32 °F) kilopascal (kPa) 3.38638
inch of mercury (60 °F) pascal (Pa) 3.37685x E+03
inch of mercury (60 °F) kilopascal (kPa) 3.37685
inch of mercury, conventional (inHg) pascal (Pa) 3.386389 xE+03
inch of mercury, conventional (inHg) kilopascal (kPa) 3.386389
inch of water (39.2 °F) pascal (Pa) 2.49082 xE+02
inch of water (60 °F) pascal (Pa) 2.4884x 102
inch of water, conventional (inH2O) pascal (Pa) 2.490889 x102
kilogram-force per square centimeter (kgf/cm2) pascal (Pa) 9.80665 x104
kilogram-force per square centimeter (kgf/cm2) kilopascal (kPa) 9.80665x 101
2
kilogram-force per square meter (kgf/m ) pascal (Pa) 9.80665
2
kilogram-force per square millimeter (kgf/mm ) pascal (Pa) 9.80665 x 106
kilogram-force per square millimeter (kgf/mm2) megapascal (MPa) 9.80665
kip per square inch (ksi) (kip/in2) pascal (Pa) 6.894757 x 106
kip per square inch (ksi) (kip/in2) kilopascal (kPa) 6.894757 x 103
millibar (mbar) pascal (Pa) 1.0x 102
millibar (mbar) kilopascal (kPa) 1.0 x 10-1
millimeter of mercury, conventional (mmHg) pascal (Pa) 1.333224 x 102
millimeter of water, conventional (mmH2O) pascal (Pa) 9.80665
poundal per square foot pascal (Pa) 1.488164
2
pound-force per square foot (lbf/ft ) pascal (Pa) 4.788026 x 101
pound-force per square inch (psi) (lbf/in2) pascal (Pa) 6.894757 x 103
 pound-force per square inch (psi) (lbf/in2) kilopascal (kPa) 6.894757
psi (pound-force per square inch) (lbf/in2) pascal (Pa) 6.894757 x 103
psi (pound-force per square inch) (lbf/in2) kilopascal (kPa) 6.894757
torr (Torr) pascal (Pa) 1.333224 x 102
Volume Volume (V) = Length (L) × Width (W) × Height (H) m3
Following chart gives conversion table for converting volume from one unit to other.
To convert from: to: multiply by
3 3
Cubic foot (ft ) Cubic meter (m ) 2.831685 X 10-2
Cubic inch (in3) Cubic meter (m3) 1.638706 X 10-5
Fluid ounce (U.S.) (fl oz) Cubic meter (m3) 2.957353 X 10-5
Fluid ounce (U.S.) (fl oz) Milliliter (ml) 2.957353 X 101
Gallon [Canadian and U.K. (Imperial)] (gal) Cubic meter (m3) 4.54609 X 10-3
Gallon [Canadian and U.K. (Imperial)] (gal) Liter (L) 4.54609
Gallon (U.S.) (gal) Cubic meter (m3) 3.785412 X 10-3
Gallon (U.S.) (gal) Liter (L) 3.785412
Liter (L) Cubic meter (m3) 1.0 X 10-3
Liter Milliliter (ml) 1.0 X 103
Cubic decimeter (dm3) Cubic meter (m3) 1.0 X 10-3
Cubic Centimeter (CC or cm3) Cubic meter (m3) 1.0 X 10-3
Density Mass of the substance (m) kg
Density ( ρ ) =
Volume of the substance (V) m3
Following chart gives conversion table for converting density from one unit to other.
To convert from: to: multiply by
Pounds per cubic inch (lb/in3) kg/m3 2.76799 X 104
Pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3) kg/m3 16.0185
Pounds per gallon (lb/gal) kg/m3 99.7763
Gram per cubic centimeter (g/cc) kg/m3 103
Gram per liter(g/l) kg/m3 10-1
3
Gram per cubic meter (g/m ) kg/m3 10-3
Kilogram force per cubic liter kg/m3 9.80665 X 10-3
Weight of an Weight (W) = mass of the object (m) × acceleration due to gravity (g) kg − m
object or W = m× g s2
Weight Weight of the fluid (W) kg m
Weight density (w) = ×
density or Volume of the fluid (V) m3 s 2
specific But, weight = mass x acceleration due to gravity or
weight
mass of the object (m) × acceleration due to gravity (g)) kg
Weight density (w) =
Volume of the fluid (V) m2s2
or Weight density (w) = density of the object (ρ ) × acceleration due to gravity (g) N
or 3
m
or w = ρ × g
Instantaneous d m km
Velocity (v) = (S ) or
Velocity dt s h
where, S = displacement of the body or fluid at any instant
Following chart gives conversion table for converting velocity from one unit to other.
To convert from: to: multiply by
Inch per second (in/s) Metre per second (m/s) 2.54 X 10-2
Foot per second (ft/s) Metre per second (m/s) 3.048 X 10 -1
Foot per minute (ft/min or fpm) Metre per second (m/s) 5.08 X 10-3
Miles per hour (mi/h) Metre per second (m/s) 4.4704 X 10 -1
Centimeter per second (cm/s) Metre per second (m/s) 1 X 10 -2
Kilometer per hour (km/h) Metre per second (m/s) 2.77778 X 103

