Table of Contents

1- Properties of Radio Waves 10- MLS (Microwave Landing System)

2- Modulation 11- DME (Distance Measuring Equipment)
3- Propagation 12- Radar / Ground Radar
4- Aerials 13- Airborne Weather Radar
5- Doppler Principle 14- Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR)
6- VHF Direction Finder (VDF) 15- Area Navigation RNAV
7- NDB / ADF 16- Performance Based Navigation
8- VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR) 17- Flight Management System (FMS)
9- ILS (Instrument Landing System) 18- Navigation Satellite System
Radio Navigation
VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR)
 VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR) was adopted as the standard short range
navigation aid in 1960 by ICAO.
 It produces bearing information usually aligned with magnetic north at the VOR
location.

 It is practically free from static interference and is not affected by sky waves, which
enables it to be used day and night.
 When the VOR frequency is paired with a co-located Distance Measuring Equipment
(DME) an instantaneous range and bearing (Rho-Theta) fix is obtained.
 The equipment operates within the frequency range of 108 - 117.95 MHz.
Radio Navigation
VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR)
 The VOR radiates 360 radio beams spaced at 1° intervals which enables a pilot to
know on which radial he is flying to or from the VOR.
VOR has the following uses:
 Marking the beginning, the end and centre line of airways or sections of airways.
 As a let-down aid at airfields using published procedures.
 As a holding point for aircraft.
 As a source of en-route navigational position lines and cross-cuts.
Radio Navigation
Types of VOR
 BVOR: Broadcast VOR, gives weather and airfield inform. between beacon identification
 TVOR: Terminal VOR, operates on low power and is used at major airfields for
location and let down(arrival) procedures.
 En-route VOR: are located on airways.
 VOT: is a test VOR, which provides no navigational information. VOTs enable a pilot to
check the accuracy of his equipment, which should be ±4°
 VORTAC: is a millitary VOR, providing range information.
 TACAN: only the DME function is available to civilians
 DVOR: Doppler VOR eliminates the conventional VOR problems (site error)
Radio Navigation
VOR (VHF Omni-directional Range)
 VOR beacons are more sophisticated nav aids than NDBs and operate at shorter
ranges.
 As the name suggests they use line of sight frequencies in the VHF band and are
consequently free from most of the errors that afflict NDBs.
 VORs transmit between 108 and 117.95 MHz with even first numbers after the
decimal point. (even decimals and even decimals plus 0.05 MHz)
 VORs have a horizontal polarization and three letter morse ident.
 VORs are monitored automatically for errors greater than 1° or a reduction in power
of greater than 15%. Ident signal will stop until the standby equipment operates.
 Radio Navigation
VOR (VHF Omni-directional Range)
 VOR bearing is obtained by phase comparison.
 Aircraft’s VOR receiver measures the phase difference, that is the angular difference
between two signals from the VOR transmitter.
 The reference signal is an omnidirectional continuous wave that is modulated at 30Hz
 The variable signal, is an electronic loop aerial, produces a figure of 8 polar diagram.
VOR measures the phase difference between the
reference phase and the variable phase of the signal.
Radio Navigation
VOR (VHF Omni-Directional Range)
 When two signals are mixed, the resulting polar diagram is a limacon.
 Unlike the cardioid of ADF it does not have null positions.
 30 Hz amplitude modulated variable phase (directional) signal created by the rotating
transmission pattern (limacon).
Radio Navigation
VOR (VHF Omni-Directional Range)
 First generation of the VORs suffers from reflections from buildings and terrain. So
the two signals reach the aircraft out of phase. Resulting an uneven or scalloped
signal
 Propagation errors known as scalloping may also occur at extreme range and at low
altitude where the signal unevenly propagated over a regular terrain
 These errors secured by using Doppler VOR which has an antenna base of 13.4
metres and up to 48 transmitters in circle.
 It aslo uses Doppler Principle of frequency change with distance.
Radio Navigation
Doppler VOR
 The Variable Phase signal is frequency modulated in the Doppler VOR where as it is
the reference signal which is frequency modulated in the older the VOR system.
 Frequency modulated waves is subject to less interference and therefore more
accurate.
Radio Navigation
Doppler VOR
 Doppler Effect is created by electronically rotating ant-clockwise.
 The variable phase signal on the circular aerials at a speed 30 revolutions per
second, which is 1264 m per second.
 This is fast enough to create a Doppler Shift. As the signal increases in frequency as
it approaches and then decreases as it goes away from the aircraft.
 This shift then measured.
Radio Navigation
Doppler VOR
 The higher the transmission power the greater the range. In order to double the range
power must be quadrupled.
 En-route VORs with a range 200 nm have a transmitter about 200 Watts Terminal
VORs with a range of 25 nm usually have a transmitter of 50 Watts
Radio Navigation
VOR (VHF Omni-directional Range)
 Designated operational coverage which is expressed as miles and height.
 Each VOR has a zone which is protected from interference from other signals of the same
frequency
 VORs are also categorized as having a high altitude, low altitude or terminal service volume
which differ according to diameter and height of coverage.
Radio Navigation
VOR (VHF Omni-directional Range)
 Designated operational coverage which is expressed as miles and height.
 Each VOR has a zone which is protected from interference from other signals of the same
frequency
 VORs are also categorized as having a high altitude, low altitude or terminal service volume
which differ according to diameter and height of coverage.
Radio Navigation
VOR (VHF Omni-directional Range)
 Beacon accuracy must be within plus or minus a degree.
 Airborne equipment interpretation error should not be greater than ±3° and total
equipment error should not exceed ±5°
 Airways measure 5 nm either side of the centre line.
 ICAO requirement for cone of ambiguity is 40° from the horizon but in practice it is
about 10° either side of the vertical.
Radio Navigation
VOR (VHF Omni-directional Range)
 Airways measure 5 nm either side of the centre line.
 The 1 in 60 rule means that an angle of 5 degree will produce a 5 mile width at 60
mile.
 The max. distance between 2 VORs is 120 nm in order to comply with ±5° error rule

