CHAPTER THREE

3. Measurements of Vertical Distance

3.1 Introduction to Leveling
“Leveling” is a general term used in land surveying that applies to vertical measurements. Vertical
measurements are made and referenced to datum’s, as elevations, which are vital for engineering
design. The reference datum might be an arbitrary elevation chosen for convenience or a very
precise value determined after lengthy studies.
Leveling is the process of finding the elevation at a specified location relative to another known
elevation.
It is a vital operation in producing necessary data for mapping, engineering design, and
construction.
The elevation of points or heights of points are defined as its vertical distance above or below a
given reference or, Level surface or, Datum.

Figure 1
3.1.1. Definitions & Terminologies in Leveling
1. Datum: is the horizontal plane with reference to which elevations of other ground points are
calculated.
2. Reduced level (R.L): it is the height of points calculated with reference to the selected datum for
the work in hand.
Chapter Three Leveling
3. Instrument station: is the place where the instrument is set up for observation.
4. Staff station: - is the place where the leveling is held vertically.
5. Height of collimation: - is defined as the vertical distance from the datum to the line of sight.

Figure 2
6. Back sight (B.S): is a staff reading taken on a point after the instrument is immediately set up.
7. Fore sight (F.S): is the last staff reading taken during taken during leveling immediately before
the instrument is displaced from its setup.
8. Intermediate sight (I.S):- it is any staff reading taken other than backs sight & fore sight-readings.
Note: a) In each set up of a leveling instrument, there is only one B.S & one F.S
b) But in the case of “I.S.”, its number is not limited.
9. Turning point (T.P): is the staff station where a back sight and Foresight readings are taken from
different consecutive instrument positions. It indicates the shifting of the Instrument.
10. Benchmark (B.M): is a relatively permanent and fixed reference point of known in elevation.

Figure 3 Rock Bench Mark Figure 4 Concrete Bench Mark

11. Level: is an instrument used to take readings on a staff, which is vertically held, or levels are
instruments used to establish a horizontal line of sight.
12. Leveling: is the process of determining the elevations of ground Points of the staff positions.

Prepared By: Yetay B. Addis Ababa Science and Technology University,

23/12/2018 Page 2 of 23
Chapter Three Leveling
3.2. Types and Operating of leveling instruments
The level is an instrument with a telescope and bubble tube, which is used, for measuring
differences in elevation between various points.
The followings are the basic types of level instruments, namely:
1) Dumpy Levels
2) Engineers’ Tilting Levels
3) Automatic Levels
4) Digital Levels
The first two are both spirit bubble levels. The dumpy level is a very simple basic instrument, while
the tilting level has certain modifications, which give greater convenience of operation and a
possibility of greater precision.
The automatic level, which gives a horizontal line of sight automatically, is the most convenient to
use. It is however, the most vulnerable of the three and relatively expensive.
- Dumpy level
The telescope of the dumpy level is rigidly attached to the vertical spindle; the leveling of the
instrument is done by means of three-foot screws separating two plates. The upper plate with the
vertical spindle on which the telescope and bubble tube are mounted has to be leveled (=set
horizontal) with the foot screws.

Figure 5
- Tilting level

Prepared By: Yetay B. Addis Ababa Science and Technology University,

23/12/2018 Page 3 of 23
Chapter Three Leveling
The Tilting: Level has a telescope, which is not rigidly fixed to the vertical spindle. Instead, the
telescope is capable to tilt slightly in the vertical plane about a point just below the telescope. This
vertical movement of the telescope is made by rotating a tilting screw below the eyepiece.

Figure 6
- Automatic level
The automatic level has either foot screws or a ball-and-socket joint. Once the level has been
approximately leveled, it gives automatically a horizontal line of sight without a (telescope) bubble
having to be accurately set.

Figure 7
- Digital level
This is the most accurate type of leveling instrument, which measures digitally.