2
 Knots Metre per second (m/s) 5.14773 X 10-1
Centimeter per minute (cm/min) Metre per second (m/s) 1,66667 x 10-4
Average Total distance travelled in specific direction (S) m km
Aerage velocity (v) = or
velocity Total time of travel (t) s h
Instantaneous d2 m
Acceleration Instantaneous Acceleration (a) = (S )
dt 2 s2
Acceleration Final velocity (v 2 ) − Initial velocity(v1 ) m
Acceleration (a) =
Time interval over whcih change occoured (t) s2
Linear
acceleration v
Linear Acceleration (a) =
t

Force Force (F) = mass (m) × Acceleration (a)

or F = m a Newton
N
Following chart gives conversion table for converting force from one unit to other.

Gram force Kilogram force

dyne Newton (N) Pound (lb) Poundal (pdl)
(gf) (kgf)
dyne 1 10-5 2.248 X10-6 7.233 X 10-5 1.020 X 10-3 1.020 X 10-6
Newton (N) 105 1 0.2248 7.233 102 0.1020
Pound (lb) 4.48 X 105 4.448 1 32.17 453.6 0.4536
1.383 X
Poundal (pdl) 0.1383 3.108X10-2 1 14.10 1.410X 10-2
104
Gram force (gf) 980.7 9.807 X 10-3 2.205 X 10-3 7.093 X 10-2 1 0.001
-
Kilogram force 9.807 X 10
5 9.807 2.205 70.93 1000 1
(kgf)
Work Work (W) = Force (F) × Distance moved or Displacement(S) N-m or Joule
or W=FS (J)
Kinetic energy Kinetic energy stored in a body J
1
KE = mv 2
2
Potential Potential Energy of a body at a height ‘h’ from reference level J
Energy PE = mgh
Flow rate Flow rate m3/s
Volume displaced (V)
Q=
time( t )
Flow rate through a conduit
Q = Area (A) × average velocity (v)
Q = Av
Power Work Done (W) J/s or Watt
Power (P) =
time taken for doing the work (t)
Following chart gives conversion table for converting power from one unit to other.

3
Hydraulic Hydraulic power (P) = Pressure (P) × Flow Rate (Q) J/s or Watt
Power Pressure (in N/m ) × Flow Rate (in m /s)
2 3
Hydraulic power (in kW) =
1000
Pressure (in psi) × Flow Rate (in GPM)
Hydraulic power (HP) =
1714
Mechanical 2πNT J/s or Watt
Mechnical Power (P) =
power of a 60
rotating object where N = rotation speed in RPM, and T = Torque in N-m
Pressure Pressure transmission
transmission P A
1
= 2

P2 A1

Continuity Continuity Equation

Equation A1V1 = A2V2

Law of Bernoulli's equation ( for a incompressible and in-viscous fluid flow)

conservation 1
of Energy P + ρv 2 + ρgh = constant
2
Law of
Conservation
of Mass

4
Viscosity Shear Stress due to viscous force N
m2

Absolute or Dynamic Viscosity

or,
Ns/m2
Following chart gives conversion table for converting absolute viscosity from one unit to
other.

1 dyn-s/cm2 0.1 Pa-s

1 gf-s/cm2 98.0665 Pa-s
1 g/cm-s 0.1 Pa-s
1 kgf-s/m2 9.80665 Pa-s
1 N-s/m2 1 Pa-s
1 lbf-s/ft2 47.8803 Pa-s
Kinematic viscosity m2/s
or
centistokes
Following chart gives conversion table for converting kinematic viscosity from one unit to
other.