1 in 60 Rule
Radio Navigation
VOR –Interpretation

 Information can be presented on one of three different instruments in the aircraft

 RMI - Radio Magnetic Indicator
 CDI – Course Deviation Indicator or OBI
 HSI – Horizontal Situation Indicator

RMI CDI HSI

Radio Navigation
RMI – Radio Magnetic Indicator
 RMI indicates the magnetic heading against a fixed heading index.
 An RMI may have are two needles, whic can be tuned to two different beacons
 Each shows the relative bearing of becons and their QDM
 When converting bearings from magnetic to true, variation is calculated at the position
of the VOR when that is the source, but at the position of the aircraft in the case of the
NDB.
 The needle head shows the QDM and the tail shows the QDR, just as with the NDB
Radio Navigation
CDI or OBI
 Each dot indicate 2° of deflection. Full scale deflection is 10°
 The TO/FROM flag shows whether the selected bearing is closest as a QDR or QDM
 The VOR indicator is independent of heading
Radio Navigation
CDI or OBI
 Each dot in the centre circle represent two degrees.
 If you turn the omni bearing knob,OBS, on the CDI, until the needle is in the middle,
this will tell you which radial you are on.
 An aircraft can be on any heading when it is on a radial of the VOR.
Radio Navigation
CDI or OBI
 Main use of the VOR is Tracking. The important thing to grasp is that VOR radials are
FROM the VOR.
 Every radial has a reciprocal radial, that is, the opposite direction.
 Easy way of finding the reciprocal radial ??
Radio Navigation
CDI or OBI
 If you are flying away from a VOR on a chosen radial, your heading will be the same
as the radial.
 When you fly towards the VOR, set the reciprocal of the radial you are on, which will
be the sama as your heading.

Selected radial must always match your magnetic track.