Prepared By: Yetay B. Addis Ababa Science and Technology University,

23/12/2018 Page 4 of 23
Chapter Three Leveling

Figure 8
Parts of a level
The most common parts of a level are:
Objective lenses- it is used for gathering the incoming light rays.
Eyepiece – it is a microscope used for viewing the image focused by the objective lenses.
Foot screws- are used to see the telescope in a horizontal plane.
Focusing knob- it is used to show the image clearly by adjusting the distance between the
instrument and the target (staff) by focusing.

Figure 9

Prepared By: Yetay B. Addis Ababa Science and Technology University,

23/12/2018 Page 5 of 23
Chapter Three Leveling

Figure 10
Operating leveling instruments
Before the measurement of leveling is started, the instrument must be set up. The first step in
setting up a level is to spread the tripod (legs), used to support the head part, so that the tripod head
is approximately horizontal, the legs should be far enough and they should be pushed to the ground
to make the level stable.
The next step is to center the bubble by the help of foot screws, lastly targeting & Focusing.

3.3. Leveling Methods

In the process of leveling, the collimation lines or line of sights are assumed to be horizontal. The
distance from the instrument to all staff stations should be equal in order to avoid the collimation
error or the curvature & refraction error (see the following figure).

Prepared By: Yetay B. Addis Ababa Science and Technology University,

23/12/2018 Page 6 of 23
Chapter Three Leveling

Figure 11

Figure 12

Reading Vertical Distances

The method of determining the elevation difference between points is that, after the instrument is
set up, the readings are taken on the staff that is vertically held on the point & then shifting the staff
to the next point that is going to be determined. Hence the elevation difference can be calculated as
First staff reading minus second, second minus third staff reading at a single set up (by subtracting
the next staff reading from its immediate previous staff reading).

Prepared By: Yetay B. Addis Ababa Science and Technology University,

23/12/2018 Page 7 of 23
Chapter Three Leveling
Some of the methods of leveling are:
 Differential leveling
 Profile leveling
 Cross – section leveling
 Trigonometric leveling
 Reciprocal leveling
 Barometric leveling

3.3.1. Differential Leveling

It is a type of direct leveling, the objective of which is solely to determine the difference in elevation
of two points regardless of the horizontal position of the points with respect of each other. When
the points are apart, it may be necessary to set up the instruments several times. This type of
leveling is applied when:
A. The points are too far apart;
B. The difference in elevation between two points is too large and;
C. There are obstacles.

1.055m 1.451m
0.927m 1.295m

BM A 0.713m 1.835m
(elev.
134.685m) TP1
TP2

Figure 13 Sample of differential leveling

3.3.2. Reciprocal Leveling

The principle of differential leveling is based on the fact that the instrument is kept equidistant from
the back & forward staff reading or staff stations. In such cases, the difference in elevation of the two
points or stations is equal to the difference of the staff reading.

Prepared By: Yetay B. Addis Ababa Science and Technology University,

23/12/2018 Page 8 of 23
Chapter Three Leveling
Hence, error due to curvature, refraction & collimation is eliminated. However, in the cases whereby
one cannot keep the instrument equidistance from each sitting direction or leveling like rivers, lakes
& gorges makes it difficult or impossible to keep B.S & F.S short & equal, at such locations the so-
called reciprocal leveling is utilized.
Running a line of levels across a river or other obstacle where the horizontal distance is more than
the desired maximum can be performed using reciprocal leveling. The level is setup on the bank of
the river, and point A is established nearby on the same side of the river. Point B is established on
the other side of the river. A reading is taken on point A, and several readings are made on point B
and then averaging the readings. The level is then set up on the side of the river opposite point A
and near point B. Readings are made on B and A in the same manner as before. The difference in
elevation between A and B is determined from the average readings.
Field procedure

- Setup the Level near TP 23 and rod read at TP 23 and TP 24

- Move the Level to the other side and rod readings taken on both TPs again
- Precision improved by taking multiple rod readings on both points across river
- The differences in elevations will be averaged
- Eliminate instrument and natural errors