1 cm2/s 1 x 10-4 m²/s

1 ft2/h 2.58064 x 10-5 m²/s
1 in2/h 1.79211 x 10-7 m²/s
1 in2/s 6.4516 x 10-4 m²/s
1 m2/h 2.77778 x 10-4 m²/s
Conversion from Saybolts Unit Seconds Viscosity to Centistokes

Viscosity Viscosity Index

Index
5
 (L - U)
VI = × 100
(L - H)
Where
U is viscosity in SUS of the oil whose viscosity index is to be calculated at 37.8 oC
L is viscosity in SUS of the oil of ‘0’ viscosity index at 37.8 oC.
H is viscosity in SUS of the oil of ‘100’ viscosity index at 37.8 oC.
Note: Higher the viscosity Index (VI) indicates relatively smaller changes in viscosity
with increase in temperature. A low VI indicated relatively higher changes in
viscosity with increase in temperature.
Bulk Modulus Bulk Modulus N
m2

where
β = Bulk modulus (N/m 2 orPascal)
ΔP = Change in Pressure (N/m 2 or Pascal)
∆V = Change in volume when ∆P is applied (m 3 )
V = Original volume (m 3 )
Compressibility 1 m2/N
Compressib ility =
Bulk Modulus
Effective Bulk Effective Bulk Modulus of oil with air N
Modulus of
1 1  VT − V AIR  1 V AIR m2
oil with air =   +
β e β OIL  VT  β AIR VT
V AIR / VT << 1
Because
1 1 V 1
= + AIR
β e β OIL VT β AIR
VT = VOIL + VAIR
Natural Spring rate of a fluid column
frequency of a Aβ m
fluid column K=
l
Natural frequency of the fluid column
1 Aβ A
n= l
b
2π ml
where, K = spring rate b = Bulk Modulus
A = area of fluid column L = Length of the fluid column
m = moving mass
Reynolds Reynolds Number for flow in a circular pipe
Number

Reynolds number in terms of Kinematic viscosity

6
Friction head Frictional head loss in a fluid conductor is given by
loss

where,
h L = Head loss (m), f = Friction Factor (dimensionless),
L = Conductor length (m), D = Conductor inside diameter (m),
v = Average fluid velocity (m/s) , g = graviational acceleration (m/s 2 )
Friction factor for laminar flow

Substitution into Darcy’s equation gives the Hagen-Poiseuille equation.

Friction factor for Turbulent flow

0.316
f = (Blasius Law)
(N R )4
1

Hagen- Pressure loss through a circular pipe

Poiseuille
equation

Ref. [1]
Pressure In general, pressure losses in fittings can be given by
Losses in Kv 2
Fittings hL =
2g
Where
hL = head loss (m)
v = fluid average velocity (m/s)
g = graviational acceleration (m/s 2 )
Typical K factors for common fittings are given by Esposito (1988).
7
Pressure Pressure loss due to sudden expansion
Losses 2
 d 2  ρvi2
P = K e 1 − i2  ----------Ref [2] di do
 d o  2
where
K e = inlet coefficient, d i = inlet diameter
d o = outlet diameter, vi = inlet velocity
Inlet condition Ke
Well rounded 0.04 Ref: “Hydraulic System Analysis”; by
George W Keller
Slightly Rounded 0.23
Sharp Edged 0.485 – 0.56
Inward projecting Pipe 0.62 -0.93
Pressure loss due to Sudden Contraction
 d o2  ρvi2
1 − 2 
 di  2
P= ; N R ≥ 5000
2
Ref [3]
Pressure loss due to gradual Expansion
ρvo2 ρvo2
P = 0.04 or P = K
2 2

Pressure loss due to gradual contraction

ρvo2
P=K
2

--- (Ref - 4)

------- (Ref - 5)

-------- (Ref - 6)

8
--- (Ref - 7)

------ --- (Ref - 8)

--- (Ref - 9)

--- (Ref - 10)

9
 --- (Ref - 11)

--- (Ref - 12)

Minor Losses In general, pressure losses can be given by
Kv 2
hL =
2g
where K = Loss coefficient or resistance coefficient

Resistance coefficients due to abrupt changes in the cross-section and due to geometry of
pipe entrance and exits.(Ref-13 )
Resistance Resistance coefficient for pipe bends
coefficient for
pipe bends

10
 Resistance coefficient for pipe bends (Ref –[ 14])
Pressure loss Pressure loss in tubing bends
in tubing
 l  ρv 2
bends ∆P =  f + cK  B --------------- (Ref - 15)
 d  2

values of KB and c are given in table

Branching
pressure loss
coefficient

(Ref - 16)

---- (Ref - 17)

-----(Ref - 18)
11
(Ref - 19)

-----(Ref - 20)

(Ref - 21)
12
 ------ (Ref - 22)
Flow area and For a poppet valve the flow area, Av, is described by the following
flow of a expression:
conical
poppet valve
(Ref - 23
Discharge flow through the poppet valve

Flow Forces (Ref - 24)

