ME927 Notes

1
ME927 Energy Resources and Policy

Introduction
Dr Nick Kelly
Class Registrar
[email protected]
Dr Stephanie Ordonez Sanchez

[email protected]
Aim
“This module examines sustainable

options for energy production and
consumption in relation to the clean
energy transition now underway in
many countries. The aim is to give
students an understanding of current
trends in the energy market, and to
enable a critical evaluation of
emerging ideas, technologies and
policies especially in relation to new
and renewable energy supply
systems. “
Solar farm, UK Image: Anesco

Syllabus
• Energy challenges and opportunities

• Policy and legislation
• Fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas)
• Nuclear
• Solar energy (solar thermal, solar
furnace, photovoltaics, passive
solar features)
• Tertiary solar (hydro/wind/wave
power, bio-mass/fuel)
• Tidal stream & barrage
• Geothermal energy
• Microgeneration & smart grids
• Energy storage
• Analysis of technologies Offshore wind turbine Image: Fife News
Class Operation and Assessment
• Monday (12-2pm): view week’s video topic

beforehand, review session and worked
examples where appropriate
• Tuesday (4-5pm): tutorial (compulsory) –
discuss the week’s topic in a group and report
back to class
• Online resources
‒ ME927 Myplace page: class details, Zoom links
lecture videos, slides and handouts available
for download.
‒ Tutorial questions for self-testing with model
answers published in arrears.
‒ Assignment details and hand-in.
• Assessment:
• 30% coursework: 1 coursework, individual
technical assignment (see Myplace for topic
and submission deadline).
Turbine hall, Cruachan pumped hydro.
• 70% examination: 2-hour exam in December Image: pinterest
(on-line).
Learning Outcomes
1. An appreciation of recent history

and current trends in the energy
sector.
2. An understanding of the impact
energy has on the local and global
environment.
3. The ability to undertake an
evaluation of developments in
renewable energy conversion
technology.
4. A working knowledge of legislative,
economic and environmental Charing X, Glasgow. Image: Paisleyphotographs
constraints and drivers.

Units and Conversion
Force (Mass x Acceleration)

1 N = 1 kg.m.s-2
Energy (Force x Distance)
1 J = 1 Nm
Power
1 W = 1 J/s
Conversions
1 kWh = 3,600 kJ
1 kWh = 3,412 BTU = 860 x 103 C = 0.0335 T
1 BoO = 0.136 t
energy content = 1.64 MWh => 1 t = 12 MWh
1 TCE = 8.141 MWh
Information, Data, Statistics and Projections
• MacKay D, Sustainable energy – without the hot

air (www.withouthotair.com/).
• Shell Global Scenarios to 2050
(www.shell.com/scenarios)
• BP Review of World Energy
(https://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/energy
economics/statistical-review-of-world-
energy/downloads.html)
• Digest of UK energy statistics (DUKES)
(https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/dige
st-of-uk-energy-statistics-dukes)
• RenewableUK https://www.renewableuk.com/
1
Coal power plant, Germany Image: NYTimes

The Energy Challenge
Population Growth & Technological Development
Shell Global Scenarios to 2050

(www.shell.com/scenarios)
Step-change in energy use. Supply struggling to meet demand. Environmental stresses increasing.
ME922/927 Challenges 2
Climate Change
• One symptom of human

activity and population
growth is increasing
global temperature
• highly likely to be driven
by human-derived GHG
emissions
• fits within range of
predictions of climate
models
Deviation monthly mean surface temperatures to 1850-1900 baseline.

Image: Ed Hawkins.
Transforming The Energy System
source
Fossil Nuclear Renewable

fuels power sources
conversion
GOAL: CARBON NEUTRAL BY 2050

CHALLENGE:
Electricity
HOW
FuelsDO WE GET
Heat THERE?
distribution
end use
Industry Built
environment Transport
Decarbonisation using Zero Carbon Energy
Sources
 High RE penetrations:
• increased transmission
network capacity;
• active distribution
network management;
• energy storage and/or
standby capacity.
• Exploitable resource not
vast relative to total
demand.
Lomborg, The Skeptical

Environmentalist
Renewable Energy: Supply/demand Match
UK energy consumption Maximum conceivable UK sustainable production
------ (196 kWh/d.p) ------ -------------------- (174 kWh/d.p) ----------------------
Matching energy
demand from
renewable sources
requires the
deployment of
renewable
generation on a
vast scale.
19,000 x 7MW
turbines
Likely resource
75% land use (17 kWh/d.p)
Hydro: 0.3
10% land use 10% land use
MacKay, www.withouthotair.com
Different Priorities and Options
Priorities:
 human well-being  fossil fuel prolongation
(moral obligation) (sustain economic growth)
 climate change mitigation  fossil fuel replacement
(save the planet) (pollution reduction)
 environment protection  security of supply

(political autonomy)
(biodiversity)
Reduce/reshape energy Deploy clean energy sources:
demand:  clean fossil fuels
 population control (cost increase)
(not an option)  nuclear fission
 lifestyle change (public acceptance)
(do little, save little)  renewable energy
 apt technologies (needs infrastructure)
(plethora of options)
Challenges: accommodate disparate views, negotiate non-optimal solutions, design and operate
hybrid systems, obtain investment capital, keep costs down and take the long view politically.
Decarbonisation Pathways
Used to indicate the

outcome of different
supply type mixed
and demand
reduction
interventions.
interrogations
http://withouthotair.blogspot.com/2010/07/2050-calculator-
tool-at-decc.html
UK renewable electricity
By Pahazzard - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=18840841
UK gas balance
Data for different sources

presented in different units
and scales.
DUKES
UK coal balance
Need to convert units to

compare with other energy
sources.
DUKES
UK renewables balance
Power station ………… 1 @ 2000 MW

Wind ……. ………… 100 @ 20 MW
Marine …………… 4,000 @ 0.5 MW
CHP …………… 40,000 @ 0.05 MW
Urban RE ……… 200,000 @ 0.01 MW
Renewable energy systems 3-5 x larger if the

requirement is to match conventional energy
production.
Thousand
Tonnes of
DUKES
Oil
equivalent
(2014)
Challenge: moving towards a wider variety of low-carbon energy
resources reduces reliance on specific energy types but greatly increases
the complexity of the energy system.
World Energy Outlook
Shell Global Scenarios to 2050 (www.shell.com/scenarios)
World energy outlook
BP Energy Outlook, 2019 Edition
The Energy System
source

fuels power sources
conversion
Supply-side
decarbonisation
Electricity Fuels Heat
distribution
end use
Industry Built
Renewable Energy
• Renewable sources of
electricity have been
promoted by successive
governments through RO
(SRO), REFIT
• Huge growth in RE
electricity output – 33% of
total UK demand from
wind, PV, hydro and
biomass
• In Scotland renewable
electrical output was 90%
of total electrical demand in
2019 Source: DUKES
Renewable Electricity Supplies
• Renewable electricity sources

have different characteristics
• Bioenergy – similar to
conventional power station
• Hydro – fast response
controllable
• Wind/Wave/PV –
intermittent and relatively
unpredictable
• Tidal – intermittent but
predictable Source: Elexion
Balance Supply and Demand
• Electricity –
displacement system
– demand and supply
must match
• Generation modulates
to match demand
• Intermittent
renewables – same
challenge as for
demand -
dispatchable
generation modulates
to accommodate
• Modulation typically
done using gas +
interconnect Source: Grid Carbon App.
http://www.cs.ox.ac.uk/people/alex.rogers/gridcarbon/
Mitigating Intermittency
• Future alternatives
would be control
demand to
accommodate supply
• Develop energy
storage*
• *Storage at scale and

cost does not exist yet
Nuclear
Fission:
 ~6% of global energy production;
 more expensive than fossil-based power generation and wind
(recently) wind generation expensive;
 radioactive waste is a problem (transmutation initiatives);
 Potentially limited resource - 100 years of U235;
 14,000 years of U238 but ‘breeder’ technology and waste
product (Plutonium) problematic.
Challenges:
 new build;
Fusion:  waste disposal;
 abundant fuel supply (sea water);  public acceptance;
 life cycle costs.
 1g equivalent to 45 barrels of oil;
 little radioactive waste;
 astronomical temperatures required;
 commercial by 22nd century?
Nuclear Energy
• High volume power

generation
• High capital cost and long
lead in time
• Run at maximum output to
generate revenue
• UK has ageing fleet (AGR –
1970’s)
• Like renewables needs other
generation to modulate to
meet demand
Source: Elexion
Renewables + Nuclear
• UK government policy
• Poor combination of
intermittency +
inflexibility
• Both require backup from
other energy sources
• … or new approach to how
energy system operates
Fossil Fuels Prolongation?
Growth in oil reserves:

 47 yrs reserves in 1973
 60 yrs reserves in 1999
 consumption up 90% in period
 provides ~90% of world’s energy
Reserves:
 Coal 230-1500 yrs;
 Oil 40-250 yrs;
 Gas 60 yrs. Challenges:
Outlook:  refine exploration techniques;
 global energy spend <2% of GDP;  make less ‘polluting’ (e.g. decarbonise);
 UK spend 6% of GDP (£75b/y; c.f. £10b/y  enhanced extraction (e.g. sequestrate C);
spent on discarded food);  new resources (e.g. coal bed methane, oil shale, tar
 will dominate the world economy for 30 sand);
years or more.  new uses (e.g. methanol production).
H2 production with CCS
Challenges:
 large capital investment;
 geological issues;
 gas and electricity grid access;
market transformation;
 new business models.
Future Sources: Marine/Tidal Current
… oscillating aerofoil driving hydraulic accumulators
… horizontal axis turbine evolved from wind technology
MCT’s
SeaFlow
EB’s
Stingray
Challenges:
… contra-rotation  reduce cost;
 limit corrosion and abrasion;
Nautricity’s MCT’s  new maintenance and safety issues;
CoRMaT SeaGen  power take-off at low rotation
speed;
 gearing reduction/ elimination;
 grid access/ power transmission;
 land access and use;
 phased operation of different sites;
 maritime & aquaculture impact;
 new business models.
The Energy System
source

fuels power sources
conversion
Electricity Fuels Heat
distribution
end use Demand-side

Industry decarbonisation
Built
Electrification of heat
Disaggregated data is
highly variable
Note the variation at

all time scales.
National Grid
Lifestyle Change
UK Total:
196 kWh/d.p
‘Simple’ actions Possible saving (kWh/d.p)
Frugal heating system use 20
Switch off appliances at home/work 4
Stop flying 35
Efficient transport 20
Challenge: small
Don't replace gadgets 4
lifestyle changes are
Use CFL or LED 4
unlikely to result in
Avoid clutter 20
substantial energy
Become vegetarian 10
demand reduction.
Sub-total 117
‘Difficult’ actions
Eliminate draughts 5
Double glazing 10
Improve insulation 10
Solar hot water panels 8
Photovoltaic panels 5
Replace old building with new 35
Electric heat pump for heating 10
MacKay, www.withouthotair.com Sub-total 83
Transport Electrification
• UK policy to move
away from combustion
powered transport
• Sale of new petrol and
diesel cars ends 2040
• 10% of new vehicle EV charging Picture: unknown
registrations in 2020
• 2% of UK cars
EV/PHEV 2020
• Hydrogen vehicles also
on UK roads
Aberdeen Hydrogen Bus. Image Van Hool

Transport Electrification
• Massively increased electrical

demands – new generation
required
• High cost of new alternative
vehicles
• Cost of upgrading of existing Grangemouth refinery Image: unknown
electrical infrastructure (inc.

hydrogen)
• New charging infrastructure
• “stranded asset” of existing fossil
infrastructure
• Rare earth elements for batteries,
etc.
EV charger. Image: Strathclyde University
Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G)
• EVs also present a n

opportunity 1,000,000 EVs
16 – 80 GWh of storage
capacity
• Output: 3-22GWh
• All UK pumped storage
capacity 27GWh
Image:
NY
Times
Energy Efficiency – Negawatts
• Huge scope for demand • Modern PassivHaus - space heating

reduction - built 90% less than traditional UK house
environment
• Better insulation &
airtightness
• Better build quality
• Improved systems & control
• Maintenance
• Reduced fuel bills &

improved comfort
Passive Houses – Dunoon Image: e-architect

Energy Efficiency Options Passive solar features
 Passive solar
 Heat recovery
 Fabric upgrades
 Efficient systems
 Daylight utilisation
 Smart control
 Local heat/power generation
Energy Efficiency Challenges
 Cost – who pays?
 Low carbon systems typically
do not perform as well as
expected – performance gap
between what is designed
modelled and what is installed
 Products/ components not
robust and performance
degrades over time
 Lack of skills on the workforce
 Upgrades create unexpected
problems, e.g. poor indoor air Energy efficient retrofitted flats – Queens
quality Cross image: passive house trust
 Occupants change behaviour
(more energy profligate) –
“rebound effect”
The Energy System
source

fuels power sources
conversion
Integrated
Electricity
decarbonisation
Fuels Heat
distribution
end use
Industry Built
Future concept: smart grids
https://smartgridtech.wordpress.com/smart-
grid/
Challenges:
 market transformation;  market transformation;
 policy & legislation;  policy & legislation;
 new business models;  new business models.
 large capital investment;
Smartgrids
• the problem of supply

demand matching becomes
more difficult in smaller grids
– greater short term variability in
demand (less diversity)
– stochastic output from
renewables
– uncertain response in demand
control
• need to co-ordinate
dispatchable generation,
flexible loads, storage
devices
• a significant control problem!
Dr N J Kelly
Smart Grid Control
Plotting a Path to 2050
 With so many options, how do we identify the optimum

deployment combinations?
 Feasibility (technical, social acceptability) – requires

modelling tools.
 Economics (in the conventional sense).
 Energy/carbon economics:
• energy efficiency rating;
• net CO2 per unit of useful energy produced;
• embodied energy in life cycle of products.
 Environmental impact:
• consumption of valuable resources (actual and
potential).
 Social impact (jobs).
Recap
 Population growth and development are driving increasing energy use and
environmental degradation
 The most prescient problem is anthropogenic climate change
 Like most of the developed world, UK has the ambition to decarbonise by mid
point of century
 Many pathways as to how we decarbonize – but no clear route
 Decarbonisation of supply – renewables, nuclear, not all options are
compatible
 Decarbonisation of demand – reshaping demand to complement zero carbon
supplies, demand reduction
 Integrated supply/demand paradigm emerging
 All aspects of decarbonisation pose a technical, social and economic challenge
that will require a major concerted societal effort to overcome.
ME927 Energy and Power
Conversions
Energy and Power
• Common units of energy and power (E = p x t)
Power Energy
W J/s J Ws
kW 103 W kJ 103 J
MW 106 W MJ 106 J
GW 109 W GJ 109 J
hp 746 W Wh 3600 J
kWh 3.6 MJ
MWh 3.6 GJ
Example
• A engine-generator unit runs for 3 days at an output of 30
kWe. What is its electrical energy output?
• (E = P(W) x t (s))
• J – 30 x 1000 x 3 x 24 x 60 x 60 = 7,776,000,000 J = 7.776 GJ
• (E = P(kW) x t (hours))
• KWh – 30 x 3 x 24 – 2160 kWh or 2.16 MWh (=7.776 GJ)
Example
• The unit has an overall efficiency of 46%, what is the fuel
energy content.
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝜂% 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

• 𝜂% = 100 × 𝑂𝑅 𝜂 = =
𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 100 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 7.776×109 𝐽

• 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = =
𝜂 0.46
𝟏𝟎
= 𝟏. 𝟔𝟗𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝑱
Example
• Natural gas has an lower heating value (LHV) of 35.8 MJ/m3 and a
density of 0.716 kg/ m3
• Calculate the mass of fuel consumed and the rate of fuel
consumption (kg/s)
𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 1.690×1010 𝐽

•𝑉= 𝑂𝑅 = 472.07𝑚3
𝐿𝐻𝑉 35.8×106 𝐽/𝑚3
• 𝑀=𝜌𝑉 = 0.716 × 472.07 = 338 kg
338 kg
• 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟑 𝐤𝐠/𝐬
3 x 24 x 60 x 60 s
Energy Resources and Policy
Handout:
Electricity generation from thermal power plant
1. Large-scale operations
All large thermal power generating plant operate in the same way: the heat of combustion (of
coal, oil, gas, industrial, agricultural or domestic waste or various forms of biomass) is used to
boil water and generate steam. (A nuclear power station also works in this way.) The steam
then drives a steam turbine, which may have a number of stages, and finally a generator. The
generator is normally grid-connected, so its rotational speed (and that of the turbines) must be
carefully controlled. In the UK, the largest standard turbo-generator units are rated at 660
MW of electrical output.
On exhaust from the turbine, the steam is cooled and condensed to water, after which it is
pumped back into the boiler to begin the cycle once more. Substantial amounts of heat are
rejected in the exhaust stack from the boiler; this is at a fairly high temperature. Major heat
rejection also takes place in the condenser: temperatures here are lower and it is not so easy to
find a use for it. Some energy may be recovered by warming the water in a heat exchanger on
its way into the boiler.
The efficiency of the plant (as with all thermal processes) is limited by the laws of
thermodynamics. An absolute limit is given by the Carnot efficiency:
η = 1 – T2 / T1
where T1 is the upper temperature of the working fluid (i.e. in a power plant this will be the
superheated steam) and T2 is the temperature at which heat is rejected to the surroundings (the
temperature in the condenser). For plant of the type shown in Figure 1, efficiency is unlikely
to exceed 35%.
Heat
rejection
Steam
Generator
LP
~
Fuel
supply
Superheated Wet
steam Heat
rejection
Condenser
Pump
Water
Figure 1: thermal power plant schematic.
A more realistic value of efficiency is given by the endoreversible efficiency:
η = 1 – √(T2 / T1)
Take the example of Longannet power station. The combustion process produces superheated
steam at 568oC and heat is rejected at 10oC. So the heat supply temperature is 568 + 273 =
841K; and the heat rejection temperature us 10 + 273 = 283K.
The Carnot cycle efficiency is therefore 66.3%
The endoreversible efficiency is 42%, much closer to the actual efficiency of 37%!
The most effective way to improve η is to provide combined heat and power (CHP): to design
(and locate) the plant to produce useful electricity and useful heat. Obviously, a market for the
low-grade heat (e.g. space heating or some industrial processes) must be available on or near
the site.
2. Combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) plant
Here, natural gas is used to fuel a gas turbine engine (probably a modified aircraft power
unit). The turbine drives a generator, producing electricity (Figure 2a). The turbine exhaust
temperature is high and contains a great deal of energy; the gases are passed through a heat
exchanger to boil water and produce steam, in a similar way to the thermal power plant
described previously. This steam then passes through a turbine (driving a second generator),
travelling around a circuit as shown in Figure 2a.
In this 2-stage process, overall efficiency is increased to perhaps 55%. The technology is only
effective in large-scale operations; gas turbines without the secondary steam-raising stage are
used to generate smaller quantities of electricity (e.g. on offshore oil platforms), but efficiency
is then below 30%.
Steam
turbine
Fuel
Air in
in ~
Exhaust 2nd Generator
Pump
Combustion Condenser
~
1st Generator
Turbine
Compressor
Figure 2a: gas turbine electricity generating Figure 2b: steam-raising second stage
plant. for combined cycle plant.
3. Small-scale generating plant
This generally takes the form of an engine, fuelled by gas or liquid fuel, with direct drive to a
generator. Conventional internal combustion (IC) engines are commonly used and Carnot
efficiency limitations again apply, with peak efficiencies expected to be around 35% (and
much less at part load). A Stirling engine might be used as the prime mover, in which case
solid fuels or even solar energy could provide the heat source. Hydrogen fuel is another
possibility, but for producing electricity it is better to use it in a Fuel Cell (giving an
efficiency of around 60%).
Small-scale operations generally provide opportunities for CHP production, as there is likely
to be a local demand for the thermal output in the form of a space heating or hot water
demand. Depending on the circumstances, it may even be economic at the domestic scale.
Arrangements for autonomous operation or cooperation with the local electricity grid
(import/export) need to be properly developed before this concept of ‘embedded generation’
can be effectively adopted.
4. Emissions
These can take the form of particles (soot), unburnt hydrocarbons, sulphur dioxide (SO2) and
oxides of nitrogen (NOx). SO2 arises from the sulphur content of certain fuels, principally coal
and oil. NOx arises from high-temperature combustion in air. These and other pollutants can
be reduced (but not entirely eliminated) by careful control of the combustion process, and by
treatment of exhaust gases by chemical action or filtration. Such processed has a significant
economic implication.
Finally, there is carbon dioxide, CO2, emissions of which from the combustion of fossil fuels
for electricity production can be characterized as follows.
Fuel CO2 emission

(kg/kWh)
Coal 0.9
Oil 0.7
Natural Gas 0.2
Emissions from the combustion of waste materials or biofuels depend on their composition. If
biofuels are used in a sustainable manner (i.e. by replanting as consumed), the carbon cycle at
least is closed, and net emissions of CO2 will be zero.
Questions:
Fossil Fuel and Nuclear Power Plant
Answers
1. A company wishes to promote a new power production technology, which it claims has an
operating efficiency of over 65%. You don’t know much about the technology other than the
fact that the working fluid is Argon, which is heated to 400oC, and heat is rejected at 15oC.
Calculate the maximum possible efficiency of this plant and then comment on the validity of
the company’s claims.
[57.2%]
We don’t know anything about this cycle, other than the temperature limits. However,
we can use the Carnot efficiency equation to determine the maximum possible
efficiency.
T1 = 400oC = 673K; T2 = 15oC = 288K
The Carnot efficiency is given by 1 – T2/T1 = 1 – 288/673 = 57.2%.
So the company’s claims of an efficiency of >65% are incorrect.
2. Using the data below, make a realistic estimate of the operating efficiency for each of the three
nuclear reactor technologies.
Pressurised Water Advanced Gas Boiling Water

Reactor (PWR) Reactor (AGR) Reactor (BWR)
Peak temperature
330 580 285
(oC)
Heat rejection
10 10 10
temperature (oC)
[PWR – 31.5%; AGR – 42.4%; BWR – 28.8%]
Here we use the endoreversible efficiency equation to provide an estimate of the

likely operational efficiency.
e = 1 – (T2/T1)
PWR cycle:
T1 = 330oC = 603K; T2 = 10oC = 283K
e = 1 – (283/603) = 31.5%
AGR Cycle:
T1 = 580oC = 853K; T2 = 10oC = 283K
e = 1 – (283/853) = 42.4%
BWR Cycle:
T1 = 285oC = 558K; T2 = 10oC = 283K
e = 1 – (283/558) = 28.8%
3. A planned nuclear power plant has a design new power output of 1.5 GW and an operational
efficiency of 31%. If fuelling costs are £16.6 per MWh of fuel input energy and running costs are
£18.5 per MWh of electrical energy output, calculate the simple payback for the plant, if
electricity is bought from the plant at £90/MWh, and the plant cost is £6.7 Billion.
Simple payback can be calculated using:
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 £
𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 (𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠) = 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 £ −𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 £
Assume that income is derived exclusively from bulk sale of electricity and the annual availability
of the plant is 90%, i.e. it runs for 90% of the year. The remaining 10% of the year, the plant is
shut down for maintenance and refuelling and consumes no fuel.
[ 31.6 years]
The plant’s annual electrical output E (MWh) is given by P x 365 x 24 x a, where P is its power
output in MW and a is the availability (0.9).
E = 1500 x 365 x 24 x 0.9 = 11,826,000 MWh
The plant’s fuel energy input F (MWh) is given by E/η where is the operational efficiency of of
0.31.
F = 11,826,000/0.31 = 38,148,387.10 MWh
If electricity is sold to the grid at £90 per MWh then annual income is
90 x 11,826,000 = £ 1,064,340,000
Fuel costs are £16.6 per MWh of fuel energy input = 38,148,387.10 x 16.6 = £633,263,226
Running costs are £18.5 per MWh of electrical energy output = 11,826,000 x 18.5 =
£218,781,000
Fuel and running costs are therefore £852,044,226
The payback is 6.7 x 109 / (1,064,340,000 - 852,044,226) = 31.6 years.

