Table of Contents

1- Properties of Radio Waves 10- MLS (Microwave Landing System)

2- Modulation 11- DME (Distance Measuring Equipment)
3- Propagation 12- Radar / Ground Radar
4- Aerials 13- Airborne Weather Radar
5- Doppler Principle 14- Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR)
6- VHF Direction Finder (VDF) 15- Area Navigation RNAV
7- NDB / ADF 16- Performance Based Navigation
8- VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR) 17- Flight Management System (FMS)
9- ILS (Instrument Landing System) 18- Navigation Satellite System
Radio Navigation
Navigational Aids
 NDB
 VOR
 ILS
 Radar

Non Directional Beacons (NDB)

 The Non-directional Beacon (NDB) is a ground based transmitter which transmits
vertically polarized radio signals, in all directions (hence the name), in the Low
Frequency (LF) and Medium Frequency (MF) bands.
 Its symbol is three circles of dots around a solid circle around a single dot.

 When an aircraft’s Automatic Direction Finding (ADF) is tuned to an NDB’s frequency

and its call sign identified, the direction of the NDB will be indicated.
 Radio Navigation
Navigational Aids

There are two types of NDB in current use:

 Locator (L): These are low powered NDBs used for airfield or runway approach procedures
or are co-located with, and supplement, the outer and middle markers of an ILS
system. They normally have ranges of 10 to 25 NM and may only be available
during an aerodrome’s published hours of operation.

 En route NDBs: These have a range of 50 NM or more, and where serving oceanic areas
may have ranges of several hundred miles. They are used for homing,
holding, en route and airways navigation.
 Radio Navigation
Navigational Aids

 NDBs are usually based on airfields and have a range of about 25 miles.
 NDBs transmit in long wave and medium wave lengths. To double their range, power has to
be quadrupled. Therefore it is suitable for long distance navigational aids.
 Frequencies from 190 KHz to 1750 KHz and use surface waves
 Long range NDBs use large ‘ T ‘ antennae (about 25m high and 50m long) and may require
electronic loading.
 Short range NDBs may be towers or simple masts.

Long Range NDB Short Range NDB

Radio Navigation
Non Directional Beacons (NDB)
 Navigational NDBs have an unmodulated carrier wave, ICAO classification N0N
 Older systems interrupt the carrier wave, a process known as ‘Keying’ to send an
unmodulated Morse code ident; classified as A1A (now extremely rare)
 Modern systems imprint the ident onto the carrier wave by ‘keying’ audible, Amplitude
Modulated signal, in time with morse code ident; classified A2A
 Thus NDBs can be described as having N0N A1A, N0N A2A or just A2A signals.
 The BFO may be labelled TONE or TONE/VOICE on some equipments

 .
Radio Navigation
Non Directional Beacons (NDB)
 Navigational NDBs have an unmodulated carrier wave, ICAO classification N0N
 Older systems interrupt the carrier wave, a process known as ‘Keying’ to send an
unmodulated Morse code ident; classified as A1A (now extremely rare)
 Modern systems imprint the ident onto the carrier wave by ‘keying’ audible, Amplitude
Modulated signal, in time with morse code ident; classified A2A
 Thus NDBs can be described as having N0N A1A, N0N A2A or just A2A signals.
 The BFO may be labelled TONE or TONE/VOICE on some equipments

To make the unmodulted parts of the A1A signal audible, ADF

equipment incorporates a Beat Frequency Oscilator (BFO)

 .
Radio Navigation
Principle Operation of ADF

 The ADF works on the principle of the loop antenna.