13
Leakage Flow No flow, one plate stationary one moving V
(Laminar u
y
flow) Velocity (u) = V Q

b y

Steady laminar flow through Circular tubes

8Q   2 y  
2
Q
Velocity (u) = 1 −   
πD 2   D   y
u D
πD 4
Flow (Q) = ∆P
128 µl
Steady laminar flow between stationary flat plates
3Q   2 y  
2 w
Velocity (u) = 1 −   
bw   b   y b

wb 3
Flow (Q) = ∆P ; w >> b
12 µl
Steady laminar flow, one stationary flat plate, one moving
w
 y 1 ∆P  2 b 2  V
Velocity (u) =  + V + y −  Q

  µ  
b 2 2 l  4  y u b
 Vb b 3

Flow (Q) = w  − ∆P  ; w >> b
 2 12 µl 
Steady laminar flow through square tubes
a4 a
Flow (Q) = ∆P
28.4 µl

14
 Steady laminar flow through Elliptical tube a
b
πa b 3 3
Flow (Q) = ∆P
(
4 µl a 2 + b 2 )
Steady laminar flow through Equilateral Triangle tube
a4 a
Flow (Q) = ∆P
185µl
Steady laminar flow through Right angle Triangular tube (Ref - 25)

Steady state Laminar flow between concentric Annular orifice

b
b2 Q
Velocity (u) = ∆P
12µl y
u b d
πdb 3
Flow (Q) = ∆P
12µl

Steady state Laminar flow between Eccentric Annular orifice e

2πRb 3 ∆P  
2
3e 
Flow (Q) = 1+   R
12 µl  2b 

or
πdb3 ∆P  3  e  
2

Flow (Q) = 1+  
12µl  2  b   Where b = Radial clearance between tubes

Laminar flow through Rectangular passage, w/h,i.e., w is greater diameter (Ref - 26)

Orifice
Equation Q = C d A ( 2 g∆P / γ (Valid only for turbulent orifice flow)

Q = Flow (m 3 /s)
Cd = Orifice constant (decimal)
A = Area (m 2 )
g = graviational acceleration (m/s 2 )
∆P = Pressure (N/m 2 )
γ = Specific weight of the fluid (kg/m 3 )
or
Q = k ∆P where k = C d A 2 g / γ

So, ∆P = Q / k = k eq Q
2 2 2 2

Thus, This relationship shows there is a quadratic relationship between ∆P and Q. If Q is

doubled, then the pressure drop will increase four fold.

15
 Fig. Orifice Coefficient for turbulent Flow Fig. Orifice Coefficient for Laminar Flow

Contraction
coefficient for
round and slot
type orifice
(Ref- 27)

Fig. Contraction coefficient for round and slot type orifice.

Coefficient of
discharge for
short tube
orifices
(Ref - 28)

Fig. Coefficient of discharge for short tube orifices.

16
Orifice area
of a circular
port in a flat
plate (Ref - 29)

Fig. Orifice area Vs Valve spool displacement for a circular port in a flat plate.
Lateral Force Lateral Force acting on the tapered piston
acting on the
tapered piston
(Ref - 30)
Where, C is the radial clearance at the large end of the piston and spool centered.
Hydraulic Locking force

Fig. Normalized Lateral forces

Fig. Tapered Piston De-centered in bore

Forces in
flapper nozzle
valves(Ref -
31
)

Where Saturation factor

17
Single jet
flapper valve
(Ref - 32)

Where, A0 fixed upstream Orifice, Pc Control

pressure, xf0 equilibrium flapper position, xf
flapper displacement about xf0.
At no load i.e. no flow to load or load
blocked,

Design Criteria
Fig. Single jet flapper valve with Piston load

Fluid jet Force on the flapper is given by

Leakage or centre flow at null

Fig. Blocked load characteristics

of single jet flapper valve

Double jet
Flapper valve
(Ref - 33)

using design criteria,

18
 Leakage or centre flow at null

Fig. Double jet flapper

valve
Flow forces on 2 jet flapper valve

and
So,

Thus, equation of motion of flapper can be written as

Note: For detailed Flapper Valve design, Refer “Hydraulic Control Systems”, Herbert E Merritt.
Stresses in Pressure rating of the pipe (thin tubes)
pipe and tubes
(Ref - 34)

For thick pipes Maximum permissible stress can be obtained from

Other Alternative Formula

19
For Copper Pipes

For tubes with threaded connection,

For Plastic Tubes

Maximum Permissible stress for tube calculations (Minimum UTS/3)

(Reference: : “Hydraulic Handbook”, by Warring, 8th edition, page 179 )

For 180o Bends the minimum thickness required is given by (ASTM A 566-65)

20
Maximum
Working
pressures for
imperial tubes
as per BS
3602 CDS23
(Ref - 35)

Maximum
Working
pressures for
metric tubes
as per BS
3602 CDS23
(Ref - 36)

American
Hydraulic
pipe sizes
(Ref - 37)