Questions:
Fossil Fuel and Nuclear Power Plant
1. A company wishes to promote a new power production technology, which it claims has an
operating efficiency of over 65%. You don’t know much about the technology other than the
fact that the working fluid is Argon, which is heated to 400oC, and heat is rejected at 15oC.
Calculate the maximum possible efficiency of this plant and then comment on the validity of
the company’s claims.
[57.2%]
2. Using the data below, make a realistic estimate of the operating efficiency for each of the three
nuclear reactor technologies.
Pressurised Water Advanced Gas Boiling Water

Reactor (PWR) Reactor (AGR) Reactor (BWR)
Peak temperature
330 580 285
(oC)
Heat rejection
10 10 10
temperature (oC)
[PWR – 31.5%; AGR – 42.4%; BWR – 28.8%]
3. A planned nuclear power plant has a design new power output of 1.5 GW and an operational
efficiency of 31%. If fuelling costs are £16.6 per MWh of fuel input energy and running costs are
£18.5 per MWh of electrical energy output, calculate the simple payback for the plant, if
electricity is bought from the plant at £90/MWh, and the plant cost is £6.7 Billion.
Simple payback can be calculated using:
𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 £
𝑝𝑎𝑦𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 (𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠) = 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 £ −𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 £
Assume that income is derived exclusively from bulk sale of electricity and the annual availability
of the plant is 90%, i.e. it runs for 90% of the year. The remaining 10% of the year, the plant is
shut down for maintenance and refuelling and consumes no fuel.
[ 31.6 years]
1
Open cast coal mine, Germany. Image: Associated Press.

Fossil Fuels
Primary energy consumption by fuel type
>80% of the world’s energy

comes from fossil fuels:
coal, oil & natural gas.
2
ME922/927 Thermal power plant
US energy and
Supply consumption,
demand 2015 (quadrillion BTU)
1 Quad = 1015 BTU
97.5 Quads: solar 0.5%, nuclear 9%, hydro 2.5%, wind 2%, geothermal 0.2%,
natural gas 29%, coal 16% (with natural gas 64% of electricity), biomass 5%,
petroleum 36% (92% of transport)
3
ME922/927 Thermal power
plant
Fossil fuel consumption
4
World fossil fuel reserves
Fossil fuel reserves
World coal reserves – years remaining: Source BP
5
Benefits of fossil fuel
 In short, fossil fuel use has Fossil fuel use and life expectancy
driven economic growth and in China and India
development since the
industrial revolution
 Widespread knowledge of
impacts of fossil fuel use
from the 50s onwards
 However fossil fuel use

increased dramatically
because of the perceived
benefits e.g.
 cheap
Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy (2013) and
 concentrated energy World Development Indicators Online Data (2014).
source
 … absence of an alternative
6
ME922/927 Thermal power
plant
Opportunities and challenges
Outlook: Challenges:
 global energy spend <2% of GDP;  make less ‘polluting’ (e.g. decarbonize with CCS);
 UK spend 6% of GDP (£75b/y; c.f. £10b/y extended lifetime?
spent on discarded food);  enhanced extraction (e.g. sequestrate C);
 could dominate the world economy for 30  refine exploration techniques;
years or more;  new resources (e.g. coal bed methane, oil shale, tar sand)
 new uses (e.g. methanol production)
7
Unconventional reserves
 Examples
• Shale, ‘tight’ gas or oil in low
permeability, low yield rock (10x less
than conventional reserves)
• Coal bed methane
 Hydraulic fracturing of rock required
 Estimated potential gas resource 650 x 1012 m3
 Equivalent of an extra 50% on top of
conventional hydrocarbon reserves
 In the US ‘fracked’ gas accounts for 40% of
total gas production (2.5 x 1011m3/yr)
Challenges:
(similar to conventional)
 refine exploration techniques;
 make less ‘polluting’ (e.g. decarbonise, water
pollution);
 possible increased seismic activity
8
Gas reserves
 Remaining resource greater that previously extracted.
9
Fracking process
ME922/927 Thermal power plant 10

Thermal power plant
 Fossil fuelled thermal power plant

still dominates power generation
around the world (>60%)
 Thermal power plant use declining
in OECD
 But growing worldwide as a whole
– driven by demand in China and
India
 In Europe coal power plant is
disappearing except in Eastern
Europe

Thermal power plant
 These use the heat of fossil fuel combustion to boil water,
generate steam, drive a multi-stage turbine and finally a
generator.
 In the UK, the largest standard generation units are rated at 660
MWe. (Wind turbine 2-9 MW)
 Substantial amounts of heat are rejected from the boiler

exhaust stack (high temperature) and at the condenser (low
temperature).
 Efficiency is limited by the laws of thermodynamics, with an
upper limit given by the Carnot efficiency:
c = 1 – T2 / T1
where T1 is the temperature at which heat is supplied and T2
the temperature at which heat is rejected to the surroundings.

Thermal power plant operation
 A more realistic calculation of power plant

efficiency comes from the endo-reversible
efficiency equation:
𝑇2
𝜂𝑒 = 1 −
𝑇1
 For example Longannet power station produced

steam at 568oC (841K) and rejected heat to the
environment at ~10oC (283K)
 Carnot (ideal efficiency) 66.3%

Longannet, now
decommissioned
 Endoreversible efficiency 42.0%
 Actual efficiency achieved 37%

Coal electricity generating plant
 Efficiency is unlikely to exceed ~40%.

 May be improved by providing
combined heat and power.
 This requires a nearby market for the
Steam low-grade heat.
Heat
rejection turbine
HP LP
Fuel
supply
Superheated Wet steam
steam
Heat
rejection
Condenser
Combustion
Pump
Water

Drax power station
 Largest in the UK.

 6 turbine-generators rated at ~3.9 GW
electrical output.
 Subject of regular protests from
environmental groups.
 4 Units now burn mixed biomass 2
units burn coal - 2.6 GW Biomass/1.3
GW Coal.
 Biomass imported from US and
Canada.
 Final two coal units converted to
combined cycle cycle gas turbine.
 Will stop burning coal 2021

Gas turbine electricity generating plant
 Gas turbine is frequently
based on civil aircraft jet
engine designs.
 Light in weight and easy to

transport, but a very low
thermal efficiency (25% to
30%) with massive heat
rejection via exhaust gases.
Natural gas
Air in
 Used to generate small
Exhaust quantities of electricity (e.g.
Combustion
on offshore oil platforms).
Generator
Turbine
Compressor

Combined cycle gas turbine generating
plant (CCGT) Rankine
cycle
Steam
turbine
Generator
Brayton
cycle
Pump Condenser
Air in Natural gas
 CCGT power stations

Exhaust
Combustion have a secondary steam
raising circuit using the
heat from the gas
turbine exhaust.
Generator  Overall, this raises the
Turbine
Compressor thermal efficiency to
between 55 and 60%.

Combined heat and Power (CHP)
 The efficiency of fossil fuel

generating plant can be
significantly improved by
recovering the heat lost from
the condenser
 Can be used for district heat
schemes
 However there must be a heat
sink (industry/housing) nearby
 Efficiencies of >80% achievable
 District heat easiest to develop
in new housing areas
 Difficult to retrofit into cities Wyndford district heat, Glasgow. Image SSE

Small scale generating plant
 In the form of an IC engine, fuelled by gas or liquid
fuel, with direct drive to a generator.
 Peak efficiencies ~35% and much less at part load.
 A Stirling engine might be used, in which case solid

fuels or solar energy could provide the heat source.
 Hydrogen fuel is another possibility, but for

producing electricity it is better to use it in a Fuel
Cell (efficiency of around 60%). Small scale gas CHP
engine. Image: unknown
 Small-scale operations generally provide
opportunities for CHP production (85 – 95%
efficient)
 Arrangements for autonomous operation or

cooperation with the local electricity grid are
required.
Emissions
 Particles (soot), unburnt hydrocarbons, SO2 (arising from the Sulphur content
of the fuel), NOx (arising from high-temperature combustion in air).
 These pollutants can be reduced by careful control of the combustion process,

and by treatment of exhaust gases by chemical action or filtration. Such
processes have a significant economic implication.
 CO2 emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels for electricity production
can be characterised as follows.
Fuel CO2 emission

(kg/kWh)
Coal 0.9
Oil 0.7
Natural Gas 0.2
 It is often asserted that biofuels can be used in a sustainable manner (i.e. by

replanting as consumed) so that the net emissions of CO2 will be zero. However,
production typically uses more energy than is delivered and arable land is displaced.

Carbon capture and storage
 Technical and economic viability unknown.
 Estimates for a coal fired plant:

 80-90% CO2 emission reduction;
 25-40% increase in fuel needs to capture
and compress CO2;
 cost of energy increased by 21-91% (for
new plant with nearby storage,
otherwise greater).
 CO2 storage in deep geological formations

(most promising), in deep ocean masses, or
in the form of mineral carbonates.
 North America has enough storage capacity

at its current rate of production for more
than 900 years worth of CO2.

Outlook for fossil fuels
 Use still growing
 New reserves being discovered
 New areas opened up for exploration (Artic, Antarctic)
 Pressure to reduce use – environmental and health
- New carbon taxes emerging around the world
- Pressure to improve air quality (transport and

power generation)
- Electrification of passenger vehicles by 2030-40 in

UK
 Currently 80% of current energy use – can this gap be

filled? Smokestack and smog, Changchun.
Image: AFP
 Can (some) environmental impact be mitigated and use
extended
Recap
 Majority of worlds energy from fossil
fuel
 Strongly linked to economic

development
 Significant reserves + new reserves

being discovered
 Unconventional reserves
 Environmental impacts
 Efficiency limited by thermodynamics

– gas more efficient power cycle than
coal
 Combined heat and power Grangemouth. Image: Kirsty Smith

 Extension of use through CCS?
Nuclear power
Torness power station.
 Nuclear power accounts for ~6% Image: Telegraph
of world electricity production
 ~20% of UK electricity production

from 15 reactors
 In France >70% of electricity is

supplied from 58 nuclear reactors
 Britain has an ageing fleet of

Advanced Gas Cooled reactors
(inc. Hunterston B and Torness) in
Scotland that will need to be
replaced by the mid 2020’s
 Hunterston B will close 2021-22

PWR Reactor refuelling. Image: First Energy
ME922/927 Nuclear 24
Nuclear power in Europe
 The number of
operational commercial
reactors is shown for
each country.
 Nuclear-free countries
are indicated in white.
 Under construction: UK
1, Finland 1; France 1;
Russia 11; Slovak
Republic 2; Ukraine 2.
Total capacity: ~164 GWe
Nuclear power world-wide
 Peak output in 2006.
 Fukushima disaster (2011) had a dramatic impact on output.
 Growth in Asia, rest of the world static.
New UK nuclear power
The fission process
 The production of electricity by nuclear

fission.
 The impact of a neutron with a U235

nucleus causes the fission process, from
which come fission products, more
neutrons and heat.
 A single fission event produces 100 million

times more energy that a single photon
event in a PV cell.
 10 tonnes of fuel (0.5 m3) produces 400

Billion kWh of energy with no GHG
emissions.
 In the recent past about 50% of Scotland’s

electricity was derived from nuclear
power.
Nuclear fuel cycle
 Spent fuel elements
require short-term storage Uranium mining
to cool them down before
handling. Enrichment plant
Depleted U235
 Spent fuel re-processing: Fuel element Pu239

fabrication
 better use of limited
uranium resources; Depleted Uranium
Power station ‘tails’
 transportation of
Irradiated fuel
nuclear materials reprocessing Store
greatly increased.
Fission products
Fission product
Store from re-processing
 Some materials remain storage
plant or power
dangerous for very long station
periods and must be kept Glassification Encapsulation
away from the biosphere.

Final disposal
 How do we do this, and
where do we put them?
Commercial reactor setup
 Two-stage
cooling with Biological
Charge shield
heat exchanger. machine
Steam
 Conventional turbine
steam turbine
power plant Core
within the
second stage. Heat
exchanger
Feed Condenser
Coolant heater
pump
Pressure vessel
Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR)
 Water is used as
both moderator
and coolant, with 290°C
the water in the 330°C 73 bar 1300 MW
core in liquid form
at about 150 bar,
330°C.
 Note the disparity
between power
295°C 232°C
produced in the
core and the
electrical power Core power
3800 MW
output; reactor
efficiency is
around 35%.
Older UK reactors
 UK has traditionally
specialised in gas-cooled
reactors, with the early
Magnox design followed
by the advanced gas-
cooled reactor (e.g.
Hunterston A and B,
respectively).
 Both types used graphite

as the moderator and CO2
as the coolant at about 25
bar, 370°C (Magnox) and
40 bar, 650°C (AGR).
 Thermal efficiencies were

about 32% and 41%
respectively.
Breeder reactors
 Fast breeder reactors (FBR) are initially
charged with plutonium, thereafter
requiring only natural (or depleted)
uranium as input to its fuel cycle.
 Can burn almost all of its fuel while
generating less waste than a normal reactor
(which consumes less than 1% of its
uranium fuel).
 Generate more fissile material than it
consumes.
 Can use thorium, which is more abundant Superphénix in France (1984-1998), at
than uranium. 1200 MWe, the largest FBR yet built.
 Some have argued that without breeder
reactors supplying fuel for more numerous
thermal power plants, nuclear power will
remain a relatively small contributor to our
energy needs.
Dounreay Fast Breeder Reactor (1957 – 1994)
• 1 Fissile Pu-239 core
• 2 Control rods
• 3 U-238 Breeder blanket
• 4 Primary NaK coolant
loop
• 5 Secondary NaK coolant
loop
• 6 Secondary NaK
circulator
• 7 Secondary heat
exchanger
• 8 Primary heat
exchanger
• 9 Primary NaK circulator
• 10 Boronised graphite
neutron shield
• 11 Radiation shield
Chernobyl
 RBMK (Reactor Bolshoy Moshchnosty
Kanalny) pressurised, water-cooled
reactor with individual fuel channels.
 Unusual design, combination of
graphite moderator and water
coolant.
 April 26 1986 failed safety experiment
caused and explosion and fire and
exposure of the core to the
environment
 Resulted in 31 deaths in the
immediate aftermath.
 Estimates of total deaths over time
range from 4,000-16,000.
 Reactor now encased in concrete.
 Major modifications have been made
to the 15 RBMK reactors still in
operation.
Fukushima
 Disabled by a magnitude 9
earthquake and 15 m
tsunami on 11 March 2011.
 Pumps and backup inundated
by the tsunami
 3 reactor cores suffered melt-
down.
 20,000 people killed by the
natural disaster, no
immediate fatalities at the
reactor site.
 Plant decommissioned with a
clean-up bill ~$50 billion.
Challenges
 Primary waste is spent uranium fuel rods.
 Entire US inventory generated over the past 50 years weights

59,000 tonnes corresponding to a volume of 3,375 m3 (i.e. a
cube with 15 m side). No long term storage solution.
 High capital cost and long lead in times.
 Cost of nuclear $/kWh is now >> wind power.
 Uranium is a non-renewable resource:

• ~7.5 million tonnes economically minable (~100 years
worth);
• increases to ~460 years with widespread spent fuel
reprocessing;
• or ~30,000 years if breeder reactors were used to
create more radioactive fuel;
• seawater contains 4.5 billion tonnes of dissolved
uranium (~60,000 years worth);
• minable thorium (used breeder reactors to produce
uranium) has reserves estimated at 5.9 million tonnes.
Nuclear fusion
 Abundant fuel supply (sea water).
 1g equivalent to 45 barrels of oil.
 Little radioactive waste.
 Temperatures >107 K required.
 ITER reactor in France will cost

upwards of $50 Billion
 … will not produce electricity

ITER fusion reactor design. Image: Iter.
 Design: 50MW in > 500MW
(thermal out)
 Commercial by 22nd century?

Recap
 Nuclear power around the

world
 Nuclear fission
 The nuclear fuel cycle
 Reactor setups – PWR, AGR,

breeder reactors
 Chernobyl and Fukushima
 Challenges for expanding

nuclear
The sun, currently our only viable fusion
 Fusion reactor. Image: NASA
Energy resources and Policy
Handout:
Nuclear power
1. Basic principles
Uranium exists most commonly in the stable isotope U238, but naturally-occurring uranium deposits
contain a small amount of the less stable U235 (about 0.7%). If a U235 nucleus is struck by a neutron, it
may split (nuclear fission) with the release of energy in the form of heat. The process emits further
neutrons, 2 or 3 on average, which are then available to collide with further U235 nuclei. The
possibility of a chain reaction therefore arises.
Fission
nuclei
Nuclear
Uranium - 235 Uranium - 235 fission
nucleus + extra neutron
Neutrons
From
fission
AT
To sustain a chain reaction in natural uranium is difficult, as the U235 nuclei are thinly spread; it can be
achieved if a moderator is used to slow down the free neutrons, making them less likely to be captured
by the abundant U238 nuclei. Common moderating substances are water, heavy water (deuterium) and
graphite. A better performance is achieved if the fuel is enriched to increase the proportion of U235: a
fairly lengthy and energy-intensive process. Packages of enriched fuel, normally in the form of
cylindrical rods, are then manufactured for use in power stations.
With 2 to 4% of U235 in the mixture a chain reaction is easily sustained, but over a period of time the
number of fissionable nuclei diminishes and the fuel becomes depleted. Eventually it must be
removed and replaced with new fuel elements. The depleted fuel still contains substantial amounts of
U235 and also some plutonium Pu239, so the fuel can be re-processed and the fissionable contents
returned to the fuel production cycle.
If a more heavily enriched fuel is used from the start, the reaction may produce a large number of
fissionable plutonium nuclei. If the rate of production exceeds the rate of consumption of the U235, we
have a breeder reactor.
In any reactor, the reactivity is adjusted by control rods of a neutron-absorbing substance such as
boron; lowering these rods into the core reduces the activity. The heat from the core is absorbed by a
coolant and eventually generates steam for turbo-generators, similar to those in coal-burning power
plant. For all thermal energy conversion the efficiency of the process depends upon the temperatures
used. The theoretical maximum is the Carnot efficiency, given by
T2
1 −
T1
where T1 is the temperature at which heat is absorbed and T2 is the temperature at which heat is
rejected to the surroundings (in degrees absolute). There is clearly an advantage in supplying heat at
the highest possible value of T1. But high temperatures place stresses on materials with implications
for reliability and safety, so a compromise must be reached. For good reasons, nuclear reactors are
designed with quite moderate values of T1 and so have a fairly low thermal efficiency.
2. Conventional thermal reactors
The most common configuration is the pressurised water reactor (PWR), developed originally in the
USA for the propulsion of submarines. Water is used as both moderator and coolant, with the water in
the core in liquid form at about 150 bar, 330°C, enclosed in a steel pressure vessel. Boiling water
reactors have also appeared: a UK variant used heavy water as the moderator, while the Russian
RBMK used graphite. Thermal efficiencies for these reactors are around 35%.
Typical pressurised water reactor
The Canadians developed a unique design using heavy water as both moderator and coolant. The UK
has traditionally specialised in gas-cooled reactors, with the early Magnox design followed by the
advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR: e.g. Hunterston A and B, respectively). Both types used graphite
as the moderator and CO2 as the coolant at about 25 bar, 370°C (Magnox) and 40 bar, 650°C (AGR).
Thermal efficiencies were about 32% and 41% respectively.
Recent renewed interest in nuclear power technology has resulted in a number of novel designs
offering improved efficiency and safety.
3. Breeder reactors
Thermal reactors convert a little U238 into fissionable plutonium, but overall no more than 2% of the
natural uranium resource is utilised – and this resource is decidedly limited. Breeder reactors promise
a much more efficient exploitation of uranium, and have been the subject of research and development
in the UK, USA, France, Japan and the former Soviet Union. They require an initial charge of highly
enriched fuel (25 to 50% of U235), and therefore have a very high power density. Good heat transfer to
the coolant is essential, so liquid metal (sodium) is commonly used. There is no moderator and the
core is surrounded by a ‘blanket’ of natural uranium (largely U238) in which new plutonium fuel is
‘bred’. The sodium coolant can approach 600°C but is at ambient pressure.
Technical difficulties and poor performance have hampered development so far (the UK has
abandoned work on breeders altogether). But some say that without a stock of breeder reactors,
supplying fuel for more numerous thermal power plants, nuclear power will remain a relatively small
contributor to our energy needs.
4. The fuel cycle
Processes involved in the use of conventional thermal reactors are shown in the diagram. Mining and
separation yields the ore U3O8 (yellowcake). Releases of radon gas can be a hazard to workers at this
stage.
Re-processing makes more efficient use of the fuel and is potentially profitable, but poses some
environmental risks. The USA does not re-process its fuel; the UK does, and performs this service for
some other nations as well. If breeder reactors were widely used, there would be transportation of
large extra quantities of plutonium for use in thermal reactors, bringing increased environmental
concerns.
Components of Fast Reactor
prototype at Dounreay,
Scotland:
1. core
2. blanket & reflector
3. neutron shield
4. sodium filled stainless
steel reactor vessel
5. primary heat
exchanger
6. primary sodium pump
7. control rods
8. argon gas above
sodium in reactor
vessel
9. secondary sodium
pipes to and from
steam generator
10. refuelling machine
Storage of high-level waste is presently closely monitored in sites above ground; vitrification and deep
burial remains the preferred final method. Selection of sites for deep burial is understandably
problematic!
5. Isotopes
The radio-activity of unstable isotopes is indicated by their half-life: the period over which the activity
declines by 50%. A variety of such isotopes is produced in the fission process. Very short half-lives
pose little threat as the isotope will largely decay before it can reach the environment. Very long ones
suggest a material which is fairly inactive. Such substances offer no immediate threat and may be
handled safely if care is taken. The problem arises if they are ingested, either directly or through the
food chain.
Isotope Half-life Comment