 If the NDB is anywhere but perpendicular to the loop, the waves will arrive at different
times at the two elements of the antenna and will cause a current to flow.
 The NDB produces a figure of eight polar diagram
Radio Navigation
Principle Operation of ADF
Radio Navigation
Principle Operation of ADF
 There are two positions which signal difference is said to be zero or ‘null’ at 90º and
270º on the sine wave, shown at positons B and D.
 This is resolved by using a second antenna, a sense antenna, it is arranged for the
field from the sense antenna to be in phase with one of the elements of the loop
antenna.
 Signal accuracy of ± 5º (ICAO requirement)
Cardioid Polar Pattern
Radio Navigation
Principle Operation of ADF
 The resultant null with a single cardioid is not precise enough to meet the ICAO
accuracy requirement of +/-5°.
 To improve the accuracy to meet the requirements, the polarity of the sense aerial is
reversed to produce a right hand cardioid. Then by rapidly switching (about 120 Hz)
between the two cardioids, the null is more precisely defined and hence the accuracy
is improved.
Radio Navigation
Principle Operation of ADF
 In reality it is not feasible to have a rotating loop outside the aircraft.
 Modern loop and sense antennae are combined into one teardrop shaped unit
located under the aircraft. It has four elements which transmit their electrical fields to
a goniometer which measures the angle of the aircraft from the NDB.
 The signal from the sense aerial is also fed to the goniometer where a search coil
detects the unambiguous direction. (search coil always want to be in the null position)
Radio Navigation
Aircraft Equipment
 The aircraft equipment comprises:
 A loop aerial
 A sense aerial
 A control unit
 A receiver
 A display
Radio Navigation
NDB / ADF Interpretation
 There are three types of ADF, the basic Relative Bearing Indicator (RBI), the RBI with
a moving card and the Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI)
Radio Navigation
NDB / ADF Interpretation
 The basic RBI is a fixed dial in the form of a compass with 360º at the top. RBI is not
a heading indicator. NDB is in the direction of needle.
 Needle always points to the beacon (QDM) and the tail of the needle gives the QDR.
 Radio Navigation
NDB / ADF Interpretation
 The weakness of the RBI is that the pilot has to make a calculation to find what
magnetic heading to fly to the NDB

QDM = Relative Bearing + Magnetic Heading

 Radio Navigation
NDB / ADF Interpretation
 The weakness of the RBI is that the pilot has to make a calculation to find what
magnetic heading to fly to the NDB

QDM = Relative Bearing + Magnetic Heading

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Moveable Card RBI and RMI (moving card ADFs)
 Some RBIs have a moveable card which allows the pilot to turn the card to show the
aircraft heading at the top instead of the zero
 Now the point of the needle indicates QDM and the tail indicates the radial, the QDR.

QDM = Relative Bearing + Magnetic Heading = 270°+ 60° = 330°

Radio Navigation
Moveable Card RBI and RMI
 An RMI may point to two NDBs or an NDB and a VOR.
 NDB is the wider needle
 If you need a true heading you have to convert a magnetic heading to a true heading
one must deduct a West variation and add an east variation
Radio Navigation
Operating Equipment

 Select ANT for good audio but no bearing (enabled only the sense Antenna)
 Set ADF for bearing information
 Test function can be selected to test the system.
 If BFO is required the toggle switches labelled BFO can be selected
Radio Navigation
Uses of NDB
 The NDB has 5 principal uses:
 Homing to NDB
 Tracking to the NDB
 Intercepting tracks to an NDB
 Procedure turns as part of an approach procedure
 Holding Patterns

HOMING
Radio Navigation
NDB Tracking
 As the needle on the ADF points directly towards the beacon the instrument is ideal
tracking inbound or outbound from the NDB
 In still air just point the aircraft where the RMI indicates and you will arrive at the
beacon
Radio Navigation
A simple rule for NDB tracking :
Inbound Push the Needle, Outbound Pull the Needle

NDB Tracking (exercise)

Radio Navigation
NDB Tracking (exercise)
 The basic BRI does not tell you when you have reached the designated radial and
you need to turn

POSITION 1 POSITION 2
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Intercepting Tracks to an NDB

POSITION 1 POSITION 2

Inbound Push the Needle, Outbound Pull the Needle

Radio Navigation
Procedure Turn
 A procedure turn describes a formal pattern for flying an approach to an airfield based
upon the location of an NDB
 There are two main types of procedure turn
 A time or distance to fly away from NDB specified, then turn 45° away from radial
followed by a turn of 180° back to inbound radial.
 A time or distance to fly away from NDB specified, then turn 80° away from radial
followed by a turn of 260° back to inbound radial.
Radio Navigation
Procedure Turn

 Locate the airfield visually or by means of the NDB

 Start the procedure within 30° of the
procedure radial.
Radio Navigation
Procedure Turn
 How do you know when you are on this NDB radial ? Heading of aircraft is not
enough to tell you that you are on correct track.