21
Hydrostatic Circular step thrust bearing
bearings Pressure distribution
(Ref - 38) ln(r/R2 )
P = PS
ln(R1 /R2 )
Frictional torque

T =
πµω 4
2h
(
R2 − R14 )
Flow rate requirement
 πh 3 dP  πh 3 PS

Q = 2πr  −  =
 12μ dr 
 6μ ln (R2 /R1 )
Load carrying capacity

W = πR P + 2π ∫ rPdr =
2
R2
(
πPS R22 − R12 )
2 ln(R2 /R1 )
1 S
R1
or

W =
(
3 µQ R22 - R12 )
h3
Thus, Load carrying capacity of such a bearing varies with the flow rate and film thickness.. For
Example, doubling the load will decrease the film thickness by 38%, indicating a stiff film.
Hydrostatic system power loss
E total = E f + E P
Fluid friction power loss

E f = Tω =
πµω 2 4
2h
R2 − R14 ( )
Pumping power loss
πh 3 PS2
EP =
6η P μ ln (R 2 /R 1 )
where hp = efficiency of the pump

Conical Pressure Ditribution in a conical bearing between piston and cylinder

bearing
P1 P2
(Ref - 39) v

d
1 1  1  1
1 1 
−  −  −  h2
  h  c-e e
h 2 h12 µlv  h 
h1 h2  x h h1
p = p1 + ( p1 − p2 ) +6 l
1
−
1 t  1 1 
 + 
h22 h12 h 
 2 h1 
Lateral force (f) acting on a taper (conical) piston
Lateral force (f) or lateral bearing force in a dimensionless form can be given as
F T  2+T  24VL  ( 1 + T )2 − E 2 − 1 − E 2 2+T 
= − 1 −  − 
L E  ( 2 + T )2 − 4 E 2  TE  T ( 2 + T )2 − 4 E 2 
   
where
T = t/c, E = e/c, L = l/d, F = f/0.25π/ 2 (p 2 − p1 ), V = µdv/c 2 (p 2 − p 1 )
t = 0.5(d 2 − d 1 ) = taper

22
 Leakage flow through gap between cylinder and piston annulus
  
πc 3 ∆ p  2 ( 1 + T ) 2 3 T4  2+T
q= + ( 2 + T )E 2 + − 1 
12 µL  ( 2 + T ) 4 8( 2 + T )  ( 2 + T )2 − 4 E 2 
  
which can be approximated as
πc 3 ∆p  1 + 1.75T + 1.5( 1 + 0.5T )E 2 
q=  
12 µL  L 
Sizing of Single Rod Double Acting Hydraulic Cylinder
Hydraulic
cylinders Cylinder Demand:
Q = Ae L
where D d

Ae is the effective Piston Area;

L is the stroke Cap End Rod End

Cylinder Force:
πD 2 π (D 2 - d 2 )
Cap End Area (ACE ) = = Piston Area (AP ) Rod End Area (ARE ) =
4 4
π 2
Rod Area (AR ) = d
4
Force developed by Cylinders
Force Extension = Cap End Area × pressure at cap end - Rod End Area × pressure at rod end
FR = ACE × PC - ARE × PR
if rod end pressure PR (back pressure) is zero, then
Force Extension = Cap End Area (ACE ) × pressure at cap end (Pc )
FR = ACE × PC
Force Retraction = Rod End Area × Pressure at rod end - Cap End Area × Pressure at cap end
FR = ARE × PR - ACE × PC
if Cap end pressure PC (back pressure) is zero, then
Force (Retraction) = Rod End Area × Pressure at rod end
FR = ARE × PR
Force under regeneration
Extension Force with Regeneration = Rod Area × pressure
Stress in rod
F
σ = D d
π 2
d
4
Critical load capacity to avoid bucking of rod
P
π 2 EI
Pcr =
( KL )2
Where E = modulus of elasticity,
I = area moment of inertia,
L = unsupported length of column,
K = column effective length factor, whose value depends on the conditions of end support of the
column, as follows.
For both ends pinned (hinged, free to rotate), K = 1.0.
For both ends fixed, K = 0.50.
For one end fixed and the other end pinned, K = 0.699....
For one end fixed and the other end free to move laterally, K = 2.0.

23
 Cylinder Speed:
Velocity at any instant
dx pA − ( Fr + f )
= t
dt m
Where p is pump pressure, A area, Fr resistance opposing the motion and, f frictional and fluid
losses at exhaust port.
A =ACE, for extension of rod; A = ARE for retraction of the rod.

Steady State Velocity

Steady Flow(Q)
v=
Area (A)
Time needed to accelerate to velocity vr
mv r
ta =
pA − ( Fr + f )
where vr is piston maximum steady state velocity.
Flowrate into cylinder (Q)
Steady state speed or resistance/load
vr =
Area of the cylinder(A)
Corresponding areas i.e. Cap End Area or Rod End area shall be taken into account.