Radio Navigation
CDI or OBI
 There are five dots either side of the centre, the first dot is a circle.
 Each dot represents a two degree deviation of the aircraft from the radial.
 Course deviation bar will tell you the chosen radial.
 The VOR needle is a ‘command instrument’. If the needle is to the right of the centre,
you must fly right to get that radial.
 If the needle is to left, you must fly left to get to the radial.
Radio Navigation
CDI or OBI
 If you are on 265º radial with a TO indicator, the deviation bar will register 2.5 dot
deflection as each dot is 2 degrees.
 When the bar is centered, radial will be 090º with TO indicator.
Radio Navigation
HIS (Horizontal Situation Indicator)
 HSIs work the same way as the VOR indicator with the ability to select a course and a
course deviation indicator.
 The HSI has a course of 060º selected and the deviation indicator is showing a fly left
command.
 On a two dot HSI each dot is 5º
Radio Navigation
HIS (Horizontal Situation Indicator)
 First diagram shows an inbound track of 270º selected on both instruments with a
heading 315º
 Final diagram shows the stages of the turn with just few degrees to go and both
deviation indicators nearly central.
Radio Navigation
Radio Navigation
Radio Navigation
 VOR Summary
Radio Navigation
Exam question

 A VOR and an NDB are co-located. An aircraft equipped with an RMI is flying
away from the beacons on a radial of 090º through an area where magnetic
variation is changing rapidly. Which statement is correct ?

 A. The VOR needle moves , the ADF needle does not.

 B. Both VOR and NDB needles move.
 C. Neither the VOR or the NDB needles move.
 D. The ADF needle moves , the VOR needle does not.
VOR determined by the Phase Difference between the Reference and Variable
Phase Signals, which are transmitted from and measured at the VOR ground station.
This is constant regardless of the change in magnetic variation
When selected to ADF, flying along the same straight line track through an area of
changing magnetic variation, the aircraft heading relative to magnetic north (as
displayed on the RMI) changes
Radio Navigation
Exam question

 A VOR is sited at position A ( 45°00'N , 010°00'E ). An aircraft is located at

position B ( 44°00'N , 010°00'E ). Assuming that the magnetic variation at A is
10°W and at B is 15°W , the aircraft is on VOR radial ;

 A. 185° MN TN
10°
 B. 195° When converting bearings
 C. 190° From magnetic to true,
variation is calculated at 45°00'N

 D. 180° The position of the VOR

VOR radial = 180° + var. west 44°00'N

= 190° R190

10°00'E
Radio Navigation
Exam question

 The principle used in VOR bearing measurement is:

 A. Differenece in depth modulation

 B. Envelope matching

 C. Phase comparison

 D. Beat frequency discrimination

VOR bearing measurement calculates the phase difference between the

Reference and the Variable Phase
Radio Navigation
Exam question

 If an aircraft flies along a VOR radial it will follow a:

 A. Constant Magnetic Track All radio signals, including VOR radials

are straight lines and therefore Great
 B. Line of constant bearing Circle Tarcks.
 C. Rhumbline track
However, the magnetic variation is applied at
 D. Great Circle Track the station and as the a/c moves away from
the station it’s position changes and the
therefore so does its magnetic track.

Therefore the radial (which remains constant)

and magnetic track (which changes) will differ
as the distance from the transmitter increases

Rhumb line tracks are lines of constant bearing

Radio Navigation
Exam question

 An airway 10 NM wide is to be defined by two VORs each having a resultant

bearing accuracy of plus or minus 5.5˚. In order to ensure accurate track
guidance within the airway limits the maximum distance apart for the
transmitter is approximately:

The simplest way to answer this question is using the 1:60 Rule
 A. 165 NM
Track Angle Error = Distance Off Track x 60 / Distance Along Track
 B. 210 NM
Distance Off track = ½ Airway Width = 5 NM
 C. 50 NM Track Angle Error = Angular bearing of Track
5.5 = 5 x 60 / X
 D. 109NM X = 300 / 5.5 = 54.5 NM
Remember this is the distance from 1 x VOR whereas the question
is asking us for the maximum distance between 2 x VORs,
therefore the answer would be 2 x 54.5 = 109 NM
Radio Navigation
Exam question

 An airway 10 NM wide is to be defined by two VORs each having a resultant

bearing accuracy of plus or minus 5.5˚. In order to ensure accurate track
guidance within the airway limits the maximum distance apart for the
transmitter is approximately:

The simplest way to answer this question is using the 1:60 Rule
 A. 165 NM
Track Angle Error = Distance Off Track x 60 / Distance Along Track
 B. 210 NM
Distance Off track = ½ Airway Width = 5 NM
 C. 50 NM Track Angle Error = Angular bearing of Track
5.5 = 5 x 60 / X
 D. 109NM X = 300 / 5.5 = 54.5 NM
Remember this is the distance from 1 x VOR whereas the question
is asking us for the maximum distance between 2 x VORs,
therefore the answer would be 2 x 54.5 = 109 NM
Radio Navigation
Exam question

 Two aircraft are located on (arbitrary) different radials but a equal distances
from a VOR-station. Which statement is true ?