Figure 14 Plan view

Prepared By: Yetay B. Addis Ababa Science and Technology University,

23/12/2018 Page 9 of 23
Chapter Three Leveling

Figure 15 Side view

As illustrated above , the level is first set up at location (A) & staff readings are taken on the two points N & F
respectively three or four times to avoid the curvature errors, then the readings will be averaged from these
readings.
A difference in elevation is obtained & this method will be done from B & readings are taken.
The two differences in elevation between N & F determined at A & B normally will not agree because of curvature,
refraction, personal &instrumental errors, hence an average of the two-elevation difference is accepted as the
correct value if their precision appears satisfactory.
Elevation difference (Δ NF) = BS1-FS1.
Elevation difference (ΔFN) = BS2-FS2
The difference in elevation = ½ (ΔNF + Δ FN)
= ½ [(BS1-FS1) + (BS2-FS2)]

3.3.3. Profile Leveling

Profile or longitudinal section is a type of leveling, which is used to determine the elevations of the
ground surface along some definite line or along a particular line that is the proposed enter line of
route type engineering project. Before designing grades, a plotting profile of the existing ground is
necessary.
The route along which the profile runs may be a single straight line; as in the case of a short side
walk; a broken line as in the case of a power line or sewer; or a series of straight line connected by
curves as in the case of a railroad, highway, or canal.
In general, the plot of profile leveling is a longitudinal sectional view showing the undulation (ups &
downs) of the ground surface along a given line.
After the profile is plotted, it is used for many purposes like:
 Determining depths of cut & fill on the proposed centre line. (Earthwork, volumes)

Prepared By: Yetay B. Addis Ababa Science and Technology University,

23/12/2018 Page 10 of 23
Chapter Three Leveling
 For studying gradient or grade lines
 Investigating and selecting the most economical grade, location & depth for sewer, pipe lines
etc.
The general procedures of fieldwork in profile leveling are:
The centre line of the prorated alignment is marked on ground; points at equal intervals say 20 or
30m are marked. In addition to these required points, other representative points-offsets from the
centre-line may be marked.
The instrument is setup at some suitable position to command the maximum number of points.
A back sight is taken on the B.M.
The staff is then kept on the point previously marked and all these points or observations are
entered as the intermediate sights.
When changing the instrument station for further observations, a foresight is taken on the turning
point (as illustrated in the figure).

1 Second station

2 9 10
3 11 12
4 8 13
7
6
5

First station Third station

Center lines of the project

BM
Figure 16 Field Pattern of Profile Leveling
In plotting the profile, horizontal distances are marked on a horizontal line, a datum line is selected,
and the height and chain ages of points are written against the points plotted, then the points lying
on the profile is plotted against with respect to the horizontal scale. Normally the horizontal scale is
kept in 1:1000 to 1:2000 while the vertical scales like 1:100, 1:200 are exaggerated when compared
with horizontal scales “1:1000 to 1:2000"

Prepared By: Yetay B. Addis Ababa Science and Technology University,

23/12/2018 Page 11 of 23
Chapter Three Leveling

Figure 17
Station Chain age B.S I.S F.S H.C R.L Remark
BM 3.56 2503.56 2500.000 BM
1 0+00 3.08 2500.48
2 0+20 2.85 2501.71
3 0+40 2.98 2500.58
4 0+60 3.17 2500.58
5 0+80 2.64 3.01 2503.19 2500.55 T.P
6 0+100 2.92 2500.27
7 0+120 2.98 2500.11
8 0+140 1.45 2501.74
When the above data is plotted the profile of the ground at each station is as follows:

Prepared By: Yetay B. Addis Ababa Science and Technology University,

23/12/2018 Page 12 of 23
 Chapter Three Leveling

FGL (Finished Ground Level)

OGL (Original Ground Level)

The rate of grade (gradient or percentage grade) is the rise or fall in meters per 100m. For example
the average gradient for the above Formation level is + 0.40% i.e. the elevation difference b/n the
station 0+00 & 0+100 is 0.40m. Generally ascending grades are plus (+) sign & descending grades or
down ward grades are minus (-)
Calculation of Formation level
Cut 0.86 0.39
Fill 0.27 0.32 0.61 0.71 0.93 1.19
Formation 2500.75 2500.85 2500.90 2501.00 2501.10 2501.20 2501.30 2501.35
level
ground 2500.48 2501.71 2500.58 2500.39 2500.55 2500.27 2500.11 2501.74
level
Cumulativ 0+000 0+020 0+040 0+060 0+080 0+100 0+120 0+140
e distance
Station 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

If the ground level is higher than the proposed level or formation level there must be cutting &
where the proposed level exceeds the surface level, filling will be required.