Cylinder Rod End Intensification:

For single rod cylinders
Cylinder Bore Area (AB )
I=
Cylinder Net Rod End Area (ARE )
For Double Rod End Cylinders
Net Rod End Area of Large Rod
I=
Net Rod End A Area of Small Rod

Cylinder Load Induced Pressure:

Load in Newtons (W)
Vertical Rod Down Cylinder =
Net Rod End Area (ARE )
Load in Newtons (W)
Vertical Rod Up Cylinder =
Cylinder Bore Area (AB )
Compliance of the cylinder
1
Compliance (λ ) =
 1 1 
β  + 
 V1 V2 
Where
b = fluid Bulk Modulus, V1, V2 are the fluid volumes on each sides of the piston
Sizing of The theoretical torque available from a hydraulic motor is given by
Hydraulic ∆PD
Motors Torque ( T ) =
2π
where
D P =pressure drop across motor = P s= System Pressure
D= Volumetric displacement of motor per revolution

Out put speed of the motor

24
 Flowrate per minute(Q)
N(RPM) =
Displacement per Revolution
Volumetric efficiency
DN
ηv = × 100
Qa
where
D= Volumetric displacement of motor per revolution(in m3/REV)
N = Speed of the motor in Revolutions per second
Qa = Actual flow required by the motor(in m3/s)
Or

Qt = theoretical flow; Qs = leakage flow loss

Overall efficiency
Actual power output
ηo =
Theoretica l power output
Mechanical Efficiency
ηo
ηm = × 100
ηv
Cylinder cushioning
1. Calculate the steady-state piston velocity v prior to deceleration.
2. Calculate the deceleration a of the piston during displacement S
using the constant acceleration (or deceleration) equation:

3. Use Newton’s law of motion: The sum of all external force F

acting on a mass m equals the product of the mass m and its
acceleration or deceleration a:

4. Calculate the required parameter from the force balance equation.

Accumulator Accumulator formulas
Sizing
(Ref - 40)

If the accumulator volume is Vf and pressure is pf, when filled with desired amount of fluid,
and Ve and pe are the volume and pressure when it is empty
Vs
Ve = 1
β β = 1.24 for Bladder type accumulators
 
pe 
n β = 1.11 for Piston type accumulators
; 
1−
 pf 
 

25
Bladder accumulators- Refer Annexure - 1 for selection of the bladder accumulators

26
Hydraulic
pumps Table : Useful formulae for the displacement of positive displacement pump (Ref- 41)

Theoretical Horsepower Required to Drive Pump

Pressure required (N/m 2) × Flow rate Output (m 3 / s )
HPtheoretical =
746
Actual Horsepower Required to Drive Pump
Pressure required (N/m2) × Flow rate Output (m3 / s )
HPactual =
746 × Overall efficiency of primemover
Pump Theoretical Output Flow
Pump output flow (Q) = Speed(RPM ) × Displaceme nt of pump per revolution (D)
Instantaneous flow from a Axial Piston Pump
πQ k = n−1  360 o

Qi = ∑ sin  θ + .k  where k=n-1, Q = Average flow
n  n 
The chambers having negative sin value will not contribute to flow. Only positive sign
chambers will be delivering flow.

27
Filters Bubble Point Test
Bubble point is based on the fact that liquid is held in the pores of the filter by surface
tension and capillary forces. The minimum pressure required to force liquid out of the
pores is a measure of the pore diameter.

Beta Ratio
Number of particles of size x or higher in the upstream line
βx =
Numbe of particles of size x or higherin the downstream line

Filtration Efficiency

1
η fx = 1 −
βx
Sizing A Hydraulic Filters
Refer Manufactures catalogue for sizing filter for given application.
Refer Annex- 2 for example.
Heat Heat generated in the hydraulic system
exchanger - Due to inefficiency of transmission
selection and - Due to leakage through relief valve
sizing - Due to pressure drop across valves, pipe friction, bends, fitting, filters and
other components

Total energy wasted (Ewaste) = Σ Various energy losses

Total Heat generated Qh = Energy Wasted (in kW)

Heat Loss Due to radiation

Qrad = σA( Th2 − Tc2 )

Heat Loss Due to convection

Qconv = UA( Th − Tc )
Heat to be removed

Where

28
 Specific Heat Dissipation rate

Cooling Area Required

Qh
A=
U∆T
U = Heat transfer coefficient
Calculate Oil flow rate using Specific heat dissipation rate, then pressure drop across the
heat exchanger/cooler.
Or follow the manufacturer instructions for selecting a oil cooler
Refer Annex-3 for example.
Labyrinth
Seals

