CEP233 | FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTIO
N TO
SURVEYING

MODULE 2
ERRORS AND MISTAKES, PROBABLE ERROR, RELATIVE
PRECISION, AND WEIGHTED OBSERVATION
This module provides a discussion on the governing principles of errors and mistakes,
probable error, relative precision, and weighted observation.

Objectives
• To understand the basic concepts of errors and mistakes, probable error, relative
precision, and weighted observation.

2.1 The Field Notebook

Student Field Practice

In an elementary course, the student acquires certain extent of field practice. It is

not possible, in the ordinary field course in surveying, to develop the student into an
expert instrument man; it is expected, however, that the course will give the student a
working knowledge of surveying instruments and their uses. In elementary
surveying field work no long surveys are attempted, but a number of short survey
problems are taken up which in practice might become parts of extended surveys.

Members of the student field parties should from time to time alternately assume the
various duties involved in the field work. The ability to hold the rod properly is essential
as knowledge of how to manipulate the different instruments. The use of surveying
instruments require not only a thorough understanding of the basic theories and
principles of surveying but also a fairly extensive amount of field practice.

Surveying Field Notes

Surveying field notes constitute the only reliable and permanent record of actual work
done in the field. If the notes are incorrect or incompletely done, or the obliterated,
much or all of the time, money, and effort in the

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gathering of survey data are wasted. Furthermore, no matter how carefully the field
measurements are made, the survey as a whole may be useless if some of the
measurements are not recorded or if the meaning of any recorded data is
misinterpreted or misunderstood. There is no phase in a surveyor’s work which is of
greater importance, or which requires more careful attention, than the keeping of field
notes. From the beginning of his studies, the student of surveying should realize that the
quantity of his field work is reflected directly in the manner he keeps his field record.
Before any survey is made, the necessary data to be collected should be considered
carefully and in the field all such required data should be obtained. The field notes
become the official record of the survey. It is for the reason that notes must be
complete, legible, concise, and comprehensive, and logically arranged according to
recognized practice.

Field notes are usually worked over in the office in some more advanced form of
presentation, such as a map, a report, or a computation. The notes are then always kept
for future reference. Field notes may be used by another surveyor some years later. It
is not possible to predict to what extent the information gathered on most surveys may
become of value in the future. A need to rerun, extend, or otherwise become make use
of previous surveys may be required for a related project. In such case it would be most
logical that the old field notes will be only available reference and their value will
depend largely upon the completeness and clarity with which they have been recorded.

In many engineering applied surveys the field notes are used or referred to by office
personnel who have not seen field site or who are not familiar with conditions on the
project site. They rely entirely only upon what has en recorded. It is for this reason
that notes should be de completely, clearly, and systematically. To be complete, the
notes should show all data, together with a sufficient interpretation to answer all
questions that may he raised with respect to any given survey. The surveyor should keep
clearly in mind not only the immediate uses of the data but those which may
reasonably be expected to arise at some future time. A completed record written in a
disorderly and confused manner often causes more mistakes and erroneous information.

The notes should be recorded in the conventional and generally used format and not
according to whims of the field surveyor. The arrangement of notes usually depends
upon departmental or office standards, and preferences. There are different forms of
field notes in use, but in practice these must be adapted or new forms devised to meet
unusual situations. Field notes are sometimes modified to meet special conditions.
Although several systems of note keeping are in general use, certain principles apply

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to all. The aim is to make the clearest possible notes with the least expenditure
of time and effort. A systematic arrangement of all survey data is important if the record
is to be concise and includes all of the required information. Accuracy is always aided
by methodical apportionment and classification of data.

It is essential that notes be intelligible to others without verbal explanations. Another

person reading on the notes should be able to quickly imagine what has been done in
the field. The note keeper should always put himself in the place of one who is not in
the field at the time the survey is made. The field notes must then contain all necessary
information and the data recorded in such a manner that it will allow only the correct
interpretation of gathered data. It is also desirable for students to have an and expertly
designed set of note forms covering their first field work, to set high standards
and save time. The student should strive to improve each set of notes over the preceding
one. He should avail himself of this opportunity a to develop note keeping techniques,
since it will greatly kept help him not only in surveying but also in other engineering
work, such as recording laboratory experiments and tests as well as in drafting and
preparation of memoranda may use in executive or professional duties.

Field work observations should be recorded directly in for the notebook at the time
observations are made. Notes made later from memory or copied from temporary notes
may be useful, but they are not field notes. Students are tempted to scribble on scrap
sheets of paper for later transfer in neat form to the regular field book. This practice
defeats the purpose of a surveying field work course, which is to provide experience in
taking notes under actual job conditions.

In court, field notes may be used as evidence. Original notes are those taken while
measurements are being made. All other sets are coped and must be so identified.
Copied notes may not be accepted in court. Because of the possibility that the field
notes may become court evidence, many surveyors do not allow erasing in the field
book. An erasure could cause suspicion that the field record was altered after the field
work was finished. Instead, mistakes are crossed out in such manner that they can still be
read, and the correct entry is made while still in the field.

The Field Notebook

In practice the field notebook should be of good quality rag paper, with stiff board or
leather cover made to withstand hard usage, and of pocket size. Treated papers are
available which will shed rain; some of these can be written on even when wet.
Special field notebooks are sold by

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engineering supply companies for particular kinds of notes, such as cross-sections for
earthworks. For general surveying or for students in field work where the problem to
be done are general in character, an excellent for of notebook has the right-hand page
divided into small rectangles with a red line running up the middle, and has the left-
hand page divided into several columns; both pages have the same horizontal
ruling. Another common form, used in levelling, has both pages ruled in columns and
has wider horizontal spacing than the field book. This is called levelbook.