Prepared By: Yetay B. Addis Ababa Science and Technology University,

23/12/2018 Page 13 of 23
Chapter Three Leveling
Example: - at station 0+00-, the proposed level is higher than the ground level. Then it will be filled
like 2500.48+0.27=2500.75
- At station 0+20, the proposed level is lower than the ground level, and then there will be cut as
2501.71-0.86=2500.85
Exercise: - The following data were collected in the field using an automatic level. By dropping a
grade line after you plot the profile, compute the formations’ level
Station Chain age B.S I.S F.S H.C R.L Remark
BM 3.214 2500.000 B.M.
1 0+000 2.89
2 0+020 3.012
3 0+040 2.135 3.987
4 0+060 1.085 2.896
5 0+080 2.212
6 0+100 0.985

3.3.4. Cross-Sectional Leveling

Cross – sectional leveling is a type of leveling which is run at right angles to the longitudinal profile,
on either side of it, for the pupate of lateral outline of the ground surface. They provide the data for
estimating quantities of earthwork and for other purposes. The cross-sections are numbered
consecutively from the commencement of the profile and are set out at right angles to the centre
line of the route. The length of taking cross-sections defends on the nature of the ground laterally.

Figure 18 X-Section pattern

Prepared By: Yetay B. Addis Ababa Science and Technology University,

23/12/2018 Page 14 of 23
Chapter Three Leveling
Note: - The above figure illustrates the cross-section is taken at interval of 20m, which is at right
angle to the centre that is the longitudinal section.

Plotting – Cross sections

Cross- sections are plotted in a very similar way to that of profile leveling section. One essential
difference however, is that the cross-section is plotted to a natural scale that is the horizontal &
vertical scales are almost the same. The points to the left of centre point are plotted to the left and
those to the right are plotted to right.
Example: let the X-section leveling staff readings at chain age 0+060 are booked in the table shown,
reduce the elevations of offsets and plot profile of the X-section.

Left Center Right BS IS FS HPC Elevation Remark

Offset line Offset (m) (m) (m) (m) (m)
0 1.453 2502..033 2500.580
5 1.861 2500.172
10 3.576 2498.457
5 2.987 2499.046
10 1.015 2501.018

Figure 19

Prepared By: Yetay B. Addis Ababa Science and Technology University,

23/12/2018 Page 15 of 23
Chapter Three Leveling
3.3.5. Trigonometric Leveling
This method applies the fundamentals of trigonometry to determine the differences in elevation

between points of interest by observing a horizontal distance and the vertical angles above or

below a horizontal plane. Trigonometric leveling is generally used for Second Order or lower order

accuracy vertical positioning. Trigonometric leveling is especially effective in establishing control

for profile lines, for strip photography, and in areas where the landscape is steep. With

trigonometric leveling operations, it is necessary to measure the height of instrument and target

above the monument, the slope distance, and the vertical angle and the rod intercept. From this

data, the vertical difference in elevation can be computed using the sine of the vertical angle and

applying the rod difference.

Trigonometric leveling is the process of determining the differences in elevations of stations that

is used where difficult terrain, such as mountainous areas, precludes the use of conventional

differential leveling. It may also be used where the height difference is large but the horizontal

distance is short such as heighting up a cliff or a tall building. The vertical angle and the slope

distance between the two points concerned are measured. Trigonometric leveling is commonly used

in topographic works & over very rugged terrain.

Figure 20
From the figure Δ DEC

CE
Tan   CE = DE tan θ
DE
Where, DE = the horizontal distance

The different in elevation between A&B is: HAB = AD + CE- CB

Where – AD = HI Height of instrument

HAB = HI + DE tan θ - CB
- CE= DE tan θ

Prepared By: Yetay B. Addis Ababa Science and Technology University,

23/12/2018 Page 16 of 23
Chapter Three Leveling
Curvature & Refraction

Curvature
From the definition of a level surface and a horizontal line, it is evident the later departs from a level
surface b/c of curvature of the earth, i.e. the line of collimation is not a level line but is tangential to
the level line. Consequently, corrections must be applied when the sights are long, i.e. when the
deviation of the tangent from the circle becomes appreciable. After some mathematical steps, three
correction equations can be developed as shown below.