Iodine 137 23 seconds
Bromine 87 1 minute
Iodine 131 8 days Concentrates in milk, causes thyroid cancer
Strontium 90 28 years Enters food chain, lodges in bones
Caesium 137 30 years Concentrated by marine creatures
Carbon 14 5800 years Basis of ‘carbon dating’
Plutonium 239 24000 years Considered highly toxic if inhaled as dust
6. Significant accidents
1957 Windscale (now re-named Sellafield). Fire resulting in

emission of iodine isotopes. Some contamination of
agricultural land and milk supplies.
1979 Three Mile Island, near Harrisburg, USA. Destruction of

Pressurised Water Reactor by interruption of cooling
supply to core. Minor radioactive release, no injuries.
Brought development of nuclear power in USA to a halt
for over 20 years.
1986 Chernobyl, near Kiev, USSR. Explosion and fire in

RBMK reactor. Massive release of radioactive material,
around 30 immediate fatalities, many more early deaths
from contamination. More than 100 000 people
evacuated from the region. Pollution of large area of
Western Europe.
A number of other significant accidents and releases of radioactive material are now known to have
occurred within the former Soviet Union, but details were kept secret at the time.
7. De-commissioning
Commercial nuclear reactors have a maximum working life of 30 to 40 years, after which they are shut
down and dismantled. The primary heat-producing circuit through the reactor core remains highly
radio-active for some time; expert opinion presently indicates that it may not be approached safely for
at least 100 years. The site must therefore be securely maintained for this period, until final
demolition is possible.
De-commissioning and the management of high-level waste products are major concerns for the future
of nuclear power. Each has security implications, and each is a significant factor in overall costs. The
present uncertainty over costs for de-commissioning and waste management makes meaningful
comparisons with other energy technologies difficult, and is deterring private investment.
8. Now and the future
Attitudes to nuclear power vary greatly around the world. In Europe, a number of countries with
substantial nuclear capacity (Germany, Spain, Sweden) have bowed to public opinion and halted their
development programmes. The UK remains undecided. France by contrast produces nearly 80% of
its electricity from nuclear sources and intends to continue in the future. The map below shows the
number of commercial nuclear reactors presently operating in European countries.
World-wide, there are 435 commercial nuclear reactors with 370 GW total capacity, presently
producing about 16% of the world’s electricity. S. Korea and Japan already have substantial capacity
and plan to maintain or expand this. Significant expansion is expected in China and India.
The diagram below shows the percentage of electrical power produced from nuclear sources, for all
countries where nuclear reactors are installed (the area of the bars in the chart gives an idea of the total
installed nuclear capacity in each country).
9. Fusion
All of the above relates to nuclear fission. Fusion is the thermo-nuclear process which occurs deep
within the Sun and other stars. For creation in a controlled environment, the most promising reaction
seems to be the fusing of deuterium and tritium isotopes of hydrogen to form helium nuclei. Very
high temperatures (about 108 °C) are required for initiation. The basic fuel is abundant and cheap, and
emissions are likely to be much less harmful than in fission processes. But so far, despite great efforts
by the scientific and engineering community, progress has been frustratingly slow. At the moment we
have only one operating fusion reactor at our disposal, and that is 150.106 km away!
1
Ivanpah solar power plant, USA. Image: Google.

Solar Energy
Solar Energy in Context
numbers in Terrawatt-
years TWy
Source: http://asrc.albany.edu/people/faculty/perez/2015/IEA.pdf 2
ME922/927 Solar energy
Installed Solar Electricity Capacity
Source: https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/solar-photovoltaics-deployment
3
Solar Contribution to Electricity - UK
Solar
Source: gridcarbon app. - http://www.gridcarbon.uk

4
The Sun
 Core temperature 8x106 to 40x106 K.

 Effective black body temperature is
6000 K.
 Solar constant: extra terrestrial flux
from the sun received on a unit area
perpendicular to the direction of
propagation – mean Sun/Earth
distance value is 1353 W/m2.
 Actual extra terrestial radiation
varies with time of year as earth-sun
distance varies.
ME922/927 Solar energy 5

Energy from the sun
Incoming
Longwave solar energy Reflected shortwave
radiation to space 175 . 1015 W radiation
122.5 . 1015 W 52.5 . 1015 W
Atmospheric boundary
Convection currents (wind and

ocean waves)
368 . 1012 W
Tidal energy
3 . 1012 W
Evaporation of water, heating
Geothermal of water & ice
energy 40 . 1015 W
32 . 1012 W
Photosynthesis on land and
sea
Earth’s surface 98 . 1012 W
Formation of fossil fuels Direct conversion to heat

13 . 106 W 82 . 1015 W

Solar spectrum
NASA/ASTM Standard Spectral Irradiance
Wavelength (μm)
0 - 0.38 0.38 – 0.78 > 0.78

(visible range)
Fraction in range 0.07 0.47 0.46
Energy in range (W/m2) 95 640 618

Atmospheric interactions
 The greater the distance
that the radiation passes
through the atmosphere,
the greater is the
frequency dependent
scattering. Spectra at
ground level are often
referred to particular ‘air
masses’.
 Air Mass 1 is the thickness
of the atmosphere
vertically above sea level.
 Air Mass 2 is double this
2
thickness (equivalent to 1
Atmosphere
direct solar radiation at an
altitude of 30 degrees). 30°

Major solar energy resources
Image: global solar atlas

Direct and diffuse radiation
 Solar radiation reaches a surface

On very clear
on Earth as
days around 90%
• direct (from the Sun),
of the total solar
• and diffuse radiation after
radiation is direct.
scattering in the
atmosphere and as
radiation reflected from
surrounding objects.
• ground reflected solar.
On heavily
 The total radiation reaching a overcast days
surface (the solar resource) is 100% of the solar
the summation of the three radiation is
components. diffuse & ground
reflected.

Direct and diffuse radiation
 Direct radiation has a intensity

and direction – resource can be
calculated geometrically –
• dependent on: position on
earth’s surface, position of
the sun/earth (time-
dependent) + surface
geometry.
 Direct radiation can be focused –
diffuse radiation can’t.
 Diffuse radiation has random
direction – typically use  Technologies such as non-
geometric/empirical “sky concentrating PV and solar thermal
models” to determine resource. work in direct or diffuse.

Solar resource – calculations
 If we want to calculate the  Dependent on:

power output of a solar panel  Latitude & Longitude
or other solar conversion  Solar declination
technology – need to
calculate the solar resource.  Solar “time”
 Calculation usually relies on  Solar altitude
measured solar data.  Solar azimuth
 Then transformed to give  Surface orientation
solar radiation falling on  Surface tilt
surface of specific orientation  Surroundings
of inclination – direct, diffuse
and reflected treated
differently.

Solar radiation measurement
 Pyranometer measures the total solar
irradiance on a planar surface.
 Pyrheliometer measures direct beam solar

radiation by tracking the sun’s position
throughout the day.

Solar radiation measurement
 Shaded pyranometer measures diffuse
solar irradiance on a (usually horizontal)
surface.
 The shade blocks direct radiation and

some diffuse radiation (so need to adjust
readings).
 Integrated pyranometer measures both

total and diffuse radiation on a (usually
horizontal) surface.
 Diffuse is calculated based on shading

patterns from internal shades

Solar Resource – quantities (all W/m2)
}
Idn - direct normal or “beam” (pyrheliometer)
Idh - direct horizontal Idh = Idnsinβs known
Ifh - diffuse horizontal (pyranometer with shadow band)
Igh - global horizontal (pyranometer or solarimeter)
rg - ground reflectivity (albedo)
Idβ - direct radiation on a surface of inclination βf

Isβ - sky diffuse radiation incident on a surface of inclination βf
Irβ - ground reflected radiation incident on a surface of inclination βf
} unknown
Igh = Idh +Ifh

Idn Igh = Idn sin βs + Ifh
Solar Altitude, βs
Idh
Solar data for simulation:
either: Igh and Ifh or Idn and Ifh
Idh = Idn sin βs
Position on earth
 latitude - angle N or S
above or below equator.
 longitude – angle E or W
from prime meridian
(Greenwich).
 Longitude difference –
angle from location to
local time zone reference
meridian (west –ve).

Solar resource–- Earth’s
Declination solar declination
relative tilt
21 December
21 March
summer S
hemisphere
21 June
30
summer N 21 September
hemisphere 20
10
Declination
0
-35 65 165 265 365
-10
-20
-30
Day of the year
17
Solar time
ts = tm ± Ldiff/15 + (et/60) + ds
where,
ts = solar time (h)
tm = local time (h)
Ldiff = longitude difference (W –ve, E +ve)
et = equation of time
ds = daylight saving time

Solar geometry
Declination
d = 23.45 sin (280.1 + 0.9863 Y)
where Y = year day number (January 1 =1,
December 31 = 365)
Altitude
βs = sin-1 [cos L cos d cos θh + sin L sin d ]
where L is site latitude
θh is hour angle = 15 (12 – ts)
Azimuth
αs = sin-1 [ cos d sin θh / cos βs ]
Incidence angle
iβ = cos-1[ sin βs cos (90-βf) + cos βs cos ω sin (90-βf)]
where ω = azimuth angle between sun and surface normal;
βf = surface inclination angle
Solar resource – surface-solar angles
solar
beam
surface N
normal
ψ
βf
cross section βs
surface inclined at angle plan view
βf (vertical = 0o)
solar
αs αf
beam
surface 3-D view

normal iβ
ω surface
normal
solar
beam
S S
αf βf

Solar radiation - calculation
Angle of incidence:
i β  cos -1 sin  s cos(90   f )  cos  s cos  sin(90   f ) 
iβ - angle between the
Direct irradiance on surface of inclination βf: incident beam and the
surface normal vector
Idβ = Idh cos iβ / sin βs= Idn cos iβ
ω - surface-solar azimuth
(= |αs − αf|)
αf, βf - surface azimuth and
Diffuse component: Isβ = 0.5 [1+ cos (90 - βf)] Ifh
inclination respectively
assuming an isotropic diffuse sky αs, βs - solar azimuth and
Ground reflected: Irβ = 0.5 [1- cos (90 – βf)] (Idh + Ifh ) rg elevation respectively
where rg is the ground reflectance
In practice the sky is not isotropic and so empirically-based models

that correct for circumsolar and horizon brightening are employed:
sky component: 1  cos(90  β )    I 2  
   β sin 3  f 
I sβ  I fh  f
  1  1   fh
 I 2   
 2   
  gh   2  
   I 2 fh  

 1  1   2  cos 2 (i β )sin 3 90  β s 
   I  
   gh  
Solar angle tables (altitude & azimuth)
22
Solar tables (Idv, Idh & Ifh)
23
Concentrating solar power plant
 World's first commercial concentrated solar
power plant at Seville, Spain (opened
March 2007).
 74,880 m2 moveable mirrors (heliostats)

track and focus the sun's rays to a single
solar receiver at the top of a 115 m tower.
 Receiver temperature of 250°C turns water

into steam to drive a turbine/generator
located in the tower.
 Pressurised water storage of ~50min

generating capacity to overcome cloud
transients
 Peak capacity of 11 MW - sufficient to

generate 23 million kWh of electricity per
year powering 6,000 homes.
Solar thermal concentrator
 Stores molten salt solution at 570°C.

 Heat exchanger generates steam for conventional turbo-generator to produce
electricity.
 Storage permits generation to match consumer demand. Continuous operation, day
and night (at reduced output level) is feasible.
Concentrating solar power plant
Ivanpah solar power plant, Mojave Desert California – 392 MW, 173,500 heliostats
Photovoltaics (PV)
• convert solar radiation to electricity

• make use of the ‘photoelectric’
Photovoltaics
effect where a photon striking an
atom in a semiconductor material
can liberate an electron
• the liberated electrons flow into an
external circuit – giving rise to an
electric current
• relatively low efficiency process
4%-25%, with typical efficiencies
of 15% (first solar cell had an
efficiency of 6%)
• efficiency dependent on many
factors but primarily the material
and construction of the
photovoltaic device PV solar cells – image: unknown

PV Physics
• on absorption of a photon an electron can

be knocked out of its stable energy level
(valence band) and ‘promoted’ to a higher
energy level (conduction band)
• this process behind a ‘hole’
• electric current is a flow of electons and
corresponding holes
• the ‘bandgap’ energy is the energy
between valence and conduction energy
levels
• only photons with and energy level greater
than the band gap energy e.g. can create
an electron-hole pair
• fundamental limitation on PV efficiency

PV Physics
• The energy of a photon was related to its frequency:
• so only a fraction of the incoming solar radiation can be used by

the cell!
• additionally each photon with above band gap energy creates
only one electron-hole pair so if the photon energy is greater
than the bandgap energy the excess is dissipated as heat

PV cell efficiency
𝐸𝑔 𝐸𝑔
𝑣≥ 𝑣<
 Limiting ℎ ℎ
efficiency for
single junction excess photon photon has not enough
solar cell – energy energy to promote
33.7%. dissipated as electron into conduction
Shockley- heat band
Quiesser limit.

PV Physics
• under normal circumstances

holes and electrons would
quickly re-combine leading to
no net flow of current
• need a special material with
properties that promotes the
flow of current and prevents
recombination
• this is the basis of the
photovoltaic or PV cell

P-N Material
• PV cell is essentially a
component consisting of two
dissimilar semiconducting
materials
• p-type (electron deficit) n-type
(electron surplus)
• doping silicon with different
impurities creates a material
with p and n regions
• in this lecture we concentrate
on silicon but be aware that
other materials can be used

P-N Material
• Silicon has 4 electrons in its

outer shell
• doped with a material with 3
outer shell electrons such as
Boron we create a p-
material +ve charge
• doped with a material with 5
outer shell electrons we
create n-type material –ve
charge
• doping with both creates a
material with neighbouring
regions on p and n material
are known as p-n junctions

P-N Junction
• in the p-n junction the

neighbouring regions of p
and n material create a
strong reverse electric field
• electrons from the n side
are pulled to the p-side
• creates region of negative
charge on the p-side and
positive charge on the n-
side
• this opposes further
migration of electrons

P-N Junction
• under the influence of the

reverse electric field
electrons liberated by
photon action in the p-n
junction move into the n-
region where there are less
holes with which to re-
combine
• similarly holes are swept
into the p-region where
there are less conducting
electrons
• p-n junction acts as a filter
for electrons and holes and
reduces re-combination

PV Cell
• adding metal contacts to the silicon enables the

• liberated electrons and holes to flow round an external
circuit

Cells and Panels
• the combination of doped

silicon and metal contacts
form the PV cell
• cells are usually combined

together along with a glass
cover, substrate and power
circuitry to form a solar panel
• panels are linked together to
form arrays

Power point tracking
• to maintain the operation of the

cell at the optimum point requires
power electronics – maximum
power point tracking
• optimises the power yield from the

PV as Itot and T vary with time
• without power point tracking the

performance of PV could be far
from optimum!

Photovoltaic cell types
 Monocrystalline silicon grown from a seed

crystal: efficient but expensive.
 Polycrystalline silicon made from grains of

monocrystalline silicon: less efficient but
cheaper.
 Amorphous silicon thin film: less efficient but

relatively cheap.
 Next generation based on conductive organic

polymers: ~8% efficient, very cheap, high
Bi-facial solar modules, image:
optical absorption coefficient so a large unknown.
amount of light can be absorbed by a small
amount of material; low strength compared to
inorganic photovoltaic cells.
 Bi-facial cells – absorbing sky and ground

reflected radiation
Photovoltaic
PV cell efficiencycell efficiencies

PV Model
• a simple equation to model PV

performance is:
total incident solar number of panels
Pmp  PSTC
I tot
1   [T  25] p
1000
power at test conditions operating temperature
power (W)
loss coefficient

Photovoltaic
PV power outputcell example
A simple model: Pmp  PSTC

J tot
1   [  25] p
1000
Example 1 Example 1
Calculate the power output from a PV For the same situation calculate the
panel at 60°C with 840 W/m2 incident power output if the temperature was
solar radiation if the same panel 30°C. β is again measured at 0.003 W/K
produces 150 W at STC (1000W/m2 &
25°C). β is measured at 0.003 W/K
Pmp  PSTC
J tot
1   [  25] p Pmp  PSTC
J tot
1   [  25] p
1000 1000
P  150 
840
1  0.003  (60  25) P  150 
840
1  0.003  (30  25)
1000 1000
 112.8 W  124.1 W
Recap
• Earth’s solar resource in context

• Growth of solar PV in UK
• Solar resource
– Solar radiation characteristics and measurement
– Solar resource calculations
• Solar thermal power plant
• Photovoltaics (PV)
– PV physics
– PV materials
– PV cell types
Handout:
Solar power
1. Short-wave radiation
Figure 1 shows the spectral composition of the electromagnetic energy emitted by the sun. This
range of wavelengths is known as the solar spectrum, which in practical terms extends from about
0.29 µm (1 µm = 10-6 meters) in the longer wavelengths of the ultraviolet region, through the
visible region (0.4 to 0.8 µm), to about 3.2 µm in the far infrared. The majority of the solar
energy comes from the visible and infrared parts of the spectrum in the form of light and heat
respectively.
Figure 1: The solar spectrum.
To determine the terrestrial irradiance (W/m2), the extraterrestrial solar radiation intensity may be
modified to account for the effects of atmospheric transmission. As the radiation traverses the
atmosphere, scattering and absorption occurs due to the natural and anthropogenic related
presence of gases, aerosols and pollutants. The result is that some portion of the incoming solar
irradiance is lost, while the remaining portion comprises direct and diffuse components. The
direct and diffuse irradiance, whether synthesised or measured, is used in the determination of the
insolation of exposed surfaces, such as external surfaces on buildings.
2. Object interaction
Figure 2 details the interactions between a building and the incident direct and diffuse solar
radiation. The short-wave flux incident on external opaque surfaces will be partially absorbed and
partially reflected, while some portion of the absorbed component may be transmitted to the
corresponding interior surface, by conduction, to elevate the inside surface temperature and so
enter the building via surface convection and longwave radiation exchange. Likewise, a portion
of the absorbed component will cause outside surface temperature elevation and so give rise to a
re-release of energy to ambient. If a multi-layered construction is opaque overall but has
transparent elements located towards its outermost surface, some portion of the incident direct
and diffuse radiation will also be transmitted inward until it strikes the intra-constructional
opaque interface. Here, absorption and reflection will again occur, the latter giving rise to further
absorptions and interface reflections as the flux travels outwards; the process continuing,
essentially instantaneously, until the incident flux has been redistributed.
With windows, the direct and diffuse shortwave flux is reflected, absorbed and transmitted at
each interface with the internally absorbed component being transmitted inward and outward by
the processes of conduction, convection and long-wave radiation exchange. The transmitted
direct beam continues onward to cause internal surface insolation as a function of the zone
geometry. The subsequent treatment of this incident flux will depend on the nature of the
receiving surface(s): absorption and reflection for an opaque surface, or absorption, reflection and
transmission (to another zone or back to outside) in the case of a transparent surface. If the
internal surface is a specular reflector then the reflected beam's onward path may be tracked by
some suitable technique until diminished to insignificance. If the zone surface is a diffuse
reflector then the apportioning of the reflected flux to other internal surfaces may be determined
by weighting factors derived from the zone view factors. The same technique may be applied to
the transmitted diffuse beam.
A reflected short-wave flux;
B flux emission by convection and
long-wave radiation;
C short-wave flux transmission
causing opaque surface insolation;
D short-wave transmission causing
transparent surface insolation;
E short-wave transmission to adjacent
zone;
F enclosure reflections;
G short-wave loss;
H solar energy penetration by transient
conduction;
I solar energy absorption prior to
retransmission by B.
Figure 2: Building-solar interaction.
The causal effect of these short-wave processes is then represented by the energy conservation
equations, given that the short-wave flux injection at appropriate finite volumes can be
established at each computational time-row. The requirement therefore is to establish the time-
series of shortwave flux injection for finite volumes representing external opaque and transparent
surfaces, intra-constructional elements, where these are part of a transparent multi-layered
construction, and internal opaque and transparent surfaces.
3. Solar position
As shown in figure 3, the position of the sun
may be represented in terms of altitude and
azimuth angles that depend on site latitude, solar
declination and local solar time.
The solar declination, d, may be determined

from
d = 23.45 sin(280.1 + 0.9863Y)
where Y is the year day number (January 1 = 1,

February 1 = 32 etc.).
The solar altitude is then obtained from

βs = sin-1 [cos L cos d cos θh + sin L sin d]
Figure 3: Solar angles.

where βs is the solar altitude, L the site latitude (North +ve) and θh the hour angle, which is the
angular expression of solar time and is positive for times before solar noon and negative for times
thereafter:
θh = 15 (12 - ts )
where ts is the solar time (or local apparent time). This is a time scale which relates to the
apparent angular motion of the sun across the sky vault, with solar noon corresponding to the
point in time at which the sun traverses the meridian of the observer. Note that solar time does not
necessarily coincide with local mean (or clock) time, t m, with the difference given by
ts - tm = (± 4L + et)/60 + δ
where L is the longitude difference (°), et the equation of time (minutes) and δ a possible
correction for daylight saving (hours). The longitude difference is the difference between an
observer's actual longitude and the longitude of the mean or reference meridian for the local time
zone. The difference is negative for locations to the West of the reference meridian and positive
to the East.
For the UK, the reference meridian is at 0° and local mean time is known as Greenwich Mean
Time (GMT). For this case the previous equation becomes
ts = GMT ± L/15 + et/60 + δ
where l’ is the actual longitude of the observer. The equation of time makes allowance for the
observed disturbances to the earth's rate of rotation:
et = 9.87 sin(1.978Y - 160.22) - 7.53 cos(0.989Y - 80.11) - 1.5 sin(0.989Y - 80.11).
The solar azimuth is given by
αs = sin-1 [cos d sin θh / cos βs ].
The angle of incidence of the direct beam, iβ, may be found from
iβ = cos-1 [sin βs cos(90 - βf) + cos βs cos ω sin(90 - βf)]
where ω is the surface-solar azimuth (= |αs - αf |) and αf & βf are the surface azimuth and elevation
respectively. Note that negative values of cos iβ imply that the surface in question faces away
from the sun and is therefore not directly insolated.
4. Inclined surface irradiation