The field notebook may be bound in any of three ways; conventional, ring, or loose-leaf.
The ring-type, which consists of many metal rings passing through perforations in
the pages, has the advantage over the conventional binding that the book opens
quite flat and that the covers can be folded back against each other. Loose-leaf
notebooks are more popularly used. Loose leaves are available in either single or double
sheets.

In some technical schools students are asked to use bond paper instead of field notes. The
use of bond paper has been popular because it is more readily available than field
notebooks aside from its being cheaper.

Types of Notes

The following are the five common types of notes kept in practice.

1. Sketches - A good sketch will help to convey a correct impression. Sketches are
rarely made to exact scale, but in most cases they are made approximately to features may
be readily shown by conventional symbols. Special symbols may be adapted for the
practical organization or job. The student should note that a sketch crowded with
unnecessary data is often confusing.

2. Tabulations – A series of numerical values observed in the field are best shown in a
tabulated format. Tabulated form of notes keeping conveys are required information in a
simple and definite manner. Tabular form should be used whenever possible. This
format prevents mistakes, allows easy checking, saves time, makes the calculation
legible to others, and simplifies the work of the person checking the field notes. However,
in other types of surveys, the data may be of such varying character that they cannot be
advantageously tabulated, but must be shown on a sketch or sketches.

3. Explanatory Notes – Explanatory notes provide a written description of what has

been done in the field. These are employed to make clear what the numerical data and
sketches fail to do. Usually they are placed on the right-hand page of the field notebook
in the same line with the numerical data that they explain. If sketches are used, the
explanatory notes are

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placed where they will not interfere with other data and as close as possible to that which
they explain.

4. Computations – Calculations or one kind or another form a large part of the work of
surveying. Most surveying-type computations are made algebraically by the use
of simple arithmetical steps and trigonometric functions. In some instances, graphical
solutions using accurately scaled drawings are used. Electronic hand-held calculators,
desk calculators, or digital computers are now used for calculating values. The
portrayal of calculations should be clear and orderly in arrangement in order that these
will easily be understood by persons other than the one who made the computations.

5. Combination of the Above – The practice used in most extensive surveys is a

combination of the above types of notes. The surveyor should be able to determine for
himself which type of combination would be most logical to use in portraying the type of
data gathered in the field.

In a simple survey, such as one for measuring the distances between points, a sketch
showing the lengths is sufficient. On extensive surveys a combination of
tabulated numerical values and sketches are used. Wherever there may be any
doubt concerning field conditions, a sketch accompanies the numerical values. In
measuring the length of a line forward and backward, a tabulation properly
arranged in columns is adequate. The notes for most leveling operations are recorded
in tabular form. The location of reference point may be difficult to identify without a
sketch, but often a few lines of explanation are enough. Bench marks and other reference
points are usually described in notes. Where many angles and distances are recorded in
tabular form. Using these methods, notes for any surveying operations are greatly
simplified and the field work undertaken becomes perfectly apparent to one who
has a knowledge of surveying.

Information Found in Field Notebooks

It is desirable that the following basic information be included in the field notebook as
a requirement for documentation. It should be noted, however, that any other
important or informative data relevant to the particular surveying operation may also
be included.

1. Title of the Field Work or Name of Project – The official name of the project or title of
the field work should always be identified. The location of the survey and preferably
its nature or purpose should always be stated.

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2. Time of day and Date – These entries are necessary to document the notes and
furnish the timetable, as well as to correlate different surveys. From the assigned
survey timetable, precision, problems encountered, and other factors affecting the survey
may be referred from.

3. Weather Condition – Temperature, wind velocity, typhoons, storms, and other weather
conditions, such as fog, sunshine, and rain have a decided effect upon accuracy in
surveying operations. An instrumentman making precise observations is unlikely to
perform the best possible work during extremes in temperature conditions. It is for
these reasons that the details related to the weather play an important part when
reviewing field notes.

4. Names of Group Member and Their Designations – The chief of party,

instrumentman, tapeman, and other members of the survey party must be identified. This
information will be necessary for documentation purposes and other future reference.
From this information, duties and responsibilities can easily be pinpointed among the
survey party.

5. List of Equipment – All survey equipment used must be listed, including its make,
brand, and serial number. The type of instrument used, and its adjustment, all have
a definite effect on the accuracy of a survey. Proper identification of the particular
equipment used aids in isolating errors in some cases.

If all the above listed information are known, mistakes committed in the field and which
are not discovered until the field work is completed could be traced to weather
conditions or equipment which are out of adjustment, and a correction can easily be
made without having to redo the whole field work or some portion of it.

As an added requirement, it is important to have a table of contents at the beginning of

the field notebook to allow easy referencing of desired data. This is advisable when the
notebook contains observed and calculated data covering different survey projects.

2.2 The Field Survey Party

The following is a list of persons who may compose a field survey party. Their duties and
responsibilities are given opposite their respective designations. The given composition
is primarily designed for large scale surveys which is expected to undertake field
surveys covering days or weeks using either conventional or sophisticated surveying
instruments such as those for surveys using electronic, inertial, and position systems.

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In coming up with an organization for a field survey party, the principle of flexibility
must be adapted. The duties and responsibilities of members of a survey part should not
always be fixed but should be modified so as to suit prevailing work requirements and
conditions, problems in field operations, and the availability and usage of surveying
equipment. Hence, for smaller scale surveys and where conventional surveying
equipments are utilized, the given composition should be reduced to what is deemed
preferable or suitable. The composition, duties and responsibilities given in the
following list should serve as a reference for one who intends to organize a field survey
party.