Figure 21

C=0.0786d2 --- (1)

Cr=0.0112 d2------ (2)
Cc = 0.0672d2------- (3)
Where:
C=Correction only for curvature in meter
Cr= " " " refraction in meter
Cc=Combined correction of C & Cr in meter
d=distance in km between instrument & staff

Prepared By: Yetay B. Addis Ababa Science and Technology University,

23/12/2018 Page 17 of 23
Chapter Three Leveling

Figure 22

Refraction
The effect of refraction is the same as if the line of sight was curved down ward, or concave towards
the earth’s surface and hence the staff reading decreased. The effect of refraction is to make the
objects appear higher than they really are. The correction, as applied to staff readings, is positive.
The refraction curve is irregular because of varying atmospheric conditions, but for average
conditions, it is assumed to have a diameter about one-seventh times that of the earth's curvature
correction.

Prepared By: Yetay B. Addis Ababa Science and Technology University,

23/12/2018 Page 18 of 23
Chapter Three Leveling

Figure 23
The correction of refraction, Cr if it is given by Cr=d2/14R= 0.0112 d2 meters where d is in
kilometers.
Example-
A staff is held at a distance of 200m from a level and a reading of 2.758 obtained. What are the
corrections due to curvature & refraction and give the corrected staff reading
Given
d= 200m = 0.2 km Cc= 0.0672 x (0.2)2
Cc= 0.003m or simply 3mm
The corrected reading is therefore
2.758 - 0.003 = 2.755 m is the correct staff reading.
Exercise
1. Find all corrections for curvature & for refraction at distances of the following:
a) 1200m b) 2.48 km
2. Based on (1), calculate the corrected staff reading of 3.254

Prepared By: Yetay B. Addis Ababa Science and Technology University,

23/12/2018 Page 19 of 23
Chapter Three Leveling
Leveling Field books
From the observed staff readings, there are two methods of booking and reducing the elevation of
ground points namely:
 Rise & Fall method
 Height of plane collimation (Height of instrument) method
1- Rise & fall method
The rise & fall of the ground is calculated always by subtracting the second staff reading from the
first staff reading. If a positive result is obtained, there is a rise between the points, similarly if a
negative result is obtained; it indicates a fall on the ground b/n the points where staff readings are
taken.
2- Height of plane Collimation Method
In this method, the Vertical distance from datum to the line of sight, is calculated for each setting of
the instrument by adding back sight to the elevation of the B.M. The reduced level of the turning
point is then calculated by subtracting from HPC (HI) of the Foresight. For the next setting of the
instrument, the HI is obtained by adding the B.S. taken on T.P to its R.L (reduced level). The process
continues until the R.L of the last point (Fore sight) is obtained by subtracting the staff reading from
height of collimation of the last setting of the instrument.

Figure 24
Arithmetic check (checking of reduction): Subtracting from the sum of B.S.'s - the sum of F.S should
be equal to Subtracting from the last RL - the first R.L.
If a positive result is obtained there is rise about the ground of the run, similarly for negative result,
fall or downward leveling is run.
Thus, this implies:
∑B.S - ∑ F.S = ∑ Rise- ∑Fall = Last R.L – First R.L

Prepared By: Yetay B. Addis Ababa Science and Technology University,

23/12/2018 Page 20 of 23
Chapter Three Leveling
It is advisable that on each page, the rise & fall calculations shall be completed & checked by
comparing with the difference of the back & fore sight column summations, before the R.L
calculations are commenced.