The total radiation incident on an exposed opaque or transparent surface of inclination β f and
azimuth αf has three components: direct, surroundings-reflected and sky diffuse.
The direct irradiance is relatively straightforward to determine since it involves only angular
operations on the known direct horizontal irradiance:
Idβ = Idh cos iβ/sin βs
where Idβ is the direct intensity on the inclined surface and Idh is the direct horizontal
intensity (both W/m2).
Alternatively, if the solar direct beam radiation (Idn) is measured, them the direct irradiance on the
inclined surface is given by:
Idβ = Idn cos iβ
The surroundings-reflected component comprises short-wave reflections from the surfaces of

surrounding buildings and the ground. The former may be estimated as a fraction of the short-
wave flux incident on the corresponding face of the target building. The ground is usually
considered as a, isotropic source (diffuse reflector) and representative view factors are used to
associate portions of the reflected radiation with each building surface. For an unobstructed
vertical surface (βf = 0), the view factor between the surface and the ground, and between the
surface and the sky is in each case 0.5 and so the radiation intensity at the surface due to ground
reflection is given by
Irv = 0.5 (Idh + Ifh)rg
where Ifh is the horizontal diffuse radiation and rg the ground reflectivity. For a surface of non-
vertical inclination, a simple view factor modification is introduced so that
Irβ = 0.5 [1 - cos (90 - βf)]( Idh + Ifh)rg
where Irβ is the ground reflected radiation incident on a surface of inclination β f.
Calculating the sky diffuse component on a surface of inclination βf is more involved because of
the anisotropic nature of the sky radiance distribution. The following approach, one of several
possible models, increases the intensity of the diffuse flux due to circumsolar activity and horizon
brightening:
Isβ = Ifh{0.5[1+cos(90-βf)]}.{1+[1-(Ifh2/Igh2)]sin30.5βf}.{1+[1-(Ifh2/Igh2)]cos2iβ sin3(90-βs)}
where Igh the global horizontal radiation, Idh+Ifh. When the sky is completely overcast, Ifh/gh=1
and the expression reduces to the isotropic sky case.
Isβ =Ifh{0.5[1+cos(90-βf)]} (isotropic sky)
The foregoing equations allow the computation of direct and diffuse shortwave radiation
impinging upon exposed external surfaces. These flux quantities, when multiplied by surface
absorptivity, are the short-wave nodal heat generation terms, qSI, of the nodal energy conservation
equations.
5. Intra-zone short-wave distribution

The above equations permit the calculation of the direct and diffuse irradiance of exposed
building surfaces. For opaque surfaces, irradiance modification by surface absorptivity and
shading factors will give the short-wave heat injection to be applied to surface nodes via the
excitation matrix (C). For a window system, the transmitted portion of the direct beam can be
evaluated from
Qdt = Idh/sin αs[τiβ(1-Pg)Ag.cos iβ]
where Qdt is the transmitted direct beam flux (W), τiβ the overall transmissivity for a given flux
incidence angle, Pg the window shading factor (proportion of 1) and Ag.cos iβ the apparent
window area. If, as is often the case, more than one internal surface will share this transmitted
radiation then any internal surface will receive a heat injection given by
qSi = Qdt Pi Ωi/Ai
where Ωi is the surface absorptivity, Ai the surface area and Pi the proportion of the window direct
beam transmission that strikes the surface in question (proportion of 1).
The first reflected flux is given by
qRi = qSi(1- Ωi)/ Ωi .
The accumulated flux reflections from each surface can now be further processed to give the final
apportioning between all internal surfaces. If the usual assumption of diffuse reflections is made
then apportionment can be decided on the basis of enclosure view factor information as described
in the following section. For the case of specular reflections a recursive ray tracing technique can
be employed.
Where the internal surface is composed of opaque and transparent portions, there will be onward
transmission of incident short-wave flux to a connected zone or back to the outside. This can
have a significant impact within buildings incorporating passive solar features.
The diffuse beam transmission can be determined from
Qft = (Isβ + Irβ)Ag cos 51 τ51
where τ51 is the overall transmissivity corresponding to a 51° incidence angle, representing the
average approach angle for anisotropic sky conditions.
This flux quantity can now be processed by the technique described for the direct beam: internal
surface distribution on the basis of specular or diffuse reflections.
Questions:
Solar power
1. Inclined surface solar irradiance
Using the data tables provided and the information that follows, determine the total solar
irradiation of the given surface.
Latitude: 55°N
Ground reflectivity: 0.25
Date and time: 22 August @ 15:00
Surface azimuth: 180° from N
Sky condition: clear
Surface inclination (βf): 15°
Angle of incidence:
iβ  cos-1 sin  s cos(90   f )  cos  s cos  sin( 90   f )
where βs is the solar altitude, βf the surface inclination, ω = |αf- αs|, αs the solar azimuth, and αf
the surface azimuth.
Surface diffuse irradiance:
 1  cos(90  β f )     I fh  3  β f  
2
Isβ  I fh    1  1   2 sin  
 2     I gh  2  
   I 2 fh  2 
 1  1   2  cos (i β )sin 3 90  β s 
   I gh  
    
where Isβ is the sky diffuse irradiance, I fh the diffuse horizontal irradiance and I gh the global
horizontal irradiance (all in W/m²).
[571 W/m2]
2. PV panel power output
A photovoltaic panel is to be deployed on a building roof, which faces South-West (225o from N)
and has an inclination angle of 45°. Calculate the panel power output using the data tables
provided and under the following conditions:
Latitude: 55°N;
Date and time: 22 April @ 11:00
You may assume the following equations.

where the parameters are as in question 1; and

 1  cos(90  β f )     I fh  3  β f  
2
Isβ  I fh    1  1  sin  
     I gh  2  
2
2
   I 2 fh  2 
 1  1   2  cos (i β )sin 3 90  β s 
   I gh  
    
PV power output: P = 0.13 IT where IT is the total radiation incident on the panel.
[93 W/m2]
Questions:
Solar power
Solutions
1. Inclined surface solar irradiance
Using the data tables provided and the information that follows, determine the total solar
irradiation of the given surface.
Latitude: 55°N
Date and time: 22 August @ 15:00
Surface azimuth: 180° from N
Surface inclination (βf): 15°
Angle of incidence:
where βs is the solar altitude, βf the surface inclination, ω = |αf- αs|, αs the solar azimuth, and αf
the surface azimuth.
Surface diffuse irradiance:
 1  cos(90  β f )     I fh  3  β f  
2
Isβ  I fh    1  1   2 sin  
 2     I gh  2  
   I 2 fh  2 
 1  1   2  cos (i β )sin 3 90  β s 
   I gh  
    
[571 W/m2]
From Table A2.23: solar azimuth, αs = 237º; solar altitude, βs = 34º
Surface inclination, βf = 15º; ω = |180 -237| = 57º; rg = 0.25
2 2
From Table A2.35: Idh = 445 W/m ; Ifh = 80 W/m
Incidence angle
-1
i15 = cos [sin 34 cos (90-15) + cos 34 cos 57 sin (90-15)] = 54.5º
Direct beam
2
Id15 = Idh cos iβ / sin βs = 445 cos 54.5 / sin 34 = 462.1 W/m
Ground reflected
Ir15 = 0.5(1-cos(90-βf))(Idh + Ifh ) rg = 0.5(1-cos(90-15))(445+80)0.25
2
= 48.6 W/m
Sky diffuse
Is15 = Ifh [(1+cos(90-βf))/2]  (1 + [1- (Ifh2/Igh2)]sin3(βf/2))
 (1 + [1- (Ifh2/Igh2)] cos2(iβ) sin3(90-βs))
= 80 [(1 + cos(90-15))/2]  (1 + [1- (802/(80+445)2)] sin3(15/2)))
 (1 + [1- (802/(80+445)2)] cos2(54.5) sin3(90 - 34))

2
80  0.629  1.002  1.188 = 59.9 W/m
Total incident radiation = 462.1 + 48.6 + 59.9 = 570.6 W/m2
2. PV panel power output
A photovoltaic panel is to be deployed on a building roof, which faces South-West and has an
inclination angle of 45°. Calculate the panel power output using the data tables provided and
under the following conditions:
Latitude: 55°N;
Date and time: 22 April @ 11:00
You may assume the following equations.
where the parameters are as in question 1; and

 1  cos(90  β f )     I fh  3  β f  
2
Isβ  I fh    1  1  sin  
     I gh  2  
2
2
   I 2 fh  2 
 1  1   2  cos (i β )sin 3 90  β s 
   I gh  
    
PV power output: P = 0.13 IT where IT is the total radiation incident on the panel.
[93 W/m2]
Table A2.23 gives solar azimuth (z) and altitude (a) angles: z = 159°, βs = 45°
Table A2.35 gives direct (Idh) and diffuse (Ifh) horizontal radiation: Idh = 600
W/m², Ifh = 90 W/m²; Igh = Idh+Ifh = 690 W/m²
By calculation, incidence angle: iβ=45.3°

Incidence angle
-1
i15 = cos [sin 45 cos (90-45) + cos 45 cos (|225-159|) sin (90-45)] = 45.3º
Anisotropic sky diffuse component of the radiation incident on the PV panel:

Isβ = Ifh [(1+cos(90-βf))/2]  (1 + [1- (Ifh2/Igh2)]sin3(βf/2))
 (1 + [1- (Ifh2/Igh2)] cos2(iβ) sin3(90-βs))
= 90 [(1 + cos(90-45))/2]  (1 + [1- (902/(90+600)2)] sin3(45/2)))
 (1 + [1- (902/(90+600)2)] cos2(45.3) sin3(90 - 45))
90  0.853  1.055  1.172 = 94.9
Direct incident radiation:

Idβ = Idh * cos(iβ) / sin(a) = 600* cos(45.3)/sin(45) = 596.8 W/m²
Ground reflected radiation:

Irβ = 0.5*(1-cos(90-β)) (Idh + Ifh)*rg = 0.5*(1-cos(90-45))*(600+90)*0.2
= 20.2 W/m²
Total radiation on the tilted surface: Itβ = Isβ + Irβ + Idβ = 596.8+94.9+20.2
= 711.9 W/m²
PV power output: P = 0.13 * ITβ = 0.13 * 711.9 = 92.5 W/m²

1
Whitelee Wind Farm, Eaglesham. Photo: East Renfrewshire Council

Wind Power
ME922/927 Wind energy
Wind history
 Wind turbines for the production of
electricity is a relatively recent
phenomenon ~120 years
 Wind mills emerged 700 AD
 Wind powered irrigation 1700 BC
 Wind power for sailing 5,500 BC
Wind powered mills, Campo de Cryptana, Spain.

By Lourdes Cardenal
Sail boat carving from

Mesopotamia, 5000 BC
Image: unknown
ME922/927 Wind energy 2

Water pumping
Water pumping remains a

major application for wind
power in remote areas.
Here, a locally assembled,

metal blade turbine pumps
water in Kenya.
A mechanical drive from the

rotor shaft to the vertical
rod which drives the pump.

Wind power growth
 Wind power, along with solar power are
the fastest growing sources of generation
around the world
 Unlike fossil fuels, which are unevenly

distributed, almost all countries have
access to exploitable wind power
4
IEA World Energy Outlook, 2017 (iea.org/weo)

4
Wind resource
 Estimates of global wind energy
potential vary widely 700-900*
PWh (World demand 160 PWh)
 Winds in western Europe tend to
be driven by Atlantic weather
systems. Less predictable.
 In some parts of the world, the
wind is largely due to thermal
effects: it is then fairly
predictable.
 Power = 1/2 × air density × area ×
wind speed3
Sea breeze (day) Land breeze (night)
*NREL, US
European wind resource
 Contours of mean annual wind

speed.
 Blue and red areas have the highest

speeds.
 Scotland is the windiest place in

Europe.
Whitelee Wind Farm, Scotland – UK’s largest with

215 Siemens and Alstom wind turbines and a total
capacity of 539 MW (2017).

Wind turbines
 Wide size variation: from a 1 kW farm-scale machine
to a 8 MW device located off-shore.
 A state-of-the-art 2 MW turbine stands as tall as a 30-

story building and costs £1.5 - £4 million to install.
 With a good wind resource, a 2MW turbine can

produce 5 million kWh of electricity per year, or
enough energy to run 500 average households. Vestas 2 MW wind turbine.
 In Europe, Denmark, Germany, UK and Spain are

leaders in wind power, France, and Italy rising in the
market.
 Legislation such as the UK's Renewables Obligation

and the EU's target for 20% renewable energy by 2020
is aiding the development of wind energy across the
globe.
Vestas 8 MW (@ 25 mph) wind turbine

– 164 m diameter

Wind farm statistics (2018)
UK Wind Energy Database:

https://www.renewableuk.com/page/UKWEDhome (viewed 21/10/19)
Global cumulative and annual offshore wind

 Largest UK onshore: Whitelee @ 539 MW capacity end 2017 (http://gwec.net/global-
figures/graphs/).
 Largest UK offshore: Hornsea 1 @ 1.2 GW
 5 of the 10 largest wind farms in the world are in

the US; the largest wind farm is in China

Scotland installed wind power

10
UK offshore
 As of 2019, the UK has the most
installed capacity.
 Largest wind farm is Hornsea 1

(1.2 GW).
 Largest turbine is 8.8 MW.
 8% of the UK’s electricity was

generated by offshore wind in
2018
 Wind + hydrogen is currently

being investigated by the
Offshore Wind Industry Council
as a grid balancing mechanism.
 Some offshore wind farms Hornsea 1, Image: unknown

already include battery storage.
EU installed wind power
https://windeurope.org/about-
wind/statistics/european/wind-in-power-2017/

Resource assessment
 Wind speed variation at a given site follows a
statistical pattern, which could be
summarised as a Weibull distribution,
showing the probability of occurrence of
various wind speed ranges.
Velocity
www.peetbros.com/images/standardawv.pn
g
Cut-out
Rated
Cut-in
 Data used to plot a velocity exceedance
curve: the number of days in a typical year
0 Time (days) 365
that the wind speed exceeds any particular
value.

Energy assessment
Cut-out
Wind
speed
Rated
Cut-in
 The cut-in, rated and cut-out

wind speeds for the turbine
are marked on the
exceedance diagram.
Equivalent  An equivalent power curve is
Rated
turbine power
power then drawn below.
 The actual power produced
will be zero below cut-in and
Annual above cut-out, and cannot
energy exceed the rated power.
capture
 The shaded area indicates
0 Time (days) 365 the energy captured over a
typical year.
Capacity coefficient (CC)
 Annual average power, Pave, is the power for which

the shaded rectangle has the same area as the
shaded region in the exceedance diagram.
 CC is defined as the ratio of average to rated power.
 CC is influenced by the characteristics of the turbine
and the quality of the site.
 The correct choice of rated wind speed is important.
0 Time, days 365 If the rated wind speed of the turbine is increased:
 the energy captured would increase;
 CC would reduce; and
Pave
 the capital cost of the turbine would rise.
0 Time, days 365

One-dimensional flow through a wind
turbine rotor
 The analysis
Large control volume
originally devised by
Betz applied the
Rotor equations of
conservation of
P1 P2 energy and
momentum to each
V∞ V Ve control volume in
turn.
Small control volume

 The rotor exerts a
retarding force on
the stream and
extracts energy from
it.

Betz limit
Velocity at the rotor plane is
𝑉∞ + 𝑉𝑒
𝑉= .
2 The power coefficient of a wind turbine is
The following substitution is made: defined as
𝑃
V = 𝑉∞(1-a) Cp= ½ρ𝐴𝑉 3
∞
which reaches a maximum when a = 1/3:
where a is the axial reduction 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 16
𝐶𝑝, 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ½ρ𝐴𝑉 = = 0.593
factor. 3
∞
27
=> 𝑉𝑒 = 𝑉∞(1-2a) Actual wind turbines cannot attain this

The power, P, extracted by the rotor value because of:
is then  losses in the drive train and generator;
and
P =2 ρA 𝑉∞3 (𝑎 − 2𝑎2 + 𝑎3)
 energy contained in blade tip vortices
And the maximum power condition and general swirling in the wake,
occurs when dP/da = 0, i.e. when a which are not covered by the Betz
= 1/3. analysis.

Tip speed ratio
 Speed of the blade at its tip
divided by the speed of the wind. 𝑡𝑖𝑝 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒
λ=
𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
 More blades, the slower the
turbine will turn. ωR
=
ν
 If the blade set spins too slowly
then most of the wind will pass
by the rotor without being
captured by the blades.
 If the blades spin too fast, the

blades will always be traveling
through a region that the blade in
front has just travelled through
(and used up the energy in that
location).

Tip speed ratio
 TSR’s are employed when designing

wind turbines so that the maximum
amount of energy can be extracted
from the wind using a particular
generator. TSR: 9-10 for 2 blades; 6-
8 for 3 blades; 4-6 for 4 blades.
 3 bladed designs achieve the

maximum efficiency.
 Fixed speed (frequency) turbines

can be directly connected to a
transmission system but are unable
to maintain maximum power
Image: T Shintake
output. Variable speed turbines can
maintain maximum power output
but cannot be directly connected.
Aerodynamic performance
CP
 Characterised by a plot of the power
coefficient, CP, against the tip speed ratio λ.
 At a any wind speed, the wind (green vector)

 combined with the blade velocity (red) produces
a relative velocity vector (dotted) at an angle of
attack to the blade 𝜃. This determines the blade
𝜃 aerodynamic performance and the value of CP .
 Most large turbines rotate at a constant speed,

dictated by the requirement to match the
frequency of the AC electrical grid
CP  So, if the wind velocity increases, the
magnitude and (more importantly) the
direction of the relative velocity vector
changes. The value of CP changes in
response to the new angle of attack 𝜃′.

Stall regulation
CP
 This is how fixed-geometry wind

turbines are able to limit their power
output in high winds:
 As tip speed ratio falls, CP
declines rapidly so although the
 wind speed is increasing, power
is limited to some maximum
P
rated value.
 This process is termed stall regulation
as the flow over the blades becomes
progressively more stalled as the
wind speed increases.
V

Full-span pitch control
 Most modern large turbines have a

mechanism in the hub to permit full
rotation of the blades about a radial
axis.
 As well as providing effective
aerodynamic braking, this allows
precise control of turbine
performance in all wind conditions
(i.e. pitch regulation).
CP
 Each blade pitch angle gives a unique
CP / curve: for a given value of  a
wide range of power output is now
available.

Wind turbine configurations
Horizontal axis Vertical axis
Using drag forces

(e.g. Savonius)
Using lift forces

(e.g. Darrieus)
Upwind rotor Downwind rotor

Upwind: Horizontal Axis turbines
 330 kW turbines from

James Howden,
Glasgow, as deployed
in California.
 The 3-bladed
horizontal-axis
machine, with rotor
upwind from the
tower, has come to
dominate the wind-
farm market.

Downwind Horizontal Axis: Proven 2.5 kW and 6 kW
turbines
 Down-wind rotor, direct
drive generator.
 Blades flex in strong winds
to limit power output.
 Tower “shadow” creates
vibration.

Offshore wind farms
Vindeby wind farm off

the Danish coast,
commissioned in early
1990’s.
Supplied with Bonus

450 kW machines, with
full-span pitch control
on all blades.

Offshore Horizontal Axis Floating Turbines
6 MW wind turbine
developed in Norway
Rotor diameter 154m
First operational
floating wind farm off
Peterhead 5 x 6MW
turbines
Water depth 90-120m

Savonius turbine
 Vertical axis drag

device with low
efficiency.
 Scoop has less drag
moving against wind –
drag differential causes
spin.
 Used for anemometers
and flettner rotors on
vehicles.

Vertical-axis Darrieus turbine
Experimental turbine
at Carmarthen Bay in
Wales.
Turbine had two
vertical blades 25 m
tall, rated at 500 kW.
Operated during 1991,
shut down after major
blade failure.

Project EOLE
 4 MW prototype in
Quebec, Canada
 Tower height 110 m; 2
blades have catenary
shape to eliminate
bending stresses due
to centrifugal loading.
 Tested during 1990’s;
significant problems
with cracking of blades
due to fatigue loading.

Gorlov turbine
 The helical blade

configuration is
intended to produce
smoother driving
torque.
 Small versions are
available for mounting
on buildings.
 Has also been used as
a water turbine

Small turbines
 Small turbines for electricity

production not as cost-effective
as large machines so limited to
specific locations and
applications:
 Farms and remote areas
 areas without access to the
grid (isolated houses, villages
 monitoring stations etc.)
 UK saw significant growth in small

scale wind due to feed in tariff,
particularly in Scotland 6kW Kingspan turbines on a farm. Image: earthmill

Urban wind power
 Windsave - rated power 1 kW;

1.75 m rotor diameter.
 Some of the claims made by
manufacturers were spurious.
 Warwick wind trials revealed
minimal energy yield from
urban turbines.

Future designs
 Wind Lens by Yuji Ohya

Wind farm optimisation
Digital modelling
 In a typical wind farm, a wind turbine located in the wake of upstream
turbines will experience a significantly different surface wind due to the wake
interferences of the upwind turbines.
 Depending on the turbine array spacing and layout, the power losses of
downstream turbines due to wake interferences can be up to 40%.
 Computer model can be used to establish the most efficient turbine for each
position and in this way optimise the whole wind farm.
Contra-rotation
 While most wind turbines in modern wind farms are Single Rotor Wind
Turbine (SRWT) systems, the concept of Counter-Rotating Wind Turbine
(CRWT) systems has been suggested to eliminate the effect of downstream
turbulence. Here turbines are arranged to rotate in different directions.

Impacts
 Noise – minimised by modern

turbines.
 Interference with radar.
 Visual effect on landscape.
 Land displacement – depends on
siting.
 Birds – positive and negative
impact.
 Environmental impact –
associated with manufacture and
construction, or electricity
Wind farm. Image RSPB
transmission.
 Safety – ice and blade failure.