1. Chief of Party – The person who is responsible for the overall direction,
supervision, and operational control of the survey party. He is also responsible
for its logistical and technical requirements, and problems of a field survey operations.
Prior to the execution of a survey project, he consults or confers with superiors
regarding the project to be undertaken. He is responsible for submitting survey
reports and records, and sees to it that these are complete, accurate and adheres
to prescribed technical standards and specifications. He prepares cost estimates of
survey projects, and receives and disburses all cash expenses of the survey party. He
may be called upon to act as an expert witness in court on matters relating to technical
description of land and other surveying matters.

2. Assistant Chief of Party – The person whose duty is to assist the chief of party in
the accomplishment of the tasks assigned to the survey party. He takes over the duties of
the chief of party during the absence of the chief. He conducts ground reconnaissance
and investigates sites of a proposed project to gather necessary data prior to the start
of survey work. He is primarily responsible for the employment of surveying
equipment, instruments and accessories used in the survey operation. He prepares field
and office reports and survey plane for submission to the chief of party.

3. Instrumentman – The person whose duty is to set up, level, and operate surveying
instruments such as the transit, engineer’s transit, engineering’s level, theodolite,
sextant, plane table, and alidade, and etc. He sees to it that instruments to be used in a
survey operation are in good working condition and in proper adjustment. He also
assists the technician in the operation of electronic surveying instrument. He works in
coordination and as a part of an instrument party and exercises limited supervision
over personnel doing manual tasks.

4. Technician – The person who is responsible for use and operation of all electronic
instruments required in a field work operation. It is his duty to see to it that these
equipments are functioning properly, are regularly

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calibrated, and are in proper adjustment. He is also responsible for

establishment of a two-way communication link by radio between members of
the survey party and the home office and, between members of the survey part where
distant stations or long survey lines are involved.

5. Computer – The person whose duty is to perform all computations of survey data
and works out necessary computational checks required in a field work operation. He
is responsible for the utilization of electronic calculators, pocket or
microcomputers, and assists in the operation of computerized surveying systems or
equipment.

6. Recorder – The person whose duty is to keep a record of all sketches, drawings,
measurements and observations taken or needed for a fieldwork operations. He keeps
table of schedules of all phases of work and the employment of the members of the
survey party. He does clerical tasks related to surveying in the office and undertakes
limited cartographic jobs.

7. Head Tapeman – The person responsible for the accuracy and speed of all linear
measurements with tape. He determines and directs the marking of stations to be
occupied by the surveying instruments and directs the clearing out of obstruction
along the line of sight. He inspects and compares tapes for standard length prior to
their use in taping operations and is responsible for eliminating or reducing possible
errors and mistakes in taping.

8. Rear Tapeman – The person whose duty is to assist the head tape man during taping
operations and in other related work.

9. Flagman – The person whose duty is to hold the flagpole or range pole at selected
points as directed by the instrumentman. He helps the tapeman in making measurements
and assists the axeman in cutting down branches and in clearing other obstructions to line
of sight. Where electronic distance measuring instruments are used, he is responsible for
setting up reflectors or targets.

10. Rodman – The person whose primary duty is to hold the stadia or leveling rod when
sights are to be taken on it.

11. Pacer – The person whose duty is to check all linear measurements made by the
tapeman. He assists the tapeman in seeing to it that mistakes and blunders in linear
measurements are either reduced or eliminated. In addition the pacer may also perform
the job of a rodman.

12. Axeman/Lineman – The person whose duty is to clear the line of sight of trees,
brush, and other obstructions in wooded country. He is also

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responsible for the security and safety of the members of the survey party at the survey
site. The axeman is usually provided not only with an axe or rifle or a sidearm as well.
If this member is lawfully authorized to do so. In some instances it would be advisable
to request military or police authorities for needed security or hire authorized security
guards.

13. Aidman – The person whose duty is to render first aid treatment to members
of the survey party who are involved in snake or insects bites, accidents, and other
cases involving their health, safety, and well being. In addition, he may be designated as
an assistant instrumentman.

14. Utilitymen – The persons whose duties are to render other forms of assistance
needed by the survey party or as directed by the chief of party. Where a survey vehicle is
used, a utilityman is designated as driver. If the survey party has to camp out for days in
the field, utilitymen are responsible for setting up the camp site and its required
facilities. They prepare and serve meals, and also responsible for the handling and
transporting of surveying equipments, accessories, and supplies. The laying of
concrete monuments, markers, and signals at designated points are also their
responsibility.

2.3 Errors and Mistakes

Errors

An error is defines as the difference between the true value and the measured
value of a quantity. It is a deviation of an observation or a calculation from the true
value and is often beyond the control of the one performing the operation. Since the true
value of a quantity can never be ascertained by measurements, the exact value of an
error, likewise, can never be determined in any measurement.

Errors are inherent in all measurements and result from sources which cannot be
avoided. They may be caused by the type of equipment used or by the way in which the
equipment is employed. It may also be caused by the imperfections or the senses
of the person undertaking the measurement or by natural causes. The effects of
errors cannot be entirely eliminated; they can, however, be minimized by careful
work and by applying corrections.

In any surveying operation the surveyor is continuously dealing with errors. If the work
must be performed to exacting standards he must understand thoroughly the
different kinds of error, their sources and behavior, magnitude, and effects upon
field measurements. It is only then that he can

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intelligently select the instruments to be used and the survey methods to be employed
which will reduce errors to acceptable limits.

Mistakes

Mistakes are inaccuracies in measurements which occur because some aspect of a

surveying operation is performed by the surveyor with carelessness, inattention,
poor judgment, and improper execution. Mistakes are also caused by a misunderstanding
of the problem, inexperience, or indifference of the surveyor. A large mistake is
referred to a blunder. Mistakes and blunders are not classified as errors because they
usually are so large in magnitude when compared to errors.