(Ref - 42)

Table: Bush seal volumetric leakage with laminar flow

(Ref - 43)

29
Fig. Leakage flow of an incompressible fluid through an axial bush at various shaft eccentricities (Ref - 44)

---- ( Ref - 45)

30
 ---- ( Ref - 46)
Optimum design and performance prediction of
Viscoseal (Ref - 47)

The 'sealing pressure' for a seal of these dimensions,

is given by

Fig. Viscoseal or Wind-seal

The optimum design varies with Reynolds number [(Re) = Vcp/η]] for turbulent flow; in particular
a smaller helix angle than the optimum laminar value is better. Eccentricity will lower the sealing
pressure with laminar flow but may raise it for turbulent flow.

Application
oriented
For Lifting the load
(Ref – 48)

31
 Where

For Lowering the load

Flow Characterstics of a Single stage Relief valve

Valve Opening (X)

Pneumatic Formulae (Ref -49)

Velocity of Velocity of Sound in a gaseous medium

sound

where c= velocity of sound, R = Gas constant

T = Temperature of the gas, m = Molecular weight of the gas
Mass of
vapour in air

Density Of Air/Vapour Mixture (Kg/M3)

Boyle’s law

Charle’s law
Amonton’s
law

32
Dalton’s law

Where Pn partial pressure of individual gases in a mixture of gases.

Poisson’s law Poisson’s law

Work done Work done in isothermal process

Work done in isentropic process

Efficiency

Reciprocating Stage temperature rise

compressor

Power absorbed in a stage

Volumetric efficiency of a single stage

where –

Screw
compressor

33
 Theoretical Power

Receiver Pressure drop in receiver volume

design

where

Wall Thickness Of Reciver Tank

Design Stress

34
35
 Normal thickness

Pneumatic
Cylinders

Cylinder
design

36
For dynamic applications

Check for Buckling of Rod

Cylinder thrust
The thrust available from an air cylinder is given by:

‘F’ is in Newton’s, P is the gauge pressure in bar and ‘A’ is the effective
37
 piston area in mm2, ‘f’ is the cylinder efficiency, taking into account seal
friction. ‘f’ is usually taken as 0.75 (75% efficiency).
Air consumption of a cylinder

where
q is in litre/s (free air), P is the absolute pressure in bar,
L is the stroke in mm, A is the cross-section area in mm2
N is the frequency of operation in cycle/s.
For single-acting cylinders (no return air), A = piston area;
For double-acting cylinders, A = piston area + the return area.

Piston velocity

Pneumatic
valves

Kw is the flow in litres of water which passes through it with a pressure drop of 1 bar.
As per BS 5793, equation for flow through a valve is given by the pair of equations:

38
 P1 and P2 are the upstream and downstream pressures respectively in bar (absolute) and
q is the flow rate in litre/s. The value C is known as the conductance with units of litre/(s
bar). b is the critical pressure ratio. Note that C is not the same as Cv.

For air at 15°C

Where Cv or Kv are quoted but not C, the value may be obtained from

b=0.53
Pneumatic The theoretical torque output of pneumatic motor given by
Motor ∆PD
Torque ( T ) =
2π
where
D P =pressure drop across motor = P s= System Pressure
D= Volumetric displacement of motor per revolution
Speed of the pneumatic motor
Flowrate per minute(Q)
N(RPM) =
Displacement per Revolution
Pneumatic Power

p(in N/m 2 ) × Q (in m 3 / s )

Ppneu = kW
1000
Mechanical Power

2π × N(RPM) × T(in Nm)

Pmech = kW
60000
Volumetric efficiency
DN
ηv = × 100
Qa
where
D= Volumetric displacement of motor per revolution(in m3/REV)
N = Speed of the motor in Revolutions per second
Qa = Actual flow required by the motor(in m3/s)

Overall efficiency
Actual power output
ηo =
Theoretica l power output
Mechanical Efficiency
ηo
ηm = × 100
ηv