Policy driver
 Climate Change Act (CCA)
 Incentivise investors - contracts

for Difference (CfD)
 CfD reduces risk by paying a
variable top-up between the
market price and a fixed price
level, known as the ‘strike price’.
 Wind power strike prices (from
2014/15):
 £155/MWh to offshore wind
projects through to 2015/16,
before reducing steadily to
£140/MWh in 2017/18.
 £40/MWh strike price bids in
2019.

Recap
• Wind resource
• Growth in wind power
• Resource assessment
• Betz limit and aerodynamics
• Turbine types
• Future designs
• Environmental impacts
• Policy drivers
ME922/927 Wind energy Solar Lecture - No. 37

Handout:
Wind power
1. The Resource
Wind energy is very widespread, with mean wind speeds in excess of 5 m/s being quite common. It is
not in general a predictable or dependable energy source, although there are exceptions: thermally-
driven winds around the edges of desert regions will exhibit a daily cycle. Southern California, which
has been densely populated with wind turbines, is a prime example. Wind is a diffuse source of
energy, and outputs from turbines are unlikely to reach 100 W/m2 of rotor area, on average throughout
the year. So if substantial amounts of power are required, very large areas of wind must be
intercepted.
Variations of wind speed with time may be categorised as long-term (we experience calm years and
windy years, which makes the prediction of power outputs very difficult); medium-term (changes
during the space of a few hours or minutes cause variations in power output which must be accepted
by the system to which the turbine is connected); and short-term (gusts will introduce cyclic loadings
which must be absorbed by the structure - a wind turbine is highly susceptible to fatigue damage).
2. Definitions
For a wind turbine rotor of swept area A (m2), operating in a wind of velocity V (m/s), the power (W)
theoretically available is
P = 0.5 ρ A V3
where ρ is air density (kg/m3).

In practice P will be a lot less than this; the power coefficient CP is defined as the ratio of actual power
to theoretical power. An analysis due to Betz states that CP is unlikely to exceed 0.593, and no turbine
yet produced has even approached this figure. Modern machines used in wind farms might reach a CP
of about 0.45.
The tip speed ratio of a turbine is defined as λ = ΩR/V, where Ω is the rotor angular velocity (rad/s)
and R the radius (m) at the blade tip. A typical variation of CP with tip speed ratio λ can be seen in
the graph below.
0.5
0.4
Power Coefficient
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Tip Speed Ratio
A wind turbine connected to the grid is usually constrained to turn at a fixed angular velocity, so if the
wind speed changes, so will the tip speed ratio.
3. Turbine Design
Turbines may be classified as either horizontal- or vertical-axis machines. Vertical-axis designs split
into two further groups: those which operate by using aerodynamic drag forces, such as the Savonius
turbine (simple, robust but not very efficient and limited in size), and those which have aerofoil blades
which generate lift (the Darrieus turbine and its derivatives).
Savonius turbine Darrieus turbine configurations
Darrieus machines looked at one time to be the best option at multi-megawatt scale, but have not
fulfilled their promise and the market for wind farms is now dominated by the 3-bladed, horizontal-
axis configuration. Horizontal-axis turbines may have upwind or downwind rotors (relative to the
tower). The majority are upwind, with downwind types confined to the smaller diameters. Turbines
are manufactured in a wide range of sizes, from battery chargers of around 1m rotor diameter to wind
farm machines over 80m in diameter, rated at 2 MW and more.
Upwind turbine Downwind turbine
4. Exploitation
Denmark pioneered the use of wind power for electricity generation from the 1970s, using a range of
financial incentives to establish a growing home market and an efficient manufacturing industry. Tax
incentives in California led to a very rapid deployment of turbines in the 1980s, initially using Danish
machines, but later using designs from a variety of countries including the UK. After a few years,
legislative changes were introduced and growth slowed down. This was the first really large,
concentrated wind farming exercise (over 2000 MW installed capacity) and many lessons were
learned. These wind farms continue in operation today.
At the same time, niche markets for wind energy were being exploited: small machines for battery
charging in remote areas, larger turbines to generate power for isolated communities. But the next
major development was in Europe: steady expansion continued in Denmark, while from about 1990
other countries embarked on large-scale programmes. The most spectacular growth was in Germany,
where legislation gave a guaranteed market for all power produced. Installed capacity in Europe by
1998 exceeded 5 GW, more than half the world total (see table below). Since then, continued rapid
growth in many European countries has pushed the total towards 50 GW. Expansion of capacity in
Europe is increasingly coming from offshore sites. Exploitation elsewhere (USA, China, Australasia,
Indonesia, South America, Africa, India) in future years will lead to a more even distribution of wind
turbines throughout the world.
The main constraints on future expansion are environmental. Concerns about noise have been largely
overcome by careful design. Visual impact is now by far the most serious objection, especially in the
densely populated countries of Europe, hence the move to offshore sites.
The growth of the European wind energy market is summarised in the following table, which shows
the grid-connected, installed capacity (MW) by country.
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006

Austria 24 77 139 606 965
Belgium 2 7 7 7 7 13 44 95 193
Denmark 343 413 539 835 1198 2300 2880 3117 3136
Finland 0 1 4 7 12 38 41 82 86
France 0 1 4 6 10 66 145 386 1567
Germany 50 175 632 1552 2226 6113 12001 16629 20622
Greece 2 25 36 29 39 189 276 466 746
Ireland 0 1 7 11 50 118 137 339 745
Italy 2 8 25 71 120 427 785 1125 2123
Netherlands 40 106 162 299 336 446 688 1078 1560
Portugal 0 6 9 19 51 100 194 522 1716
Spain 10 27 73 249 552 2235 4830 8263 11615
Sweden 5 14 40 103 133 231 328 442 572
United Kingdom 8 50 171 273 321 406 552 888 1963
TOTAL 462 834 1709 3461 5079 12759 23040 34038 47609
World Total 3738 6104 10150 18449 47317 74306
5. Cost
A crucial parameter in determining costs is the capacity coefficient at which the turbines operate on
their chosen site, defined as the ratio of mean power output to the rated power of the turbine. Values
up to 0.4 have been achieved in California and in Scotland. Another parameter is the cost of borrowed
capital, governed by current interest rates and reduced perhaps by incentive schemes.
Capital costs for large, wind farm turbines in 1998 were about £700/kW rated capacity, and continue
to fall; smaller machines are relatively more expensive. Quoted costs for the production of electricity
are around 4 pence/kWh in California and in Germany, but in Scotland (the windiest country in
Europe) the cost could be as low as 2.5 pence/kWh on the best sites, making wind competitive with all
other methods of electricity production. Offshore, costs are greater by at least 50% at present, but the
wind regime is better than on land and with further technological development, some convergence
between offshore and onshore costs is expected.
6. Site resource assessment
For most sites, wind is an unpredictable resource on a day-to-day basis, and the potential of the site
must be assessed using statistical methods. Wind speed measurements gathered over long periods of
time are used to determine their frequency of occurrence over a usable range of velocities. The
traditional method of doing this is to express the probability density of wind velocities through a
Weibull distribution. A typical site graph is shown below, plotting the probability of occurrence
p(u) against wind velocity. The median wind speed for the site shown, indicated by the vertical line, is
about 6.7 m/s. The areas under the curve are equal on each side. (The Danish web-site from which
this is taken (see copyright label) is a particularly useful source of information on wind energy).
The probability density distribution is then used to construct a velocity exceedence curve for the site,
as illustrated below. This curve indicates the number of days in a typical year for which the wind
speed exceeds a specified value. There will be only a few days when the wind speed exceeds say 20
m/s, but many days when it exceeds 2 m/s. Superimposed on the graph are 3 wind speeds which relate
to the performance of the wind turbine to be used on the site:
• The cut-in speed; below this wind speed it would be difficult to run the turbine smoothly, and
the amount of power is very small, so the turbine does not operate.
• The cut-out speed; above this wind speed, the turbine is shut down to avoid structural damage.
• The rated speed; at this wind speed the turbine produces its rated power. At higher wind
speeds than this, the power output is limited to the rated value.
For each wind speed, the power which the turbine would produce is calculated and an equivalent
power curve is drawn to the same time-base, below the velocity exceedence curve.
Velocity (m/s)
Cut-out
Rated
Equivalent
power curve
Rated
power
Energy captured
in a typical year
of operation
0 Time 3
When the wind speed exceeds its rated value the power output is limited to the rated power. Below
cut-in speed and above cut-out, the power output is zero.
dE
Power is the rate of conversion of energy, or . It follows that over a period of time, the amount of
dt
energy produced is
∫ P. dt
where P is the power output (W).
So for the graph above, the energy produced in a typical year of operation is the area under the
equivalent power curve, i.e. the shaded area shown. The units of this are (power).(time): say kW-days
or kWh.
The effectiveness of a wind turbine installation is indicated by its Capacity Coefficient. This is
defined as
average power in a typical year of operation

.
rated power of installation
It can be evaluated for a single turbine, a wind farm or for a larger region.
Questions:
Wind power
1. The Betz analysis for wind turbines specifies three velocities in the flow domain: V∞
well upstream, V in the plane of the rotor and Ve in the wake, far downstream. It can be
shown that
V  Ve
V  .
2
By making the substitution V = V∞ (1 – a), obtain an expression for the power

produced by the turbine in terms of V∞ and a.
[2AV∞3 (1 – a)2. a]
A wind turbine is proposed which reaches its rated power with a value of a (averaged
over the rotor) of 0.3. What (according to the Betz theory) would be the value of the
power coefficient for this condition?
[0.588]
The cut-out wind speed for the turbine is twice the rated wind speed. Power should
ideally be maintained constant between cut-out and rated speeds. Estimate (by trial and
error) the 2 values of a which would give rated power output at the cut-out speed.
State, giving reasons, which of these is preferable.
[0.019; 0.853]
2. A survey at a proposed wind turbine site gave a velocity exceedance curve (a plot of
wind velocity V∞ against number of days T) of the form shown in Figure Q2. The
central portion of the curve is described by the equation
V T n = C
where n and C are numerical constants.
Specific points on the curve are (V∞ = 11 m/s, T = 106 days) and (V∞ = 4 m/s, T = 268
days). The proposed wind turbine has a rotor of 15 m diameter, and its cut-in, rated and
cut-out wind speeds are 4 m/s, 11 m/s and 22 m/s respectively. Wind speed exceeds 22
m/s for 17 days in the year. If turbine power coefficient between cut-in and rated
conditions is constant at 0.42, and the air density is 1.25 kg/m3, calculate
(a) the turbine’s rated power output;
(b) the total energy in kWh delivered in one year; and
(c) the turbine’s capacity coefficient, based on a full year of operation.
[61.74 kW; 192.6x103 kWh, 0.356]

V∞
106 268 T
Figure Q2
3. The estimated capital cost of the turbine featured in Q2, including the foundations and
electrical connections, is £50,000. If this money is borrowed from a bank, the annual
repayment required is given by the formula
C r (1 + r)n
(1 + r)n - 1
Where C is the value of the capital loan, n the number of years to complete the
repayment, and r the rate of interest on the loan.
Assuming annual maintenance costs of 4% of the capital cost of the turbine, calculate
the cost of energy production, in pence per kWh. Use n = 15 years and r = 8%.
[4.07]
4. An alternative version of the turbine has its rated power increased by 30%, by raising
the rated wind speed. Its peak power coefficient remains at 0.42, and it has a capital
cost of £60,000. Comparing this with the original design, what would happen to
(a) the total energy capture per year;
(b) the capacity coefficient; and
(c) the cost of energy production?
[(a) 230.103 kWh, a rise of 19.4%; (b) falls to 0.327; (c) rises to 4.09 p/kWh]
Questions:
Wind power
Answers
1. The Betz analysis for wind turbines specifies three velocities in the flow domain: V∞
well upstream, V in the plane of the rotor and Ve in the wake, far downstream. It can be
shown that
V  Ve
V  .
2
By making the substitution V = V∞ (1 – a), obtain an expression for the power

produced by the turbine in terms of V∞ and a.
[2AV∞3 (1 – a)2. a]
A wind turbine is proposed which reaches its rated power with a value of a (averaged
over the rotor) of 0.3. What (according to the Betz theory) would be the value of the
power coefficient for this condition?
[0.588]
The cut-out wind speed for the turbine is twice the rated wind speed. Power should
ideally be maintained constant between cut-out and rated speeds. Estimate (by trial and
error) the 2 values of a that would give rated power output at the cut-out speed. State,
giving reasons, which of these is preferable.
[0.0; 0.801]
Express other velocities in terms of V∞ (approaching wind velocity)

V = V∞ (1 - a)
Ve = 2V - V∞ = 2V∞ + 2aV∞ - V∞ = V∞(1 – 2a)
𝑉2
Power output is mass flow of air at the rotor x loss of velocity energy ( ) between
2
upstream and downstream flow
At rotor 𝒎̇ = 𝛒𝐀 𝑽 = 𝛒𝐀 𝑽∞ (𝟏 – 𝐚)
𝑽∞ 𝟐 𝑽𝒆 𝟐
Power output = 𝒎̇ [ − ] = 𝛒𝐀 𝑽∞ (𝟏 – 𝐚). ½[𝑽𝟐∞ − 𝑽𝟐∞ (𝟏 − 𝟒𝒂 + 𝟒𝒂𝟐 )]
𝟐 𝟐
= ½𝛒𝐀𝑽𝟐∞ [𝟏 − 𝟏 + 𝟒𝒂 − 𝟒𝒂𝟐 ](𝟏 − 𝒂)
= ½𝛒𝐀𝑽𝟑∞ . 𝒂[𝟒 − 𝟒𝒂](𝟏 − 𝒂)
= 𝟐𝛒𝐀𝑽𝟑∞ (𝟏 − 𝒂)𝟐 . 𝒂
𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
Power coefficient, 𝑪𝒑 = ½𝛒𝐀𝑽𝟑 = 𝟒(𝟏 − 𝒂)𝟐 . 𝒂 where ½𝛒𝐀𝑽𝟑∞ is the available
∞
power in the wind. So for a = 0.3, Cp = 4 x (0.7)2 x 0.3 = 0.588
At cut-out, the approaching air velocity V∞ = 2VR. Where VR is the approaching
air velocity (V∞) at rated power.
However, the output power stays constant after rated wind speed is reached so,
power at cut-out = (𝑪𝒑@𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑽∞ )½𝛒𝐀𝑽𝟑𝑹
𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 (𝑪𝒑@𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅𝑽∞ )½𝛒𝐀𝑽𝟑𝑹

So, at cut out, the new 𝑪𝒑 = = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟖𝟖/𝟖
½𝛒𝐀𝑽𝟑∞ ½𝛒𝐀(𝟐𝑽𝑹)𝟑
So Cp at cut out = 4(1-a)2.a = 0.588/8.
So rearranging, (1-a)2.a = 0.588/32 = 0.018375
Need to iterate to find a.
At cut out CP/4 =(1-a)^2.a= 0.018375

Rough estimates of a
a 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.8 0.9 1
(1-a)^2.a 0 0.081 0.128 0.147 0.144 0.032 0.009 0
Refined estimates of a
Lower value of a Upper value of a
a 0.01 0.02 0.85 0.87
(1-a)^2.a 0.009801 0.019208 0.019125 0.014703
Final estimates (from interpolation)

a 0.019 0.853
(1-a)^2.a 0.018285 0.018432
Estimates: a = 0.019 and a = 0.885
Large a implies large reduction in wind velocity caused by turbine. This requires
a large force on the air stream, hence a large reaction force transferred to the
structure. This is undesirable so the solution a = 0.019 is preferable.
2. A survey at a proposed wind turbine site gave a velocity exceedence curve (a plot of
wind velocity V∞ against number of days T) of the form shown in Figure Q2. The
central portion of the curve is described by the equation
V T n = C
where n and C are numerical constants.
Specific points on the curve are (V∞ = 11 m/s, T = 106 days) and (V∞ = 4 m/s, T = 268
days). The proposed wind turbine has a rotor of 15 m diameter, and its cut-in, rated and
cut-out wind speeds are 4 m/s, 11 m/s and 22 m/s respectively. Wind speed exceeds 22
m/s for 17 days in the year. If turbine power coefficient between cut-in and rated
conditions is constant at 0.42, and the air density is 1.25 kg/m3, calculate
(a) the turbine’s rated power output;
(b) the total energy in kWh delivered in one year; and
(c) the turbine’s capacity coefficient, based on a full year of operation.
[61.74 kW; 192.6x103 kWh, 0.356]

V∞
106 268 T
Figure Q2
a) Cp = 0.42, so rated power at 11 m/s = 0.42.½.1.25.(11)3.𝜋/4.(15)2 = 61.74 kW

𝑻 𝒏 𝑽 𝑻 𝑽
V∞ Tn = constant, so (𝑻𝟏 ) = 𝑽𝟏 or 𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒈 (𝑻𝟏 ) = 𝒍𝒐𝒈 (𝑽𝟐 )
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐.𝟕𝟓 𝟎.𝟒𝟑𝟗𝟑
Taking V1 = 4, V2 = 11, T1 = 268 and T2 = 106 gives 𝒏 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐.𝟓𝟐𝟖 = 𝟎.𝟒𝟎𝟐𝟖 =
𝟏. 𝟎𝟗𝟎𝟔
Constant = V∞ Tn = 4(268)1.0906 = 1779
Therefore general equation for velocity exceedance curve is V∞ T1.0906 = 1779
b) Total energy output in 1 year (two components)

𝑻
= 𝑪𝒑 . ½𝛒𝐀 [∫𝑻 𝟏 𝑽𝟑∞ . 𝒅𝑻 + 𝑽𝟑𝑹 [𝑻𝟐− 𝑻𝟑 ]]
𝟐
where T1 = number of days at cut-in speed = 268
T2 = number of days at rated speed = 106
T3 = number of days at cut-out speed = 17
𝝅 𝑻
1 component = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐. ½. 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓. 𝟒 (𝟏𝟓)𝟐 ∫𝑻 𝟏 𝑽𝟑∞ . 𝒅𝒕
st
𝟐
𝟏𝟕𝟕𝟗 𝟑
= 𝟒𝟔. 𝟑𝟗 ∫ [𝑻𝟏.𝟎𝟗𝟎𝟔 ] 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑻
= 𝟒𝟔. 𝟑𝟗 ∫(𝟏𝟕𝟕𝟗)𝟑 𝟑
(𝑻𝟏.𝟎𝟗𝟎𝟔 )
= 𝟐𝟔𝟏. 𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟗 [− 𝟐.𝟐𝟕𝟏𝟖𝑻𝟏 𝟐.𝟐𝟕𝟏𝟖 ]
𝟏𝟏𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟗
=− 𝑻𝟐.𝟐𝟕𝟏𝟖
𝟏𝟏𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝟏𝟏𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟗
which, between limits of 106 and 268, gives + 𝟑𝟗𝟗𝟏𝟏 − 𝟑𝟐𝟖𝟐𝟕𝟒
= 106(2.8814 – 0.3503) = 2.531 x 106 W-days
2 component = 0.42x½x1.25x𝜋/4x(15)2x(11)3[T2 – T3]
nd
= 61.74x103[89]
= 5495x103 W-days
Total energy = (2.531 + 5.495).106 W-days
= 8026 kW-days
= 192.6x103 kWh
𝟖𝟎𝟐𝟔
c) Mean power output = = 21.99 kW
𝟑𝟔𝟓
𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝟐𝟏.𝟗𝟗
Capacity Coefficient = 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 = 𝟔𝟏.𝟕𝟒 = 0.356
3. The estimated capital cost of the turbine featured in Q2, including the foundations and
electrical connections, is £50,000. If this money is borrowed from a bank, the annual
repayment required is given by the formula
C r (1 + r)n
(1 + r)n - 1
Where C is the value of the capital loan, n the number of years to complete the
repayment, and r the rate of interest on the loan.
Assuming annual maintenance costs of 4% of the capital cost of the turbine, calculate
the cost of energy production, in pence per kWh. Use n = 15 years and r = 8%.
[4.07]
𝑪𝒓(𝟏+𝒓)𝒏
Annual payment = (𝟏+𝒓)𝒏−𝟏 ; (1+r)n = (1.08)15 = 3.172
𝟓𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒙𝟎.𝟎𝟖𝒙𝟑.𝟏𝟕𝟐
So payment = = £5842
𝟐.𝟏𝟕𝟐
Also have maintenance of 0.04x50x103= £2000
Therefore total cost per year = £7842
𝟕𝟖𝟒𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎
Cost of energy = 𝟏𝟗𝟐.𝟔𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 = 4.07 pence/kWh
4. An alternative version of the turbine has its rated power increased by 30%, by raising
the rated wind speed. Its peak power coefficient remains at 0.42, and it has a capital
cost of £60,000. Comparing this with the original design, what would happen to
(a) the total energy capture per year;
(b) the capacity coefficient; and
(c) the cost of energy production?
[(a) 230.103 kWh, a rise of 19.4%; (b) falls to 0.327; (c) rises to 4.09 p/kWh]
Rated power = 1.3x61.74 = 80.26 kW

𝛑
= 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐𝒙½𝒙𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝒙 𝟒 (𝟏𝟓)𝟐 𝒙𝑽𝟑𝑹
𝟖𝟎𝟐𝟔𝟎
Therefore 𝑽𝟑𝑹 = 𝟒𝟔.𝟑𝟗 = 𝟏𝟕𝟑𝟎; VR = 12 m/s
If V=12, T1.0906 = 1779/12 = 148.25; T = 97.9 days
Energy captured:
1st component = −𝟏𝟏𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟗 [𝑻−𝟐.𝟐𝟕𝟏𝟖 ]𝟐𝟔𝟖
𝟗𝟕.𝟗
= −𝟏𝟏𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟗 [𝟑. 𝟎𝟓 − 𝟑𝟎. 𝟎𝟐]
= 3.102x106 W-days
= 74.4x103 kWh
2nd component = 80.26x103[97.9 – 17]

= 6.49x106 W-days
= 155.8x103 kWh
Total captured = 230.3x103 kWh (i.e. a rise of 19.4%)
𝟐𝟑𝟎.𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑
Mean power = = 26.3 kW
𝟐𝟒𝒙𝟑𝟔𝟓
b) Capacity Coefficient = 26.3/80.26 = 0.327
c) Cost of energy: annual repayment = £5842x6/5 = £7010

maintenance = 0.04x60x103 = £2400
total = £9410
𝟗𝟒𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎
cost = 𝟐𝟑𝟎.𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 = 4.09 pence/kWh
Wind power tutorial Q2 (extended solution)
Turbine diameter = 15m Cut out speed = 22 m/s
Cut in speed = 4m/s 𝜌=1.25 kg/m3
Rated speed = 11 m/s Cp = 0.42
Exceedance curve eqn. VT n = C
V = 11m/s T = 106 days, V = 4m/s T = 268 days
V = 22m/s T = 17 days
(a) Rated power output