Among students of surveying, mistakes which are frequently committed includes:

reading the wrong graduation of the tape, omitting a whole length of tape,
transposition of figures, reading a scale backward, misplacing a decimal point,
incorrect recording of filed notes, adding a row or column of numbers incorrectly, etc. For
example, a tapeman may read a number on the tape as 6 when it should actually be 9, or
he may read a taped distance as 48.6 m but recorded as 46.8 m in the field notes. Another
example of a mistake is in the recording of a series of repeated
measurements of a line. The tapeman may record the measurements as follows: 243.85
m, 243.88 m, 234.80 m, 243.86 m, and 243.85 m. If a cursory inspection is made of the
recorded values, it will be noted that the third value disagrees significantly with the
others. This apparently is because transposition of figures in the process of recording.

If careful attention is given to the execution of any surveying operation, mistakes can
be avoided. The various types of mistakes, however, can only be corrected if discovered.
Their detection can be made by systematic checking of all work, making a common
sense estimate and analysis, or by making a duplicate measurement.

Undetected mistakes may produce very serious effects on the final result of a survey such
that the surveyor should exert every possible effort to minimize their occurrence. When
mistakes are discovered, corrections should immediately be made. It is usually
advisable to repeat a measurement when a mistake is detected. However, if an
adequate number of other measurements of the same quantity are available and closely
agree, the widely divergent results should be discarded. Mistakes have no place in
engineering and surveying works. The effects of errors can be minimized, but they
cannot be entirely eliminated, whereas mistakes can be detected and removed from
recorded measurements.

Types of Errors

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In surveying, errors in measurements are either systematic or accidental. These are

defined in terms of their behaviour to sign and magnitude, and the conditions prevailing
during the measurement.

1. Systematic Errors - This type of error is one which always have the same sign and
magnitude as long as field conditions remain constant and unchanged. For
changing field conditions there is a corresponding change in magnitude of the error,
however, the sign remains constant.

Systematic error will repeat itself in other measurements, still maintaining the same sign,
and thus will accumulate. It is for this reason that this type of error is also called a
cumulative error. For instance, in making a measurement with a 30-m tape which is 5
cm too short, the same error is made each time the tape is used. If a full tape length is
used six times, the error accumulates and totals six times the error (or 30 cm) for the total
measurement.

Systematic errors conform to mathematical and physical laws. Such errors can be
computed and their effects eliminated by applying corrections, employing proper
techniques in the use of instruments, or by adopting a field procedure which will
automatically eliminate it. In surveying, systematic errors occur due to
instrumental factors, natural causes, and human limitations of the observer. This type
of error will continue to persist and impose regular effects in the performance of a
survey operation.

2. Accidental Errors - These errors are purely accidental in character. The occurrence
of such errors are matters of chance as they are likely to be positive or negative, and
may tend in part to compensate or average according to laws of probability. There is
no absolute way of determining or eliminating them since the error for an observation of
quantity is not likely to be same as for second observation.

Accidental errors are caused by factors beyond the control of the surveyors and are
present in all surveying measurements. They remain after mistakes and systematic errors
have been eliminated. An example of such an error is the failure of the tapeman to exert
the correct amount of pull on the ends of a tape during measurement. Sometimes he may
exert a pull beyond that which is required, and sometimes less than what is
required. Another example is in the reading of an angle with a transit.
Since the instrumentman cannot read it perfectly, there would be times when he
would read a value which is too large and in another attempt he may read a value which
would be too small. These errors are likely to have either a positive or a negative sign,
and tend to cancel each other or compensate for each other.

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In comparison to systematic errors, accidental errors are usually of minor importance

in surveying operations since they are variable in sign and are of a compensating nature.
This characteristic usually tends to balance out in the final results. Although the total
error increases as the number of measurements increases, the total error becomes
proportionally less when compared with the number of measurements, and the accuracy
becomes greater as the number of measurements increases.

Sources of Errors

The sources of errors in surveying measurements are classified under the following
three groups.

1. Instrumental Errors – These errors are due to imperfections in the

instrument used, either from faults in their construction or from improper adjustment
between the different parts prior to their use. Surveying instruments just like
any other instruments, are never perfect; proper corrections and field methods are
applied to bring the measurements within certain allowable limits of precision.
Moreover, with time and continuous usage, the wear and tear of the instrument will
likely be cause for errors. Examples of instrumental errors are:

a) Measuring with a steel tape of incorrect length.

b) Using a levelling rod with painted graduations not perfectly spaced.

c) Determining the difference in elevation between two points with an instrument

whose line of sight is not in adjustment.

d) Sighting on a rod which is warped.

e) Improper adjustment of the plate bubbles of a transit or level.

2. Natural Errors – These errors are caused by variations in the phenomena of nature
such as changes in magnetic declination, temperature, humidity, wind, refraction,
gravity, and curvature of the earth. Natural errors are beyond control of man.
However, in order to keep the resulting errors within allowable limits, necessary
precautions can be taken. Methods can also be adapted to suit prevailing conditions.

The surveyor may not be able to totally remove the cause of such errors but he can
minimize their effects by making proper corrections of the results and using good
judgment. Common examples are:

a) The effect of temperature variation on the length of a steel tape.

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b) Error in the readings of the magnetic needle due to variations in magnetic

declination.

c) Deflection of the line of sight due to the effect of the earth’s curvature and
atmospheric refraction.

d) Error in the measurement of a line with a tape being blown sidewise by a strong wind.

e) Error in the measurement of a horizontal distance due to slope or uneven ground.