39
References :
(A) Particular references for Formulae
[1]
“Hydraulic control systems, Herbert E. Meritt, John Wiley & Sons Inc., Page no. 37.
[2]
“Hydraulic System Analysis”; by George W Keller, page 54
[3]
“Hydraulic System Analysis”; by George W Keller, page 55
[4]
“Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance”, Idelchik Page 222-224
[5]
“Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance”, Idelchik Page 222-224
[6]
“Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance”, Idelchik Page 222-224
[7]
“Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance”, Idelchik Page 222-224
[8]
“Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance”, Idelchik Page 222-224
[9 ] “
Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance”, Idelchik Page 522, Diagram 8.6.
[10 ]
“Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance”, Idelchik Page 523, Diagram 8.6.
[11 ]
“Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance”, Idelchik Page 526, Diagram 8.6.
[12 ]
“Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance”, Idelchik Page 526, Diagram 8.6.
[13]
“Hydraulic control systems”, Herbert E. Meritt, John Wiley & Sons Inc., page no. 46
[14]
“Hydraulic control systems”, Herbert E. Meritt, John Wiley & Sons Inc., page no. 48
[15]
“Hydraulic System Analysis”; by George W Keller, page 51
[16]
“Fluid power design handbook”, Franklin D. Yeaple, 3rd Edition, page no.
[17]
“Fluid power design handbook”, Franklin D. Yeaple, 3rd Edition, page no.
[18]
“Fluid power design handbook”, Franklin D. Yeaple, 3rd Edition, page no.
[19]
“Fluid power design handbook”, Franklin D. Yeaple, 3rd Edition, page no.
[20]
“Fluid power design handbook”, Franklin D. Yeaple, 3rd Edition, page no.
[21]
“Fluid power design handbook”, Franklin D. Yeaple, 3rd Edition, page no.
[22]
“Fluid power design handbook”, Franklin D. Yeaple, 3rd Edition, page no.
[23]
“Hydraulic Component Design and Selection”, Dr. E.C. Fitch and Dr. I. T. Hong, page no. 209,210.
[24]
“Hydraulic Component Design and Selection”, Dr. E.C. Fitch and Dr. I. T. Hong, page no. 182.
[25]
“Hydraulic control systems”, Herbert E. Meritt, John Wiley & Sons Inc., page no. 34.
[26]
“Hydraulic control systems”, Herbert E. Meritt, John Wiley & Sons Inc., page no. 34.
[27 ]
“Hydraulic control systems”, Herbert E. Meritt, John Wiley & Sons Inc., page no. 42.
[28]
“Hydraulic control systems”, Herbert E. Meritt, John Wiley & Sons Inc., page no. 43
[29]
“Hydraulic control systems”, Herbert E. Meritt, John Wiley & Sons Inc., page no. 114
[30]
“Hydraulic control systems”, Herbert E. Meritt, John Wiley & Sons Inc., page no. 109
[31]
“Hydraulic and electro-hydraulic control systems”, By Ronald B. Walters, page no. 171
[32]
“Hydraulic control systems”, Herbert E. Meritt, John Wiley & Sons Inc., page no. 118
[33]
“Hydraulic control systems”, Herbert E. Meritt, John Wiley & Sons Inc., page no. 122
[34]
“Hydraulic handbook”, R H Warring, 8th Edition, page no. 180-184
[35]
“Hydraulic handbook”, R H Warring, 8th Edition, page no. 177
[36]
“Hydraulic handbook”, R H Warring, 8th Edition, page no. 178
[37]
“Hydraulic handbook”, R H Warring, 8th Edition, page no. 178
[38]
“Applied Tribology”, Michael M. Khonsari, E. Richard Booser, page 302 - 306
[39]
“Analysis, Synthesis & Design of Hydraulic Servo Systems and pipelines”, Taco J. Viersma, Page no. 233.
[40]
“Hydraulic handbook”, R H Warring, 8th Edition, page no. 158-165
[41]
“Oil Hydraulic Systems”, S R Mazumdar, TMH Publication, Page no. 129-130.
[42]
“The Tribology Handbook”, M. J. Neale, 2nd Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann publication, page – B22.1.
[43]
“The Tribology Handbook”, M. J. Neale, 2nd Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann publication, page – B22.1.
[44]
“The Tribology Handbook”, M. J. Neale, 2nd Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann publication, page – B22.2.
[45]
“The Tribology Handbook”, M. J. Neale, 2nd Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann publication, page – B22.5.
[46]
“The Tribology Handbook”, M. J. Neale, 2nd Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann publication, page – B22.5.
[47]
“The Tribology Handbook”, M. J. Neale, 2nd Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann publication, page – B22.6.
[48]
“Principles of hydraulic System Design”, Peter J. Chapple
[49]
“Pneumatic Handbook”, Antony Barber, 8th Edition,
(B). General references
a. “Fluid Power & Controls”, John F Cundiff.
b. “Design of Hydraulic control Systems”, Ernest E Lewis and Hansjoerg Stern
40
 c. “Fluid Power Systems & Circuits”, Russel W Henke
d. “The Control of Fluid Power”, D McCloy and H R Martin
e. Hydraulic Trainers, Vol. 1,2,3,4,6 , Rexroth
f. Practical Hydraulic Systems, Ravi Doddannavar and Andries Barnard

Websites:
www.hydraulicspneumatics.com
www.boschrexroth.com
www.parker.com
www.google.com

41
42
Annexure – 1

Selection of
Accumulators
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