 A. At a certain moment of time, both the phase of the reference signals and of the
variable signals are equal for both aircraft
 B. At a certain moment of time, the phase of the reference signals is equal and of the
phase of variable signals is unequal for both aircraft
 C. At a certain moment of time, both the phase of the reference signals and of the
variable signals are unequal for both aircraft
 D. At a certain moment of time, the phase of the reference signals is unequal and the
phase of variable signals is equal for both aircraft

Aircraft’s VOR receiver measures the phase difference, that is the angular
difference between two signals from the VOR transmitter. The reference
signal is an omnidirectional continuous wave.
Radio Navigation
Exam question

 An aircraft is on the 120˚ radial from a VOR station. Course 340˚ is selected
on the HSI (Horizontal Situation Indicator). If the Magnetic Heading is 070˚,
the deviation bar relative to the aeroplane model will be:

 A. Right

 B. Behind

 C. Left

 D. In front
Radio Navigation
Exam question

 An aircraft is flying on the True Track 090˚ towards a VOR station located near
the equator where the Magnetic Variation is 15˚E. The variation at the aircraft
position is 8˚E. The aircraft is on VOR radial:

 A. 285˚ If the VOR Ground Station was orientated with True North,
approaching the VOR on a true track of 090˚ the VOR would
 B. 278˚ place the aircraft on the 270˚ Radial FROM the VOR.
 C. 255˚ Magnetic variation is applied at the VOR, therefore the MV
applied = 015˚.
 D. 262˚
Variation west Magnetic Best, Variation East Magnetic Least

True Bearing FROM = 270˚

Magnetic Variation = 015˚
Magnetic Radial FROM = 270˚-015˚ = 255˚
Radio Navigation
Exam question

 You are flying along an airway which is 10 NM wide (5 NM either side of the
centreline). The distance to the VOR/DME you are using is 100 NM. If you are
on the airway boundary, how many dots deviation will the VOR needle show if
one dot represents 2 degrees ?

 A. 6.0
Track Angle Error = (Distance Off Track x 60) / Distance Along
 B. 4.5 Track

 C. 1.5 TAE = (5x 60) / 100

TAE = 300 / 100
 D. 3.0
TAE =3˚

1 dot = 2˚
Dots = 3˚/2˚=1.5
Radio Navigation
Exam question

 Refer to image
An aircraft is flying on a MH of 120˚. The Magnetic Variation at the VOR is 5˚W
and at the aircraft 10˚W. According to the CDI shown at the Annex the aircraft
is on radial:

 A. 015

 B. 25

 C. 205

 D. 195
Radio Navigation
Exam question

 An aircraft is flying on the 245 radial with a MH of 250˚. On the CDI the CRS is
set to 060˚. Which CDI shows the correct indications?

 A. Figure C

 B. Figure B

 C. Figure D

 D. Figure A
Radio Navigation
Exam question

 Refer to image
An aircraft is flying on a MH of 010˚. The Magnetic Variation at the VOR is
10˚W and at the aircraft 12˚W. Which VOR-RMI corresponds to the indications
on the HSI shown on the Annex ?

All bearings are

 A. Figure D in Magnetic,
therefore
 B. Figure B
examiner’s use
 C. Figure C of Magnetic
Variation
 D. Figure A is a
‘red herring’
and can be
ignored
Table of Contents

1- Properties of Radio Waves 10- MLS (Microwave Landing System)

2- Modulation 11- DME (Distance Measuring Equipment)
3- Propagation 12- Radar / Ground Radar
4- Aerials 13- Airborne Weather Radar
5- Doppler Principle 14- Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR)
6- VHF Direction Finder (VDF) 15- Area Navigation RNAV
7- NDB / ADF 16- Performance Based Navigation
8- VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR) 17- Flight Management System (FMS)
9- ILS (Instrument Landing System) 18- Navigation Satellite System