3. Personal Errors – These errors arise principally from limitations of the senses of sight,
touch, and hearing of the human observer which are likely to be erroneous or
inaccurate. This type of fallibility differs from one individual to another and may vary
due to certain circumstances existing during a measurement. Some personal errors are
constant, some are compensating, while others may be erratic. Personal errors are
significantly reduced or eliminated as skills are developed in surveying operations
through constant practice and experience. Errors of this type are also eliminated
by employing appropriate checking of procedures in the taking and recording
of measurements. Typical of these errors are:

a) Error in determining a reading on a rod which is out of plumb during sighting.

b) Error in measurement of vertical angle when the cross hairs of the telescope are
not positioned correctly on the target.

c) Making erroneous estimate of the required pull to be applied on a steel tape during
measurement.

2.4 Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy and precision are two terms which are constantly used in surveying;
however, their correct meanings are often misunderstood. While accuracy may be
synonymous with precision, the two should not be used interchangeably. The surveyor
should not always attempt to measurements which are not accurate but also precise.

Accuracy indicates how close a given measurement is to the absolute or true value of
the quantity measured. It implies the closeness between related measurements and
their expectations. The difference between the measured value of a quantity and its actual
value represents the total error in the measurement. As the measured value approaches the
actual value,

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the magnitude of the total error is decreased, the accuracy of the measurement
increases. Therefore, a measurement is termed less accurate if it deviates by a significant
amount from its expected value, and it is more accurate if the deviation is relatively
small.

The following example illustrates the meaning of accuracy. A line known or accepted to
be 100.000 m long is measured twice with a steel tape. The first measured value is
100.003 m and the second is 95.995 m. The first measurement is said to be more
accurate than the second measurement since the error in the measurement is only 0.003
m as compared to that of the second measurement which is 0.005 m.

Precision refers to the degree of refinement and consistency with which any physical
measurement is made. It is portrayed by the closeness to one another of a set of
repeated measurements of a quantity. Thus, if a set of observations is closely clustered
together, the observation is said to have been obtained with high precision. Since
precision relates to the expertness of manipulation on the part of the observer or to the
capabilities of the instrument used, it requires the use of precise instruments under
ideal conditions employing the best techniques.

A method frequently used to define and distinguish between accuracy and precision is
illustrated in Fig. 4-1. The figures given show possible groupings of rifle shots upon
different targets. In Fig 4-1a, the results shown were very precise because the rifle
shots were clustered close to each other. However, they were not accurate since
the shots were located some distance from the bull’s eye. It is then apparent that
measurements may be precise but not necessarily accurate if they are closely grouped
together but about a value that is different from the expectation by a significant
amount.

In Fig. 4-1b, the rifleman fired accurately on the target as the rifle shots were placed
relatively close to the bull’s eye. The shots, however, were not precise as they were
slightly scattered with respect to the bull’s eye. This illustration is used to explain that
measurements may be accurate but not precise if they are well distributed about the
expected value but are significantly dispersed from each other. The result shown in
Fig. 4-c portray rifle shots upon a target which are both precise and accurate as they were
placed within the bull’s eye and very closely clustered. Using this illustration we can
show that measurements could be both precise and accurate if they are closely grouped
around the expected value. The results shown in Fig. 4-1d portray rifle shots which are
not accurate and not precise since they were widely scattered all over the target frame.
There is no evident sign of clustering and nearness of the rifle shots to the bull’s eye.

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It is desirable for surveying measurements to be made with high precision.

Unfortunately, however, an increase in precision usually warrants a directly proportionate
increase in the time and effort of the surveyor. It should then be the responsibility of the
surveyor to obtain a degree of precision which could be as high as can be justified
according to the purpose of the survey.

Theory of Probability

Probability is defined as the number of times something will probably occur over the
range of possible occurrences. It is very much involved in games of chance, such as
throwing dice, tossing a coin, or in various games using cards. Things do happen
randomly or by chance and these are proven by principles of mathematics commonly
referred to as probability. Different theories of probability are not only applicable to
games of chance; they are also used in scientific and engineering measurements
such as in surveying.

Accidental errors exist in all surveying measurements and their magnitude and
frequency are governed by the same general principles of probability. In dealing with
probability, it is assumed that we refer principally only to accidental errors and that
all systematic errors and mistakes have been eliminated. In high precision surveys
extra effort is made to eliminate systematic errors. The precision of measured
quantity is dependent upon the accidental error it contains.

The theory of probability is useful in indicating the precision of results only in so far as
they are affected in accidental errors. It does not, however, in any way determine the
magnitude of systematic errors which may also be present. The theory assumes an
infinite number of occurrences of all possible events; however, it may be applied
with good results to a limited

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but fairly large number of observations. To form a judgment of a probable value or the
probable precision of a measured quantity, it is necessary to rely upon this theory.

The theory of probability is based upon the following assumptions relative to the
occurrences of errors:

1) Small errors occur more often than large ones and that they are more probable.

2) Large errors happen infrequently and are therefore less probable; for normally
distributed errors, unusual large ones may be mistakes rather than accidental errors.

3) Positive and negative errors of the same size happen with equal frequency;
that is, they are equally probable.

4) The mean of an infinite number of observations is the most probable value.

By applying the principles of probability, measurements containing accidental

errors could be adjusted. The most probable value of a set of observations could then
be determined and inherent discrepancies are eliminated from such measurements. It
must be understood, however, that the results of such adjustments are not the true
values, but are the most probable values which could be derived from the given
measurements.

In this lesson, only the simpler applications of the laws of probability will be considered.
A thorough understanding of it may be obtained by the study of the method of least
squares.