Start B.S I.S F.S Rise Fall R.L Remark

BMA 2.462 165.265 B.M
1 2.660 2.048 0.414 165.679 T.P
2 2.381 0.279 165.958
3 2.042 0.339 166.297
4 1.984 0.058 166.355
5 2.990 2.656 0.672 169.683 T.P
6 3.220 0.230 165.453
7 3.123 0.097 165.550
8 2.885 0.238 165.788
∑ 8.112 7.589 1.425 0.902
∑ B.S - ∑F.S. = ∑ Rise - ∑Fall = Last R.L – First R.L
8.112 – 7.589 = 1.425- 0.902= 165.788-165.265
0.523 = 0.523 = 0.523
The Reduced level of the points is calculated by adding the rise to its immediate rows' previous
reduced level or by subtracting the fall in the same fashion of rise.
Exercise- The following consecutive staff readings were observed with a level land the instrument
was moved after third, sixth and eighth readings:
2.228; 1.606; 0.988;2.090;2.864;1.262;0.602; 1.982;1.044;2.684 meters.
Solution- Since the instrument was shifted after third, sixth & eighth readings, these readings will be
entered in the F.S column & therefore, the Forth, seventh and ninth readings will be entered in the
B.S column & the last reading in the F.S. Column. All other readings will be entered in the I.S. column.
1) HI method
Stan B.S I.S F.S H.P.C R.L Remark
1 2.228 1010.693 1008.465 B.M
2 1.606 1010.693 1009.087
3 2.090 0.988 1011.795 1009.705 T.P

Prepared By: Yetay B. Addis Ababa Science and Technology University,

23/12/2018 Page 21 of 23
Chapter Three Leveling
4 2.864 1011.135 1018.931
5 0.602 1.262 1011.135 1010.533 TP
6 1.044 1.982 1010.197 1009.153 TP
7 2.684 1007.513

Check 5.964 6.916

∑ B-s- ∑ fall = Last R.L – F.R.L.
5. 964-6.916 = 1007.513 – 1008.465
- 0.952 = - 0.952

2) Rise and fall method

Stand B.S I.S F.S Rise Fall R.L Remark
1 2.228 1008.465 B.M
2 1.606 0.622 1009.087
3 2.090 0.988 0.618 1009.705 T.P
4 2.864 0.774 1008.931
5 0.602 1.262 1.602 1010.533 TP
6 1.044 1.982 1.380 1009.153 TP
7 2.684 1.640 1007.513

∑ 5.964 6.916 2.842 3.794

∑ B.S- ∑ F.S = ∑ Rise - ∑ fall = Last R.L – First R.L
5.964-6.916 = 2.842-3.794 = 1007.513-1008.465
- 0.952 = - 0.952 = -0.952

3.4. Errors in Leveling

Systematic Errors
If the line of sight through the level is not horizontal then collimation error can be occur. A peg test
is performed to calculate collimation error. Keeping the BS and FS distances equal will eliminate this
error.

Prepared By: Yetay B. Addis Ababa Science and Technology University,

23/12/2018 Page 22 of 23
Chapter Three Leveling
Blenders
 Misreading the foot or meter mark on the rod
 Transposing figures
 Resting the hands on the tripod while reading, this causes to go off the bubble
 Exchanging the BS and FS reading
 Bubble not centered
 Staff not vertical when taking readings

Parallax
When the cross-hairs are not completely focused, it will appear that the cross-hair is moving slightly
up and down as the observers head moves up and down, this may cause incorrect readings. The
cross hairs should be crisp on the image and should not appear to be floating.

3.5. Summary
Always Start and Finish at points of known level, e.g. O.B.M. or T.B.M.
For any instrument position:
 First reading is a BS, last reading is a FS, may have IS in between.
 Either staff moves, or instrument moves, NEVER BOTH.
For each reading:
 Check parallax, check compensator, rock staff, reduce as you go
 Use solid points for CPs.
 Keep BS and FS same length
 Each line of the booking form is for a single STAFF position.
Calculation checks:
 (BS) - (FS) = Last RL - First RL
 (IS) + (FS) + (RLs except first) = (each HPC x no of applications)
 If calculation checks OK, and misclosure allowable, then distribute misclosure cumulatively
between each instrument position.

Prepared By: Yetay B. Addis Ababa Science and Technology University,

23/12/2018 Page 23 of 23