1 152
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 2 𝑐𝑝 𝜌𝐴(𝑉∞ )3𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 0.5 × 0.42 × 1.25 × 𝜋 4
× 113 = 𝟔𝟏. 𝟕𝟒 𝒌𝑾
(b) Annual energy output kWh
𝑉∞
Velocity m/s
𝑉∞ 𝑐𝑢𝑡−𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑉∞ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑉∞ 𝑐𝑢𝑡−𝑖𝑛
Power kW
1
𝑃 = 𝑐𝑝 𝜌𝐴𝑉∞3
2
𝑃 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
E1
E2
17 106 268
days
The annual energy output = E1 + E2

E1 – energy output when the wind speed is between cut-out and rated
E2 – energy output when the wind speed is between rated and cut-in
These are areas under the power graph P x t where P – kW and t is days – kWdays
𝐸1 = 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 (106 − 17) = 61.74 × 89 = 5494.86 𝑘𝑊𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 131,876.64 𝑘𝑊ℎ

𝑇=268 𝑇=268
1 1
𝐸2 = ∫ 𝑐𝑝 𝜌𝐴𝑉∞3 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑐𝑝 𝜌𝐴 ∫ 𝑉∞3 𝑑𝑇
𝑇=106 2 2 𝑇=106
So, to find E2 we need to find the equation for the exceedance curve as this allows us to express
𝑉∞ as a function if T
𝑉∞ 𝑇 𝑛 = 𝐶
So
(𝑉∞ 𝑇 𝑛 )𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = (𝑉∞ 𝑇 𝑛 )𝑐𝑢𝑡−𝑖𝑛
𝑉∞−𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑇𝑐𝑢𝑡−𝑖𝑛 𝑛 𝑇𝑐𝑢𝑡−𝑖𝑛 𝑛

∴ = = ( )
𝑉∞−𝑐𝑢𝑡−𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑛 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
Taking 𝑙𝑛 of both sides
𝑉∞−𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑇𝑐𝑢𝑡−𝑖𝑛 11 268

𝑙𝑛 ( ) = 𝑛 × 𝑙𝑛 ( ) ∴ 𝑙𝑛 ( ) = 𝑛 × 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑉∞−𝑐𝑢𝑡−𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 4 106
1.0116 = 𝑛 × 0.9275 ∴ 𝑛 = 1.0907
So, at rated power

𝐶 = 11 × 1061.0907 = 1779.9
We can now calculate E2

1 𝑇=268
1 𝑇=268
1779.9 3
𝐸2 = 𝑐𝑝 𝜌𝐴 ∫ 𝑉∞3 𝑑𝑇 = 𝑐𝑝 𝜌𝐴 ∫ ( 1.0907 ) 𝑑𝑇
2 𝑇=106 2 𝑇=106 𝑇
𝑇=268
1 1
𝐸2 = 𝑐𝑝 𝜌𝐴 × 1779.93 ∫ ( 3.2721 ) 𝑑𝑇
2 𝑇=106 𝑇
1 𝑇=268 𝑥 𝑛+1
𝐸2 = 𝑐
2 𝑝
𝜌𝐴 × 1779.93 ∫𝑇=106 𝑇 −3.2721 𝑑𝑇 NB ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛+1
𝑇=268
1 𝑇 −2.2721
𝐸2 = 𝑐𝑝 𝜌𝐴 × 1779.93 [ ]|
2 −2.2721 𝑇=106
1 152
𝐸2 = 0.42 × 1.25 × 𝜋 × 1779.93 [−1.3385 × 10−6 − (−1.1012 × 10−5 )]
2 4
24
𝐸2 = 2.5303 × 106 𝑊𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 2.5303 × 106 × = 60,727.4 𝑘𝑊ℎ
1000
Total energy output =E1 + E2 = 131,876.64 𝑘𝑊ℎ + 60,727.4 𝑘𝑊ℎ = 𝟏𝟗𝟐. 𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒌𝑾𝒉
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 192.6×103

(c) Capacity coefficient = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
= 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 @ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 11×365×24 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓𝟔
Hydro Power
Hydropower history
• Hydropower converts potential
energy in water at height to
useful work
• Water wheels have been a
source of mechanical power Kilhope water wheel,
since 400 BC mining (1700’s) Image: By
Gordon Hatton
• Mechanical hydro power was
used early in the industrial
revolution
• First hydroelectric power
station, Cragside
Northumberland 1878
(powered a single house)
• First commercial hydropower
station – Grand rapids,
Michigan 1880 (10’s kW)
• 3 Gorges Dam in China 22GW
Wales, Cwm Dyli power station
 Built in 1906; single turbine; capacity ~10MW . Still generating.

Three Gorges Dam
 World’s largest power Three Gorges Dam. Image: unknown

generation capacity of 22.5
GW (highest energy output
Itaipu hydroelectric
scheme)
 Main generation from 26 x
700MW Francis turbines
(75 rpm with 86m head)
 600km long reservoir
 Cost £38 Bn
 1.3 million people
displaced
Hydropower worldwide
• Worldwide hydropower installed capacity was 1,300 GW in
2019
• Hydro production 2019 4300 TWh (Wind 1404 TWh)
• Only 25% of potential hydropower sites so far developed
Types of hydropower plant
• Three main type of hydropower plant
• Run-of-river hydropower: a facility that

channels flowing water from a river through
a canal or penstock to spin a turbine.
• Storage hydropower: typically a large

system that uses a dam to store water in a
reservoir.
• Pumped-storage hydropower: provides

peak-load supply and off peak load,
harnessing water which is cycled between
a lower and upper reservoir.
Hydro penstocks Image:
unknown
Germany, Augst-Whylen power station
 Large run-of-river
scheme (Rhine)
comprising 13 Kaplan
turbines.
 Central barrier is
opened when there is
a danger of flooding.
 The flow passes
through turbines on
both sides of the
main channel.
 Kaplan turbine
runner is 8.4 m in
diameter and has a
20.5 MW rating.
Scotland, Loch Sloy power station
 Storage hydropower
 Opened 1950
 280 m head, 4 turbines

150 MW total rated
output.
Scotland, Cruachan power station
 Pumped storage scheme.

 Power station is underground, 400 m from the loch-side.
 365 m head, 400 MW rated output.
 4 Francis pump/turbine units.
 Aerial view shows upper reservoir and dam.
 Administration and visitor centre located on the shore of
Loch Awe.
Hydraulic pumped storage
 In generating mode, the
plant operates as a
conventional hydro Generator
power plant.
 But the generator can

function as a motor, and Turbine
the turbine as a pump.
 When demand for

electricity is low, power
may be taken from the
grid to pump water into Motor
the upper reservoir, to act
as an energy store for
future use when demand
Pump
for electricity is high.
Turbine types - impulse
Pelton wheel: jet is split symmetrically by blades on
the wheel; wheel can have up to 6 jets if mounted on
vertical shaft.
Turgo: jet passes through the wheel from left to

right; it may have a larger diameter than the jet for a
Pelton wheel of the same size.
Cross-flow (or Banchi or Ossberger): has a cylindrical

runner, and water passes through the blade ring
twice. Runner may have several segments on the
same axis, to deliver high efficiency for a wide range
of flow rates. Runner has simple geometry, may be
fabricated from sheet metal.
Scotland, Glendoe power station
 Scotland’s latest hydro power
scheme located near Fort
Augustus, Loch Ness opened June
2009. £160m scheme.
 600 m head.
 Water flows through a 5 m dia. by
8 km tunnel.
 The head is by far the largest
A Pelton wheel rated at 117 MW under a head of 686 m.
used so far for a major Scottish
hydro power scheme.
 An impulse turbine is used, in this
case a multi-jet Pelton wheel with
rated power of 100 MW.
 Closed August 2009- August 2012
after tunnel collapse. £100m
A 6-jet Pelton wheel, rated at 122 MW under a head of 650 m;
repair cost. Aoos River, Greece
Turbine types - reaction
Francis: fed by water from a spiral casing, fitted with

a ring of guide vanes immediately upstream of the
runner. These may be adjusted to vary the volume
flow rate through the machine. Water exits through
a gently expanding draft tube.
Propeller: an axial-flow machine, normally fitted

with guide vanes as shown. If it has adjustable-pitch
blades, it is known as a Kaplan turbine. It may also
be installed with its shaft vertical.
All reaction turbines will operate efficiently as pumps; impulse turbines

will not!
Francis turbine
 Section showing the
inlet valve and spiral
casing, guide vanes,
runner and draft tube.
 Direct shaft drive to

the generator
mounted above.
 Runner: being
hand finished
prior to delivery.
Scotland, Ceannacroc power station
 Underground power
station near Fort
Augustus.
 90 m head.
 20 MW power output
from two turbines.
Mini and micro-hydro
 Systems with rated output
from a few kW upwards.
 Flow rates generally small
(moderate head), so an
impulse turbine may be used
because of its simplicity and Pelton wheel Asymmetric turbine
ease of control.
 Where the flow rate is larger, a different approach must be adopted:
CROSSFLOW design, with a

cylindrical rotor which can be
Conventional REACTION fabricated from sheet metal (a
turbine (propeller type cheaper alternative ).
shown)
Analysis
 Fundamentally hydropower converts the potential
energy in a body of water at height (H) to electrical
energy. P1, V1 , z1
 The total potential energy (J) is given by

𝑬 = 𝑀𝑔𝐻 where 𝐻 = 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 H
 Often the energy per unit mass is used (J/kg)

𝐸 = 𝑔𝐻 l
P2, V2, z2
 We can analyse the conversion of this energy using the
Bernoulli equation between two points in a system (this
is a just a restatement of the conservation of energy)
𝑃 1 𝑉1 2 𝑃 2 𝑉22
𝐸= + + 𝑔𝑧1 − 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = + + 𝑔𝑧2
ρ 2 ρ 2
Hydro power transmission
 From the free surface of the reservoir to
P1, V1
the exit point at 2, with friction loss
factor, f, an energy balance (J/kg) gives
2
𝑃1 𝑉12 4𝑓.𝑙 𝑉 𝑃2 𝑉22 H
+ + 𝑔𝑧1 − ∙ = + + 𝑔𝑧2 V, Q, f
𝜌 2 𝑑 2 𝜌 2
 With z2 as zero, the energy at 2 is

2
2 l P2, V2
𝑃 2 𝑉2 4𝑓. 𝑙 𝑉
+ = 𝑔 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 − ∙
ρ 2 𝑑 2
and (with P1 and V1 zero) the power delivered (W) is
2
𝑃2 𝑉2 2 𝜋 4𝑓.𝑙 𝑉
𝜌𝑄 + = 𝜌𝑑 2 𝑉 𝑔𝐻 − ∙ 𝑄 − 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑚3/𝑠
𝜌 2 4 𝑑 2
 If 𝑉ത = 0 then power = 0; if 𝑉ത is very large then the term in the brackets

will tend to zero. Between these conditions there is a value of 𝑉ത for
which the power delivered at 2 is maximised.
Transmission efficiency
 For the condition of maximum power
transmission:
𝛿(𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟)
ഥ
=0 1
𝛿𝑉
2
𝜋 4𝑓.𝑙 3𝑉
=> 𝜌𝑑 2 𝑔𝐻 − ∙ =0
4 𝑑 2
H
 The friction loss is given by
2
4𝑓.𝑙 𝑉 1
∙ = 𝑔𝐻 2
𝑑 2 3
 The transmission efficiency is defined as
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑
ηtr =
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒
 At maximum power ηtr = 2/3; in general:

𝑔𝐻−𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
ηtr = =1-
𝑔𝐻 𝑔𝐻
Final power output
 For any hydro-electric power plant, the final power output is
P = ηO/A .  Q g H
where ηO/A is the overall efficiency, obtained by multiplying ηtr , the
transmission efficiency, ηturb, the turbine hydraulic efficiency and ηgen,
the generator efficiency.
 Graph shows power and 1 150
Efficiency
transmission efficiency against
Power
volume flow rate Q=f(V). 0.8 120
 Hydro-electric power plant do 0.6 90

not normally operate at ηtr PR
maximum power rating but at a
Power
0.4
lower power, PR.
0.2
 A smaller flow rate, QR, is chosen.
0
 ηtr can exceed 90%. 0 QR Q MP ഥ
𝑸
Lay-out for an impulse turbine
1
H
2
Turbine
Nozzle
VN
 The energy reaches the turbine in purely kinetic
form; the pressure around the turbine is
atmospheric.
 An adjustable nozzle is used, such as the SPEAR
VALVE shown here.
 The turbine blades are shaped to extract as much
energy as possible.
Impulse turbine: power characterisation
 Energy equation from 1 to 2, ignoring losses in the nozzle, is (as before)
2
𝑃 1 𝑉1 2 4𝑓𝑙 𝑉 𝑃 2 𝑉2 2
+ + 𝑔𝑧1 − ∙ = + + 𝑔𝑧2
ρ 2 𝑑 2 ρ 2
 Here P1, V1, P2 are zero, and H= z1 -z2 and so
2
𝑉𝑁 2 4𝑓𝑙 𝑉
𝑔𝐻 = + ∙
2 𝑑 2
where the velocity of the water jet, VN, is given by
2
4𝑓𝑙 𝑉
𝑉𝑁 = 𝐶𝑣 2 𝑔𝐻 − ∙
𝑑 2
where Cv accounts for losses in the nozzle.
 The power delivered to the turbine in the water jet is
2
𝑉𝑁2 𝜋 4𝑓𝑙 𝑉
𝜌𝑄 ∙ = 𝜌𝑑2 𝑉𝐶𝑣 2 𝑔𝐻 − ∙
2 4 𝑑 2
The same expression as before, with the addition of Cv2, the efficiency of the
nozzle; ηtr for the pipe is as before.
Reaction turbine: power characterisation
 Turbine fully submerged; water experiences a large pressure drop as
it passes through the turbine.
 The kinetic energy of the flow leaving the turbine is often reduced by
fitting a diffuser or draft tube. 1
 The energy equation for flow Reservoir

from 1 to 2 is now H
2
𝑃 1 𝑉1 2 4𝑓. 𝑙 𝑉 𝑃 2 𝑉2 2 2
+ + 𝑔𝑧1 − ∙ − 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 = + + 𝑔𝑧2
ρ 2 𝑑 2 ρ 2 Turbine
 Here, P1, V1, P2 and V2 are all zero:
2 Tail-race
4𝑓.𝑙 𝑉
𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑔𝐻 − ∙
𝑑 2
𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡
 The power delivered to the turbine is
2
𝜋 4𝑓.𝑙 𝑉
𝜌Q 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝜌𝑑2 𝑉 𝑔𝐻 − ∙
4 𝑑 2
This is the same expression as the one derived earlier; the power delivered and
transmission efficiency vary with flow rate as before.
Environmental/social issues
 Flooding of useful land.

 Population displacement.
 Risk of catastrophe.
 Increased seismic activity.
 Interference with water supplies &
fishing.
 Local eco-system damage during
construction.
 Visual impact of dams and power
stations.
Karoun 3 hydroelectric dam in Khuzestan Province, Iran during
 Visual impact of pipelines. construction Image: Financial Tribune
 Visual impact of transmission lines.

 Capital cost: $8k-$16k/kW capacity
(~90% site, 10% equipment)
Scotland, Clunie dam (Pitlochry) power station
 60MW capacity.  A fish ladder gives access

to the upper reservoir.
Recap
• Hydropower history and resource

• Types of hydro power system run-of-river, storage,
pumped storage
• Turbine types
• Hydro power system analysis
• Environmental issues
Photo: Ásgeir Eggertsson

Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy
 Geothermal energy taps the
high temperatures below the
earth’s surface
 Earth loses 87 mW/m2 on
average and the annual
geothermal heat loss is 44.2
TW (0.03% of solar insolation)
 Radioactive decay of elements
contributes 30 TW of heat
 The average temperature
gradient of the earth’s crust is
25-30oC/km
Tectonic plate boundaries
 Earth’s crust is not

uniform and varies at
plate boundaries
 The most promising
regions for
geothermal
exploitation are
found here
 Geothermal flux and
gradient are much
higher than average
 Coincide with regions
with high volcanic
and earthquake
activity
Global geothermal potential and exploitation
http://map.thinkgeoenergy.com/map/
https://orkustofnun.is/gogn/Greinargerdir/Jard
hitavettvangur/World-geothermal-assessment-
VS.pdf
Global geothermal electricity generation
https://www.worldenergy.org
High enthalpy sites
 Close to plate
boundaries we have
high temperatures  E.g. Geysers:
at relatively shallow indicate hot
depths T~200oC water and
steam close to
 Heat in the form of the surface.
directly accessible
hot water or steam
 Extraction of energy
from such a high
enthalpy site is
straightforward
 Can be used for
production of
electricity or hot
water.
High enthalpy sites
 Lardarello, Northern Italy

established in 1904.
 Produces 500 MW of electrical
power.
 Krafla geothermal power

station Iceland.
 2 x 30MW steam
turbines
Low enthalpy sites for district heating
 ~80-150oC
 Using existing directly accessible hot
water
 Used for district heat.
 Reykjavik, Iceland benefits from
geothermal district heating schemes with
a total capacity exceeding 660 MW.
 Possible to use organic Rankine

cycle (ORC) to generate electricity
at low temperature ~100oC
The 4MW Akça ORC geothermal plant in

Turkey. Credit: Exergy.
Hot, dry rock
 Requires drilling injection

and recovery bore-holes
into impermeable rock, and
then fracture it deep
underground. Cold water is
injected and hot water is
recovered.
 Experimental bore-holes
have been drilled in a
number of locations,
including UK, France,
Switzerland and Australia.
 Boreholes need to be 4-6
kms deep.
UK Low enthalpy sites for district heating
 Southampton, England
has a 2 MW district
heating plant, and plans
further expansion.
 Draws water at 75oC from
an aquifer at a depth of
1400m
Geothermal heat
flux mW/m2 source:
BGS
Temperatures at
1000m – source:
BGS
Halo Kilmarnock
 2km borehole as part of a district

heating scheme.
Heat exchanger
Source: The Independent
pump
2000m T~50-70oC
Heat pumps
 Heat pumps transfer heat

from low-quality heat
sources.
 Sources can include ground
(1-200m) or water (GSHP,
WSHP).
 GSHP often referred to as a
“geothermal” technology
 An alternative is the air-
source heat pump (ASHP),
which uses the atmosphere
as the primary source.
Source: Heat King
GSHP – geothermal?
Average geothermal
heat flux ~80 mW/m2
Average solar flux
~240W/m2
At GSHP depths
(~100m) the main
heat source is really
solar energy not
geothermal energy.
GSHP system
Source: Energy Savings Trust

Heat pump pros and cons
• With a low carbon electricity supply

heat pumps are often viewed as a
low-carbon means to provide space
heating and hot water to buildings.
• However there are potential
problems:
– increased strain on the electricity
network with significant take-up; Image: Unknown
– poor performance if incorrectly

installed;
– failure of GSHP installations (over
time) if incorrectly sized;
– poor performance of ASHP in low
temperatures and humid climates
(need to defrost evaporator coils).
Image: Efficient energy solutions

Recap
• Geothermal definition and sites

• Geothermal potential
• High and low enthalpy
• Hot dry rock
• UK geothermal
• “Geothermal” heat pumps
Handout:
Power from water
For an application such as a hydro-electric scheme, the typical requirement is to evaluate the
power delivered at the end of a pipeline as depicted in the following figure.
2
From the free surface in the reservoir to the pipe exit, the energy equation is
P1 V12 P2 V22 4 f .l V 2
+ + g z1 = + + g z2 + . .
ρ 2 ρ 2 d 2
and the power available in the flow at pipe exit is
 P2 V22  π  4 f .l V 2 
ρ q +  = ρ d 2
V  g H − .  ,
ρ 2  4  d 2 
where V2 = V = mean velocity in pipe. Clearly, power = 0 if V = 0 and if V is large

4fl V 2
⋅ → gH and so power tends to 0.
d 2
A graph of power against volume flow rate
would look like the sketch shown here, Power
with a maximum at a certain value
of q.
For a maximum power condition,

d
( power )=0 , giving
dV
π  4 f l 3V 
2
ρ d g H
2
− .  = 0. q
4  d 2 

4 fl V 2
∴gH =3. . ; with friction loss
d 2
2
Thus the energy available at the end of the pipe = gH and the transmission
3
efficiency, ηtr, for the pipeline is defined as
2
gH
energy extracted 3 2
= = .
total energy available gH 3
gH − losses losses
Note that in general, η tr = = 1 − .
gH gH
So ηtr will be 1.0 for q = 0, falling to zero where losses = gH. An accurate plot of
power and efficiency characteristics is shown in the graph below.
1 150
Efficiency
ηtr Power
0.8 120
0.6 90
0.4 60
0.2 30
0 0
0 qA1 2 qB 3 4
Practical hydro-electric plants have two possible configurations, depending on the

type of turbine used. Systems with reaction turbines (Francis, Kaplan) are the more
common - there is a substantial pressure drop across the turbine, which is fully
submerged. The water then escapes to a tail-race (a
stream, river or lake) which behaves
like another reservoir.
turbine
For this system, the power
developed by the turbine is given by
 32 flq 2 
Power = ρq . Wout = ρq [ gH − Σlosses] = ρq  gH − 2 5  .
 π d 
For a given system, there is a maximum power which can be made available to the
turbines, its value depending on H, f, l and d.
A hydro-electric plant will normally run at less than maximum power, say at a level
indicated by the dashed line on the graph. If this power is known, a cubic equation
for q is produced, which in general will have two real solutions qA and qB, as
illustrated in the graph. The transmission efficiencies are very different; the system
will of course be run at the lower flow rate, qA.
Sometimes an impulse turbine is used: a Pelton Wheel, Turgo or cross-flow design.