2.5 Most Probable Value

From the theory of probability a basic assumption is that the most probable value (mpv)
of a group of repeated measurements made under similar conditions is the arithmetic
mean or the average. Most probable value refers to a quantity which, based on
available data, has more chances of being correct than has any other value.

Since the true values of measured quantities must remain forever unknown, it is possible
to obtain by measurements only approximations of true values. Therefore, if a given
quantity is measured more than one time, resulting in more than one value, not all the
derived values are correct. There is only

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one correct value that should be considered and it is determined by using the following
equation:

∑𝑥 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛
𝑚𝑝𝑣 = x̅ = = 𝑛
Where mpv or x is the most probable value of the quantity measured, ∑ 𝑥 is the sum of
the individual measurements, and n is the total number of observations made. The
above equation is derived from the principle of least squares, which is based on the
theory of probability.

In the case of related measurements taken under identical conditions where the sum
should equal a mathematically exact quantity, the most probable values are
the observed values corrected by an equal part of the total error. Such a situation would
only be possible in the case of angles about a point or angles in a geometric figure.
The correction is not in proportion to the magnitude of the individual measurements
but to the number of related measurements. It is also a different case for related
measurements taken under identical conditions when the sum should equal to a
single measurement. Here, the most probable values are obtained by dividing the
discrepancy (i.e., the difference between two measured values of the same
quantity) equally among all the measurements, including the sum. If the correction
is subtracted from each of the related measurements, it is added to the measurement
representing their sum, and vice versa.

Determination of the most probable value from a series of measurements is the principal
use of the theory of probability.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

E2-1 MOST PROBABLE VALUE. A surveying instructor sent out six groups of students to
measure a distance between two points marked on the ground. The students came up
with the following six different values: 250.25, 250.15, 249.90, 251.04, 250.50, and
251.22 meters. Assuming these values are equally reliable and that variation results
from accidental errors, determine the most probable value of the distance measured.

Solution:

∑𝑥 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛
𝑚𝑝𝑣 = x̅ = = 𝑛
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∑ = = 𝟐𝟓𝟎. 𝟓𝟏 𝒎
𝑥 250.25 + 250.15 + 249.90 + 251.04 + 250.50 + 251.22
6
E2-2 MOST PROBABLE VALUE. The angles about a point Q have the following
observed values. 130°15’20’’, 142°37’30’’, and 87°07’40’’. Determine the most
probable value of each angle.

Solution:

𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛:

𝜃1 = 130°15′20′′
𝜃2 = 142°37′ 30′′
𝜃3 = 87°07′40′′
𝑛 = 3 (𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 )

𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 :

𝑆𝑢𝑚 = 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 + 𝜃3 = 130°15′ 20′′ + 142°37′ 30′′ + 87°07′ 40′′ = 360°00′30′′

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 360° − 360°00′ 30′′ = −30′′

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 30
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = − ′′ = −10′′
𝑛 3

𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠

𝜃1′ = 𝜃1 ± 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 130°15′ 20′′ − 10 ′′ = 𝟏𝟑𝟎°𝟏𝟓′𝟏𝟎′′

𝜃2′ = 𝜃2 ± 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 142°37′ 30′′ − 10 ′′ = 𝟏𝟒𝟐°𝟑𝟕′ 𝟐𝟎′′
𝜃3′ = 𝜃3 ± 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 87°07′ 40′′ − 10 ′′ = 𝟖𝟕°𝟎𝟕′𝟑𝟎′′

𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑘:

𝜃1′ + 𝜃2′ + 𝜃3′ = 130°15′ 10′′ + 142°37′ 20′′ + 87°07′ 30′′ = 360°00′00′′

2.6 Residual
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The residual, which is sometimes referred to as the deviation, is defined as the

difference between any measured value of a quantity and its most probable value or:

𝑣 = 𝑥 − x̅

Where v is the residual in any measurements, x is a measurement made of a particular

quantity, and x̅ is the most probable value of the quantity measured. Residuals and
errors are theoretically identical. The only difference is that the residuals can be
calculated whereas errors cannot because there is no way of knowing true values. For
a particular set of measurements it is important to compare the residuals with the
average value for those residuals. When very large residuals are detected they are
usually discarded and the required calculations are continues only with the remaining
ones.

2.7 Most Probable Error

The probable error is a quantity which, when added to or subtracted from the most
probable value, defines a range within which there is a 50 percent chance that the true
value of measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the limits thus set.

If errors are arranged in order of magnitude, it will be possible to determine the probable
error. This is the error that would be found in the middle place of the arrangement, such
that one half of the errors are greater than it and the other half are less than it.

The value of the probable error is calculated with the use of the following formulae
which derived from the method of least squares.

∑ 𝑣2
𝑃𝐸 = ±0.6745 √
𝑛−1

∑ 𝑣2
𝑃𝐸𝑚 = ±0.6745√
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
Where:

𝑃𝐸 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠

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𝑃𝐸𝑚 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛

2
∑𝑣 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

The determination and use of the probable error in surveying is primarily to give an
indication of the precision of a particular measurement. It is often an approximate value
and is not mathematically exact since only a few repeated measurements are
usually made and the conditions of measurement are not rigidly controlled. For
example, if 235.50 m represents the mean or most probable value of several
measurements and 0.10 m represents the probable error of the mean value, the
chances are even that the true value lies between 235.40 m and 235.60 m, as it is
also probable that the true value lies outside of the limiting values. Note that the lower
and upper limits are determined by correspondingly subtracting and adding 0.10 m to
235.50 meters. To express the probable limits of precision for this particular case, the
quantity should be written as:

235.50 ± 0.10 𝑚

The sign or direction of the probable error is not known and therefore no correction
can be made. It does not specify the magnitude of the actual error, nor does it indicate
the error most likely to occur. The probable error is not a subjective guess. It is a logical
estimate based upon the methods and equipment used, upon the experience of the
observers, and upon the field conditions existing during the measurement.