 Keep the NDB needle on the required radial

Radio Navigation
Hold Pattern
 Busy airports will frequently require approaching aircraft to delay their approach and
fly round and round in a race track pattern over a fix point marked either by a NDB or
a VOR
Radio Navigation
Hold Pattern

 During the hold, turns are to be carried out at rate one and the outbound and inbound
legs will normally be 1 minute in duration at and below 14.000 feet and 1½ minutes in
duration above 14000 feet.
Radio Navigation
Holding Patterns
 There are three possible entry procedures into a hold. The one you use is determined
by your arrival track into the beacon. They can be named by sector or by the
procedure.
Radio Navigation
Holding Patterns

Parallel Entry Direct Entry

Offset Entry
Radio Navigation
Accuracy
 Several factors affect the accuracy of radio waves including NDB transmissions.
Transmission accuracy may be reduced by 8 factors.
Radio Navigation
Static Interference
 Precipitation static is generated by the collision of water droplets and ice crystals with
the aircraft. It causes a reduction in the signal/noise ratio which affects the accuracy
of the bearings. The indications on the RMI/RBI will be a wandering needle and the
audio will have a background hiss.
 Thunderstorms have very powerful discharges of static electricity across the
electromagnetic spectrum including LF and MF. These discharges cause bearing
errors in the ADF. A static discharge in a cumulonimbus cloud (Cb) will be heard as a
loud crackle on the audio and the needle will move rapidly to point to the Cb
Radio Navigation
Night Effect
 Night Effect is caused by the interaction of the surface waves from the NDB with sky
waves from the same NDB.
 During the day the D-layer of the ionosphere attenuates all long and medium waves,
so the ground waves are the only means of transmission for NDBs
Radio Navigation
Night Effect
 At night the D-layer becomes deionized and sky waves may be omitted from NDB
which are received out of phase with the ground waves. The effect (“needle hunting”)
is most pronounced at dawn and dusk as the ionosphere is changing both intensity
and height
 This arises for two reasons: phase interference of the sky wave with the surface wave
because of the different paths and the induction of currents in the horizontal elements
of the loop aerial.

Strong Signal Weak Signal

Radio Navigation
Radio Navigation
Station Interference
 Due to congestion of stations in the LF and MF bands, the possibility of interference
from stations on or near the same frequency exists.
 This will cause bearing errors. By day, the use of an NDB within the DOC (Designated
Operational Coverage) will normally afford protection from interference.
 However, at night, one can expect interference even within the DOC because of sky
wave contamination from stations out of range by day.

Designated Operational Coverage

Radio Navigation
Coastal Refraction
 Coastal Refraction caused by radio waves travelling faster over sea than land.
 Results in radio waves which cross the angles other than 90° the normal.
 Bending away from the normal as they cross from land to sea. The grater the angle of
the point of crossing from 90° the greater the error
Radio Navigation
Mountain Effect
 Mountainous areas can cause reflections and diffraction of the transmitted radio
waves to produce errors in ADF systems. These errors will increase at low altitude
and can be minimized by flying higher.
Radio Navigation
Quadrantal Error
 Quadrantal error is caused by the airframe which distorts the incoming radio signal .
 Incoming NDB signals are thus refracted towards the fore and aft airframe axis. The
maximum refraction occurs in the quadrants
 In modern aircraft the error is determined by the manufacturer and corrections are put
into the equipment to reduce the effect to a minimum.
Radio Navigation
Angle of Bank (dip)
 A loop aerial is designed to use vertically polarized waves for direction finding. If the
incoming wave has any horizontal component of polarization it will induce currents in
the top and bottom horizontal members of the loop resulting in a circulating current.
 The angle of bank during a turn causes currents to be induced in the horizontal
elements of the loop thereby leading to a bearing error
Radio Navigation
Cone of Silence and False Indications
 Extending upwards from the beacon, cone accuracy is poor
 False indications due to a failure in the system (NDB or ADF) are not readily detectable
because of the absence of failure warning on most ADF instruments.
 Pilot should continuously monitor the bearing and identification signal to detect any failure.
 As the range of the aircraft from the NDB increases, the signal becomes weaker and therefore
signal to noise ratio decreases
 The minimum acceptable signal to noise ratio is 3 to 1 in order to achieve an accuracy of +/- 5°
Radio Navigation
Radio Navigation