Here, the energy of the water is converted entirely into kinetic energy using a variable
nozzle or spear valve. The water is discharged to atmosphere with a velocity VN, and
the energy equation becomes
V N2 4 fl V 2
gH = + . .
2 d 2
nozzle
turbine
 4 fl V 2 
So N V = 2  gH − .  , ignoring nozzle losses.
 d 2 
If these losses are represented by a velocity coefficient CV, the true value of VN is
 4 fl V 2 
CV 2  gH − .  .
 d 2 
The power in the water jet is
V2 π  4 fl V 2 
ρ q. N = ρ d N2 V N .C v2  gH − . 
2 4  d 2 
2
π  d   4 fl V 2 
= ρ d C 
2
N
2
v
 V  gH − . 
4  dN   d 2 
For maximum power,
2
d π  d   4 fl 3V 2 
( power ) = 0 = ρd C    gH −
2
N
2
v .  ,
dV 4  dN   d 2 
1
so the friction loss = gH as before.
3
2
Note that ηtr is now Cv2 .
3
2 2  4 fl V 2 
In general, V N = 2Cv  gH − .  , and for maximum power conditions:
 d 2 
 4 fl V 2  2 8 f l 2
V N2 = 2Cv2  2 . .  = Cv . .V .
 d 2  d
Also of course,
4
2  d 
V N =   V 2,
 dN 
d4 8f l d5
∴ = . Cv2 giving d N4 =
d N4 d 8 f l Cv2
d5
or water jet diameter d N = 4 for maximum power.
8 f l Cv2
Hydraulic turbines
Impulse – all energy converted to kinetic before impact with runner.
Pelton wheel: - jet is split

symmetrically by blades on the wheel;
wheel can have up to 6 jets if mounted
on vertical shaft.
Turgo: - jet passes through the wheel

from left to right; it may have a larger
diameter than the jet for a Pelton wheel
of the same size.
Cross-flow (or Banchi or Ossberger):

has a cylindrical runner, and water
passes through the blade ring twice.
Runner may have several segments on
the same axis, to deliver high efficiency
for a wide range of flow rates. Runner
has simple geometry, may be fabricated
from sheet metal.
Francis: fed by water from a spiral
casing, fitted with a ring of guide vanes
immediately upstream of the runner.
These may be adjusted to vary the
volume flow rate through the machine.
Water exits through a gently expanding
draft tube.
Propellor: an axial-flow machine,

normally fitted with guide vanes as
shown. If it has adjustable-pitch blades,
it is known as a Kaplan turbine. It
may also be installed with its shaft
vertical.
All reaction turbines will operate efficiently as pumps; impulse turbines will not!
Questions:
Hydro power
Density of water is 1000 kg/m3 unless otherwise stated
1. A pipeline 450 mm in diameter and 3.6 km long discharges water at the rate of 295 litres per
second when open to the atmosphere at the lower end, which is situated 38 m below the water
level in the supply reservoir. Calculate the friction coefficient for the pipeline, and the power in
the flow at exit from the pipe.
A nozzle with velocity coefficient 0.98 is to be fitted to the pipe exit, with the aim of increasing
the power in the flow to the maximum possible. Calculate the required nozzle diameter and the
resulting maximum power.
[0.00674; 507 W; 99.7 mm; 40.7 kW]
2. In a proposed hydro-electric scheme, an output of 200 MW is required. The turbines discharge

water at a level 180m below the reservoir free surface. The flow passage from reservoir to
turbine house is to be a single tunnel of circular cross-section, 2.5 km long, and it is intended
that the transmission efficiency be 90%. Assuming a friction factor of 0.0052, calculate the
required tunnel diameter. Take the efficiency of the turbo-generators as 79%.
The tunnel is then drilled to this specification, and the turbine and generators installed. During
initial testing, it is found that a flow rate of 168 m3/s is required to obtain a 200 MW output.
Calculate the actual tunnel friction factor and transmission efficiency. Also determine the
maximum power output obtainable from the system.
Illustrate by means of a sketch the power/flow rate characteristic curves for the system, as
designed and as actually produced. Indicate the approximate position of the operating point in
each case.
[5.708 m; 0.853; 0.00686; 235.6 MW]
3. A small hydro power plant uses a single-jet impulse turbine running under a head of 31m. The
supply pipeline is 145m long and 0.15m in diameter, and has a friction factor of 0.008. The
turbine nozzle can be adjusted to give a range of jet diameters, and has a velocity coefficient of
0.95.
If the system is set to run at a pipeline transmission efficiency of 0.92, what power is produced
at the nozzle exit, and what jet diameter is required?
[5.595 kW; 35.4 mm]
Questions:
Hydro power
Answers
1. A pipeline 450 mm in diameter and 3.6 km long discharges water at the rate of 295 litres per
second when open to the atmosphere at the lower end, which is situated 38 m below the water
level in the supply reservoir. Calculate the friction coefficient for the pipeline, and the power in
the flow at exit from the pipe.
A nozzle with velocity coefficient 0.98 is to be fitted to the pipe exit, with the aim of increasing
the power in the flow to the maximum possible. Calculate the required nozzle diameter and the
resulting maximum power.
[0.00674; 507 W; 99.7 mm; 40.7 kW]
̅𝟐
𝟒𝒇𝒍 𝑽 𝑽𝟐
Energy equation: 𝒈𝒛𝟏 = 𝒅
. 𝟐
+ 𝟐
𝑸 𝟎.𝟐𝟗𝟓 𝑽𝟐𝟐
̅= =
and here 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑽 𝝅 = 1.855 m/s; = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟐𝟎
𝑨 (𝟎.𝟒𝟓)𝟐 𝟐
𝟒
𝟒𝒇𝒍
∴ 𝟑𝟖𝒈 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟐𝟎 [𝟏 + ]
𝒅
𝟒𝒇𝒍 𝟑𝟖𝒙𝟗. 𝟖𝟏
∴𝟏+ = = 𝟐𝟏𝟔. 𝟕
𝒅 𝟏. 𝟕𝟐
𝟐𝟏𝟓.𝟕𝒙𝟎.𝟒𝟓
∴ 𝒇 = 𝟒𝒙𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 = 0.0067
𝑽𝟐𝟐
Power = 𝒎̇ = 𝟐𝟗𝟓𝒙𝟏. 𝟕𝟐𝟎 = 507 W
𝟐
̅𝟐
𝟒𝒇𝒍 𝑽
(Note that if you say Power = 𝒎̇ [𝒈𝒛𝟏 − 𝒅 . 𝟐 ] it should give the same answer, but you
̅ and f; at least 5 significant figures is required.)
need to be very precise in the values of 𝑽
̅𝟐
𝟒𝒇𝒍 𝑽 𝟏 𝟏
Maximum power so 𝒅 𝟐
. 𝟑
= 𝒈𝑯 = 𝟑 𝒈𝒛𝟏
̅𝟐
𝑽 𝒈𝒛𝟏 .𝒅 𝟑𝟖𝒙𝟗.𝟖𝟏𝒙𝟎.𝟒𝟓 𝝅
So = ̅ = 1.073 m/s; 𝑸 = 𝒅𝟐 𝑽
= 𝟏𝟐𝒙𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟕𝟒𝒙𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟕𝟔; 𝑽 ̅ = 0.1707 m/s
𝟐 𝟏𝟐𝒇𝒍 𝟒
̅𝟐
𝟒𝒇𝒍 𝑽 𝑽𝟐𝑵
Now 𝒈𝒛𝟏 = 𝒅
. 𝟐
+ 𝟐
(ignoring Cv)
𝑽𝟐𝑵 𝟒𝒙𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟕𝟒𝒙𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
Then 𝟐
= 𝟑𝟖𝒙𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 − 𝟎.𝟒𝟓
𝒙𝟎. 𝟓𝟕𝟔 = 𝟐𝟒𝟖. 𝟓𝟓
𝑽𝟐𝑵
Actual 𝟐
= 𝑪𝟐𝒗 (𝟐𝟒𝟖. 𝟓𝟓) = 𝟐𝟑𝟖. 𝟕𝟏; 𝑽𝑵 = 21.85 m/s
𝑸 𝟎.𝟏𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝟒
Jet area, 𝑨𝑵 = 𝑽 = 𝟐𝟏.𝟖𝟓
= 0.007812 m2; 𝒅𝑵 = √𝝅 𝑨𝑵 =99.7 mm
𝑵
𝑽𝟐𝑵
Power = 𝒎̇ 𝟐
= 170.7x238.71 W = 40.7 kW
2. In a proposed hydro-electric scheme, an output of 200 MW is required. The turbines discharge

water at a level 180m below the reservoir free surface. The flow passage from reservoir to
turbine house is to be a single tunnel of circular cross-section, 2.5 km long, and it is intended
that the transmission efficiency be 90%. Assuming a friction factor of 0.0052, calculate the
required tunnel diameter. Take the efficiency of the turbo-generators as 79%.
The tunnel is then drilled to this specification, and the turbine and generators installed. During
initial testing, it is found that a flow rate of 168 m3/s is required to obtain a 200 MW output.
Calculate the actual tunnel friction factor and transmission efficiency. Also determine the
maximum power output obtainable from the system.
Illustrate by means of a sketch the power/flow rate characteristic curves for the system, as
designed and as actually produced. Indicate the approximate position of the operating point in
each case.
[5.708 m; 0.853; 0.00686; 235.6 MW]
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔
Power = ηO/A.ρQgH; so Q =𝟎.𝟕𝟗𝒙𝟎.𝟗𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑𝒙𝟗.𝟖𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟖𝟎 = 159.3 m3/s
𝟑𝟐𝒇𝒍𝑸𝟐 𝟑𝟐𝒇𝒍𝑸𝟐
If ηtr = 0.9 then 𝝅𝟐𝒅𝟓
= 𝟎. 𝟏𝒈𝑯; 𝒅𝟓 = 𝟎.𝟏𝝅𝟐𝒈𝑯
𝟑𝟐𝒙𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟐𝒙𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎(𝟏𝟓𝟗.𝟑)𝟐
So 𝒅𝟓 = 𝟎.𝟏𝝅𝟐𝒙𝟗.𝟖𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟖𝟎
= 6057; d = 5.708 m
𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝟎.𝟔𝟕𝟒
ηO/A = = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟒; 𝜼𝒕𝒓 = = 0.853
𝝆𝑸𝒈𝑯 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒙𝟏𝟔𝟖𝒙𝟗.𝟖𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝟎.𝟕𝟗
𝟑𝟐𝒇𝒍𝑸𝟐
Then the loss 𝝅𝟐𝒅𝟐
= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟕𝒈𝑯
𝟎.𝟏𝟒𝟕𝒙𝟗.𝟖𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒙𝝅𝟐𝒙𝟔𝟎𝟓𝟕
∴ actual f = = 0.00686
𝟑𝟐𝒙𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎(𝟏𝟔𝟖)𝟐
𝟑𝟐𝒇𝒍𝑸𝟐 𝟏
Maximum power when 𝝅𝟐𝒅𝟐
= 𝒈𝑯
𝟑
𝝅𝟐 𝒅𝟓 𝒈𝑯 𝝅𝟐𝒙𝟔𝟎𝟓𝟕𝒙𝟗.𝟖𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟖𝟎
∴ 𝑸𝟐 = = , giving Q = 253.2 m3/s
𝟗𝟔𝒇𝒍 𝟗𝟔𝒙𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟖𝟔𝒙𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟎
𝟐
Then maximum power = 𝜼𝑶/𝑨 . 𝝆𝑸𝒈𝑯 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟗𝒙 𝟑 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒙𝟐𝟓𝟑. 𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒈 = 235.6 MW
3. A small hydro power plant uses a single-jet impulse turbine running under a head of 31m. The
supply pipeline is 145m long and 0.15m in diameter, and has a friction factor of 0.008. The
turbine nozzle can be adjusted to give a range of jet diameters, and has a velocity coefficient of
0.95.
If the system is set to run at a pipeline transmission efficiency of 0.92, what power is produced
at the nozzle exit, and what jet diameter is required?
[5.595 kW; 35.4 mm]
𝟑𝟐𝒇𝒍𝑸𝟐
ηtr= 0.92, so loss 𝝅𝟐𝒅𝟐
= 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝒈𝑯
𝟎.𝟎𝟖𝝅𝟐𝒅𝟓 𝒈𝑯 𝟎.𝟎𝟖𝝅𝟐(𝟎.𝟏𝟓)𝟓𝒙𝟗.𝟖𝟏𝒙𝟑𝟏
∴ 𝑸𝟐 = 𝟑𝟐𝒇𝒍
=
𝟑𝟐𝒙𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟖𝒙𝟏𝟒𝟓
= 𝟒. 𝟗𝟏𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟒; Q = 0.02216 m3/s
𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 = ηO/A.ρQgH = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟐𝑪𝟐𝒗 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒙𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟔𝒙𝟑𝟏𝒙𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 W = 5.596 kW
𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝟓𝟓𝟗𝟔
𝐀𝐥𝐬𝐨, 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 = 𝛒𝐐 𝟐𝑵 , so 𝟐𝑵 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒙𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟔 = 252.6 ∴ 𝑽𝑵 = 22.47 m/s
𝑸 𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟔 𝟒
𝑨𝑵 = 𝑽 = 𝟐𝟐.𝟒𝟕
= 9.86x10-4 m2 ; 𝒅𝑵 = √𝝅 𝑨𝑵 = 35.4 mm
𝑵
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Wave Energy
1
Global ocean wave energy resource
 Global wave energy

resource estimated to
be ~18.5 PWh/yr*
92 70
49 41
 Of which 750 TWh/yr is 102 48 32
38 18
38 19
feasibly extractable 15 19 20
18 34 14
using current 15 12 40
10
17 21
technologies (4%) 24
25 38 43 37 48
50 78 72
50 33 84
 UK demand is 2.2 97
PWh/yr Annual average in kW/m width of wave
*Gunn, K., & Stock-Williams, C. (2012). Quantifying the global wave

power resource. Renewable Energy, 44, 296-304.
2
Wave energy
 For travelling ocean waves, water particles energy as the wave travels along is minimal.
move in circular orbits, the radius of the orbit
decaying exponentially with depth.  A surface wave is an efficient energy carrier:
energy gathered in storms is stored and
 In shallow water, the orbits distort into transmitted over hundreds or even
ellipses, with velocities generally well below thousands of km.
1 m/s.
 Wave energy will be more constant than the
 The relative motion is moderate, frictional wind energy from which it is derived.
(viscous) effects are small and dissipation of
3
Wave energy
 Period for waves passing a reference point:
2𝜋λ
𝑇=
𝑔
λ = wavelength
 Power, P, per metre length of wave front:
𝜌𝑔2 𝑎2 𝑇
𝑃=
8𝜋
a = amplitude
Image: open geology
 In storms waves reach a maximum steepness:
𝑎
≅ 0.03
λ
4
Wave power devices
 Requirements:
 operate reliably in a hostile, corrosive
environment where maintenance access may
be problematic;
 provide a means for efficient conversion of
the low-frequency (~0.1 Hz) cyclic wave
motion into a useful energy form (most
commonly electricity);
 survive the 50-year storm condition at the
chosen site.
 Extreme storms in deep water can produce waves
over 30m high, with energy flows of several MW/m
of wave front.
 Moorings for deep-water systems are a particular

concern. Wave energy converters, unlike offshore
Image: EMEC
oil platforms, are designed to react with the waves
and will experience very large structural loads.
 A device may be moved into shallow water near the

shore but then the smaller waves and their
directional nature significantly reduce the available
mean power.
5
Device classification
 Wave devices can be classed in three
main categories.
• Passive – designed to guide the

waves to spill over into elevated
reservoirs, which then drain
through conventional low-head
hydraulic turbines into the sea.
• Relative motion – between

structural parts with the motion
employed to transfer a working
fluid around a circuit to drive a
rotary machine.
• Oscillating water column – where

sea water is admitted to a
chamber which is vented to the
atmosphere 6
Tapered channel wave power plant
Tapered
channel
Reservoir
Turbine house (250 kW)
7
Wave Dragon
 Danish design.
 Arms amplify incoming waves, which
spill over into a central chamber.
 Power take-off by simple low-head
Artist’s hydro power technology.
impression.  At full scale, would be 260 m wide and
develop up to 4 MW.
 A 1/4.5 scale prototype Wave

Dragon during sea trials off
the Danish coast in 2003.
8
Cockerell raft wave energy converter
 Funded under UK wave

energy programme in the
1980s.
 Segmented raft flexes under

wave action.
 Power take-off using high-

pressure hydraulics.
 1/10-scale prototype tested

in the English channel
9
Salter’s Duck
 Funded under UK wave

energy programme in the
1980s.
 Angular motion between
duck and spine actuates
hydraulic pumps for
power take-off.
 Testing of ducks at about

1/10 scale in Loch Ness,
late 1980s.
 Each duck is free to take
up its own angular
position relative to the
common spine.
10
Pelamis
 1/7 scale model in sea
trials in the Firth of Forth
near Edinburgh, 2001
power
conversion
module Hydraulic ram
High pressure accumulator
Hydraulic motor and generator
Fluid reservoir
Hinged joint
11
Pelamis 750 kW prototype
12
Ocean Power Technology’s PowerBuoy
 3 m diameter buoy on trial in
Hawaii, 2009.
 A floating “point absorber” with a
submerged reaction plate.
 Hydraulic power take-off.
 Various sizes have been produced.
 Larger version
showing reaction
plate.
13
Aquamarine Power’s Oyster
 UK company based in NI.

 Sea-bed mounted, partially buoyant
oscillating plate with hydraulic
power take-off.
 Shallow-water device (10 to 12 m
for this prototype, rated at 315 kW).
 Sea water is pumped to on-shore
hydro turbine.
 Oyster 1
prototype on
 Illustration of an test at EMEC
array of Oyster (Orkney) in
devices. 2010.
14
Masuda buoy
Generator
Oscillating air flow
Flotation chamber
 Japanese wave-powered
navigation buoy, introduced in
1960’s.
 Overall diameter 3m.
 Air turbine and 60W generator
powered by oscillating water
column.
 Output stored in lead-acid
batteries.
15
Generator
Norwegian OWC
Wells turbine
Circular splash
guard
with annular
space for air
flow to turbine
OWC chamber
 500 kW prototype single-rotor Wells

turbine on shoreline near Stavanger.
 Concrete OWC chamber topped by
steel tubular tower.
 Constructed 1985, destroyed by
storm in 1988.
16
OWC, Islay
Turbine
Generator
 Prototype OWC device,
Portnahaven, Islay.
 Wells turbine and
generator rated at 75
kW.
 Constructed in 1985, de-
commissioned in 1999
OWC
 Limpet: 500 kW system
installed near
Portnahaven.
17
Significant events
1965 Wave-powered navigation beacon developed by
Japan Masuda. 50W oscillating water column device
(OWC). Several hundred constructed and deployed
around Japanese coastline.
1985 Two prototypes constructed: a 500 kW OWC and a
Norway 350 kW passive device. OWC destroyed in storm in
1988.
1985 Prototype 75 kW OWC constructed at shoreline site
Scotland on Islay. Satisfactory operation; decommissioned
1999.
1995 Osprey 2 MW prototype OWC constructed. Device
Scotland damaged by storm during installation and removed
from site. Replacement planned but abandoned due
to unforeseen problems with site.
1998 Two 500 kW OWC shoreline installations given
clearance to proceed with EC research funding.
Locations Islay, Scotland, and Pico in the Azores.
Both commissioned in 2001-02.
2003
Scotland Construction of full-scale 750 kW Pelamis prototype
for trial deployment at EMEC.
2004 Image: Pelamis WEC
Europe Sea trials of Archimedes Wave Swing off Portugal
and Wave Dragon over-topping device in Danish
2006 waters.
Portugal
Agreement for first wave energy ‘farm’ using Pelamis
machines. 18
Conclusions
 Ocean wave energy is an appreciable but not huge global
potential resource but reliable exploitation presents an
engineering challenge which has yet to be overcome.
 Fundamentally different devices have been proposed and

the best path remains unclear.
 Shallow water demonstration systems have been

appearing throughout the world but the production of
significant amounts of energy requires deep water
installation. The success of deep water devices similar to
Pelamis is crucial to future large-scale exploitation.
 Costs during the early stages of development cannot

possibly compete with more established technologies such
as wind and solar, and must be subsidised if an industry is
to grow.
 Production is likely to be far from demand centres, so

reinforcement of the electricity grid will be required and
transmission costs will be substantial.
19
Recap
• Wave energy resource

• Wave theory and resource estimation
• Wave energy devices
– Passive
– Relative motion
– OWC
• Historical events and outlook
Tidal Energy
22
Gravity and the tides
 Gravitational pull of moon (and sun) cause

water to bulge – bulge moves with position
of moon and the sun.
 Creates height differences (tidal range) and
underwater flows (tidal stream)
 Lunar cycle has a period of about 12h 25min.
 Spring and neap tides.
 Tidal range would be very small (about 0.5 m)
if the earth were covered in water. But the
land masses interfere, and create large
ranges in some parts of the world and fast
moving flows.
 Potential resource 150 TWh/yr
 Two power extraction methods: tidal barrage
and tidal stream.
ME927 Tidal energy 23
La Rance tidal barrage system, France
Power: 240 MW (from 24 turbines)
Annual generation: 500 GWh
Tidal range: 8 m
Capacity factor: 28%
Length: 700 m
 Location: Brittany, France

 Completed 1967
 Capital cost €94.5 million
 Operated initially as an experimental power plant
 Owned and operated by Électricité de France

Tidal range: single-effect barrage system
S: sluice gates
T: turbines
S
Sea Basin
T
Sea Basin
Mean
level
z1 Z z2
Datum

Operation of a single effect barrage system
pumping
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 750
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8 Filling Standing Standing
-1Standing Pumping Power generation
 Basin is filled through the sluices until high tide; sluice gates are closed.
 There may be pumping using grid electricity to raise the level further.
 Turbine gates closed until the sea level falls to create sufficient head across the
barrage.
 Gates opened and turbines generate until the head is again low.
 Sluices are opened, turbines disconnected and the basin is again filled.

Proposed Severn barrage, UK
 Length: 16 km
 Tidal range: 10 m
 Rated power: 7 – 12 GW
Artist’s impression
 Estimated cost: £34 billion

 Scale and impact would be
unprecedented
 Major environmental impacts
 Other significant resources exist in
the UK

Tidal stream power extraction
 Extraction of energy from tidal flows
around coastlines.
 More likely ocean energy source than
wave power in the medium term.
 Conversion technology still immature.
 Three different design options:
 horizontal-axis turbines
 vertical-axis turbines
 oscillating hydrofoils
 Proposed designs offer a wide variety
of configurations and mooring
arrangements.
 Pentland Firth estimated at ~1.9 GW
or ~40% of the total Scottish demand.
Aqua-RET 2012

European Marine Energy Centre (EMEC)
http://www.emec.org.uk/
 Established in 2003, located in Orkney

 Provides developers with accredited, open-sea testing facilities
 Maintains 14 grid-connected test berths and associated
infrastructure

Stingray
Artist’s impression
 Employs an oscillating hydrofoil.
 Hydraulic power take-off system.