2.8 Relative Precision

The sign or direction of the probable error is not known and therefore no correction
can be made. It does not specify the magnitude of the actual error, nor does it indicate
the error most likely to occur. The probable error is not a subjective guess. It is a logical
estimate based upon the methods and equipment used, upon the experience of the
observers, and upon the field conditions existing during the measurement.

The total amount of error in a given measurement should relate to the magnitude of
the measured quantitiy in order to indicate the accuracy of a measurement. In
surveying measurements, ratio of the error to the measured quantity is used to
define the degree of refinement obtained.

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Relative error, sometimes called relative precision, is expressed by a fraction having the
magnitude of the error in the numerator and the magnitude of measured quantity in the
denominator. It is necessary to express both quantities in the same units, and the
numerator is reduced to unity or 1 in order to provide an easy comparison with
other measurements. For example, if for a particular measurement the probable error of
the mean is 0.10 m and the most probable value of the measurement is 235.50 m, the
relative precision (RP) would be expressed as 0.10/235.50 or 1/2355, also written as
1:2355.

2.9 Weighted Observations

It is not always possible to obtain measurements of equal reliability under similar
conditions. Many surveying measurements are made under different circumstances and
conditions and therefore have different degrees of reliability.

The problem often encountered is how to combine these measurements and determine
the most probable values. For a situation it is necessary to estimate the degree of
reliability (or weight) for each of the measurement before they are combined and the
most probable values are determined.

The assignment of relative weight to different measurements is usually based upon

the judgment of the surveyor, the number of measurements taken for a particular
quantity, and assuming that the weights are inversely proportional to the square of the
probable errors. Among experienced surveyors, the assignment of weights to observed
values is often a matter of judgment. In some instances weights are assigned on the basis
of weather conditions prevailing at the time of measurements were made. A measured
length obtained on a bright early morning could be considered as more reliable than
one measured on a cold and rainy day. This method of assigning weights will
require good judgment and can only be expected of more experienced surveyors. In the
case of repeated measurements, if a quantity is measured, for example, in two
repetitions by group A and four repetitions by group B, then the measurement taken by
group B should be given twice the weight of the measurement of group A. This means
that the measurement of group B is regarded as twice as reliable as that of group A. The
assignment of weights is purely relative. For this stated example, any

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weights in the ratio of 2 to 1 may be assigned instead of 2 and 1. For instance, the
weights may be 1and ½, 4 and 2, or 16 and 8.

Interrelationship of Errors

In some instances it is required to determine how the final result is affected when a
computation involves quantities that are subject to accidental errors. Two commonly
applied principles of the theory of errors involve the summation of errors and the product
of errors. These principles are given to provide the student a better understanding of the
propagation of errors.

1. Summation of Errors – If several measured quantities are added, each of

which is affected by accidental errors, the probable error of the sum is given by the square
root of the sum of the squares of the separable probable error arising from the several
sources or:

𝑃𝐸 = ±√𝑃𝐸 12 + 𝑃𝐸2 2 + 𝑃𝐸3 2 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝐸 2

Where:

𝑃𝐸 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚

𝑃𝐸1 , 𝑃𝐸2 , 𝑒𝑡𝑐. = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑

2. Product of Errors – For a measured quantity which is determined as the product of

two other independency measured quantities such as 𝑄1and 𝑄2 (with their
corresponding probable errors), the probable error of the product is given by the
following equation:

𝑃𝐸 = ±√(𝑄1 𝑥𝑃𝐸2 )2 + (𝑄2 𝑥𝑃𝐸 1)2

Where:

𝑃𝐸 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡

𝑄1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄2 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝑃𝐸1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝐸2 = 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:

E2-3 PROBABLE ERROR – The following values were determined in a series of tape
measurements of a line: 1000.58, 1000.40, 1000.38, 1000.48, 1000.40, and 1000.46
meters. Determine the following:

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a) Most probable value of the measured length.

b) Probable error of a single measurement and probable error of the mean. c) Final
expression for the most probable length.
d) Relative precision of the measurement.

Solution:

𝑛=6
∑ 𝑋 = 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋3 + 𝑋4 + 𝑋5 + 𝑋6

∑ 𝑋 = 1000.58 + 1000.40 + 1000.38 + 1000.48 + 1000,40 + 1000.46 = 6002.70 𝑚

∑𝑋 6002.70 𝑚
x̅ = = 6 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎. 𝟒𝟓 𝒎
𝑣1 = (𝑋1 − x̅ ) = 1000.58 − 1000.45 = +0.13
𝑣2 = (𝑋2 − x̅ ) = 1000.40 − 1000.45 = −0.05
𝑣3 = (𝑋3 − x̅ ) = 1000.38 − 1000.45 = −0.07
𝑣4 = (𝑋4 − x̅ ) = 1000.48 − 1000.45 = +0.03
𝑣5 = (𝑋5 − x̅ ) = 1000.40 − 1000.45 = −0.05
𝑣6 = (𝑋6 − x̅ ) = 1000.46 − 1000.45 = +0.01

∑ 𝑣 = 0.00

𝑣1 2 = (+0.13)2 = 0.0169
𝑣2 2 = (−0.05)2 = 0.0025
𝑣3 2 = (−0.07)2 = 0.0049
𝑣4 2 = (+0.03)2 = 0.0009
𝑣5 2 = (−0.05)2 = 0.0025
𝑣6 2 = (+0.01)2 = 0.0001