The theoretical reception polar diagram of the loop aerial is distorted by the airframe
which produces a strong electrical field aligned fore and aft. Incoming NDB signals are
thus refracted towards the fore and aft airframe axis. The maximum refraction occurs in
the quadrants (i.e. on relative bearings of 045°, 135°, 225° & 315°.) In modern aircraft the
error is determined by the manufacturer and corrections are put into the equipment to
reduce the effect to a minimum.
Radio Navigation

A loop aerial is designed to use vertically polarized waves for direction finding. The angle
of bank during a turn causes currents to be induced in the horizontal elements of the loop
thereby leading to a bearing error which is referred to as dip error. This error is only
present when the aircraft is not in level flight.
Radio Navigation
Exam question

 With regard to the range of NDB’s and the accuracy of the bearings they
provide can be stated that in general at night ;

 A. the range and the accuracy both increase.

 B. the range decreases and the accuracy increases.

 C. the range increases and the accuracy decreases.

 D. the range and the acuracy both decrease.

At night the D-region disappears allowing sky wave contamination of the

surface wave being used. The effect is manifest by fading of the audio
signal and the needle ‘hunting’ and is worst around dawn and dusk, when
the ionosphere is in transition.
Radio Navigation
Exam question

 The reading of the RMI bearing is 300° at the tip of the needle. The magnetic
variation at the DR position is 24°W, the magnetic variation at the NDB is
22°W and the deviation is -2°. The RMI compass card heading is 020°. The
true bearing is ;

Br = 300°
 A. 274° Mag Var= 24°W (Variation measured at the a/c - Variation West Mag Best)
Dev = -2°
 B. 272° Comp HDG = 020°

 C. 294° True HDG = 020° - 2° - 24° = 354°

The RMI HGD 020° and a bearing to the beacon of 300°, therefore the RB=
 D. 094° 300° - 020° = 280°

QDM = Relative Bearing + Magnetic Heading

QUJ = RB + True HGD
QUJ = 280° + 354° = 654° QUJ = 634° - 360° = 274°
Radio Navigation
Exam question

 The reading of the RMI bearing is 300° at the tip of the needle. The magnetic
variation at the DR position is 24°W, the magnetic variation at the NDB is
22°W and the deviation is -2°. The RMI compass card heading is 020°. The
true bearing is ;

Br = 300°
 A. 274° Mag Var= 24°W (Variation measured at the a/c - Variation West Mag Best)
Dev = -2°
 B. 272° Comp HDG = 020°

 C. 294° True HDG = 020° - 2° - 24° = 354°

The RMI HGD 020° and a bearing to the beacon of 300°, therefore the RB=
 D. 094° 300° - 020° = 280°

QDM = Relative Bearing + Magnetic Heading

QUJ = RB + True HGD
QUJ = 280° + 354° = 654° QUJ = 634° - 360° = 274°
Radio Navigation
Exam question

 There are two NDBs , one 20 NM inland , and the other 50 NM inland from the
coast. Assuming that the error caused by coastal refraction is the same for
both propagations, the extent of the error in a position line plotted by an
aircraft that is over water will be ;

 A. greater from the beacon that is 50 NM inland.

 B. greater from the beacon that is 20 NM inland.
 C. the same from both beacons when the aircraft is on a relative bearing of
090° and 270°.
 D. the same from both beacons when the aircraft is on a relative bearing of
180° and 360°.
Radio waves travel faster over the sea than over land and so they bend
when they cross the coast
Radio Navigation
Exam question