∑ 𝑣 2 = 𝑣12 + 𝑣2 2 + 𝑣32 + 𝑣4 2 + 𝑣5 2 + 𝑣6 2
2
∑𝑣 = 0.0169 + 0.0025 + 0.0049 + 0.0009 + 0.0025 + 0.0001 = 0.0278

𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠:

Measured Length (X) Residual (v = X - ̅) Square of Residual (v2)

1000.58 m +0.13 0.0169
1000.40 m -0.05 0.0025
1000.38 m -0.07 0.0049

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1000.48 m +0.03 0.0009

1000.40 m -0.05 0.0025
1000.46 m +0.01 0.0001
∑ 𝑋 = 6002.70 ∑ 𝑣 = 0.00 ∑𝑣 2 = 0.0278

∑ 𝑣2 0.0278
𝑃𝐸 = ±0.6745 √ = ±0.6745√ = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝒎
(𝑛 − 1) (6 − 1)
∑ 𝑣2 0.0278
𝑃𝐸𝑚 = ±0.6745√ = ±0.6745√ = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒎
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 6(6 − 1)
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑦 𝑏𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 1000.45 𝑚 ± 0.02 𝑚
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 50 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑦
𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 1000.43 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1000.47 𝑚, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑠 1000.45 𝑚.
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜, ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟, 𝑎 50 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒.
𝑃𝐸 0.05 𝟏
𝑅𝑃𝑠 ===
𝑚𝑝𝑣 1000.45 𝟐𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝑃𝐸𝑚 0.02 𝟏
𝑅𝑃𝑚===
𝑚𝑝𝑣 1000.45 𝟓𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎

E2-4 WEIGHTED MEASUREMENTS. Four measurements of a distance were

recorded as 284.18, 284.19, 284.22, and 284.20 meters and given weights of 1, 3, 2, and
4, respectively. Determine the weighted mean.

Solution:

Measured Length (x) Assigned Weight (w) P = x(w)

284.18 m 1 284.18
284.19 m 3 852.57
284.22 m 2 568.44
284.20 m 4 1136.80
Sums ∑ 𝑤 = 10 ∑ 𝑃 = 2841.99

∑ 𝑃 2841.99
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 = ∑ = = 𝟐𝟖𝟒. 𝟐𝟎 𝒎
𝑤10

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E2-5 WEIGHTED MEASUREMENTS. The length of a line was measured repeatedly on

three different occasions and the probable error of each mean value was computed with
the following results:

1st Set of Measurements 1201.50 ± 0.02 m

2nd Set of Measurements 1201.45 ± 0.04 m
3rd Set of Measurements 1201.62 ± 0.05 m

Determine the weighted mean of three sets of measurements.

Solution:

Measurement Measured Probable (E)2 W = Relative P = X(RW)

Value (X) Error (E) 1/E2 Weight
(RW)
A 1201.50 m ± 0.02 m 0.0004 2500 6.25 7509.38
B 1201.45 m ± 0.04 m 0.0016 625 1.56 1874.26
C 1201.62 m ± 0.05 m 0.0025 400 1.00 1201.62
Sums 8.81 10585.26

𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝐴 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 1.00 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑠

𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑊), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠:
𝑊
2500
𝑅𝑊 = = = 6.25 𝑐
𝑊 400
𝑊 625
𝑅𝑊 = = = 1.56 𝑐
𝑊 400
∑𝑃 10585.26
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = 8.81 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟏. 𝟓𝟏 𝒎
∑

E2-6 SUMMATION OF ERRORS. The three sides of a triangular – shaped land is given
by the following measurements and corresponding probable errors: a = 162.54 ± 0.03 m,
b = 234.26 ± 0.05 m, and c = 195.70 ± 0.04 m. Determine the probable error of the
sum and the most probable value of the perimeter.

Solution:

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 162.54 + 234.26 + 195.70 = 592.50 𝑚

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 CEP233 | FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

𝑃𝐸 = ±√𝑃𝐸 12 + 𝑃𝐸2 2 + 𝑃𝐸3 2 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝐸 2

𝑃𝐸 = ±√(0.03)2 + (0.05)2 + (0.04)2 = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟕 𝒎

𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 592.50

± 0.07 𝑚. 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒

𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 592.43 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 592.57 𝑚

Modular Questions
M2-1 MOST PROBABLE VALUE. The observed interior angles of a triangles are A =
35°14’37’’, B = 96°30’09’’, and C = 48°15’05’’. Determine the discrepancy for the
given observation and the most probable value of each angle.

M2-2 MOST PROBABLE VALUE. Measurement of three horizontal angles about a point P
are: APB = 12°31’50’’, BPC = 37°29’20’’, and CPD = 47°36’30’’. If the measurement of
the single angle APD is 97°37’00’’, determine the most probable values of the angles.

M2-3 WEIGHTED MEASUREMENTS. If is desired to determine the most probable

value of an angle which has been measured at different times by different observers with
equal care. The values observed were as follows: 74°39’45’’ (in two measurements),
74°39’27’’ (in four measurements), and 74°39’35’’ (in six measurements).

M2-4 PRODUCT OF ERRORS. The two sides of a rectangle lot were measured with certain
estimated probable errors as follows: W = 253.36 ± 0.06 m, and L = 624.15 ± 0.08 m.
Determine the area of the lot and the probable error in the resulting calculation.

References
La Putt, J.P. (1987). Elementary Surveying (3rd ed.). Baguio City, Philippines: Baguio
Research & Publishing Center

Disclaimer
This module may contain copyrighted material, the use of which may not have been
specifically authorized by the copyright owner. However, this module was created and
made to serve as a tool for educational purposes only and will be distributed without any
profit.

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