 There are two NDBs , one 20 NM inland , and the other 50 NM inland from the
coast. Assuming that the error caused by coastal refraction is the same for
both propagations, the extent of the error in a position line plotted by an
aircraft that is over water will be ;

 A. greater from the beacon that is 50 NM inland.

 B. greater from the beacon that is 20 NM inland.
 C. the same from both beacons when the aircraft is on a relative bearing of
090° and 270°.
 D. the same from both beacons when the aircraft is on a relative bearing of
180° and 360°.
Radio waves travel faster over the sea than over land and so they bend
when they cross the coast
Radio Navigation
Exam question

 Which statement is correct for tracking towards an NDB in an area with

constant wind and constant magnetic variation ?

 A. The Relative bearing of the NDB should be equal to the QDM.

 B. The Relative bearing of the NDB should be equal ( in magnitude and sign )
to the experienced Drift Angle.
 C. The Relative bearing of the NDB should be equal ( in magnitude and sign )
to the applied Wind Correction Angle.
 D. The Relative bearing of the NDB should be kept 000º.
In order to maintain a direct, straight-line track, the aircraft heading is
adjusted (into wind) by using Wind Correction Angle (WCA) which is then
applied to the track to provide the aircraft heading
Radio Navigation
Exam question

 An NDB is on a relative bearing of 316° from an aircraft. Given ;

Compass heading 270°, At aircraft deviation 2°W,
Variation 30°E, at station Variation 28°E
Calculate the true bearing of the NDB from the aircraft ;

 A. 254° RB = 316°
Mag Var= 30° E
 B. 074° Dev = 2° W
Comp HDG = 270°
 C. 072°
True HDG = 270° - 2° + 30° = 298°
 D. 252°
QDM = Relative Bearing + Magnetic Heading
QUJ = RB + True HGD
QUJ = 316° + 298° = 614° QUJ = 614° - 360° = 254°
Radio Navigation
Exam question

 Concerning ADF and NDB ;

 A. ADF is a ground equipment and NDB can be a ground equipment or an

airborne equipment.

 B. NDB is a locator and ADF is an enroute nav-aid.

 C. NDB is a ground equipment , and ADF is an airborne equipment.

 D. ADF is a civilian equipment whereas NDB is a military equipment used by

civilians too.

Non-directional Beacon (NDB) is a ground based transmitter. When an

aircraft’s Automatic Direction Finding (ADF) is tuned to an NDB’s frequency
and its call sign identified
Radio Navigation
Exam question

 ADF quadrantal error is caused by:

 A. static build up on the airframe and St. Elmo’s Fire

 B. the aircraft’s major electrical axis, the fuselage, reflecting and re-radiating

the incoming NDB transmissions

 C. station interference and/or night effect

 D. NDB signals speeding up and bending as they cross from a land to water

propagation path

A directional error of a radio compass caused by reradiated fields created

around the metallic parts of the airplane.
Radio Navigation
Exam question

 ADF quadrantal error is caused by:

 A. static build up on the airframe and St. Elmo’s Fire

 B. the aircraft’s major electrical axis, the fuselage, reflecting and re-radiating

the incoming NDB transmissions

 C. station interference and/or night effect

 D. NDB signals speeding up and bending as they cross from a land to water

propagation path

A directional error of a radio compass caused by reradiated fields created

around the metallic parts of the airplane.
Table of Contents

1- Properties of Radio Waves 10- MLS (Microwave Landing System)

2- Modulation 11- DME (Distance Measuring Equipment)
3- Propagation 12- Radar / Ground Radar
4- Aerials 13- Airborne Weather Radar
5- Doppler Principle 14- Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR)
6- VHF Direction Finder (VDF) 15- Area Navigation RNAV
7- NDB / ADF 16- Performance Based Navigation
8- VHF Omni-directional Range (VOR) 17- Flight Management System (FMS)
9- ILS (Instrument Landing System) 18- Navigation Satellite System