Stingray trial in Yell Sound, Shetland 2002
 Device produced 90 kW output in a 1.5 m/s current.

Testing of prototype turbine, Devon.
 Project managed
by Marine Current
Turbines Ltd.
 300 kW rating - 2
blades, rotor
diameter 11 m.
 No yaw
mechanism and no
electrical
connection to
shore.

Strom AS, Norway
 Rated at 300 kW, rotor

diameter 20 m.
 Deployed in fjord near
Hammerfest in 2003.
 Turbine has a tripod
supporting framework
with gravity ballast.
 Joint venture with
ScottishPower to deploy
a proposed10 MW farm
in the Sound of Islay,
Scotland.

SMD Hydrovision
 Main picture shows

1/10 scale turbine on
test site at NAREC UK.
 Features a moored
buoyant structure for
artist’s impression
use in deep water.
 Full scale device has 2
rotors of 15m diameter,
rated at1 MW.

SeaGen
 Designed by Marine
Current Turbines
Ltd.
 Rated power
output 1.2 MW.
 Twin 16m diameter
rotors on a piled
supporting column.
 Installed in
Strangford Lough,
Northern Ireland,
2008.

Open Hydro
 Hub-less design with a

permanent magnet
generator around the rotor
rim.
 Rigidly mounted, accepts bi-
directional flow.
 Prototype device has been
evaluated at EMEC.
 Further demonstrator
planned for Bay of Fundy,
Nova Scotia.
artist’s impression

MeyGen
 Consent obtained for

installation in the
Pentland Firth, between
Orkney and Scottish
mainland.
 AR1000 turbine has a
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-24100811
rotor diameter of 22.5 m,
viewed September 2013 weighs 1,500 tonnes, and
is rated at 1MW.
“August [2017] proved to be a world record month,  Aspiration: 400 turbines
providing enough energy to power 2,000 Scottish generating 398 MW.
homes from just two turbines [700 MWh]. “
(David Taaffe, Project Director as quoted in the Independent)

University of Strathclyde/ Nautricity: CoRMaT
 Contra Rotating
Marine Turbine
(CoRMaT).
 2.5 m diameter
contra-rotating
turbine
prototype.
 Tow-tank tested
and sea trialled
in the Firth of
Clyde and Sound
of Islay.

Prototype CoRMaT test results
1: Tow-tank tests confirm 2: Sea trials confirm 3: ... and enhanced power
neutral buoyancy dynamic stability ... output
nominal plus2deg plus4deg

Poly. (nominal) Poly. (plus2deg) Poly. (plus4deg)
50
0.5 40
0.4
30
Hub
Power coefficient
20 Vgen (V)
0.3
Pitch (deg)
10 Roll (deg)
0.2
0
0.1 0 20 40 60 80 100
-10
0
-20
2 4 6 8 10 12
Tip speed ratio Time (seconds)

CoRMaT 750 kW device manufacture
 GFRP Blades – Airborne, Netherlands

 Contra-rotating radial PMG – Smartmotor, Norway
CoRMaT assembly and deployment
EMEC2013

CoRMaT deployment at EMEC – 2013

Challenges
Reduce capital cost.

Limit corrosion and abrasion.
Maintenance and safety issues.
Power take-off at low rotation
speed.
Gearing reduction/elimination.
Power transmission/grid access.
Maritime & aquaculture impact.

Firm Power
 An advantage of tidal stream

energy over wind and solar
power is that it is predictable
 Key question is therefore given

the daily and monthly velocity
variations, can phased tidal
stream sites be employed to
provide predictable, firm power?

Synchronised tidal stream farms?
 3 Scottish coastal sites investigated:
Cape Wrath
Crinan at the Sound of Jura
The Mull of Kintyre
 Spring and Neap tide daily velocity

variations at the 3 sites
2.75 Cape Wrath Crinan Sanda
2.5
2.25
2
Tidal velocity (m/s)
1.75 1.75 Cape Wrath Crinan Sanda
1.5
1.5
1.25
1 1.25
`
Tidal velocity (m/s)
0.75
1
0.5
0.25 0.75
0 `
0.5
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
Spring Time (hours) 0.25
0
Significant variation across the lunar Neap 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
cycle and departures from sinusoidal Time (hours)
behaviour.
Synchronised power output
Assumptions:
 Turbines operate in an open stream

environment. device
 Turbine has a cut-in stream velocity, with characteristic
enforced idleness at slack water.
 Above a rated stream velocity power is
held constant.
 Device sized for maximum power
extraction. 20000
18000
Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Total
 Available power given by P = ½ ρ A V3 (ρ 16000
14000
the fluid density, A rotor swept area and V 12000
Power (W/m2)
10000
stream velocity). 8000

power output
 Turbine Cp= 0.3, cut-in @ 1 m/s, cut-out
6000
4000
2000
@ 2.5 m/s). 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time (min)

Site and aggregate power output
350 Cape Wrath Crinan Sanda Total output
325
300
275
250
225 Cape Wrath Crinan Sanda Total output
Power (kW)
75
200
175
150
125
100 50
Power (kW)
75
50
25
spring
0
25
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
Time (hours)
neap
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
Time (hours)
 Spring tides: a significant base load is evident - about 1/3 of peak.

 Neap tides: the outputs are much lower at about 1/4 of peak.
 Changes between successive cycles are evident - Kyntyre is cycling at
a higher frequency, a phenomenon that will reverse at another point
in the lunar cycle.
Power output fluctuation over the lunar cycle
325
Options:
300
 size turbines to restrict the
275
maximum output to that
250
experienced during neap tides;
225
200  size turbines for the average

175 monthly output and introduce
Power (kW)
150 other sources of energy to

125 meet the shortfall;
100
75
 size turbines for the spring tide
50 condition and introduce long
25 term (weekly) energy storage
0 so that the excess capacity
0 24 48 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240 264 288 312 336 360 384 408 432 456 480 504 528 552 576 600 624 648 672
Time (hours) during near-spring tides can be
stored for later use.
 Variation between spring and neap tide power production shown here over a
half-month period.
 Fluctuations in output due to the lunar cycle affect all sites simultaneously.

Recap
• Tidal resource
• Tidal barrage concept and
systems
• Tidal turbine examples
• Case study: CoRMAT
• Technological challenges
• Synchronised tidal farm
output
Handout:
Wave power
1. The resource
Generated by the action of the wind, ocean waves are a very concentrated form of renewable
energy, with mean power levels of many kW/m width of wave front. Its distribution around
the world is not uniform, most of the energy being found in high northern and southern
latitudes (Figure 1). But there are many countries with heavy energy demands, for which
wave energy offers a large potential resource.
92 70
49 41
102 48 32
38 18
38 19
15 19 20
34
18 14
12 10
15 40
17 21
24 43 37
25 38 48
50 78 72
50 33 84
97
Figure 1: Annual mean power in ocean waves around the world, in kW/m of wave front.
For travelling ocean waves, the water particles move in circular orbits, the radius of the orbit
decaying exponentially with depth (Figure 2). In shallow water, the
orbits distort into ellipses.
1 This particle motion is
gentle, with velocities
generally well below 1
m/s. The relative motion
is moderate, frictional
(viscous) effects are
small and dissipation of
energy as the wave
-6 travels along is minimal.
0 750 So a surface wave is a
very efficient energy
Figure 2: Orbital motion of water particles carrier: energy gathered
beneath a travelling wave. in storms is stored and
transmitted over
hundreds or even thousands of km. It follows that at a given site, wave energy will be more
constant than the wind energy from which it is derived.
Most of the analysis of wave energy conversion devices has used linear wave theory, in which
the water surface profile is assumed to be sinusoidal. The period T for waves travelling past a
fixed reference point is related to their wavelength λ by the equation
2π λ
T =
g
and the power, P, contained in the wave, per metre width of wave front, is given by
ρ g2 a2 T
P =
8π
where a is the wave amplitude. There is no specific relationship between amplitude and
wavelength.
In stormy weather, waves will reach a maximum steepness (a/λ) of about 0.03 and then
break, dissipating some of their energy in the process. A similar sequence of events,
steepening and then breaking, occurs as waves enter shallow water near the shore. For these
conditions, linear theory is no longer appropriate.
2. Technology
Ocean wave energy conversion has fascinated inventors for centuries, and many different
ideas have been put forward. A successful device must meet a number of requirements:
• it must operate reliably in a hostile, corrosive environment where frequent access for
maintenance may be problematic;
• it must provide a means for efficient conversion of the low-frequency (~0.1 Hz) cyclic
wave motion into a useful form (most commonly electricity);
• and it must survive the 50-year storm at its chosen site.
Extreme storms in deep water can produce waves over 30m high, with energy flows of many
MW/m of wave front. Moorings for deep-water systems are a particular concern. Wave
energy converters, unlike offshore oil platforms, are designed to react with the waves and will
experience very large structural loads. A device may be moved into shallow water near the
shore to avoid such conditions, but then the smaller waves and their directional nature
significantly reduce the available mean power.
It is possible to classify wave energy conversion

devices in various ways. Passive devices can be
designed to guide the waves to spill over into
elevated reservoirs, which then drain through
conventional low-head hydraulic turbines into the
sea. A number of shore-line prototypes have been
constructed. Another range of devices use the
waves to induce relative motion between parts of a
structure. This motion can then be employed to
transfer a working fluid (hydraulic oil, water or
even air) around a circuit, driving a rotary machine
in the process. Many different configurations have
been proposed. A third category is the oscillating
water column device: here, the sea water is Figure 3: Oscillating water
column schematic.
admitted to a chamber which is vented to the
atmosphere (Figure 3).
The free surface in the chamber oscillates in response to the forcing motion of the waves, and
this in turn induces a high-velocity oscillating air flow through the vent at the top, which may
be used to drive a turbine and generator. An advantage of the design is that all machinery is
located well above the water line.
Most of the prototypes which have appeared around the world have been based on the
oscillating water column concept. In some of these, the oscillating air flow has been rectified
by a system of ducting and non-return valves. More recently, the specially-developed Wells
turbine has been used. This is an axial-flow device with high solidity. The aerofoils are
symmetrical (Figure 4) with a high thickness-to-chord ratio which is necessary to ensure an
adequate starting torque.
L
Plane of
rotation
Figure 4: Section of Wells turbine aerofoil showing path of streamlines when rotor is
stationary.
Deflection of the airstream past the rounded leading edge of the aerofoil produces a small but
distinct lift force L. The rotor will tend to move in the same direction, regardless of the
direction of flow. As the rotor speeds up, aerodynamic efficiency improves, but is never more
than moderate (about 70% in the laboratory, 50 to 60% in real waves), and future designs may
include guide vanes or variable-pitch blading, departing from the simplicity of the original
concept.
3. Exploitation
The most significant events are listed below.
1965 Wave-powered navigation beacon developed by Masuda. 50W oscillating

Japan water column (OWC) device. Several hundred constructed and deployed
around Japanese coastline.
1985 Two prototypes constructed: a 500 kW OWC and a 350 kW passive device.
Norway Performance matched expectations. OWC destroyed in storm in 1988.
1985 Prototype 75 kW OWC device constructed at shoreline site on Islay.

Scotland Satisfactory operation; decommissioned 1999.
1995 Osprey 2 MW prototype OWC constructed. Device damaged by storm
Scotland during installation and removed from site. Replacement planned but
abandoned due to unforeseen problems with site.
1998 Two 500 kW OWC shoreline installations given clearance to proceed with
EC research funding. Locations Islay, Scotland and Pico, in the Azores.
Both commissioned in 2001 – 02.
2003 Construction of full-scale 750 kW Pelamis prototype for trial deployment at

Scotland Orkney test centre.
2004 Sea trials of Archimedes Wave Swing off Portugal and Wave Dragon over-
Europe topping device in Danish waters.
2006 Agreement for first wave energy ‘farm’ using Pelamis machines.
Portugal
High fossil fuel prices and concerns over security of supply are causing a resurgence
of interest in wave energy. New projects and prototypes are presently appearing in many
parts of the world.
4. Environmental impact
Offshore (deep water) devices will have no great visual impact, and their effect on marine
ecosystems, coastal currents and wave climates are likely to be small. Their ability to create
sheltered zones should not be relied upon, for in storm conditions they would be designed to
allow most of the approaching energy to pass by in order to survive. They might be a hazard
to shipping, and to fishing activities. If large quantities of power are produced, the visual
impact of electrical transmission lines in coastal regions may be a concern.
Coastline or shallow-water devices could interfere with recreational activities, will have some
visual impact and may generate noise. They may also have an unwelcome impact on local
wildlife.
5. Conclusions
Ocean wave energy is a major resource in global terms, but its exploitation presents an
engineering challenge which has not yet been overcome. Many fundamentally different
devices have been proposed, and the correct path to follow is still not clear. Demonstration
systems in shallow water, where operating conditions are comparatively benign, have been
appearing in many parts of the world. But the production of significant amounts of energy
requires a move offshore into deeper waters. The success of devices designed for this
purpose, such as Pelamis, is crucial to future large-scale exploitation.
Costs during the early stages of development cannot possibly compete with conventional
sources, and must be subsidised if an industry is to grow. Analogies with the wind industry
are relevant here. Production of wave energy is likely to be far from demand centres, so
reinforcement of the electricity grid will generally be required and transmission costs will be
substantial.
Handout:
Tidal barrage
1. The energy source
Around the coastlines of the world, sea levels rise and fall due to the gravitational attraction
of the moon and the sun. The moon exerts the major influence: its rotational period about the
earth is about 4 weeks and this, combined with the earth’s own daily rotation results in a
period for the tidal cycle of about 12.5 hours. The tidal range (the overall variation in water
level during the cycle) is at its maximum when the gravitational pull of the moon is
augmented by that of the sun: a Spring tide, coinciding with a new moon or full moon. The
minimum range, when sun and moon are working against each other, is called a Neap tide.
This cycle of spring and neap tides therefore has roughly a monthly period. Further variations
in tidal range are caused by the fact that the orbits of the moon around the earth, and the earth
around the sun, are elliptical and in slightly different planes. However, these motions are well
determined and the timing and range of tidal movements around the world is predictable to a
high level of accuracy - unusually for a renewable energy source. The only uncertainty
concerns local weather patterns, which can produce abnormally high (or low) tides from time
to time.
It is the gradient of the gravitational field which creates differences in sea level: Figure 1
shows this in an exaggerated form. The magnitude and direction of local gravitational forces
are indicated by the large vectors. If the mean force is subtracted, local relative effects may
be seen (the shorter, fainter vectors). The sea level responds accordingly.
E M
Figure 1: Gradient of moon’s gravitational field, and its effect on the earth’s oceans.
If the world were completely covered by water, tidal effects would be quite small, with a
range of about 0.5m. It is the presence of land masses which channel the water movements
and give rise to much larger local ranges. But promising sites (where the mean range exceeds
say 5m) are not very numerous, and are unevenly distributed around the world (Figure 2).
Enclosed areas of water, such as the Mediterranean, Baltic or Black Seas tend to have
negligible tidal effects.
2. Exploitation: tidal barrage systems
An area of coastal water, previously open to the sea, is trapped by the construction of a dam
or barrage. Gates are included in the barrage to allow free passage of water when required
and other openings contain turbines for the generation of electrical power. The operating
strategy for the system and the timing of the opening and closing of gates must be carefully
planned to maximise energy capture.
Power generation may be during inflow to the basin, during outflow, or both. The most
commonly adopted procedure is to generate on outflow (Figure 3), with the possibility of
using pumping briefly at the end of the inflow period to increase the quantity of energy
produced.
5 40
33
20
10
8
5
5
80
20
Figure 2: World tidal energy resources, exploitable at reasonable cost, in GW.
S
SEA
BASIN
T
Figure 3: Single-effect tidal barrage scheme with sluice gates (S) and turbines (T).
A typical cycle of this type is shown in Figure 4. The rise and fall of the sea level outside the
barrage is assumed to be sinusoidal. The basin level is initially held constant, and then
allowed to fill. At high tide, the gates are closed, and the basin is isolated (solid line). The
sea level falls, and when there is sufficient head differential, water is allowed to leave the
basin through the turbines. After a time, the head differential becomes too small and power
generation is terminated. All gates are closed, the basin level remains static and the cycle
begins once more.
Pumping may be performed for a short time (dotted line), using electricity from the grid, to
raise the level of the basin and increase the energy output during the power generation phase.
The rise in head during pumping is small compared to the differential head during power
generation, and so there is a net gain in energy capture despite the electrical, mechanical and
hydraulic losses. The duration of pumping must be limited to avoid flooding in the basin
region.
It will be seen that power is produced for less than 50% of the time, which may pose
problems for the integration of large schemes into electrical networks. The construction of
two or more basins linked together may produce a more uniform power flow, at the cost of
some complexity.
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 750
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
Filling Standing Standing
-1
Standing Pumping Power generation
Figure 4: Variation with time of sea and basin levels for single-effect tidal barrage
(power generation on outflow), with and without pumping.
The long period of the cycle permits the use of conventional low-head hydro-electric plant,
typically horizontal-axis machines with bulb or rim generators. For local, low-output
schemes more unusual designs have been proposed, but have not yet progressed beyond the
laboratory stage.
Exploitation worldwide has been very limited: the most significant site is at La Rance on the
French coast, with ten 24MW bulb turbines, which was built in the 1960’s. A single 20MW
unit is operating in Newfoundland, and there are a few much smaller demonstration plants
around the world. A major difficulty appears to be the raising of capital for such large civil
engineering projects, with several years of construction time before money begins to return to
the investors.
3. Environmental aspects
Environmental impact is localised, but may be severe. At La Rance, the river estuary had to
be blocked during part of the construction phase, and the ecosystem in the basin area
collapsed, to recover to some extent once flow had resumed. Wildlife and ecology are the
main concerns, with the possibility of silt and pollutants collecting in the basin. Interference
with shipping is a problem for many schemes, and provision for passage through the barrage
must be made. On the positive side, the barrage will create a sheltered area for leisure
activities, and can be used as a road or rail link.
4. Analysis
If the rise and fall of the surface of the sea is assumed to be sinusoidal, then
z1 = Z + a.sin ωt (see Figure 5). The motion of the free surface is deter-mined by
d z2 Cd A
= 2 g ( z1 − z 2 )
dt B
where A and Cd are the cross-sectional area and discharge coefficient of the flow passage
through the barrier and B is the basin surface area. When the flow is directed through a
turbine, the power theoretically available at any given instant is
3
P = ρ g C d A 2 g ( z1 − z 2 )
Sea Basin
mean
level
z1 Z z2
DATUM
Figure 5: Cross-section through tidal barrage.
For any system, the energy extracted per cycle, E, depends upon the tidal range (2a), the basin
area B and also ρ and g. Dimensional analysis produces an energy coefficient
E
ΦE = 2
(2 a ) Bρ g
for which the maximum achievable value seems to be about 0.2 with E measured in Joules.
Actual* and proposed tidal barrage schemes
Location Mean tidal Barrage Basin Turbines Capacity

range (m) length (km) area (no., dia.) (MW)
(km2)
*La Rance (France) 8.0 0.75 22 24, 5.4m 240
River Severn (UK) 7.2 16.3 1000 192, 9m 12000
Solway Firth (UK) 5.6 30 860 180, 9m 5580
Bay of Fundy 11.7 8 282 128, 8m 4865

(Newfoundland)
Golfo San Jose 5.8 7 788 270, 8m 6000
(Argentina)
5. Conclusions
On a global scale, tidal power can make only a small contribution to our needs, but locally, it
can provide a large resource. It is unusual among renewable energy sources in being highly
predictable. Barrage schemes use established technology and in a number of locations, costs
compare favourably with conventional energy sources. However, the scale of investment
required is very large (comparable with large hydro-electric schemes), and little progress is
likely without government support. Environmental impact is localised but may be severe, and
needs careful consideration.
Handout:
Tidal current turbines
1. Exploitation
In certain parts of the world, tidal effects

produce large local velocities as water
forces its way through narrow passages
between land masses. The energy in these
tidal streams could be extracted by free
turbines immersed in the water. In the
UK, it has been estimated that 15% of
electricity demand could be met from this
source. Even in the Mediterranean there
are possibilities: the Straits of Messina Stingray oscillating hydrofoil
appear to be a very promising site.
The technology is not well developed, but

can draw on experience in other areas.
The fluid dynamic behaviour is similar to
that for wind turbines, although the
presence of a free surface and adjacent
land masses will tend to confine the flow.
Existing expertise in the offshore oil and
gas industries will assist in choice of
materials, and techniques for deployment
and recovery. Velocity shear, turbulence,
cavitation and the presence of surface
Generic vertical-axis turbine
waves must all be considered in predicting
turbine performance.
The horizontal-axis wind turbine is the

model for most designs proposed so far.
This of course dominates the wind turbine
market, but in tidal stream technology no
such superiority yet exists: a variety of
alternative designs are under active
development, including oscillating
hydrofoils and vertical-axis turbines. Lunar Energy ducted turbine
Horizontal-axis machines with open-
centred, ducted and contra-rotating rotors
have been devised, in addition to more
conventional designs. Mooring
arrangements proposed so far have
included rigid piles, gravity bases, floating
platforms and tensioned flexible
arrangements.
Open Hydro turbine rotor
300 kW horizontal-axis turbine
2.5 m diameter contra-rotating horizontal-

axis turbine
1.2 MW twin-rotor turbine, now installed in Strangford Lough, N Ireland
Marine current turbines are essentially modular in nature, and like wind turbines can be built
into arrays or ‘farms’.
The initial investment required is fairly moderate and although energy costs are at first
expected to be high (up to 10 pence/kWh), they should fall steadily as the technology
matures.
Environmentally, there are a number of concerns:

• Impact on marine eco-systems during construction and deployment;
• Damage to large marine creatures from collision with rotors (although the low
velocity of the current implies very low rotational speeds);
• Interference with shipping and fishing activities;
• Visual impact of transmission lines: unfortunately many of the most promising sites
are far from centres of electricity demand.
2. Estimation of energy capture
In some locations, marine turbines might receive energy from a combination of quasi-steady
marine currents and flows induced by the tides. Estimation of energy capture is then a fairly
complex procedure. But for most sites the flows are purely tidal, and calculation is relatively
simple. Current velocity V follows a cyclic pattern:
V = Vmax sinω t
2π
where ω = and T is the period of the cycle.
T
For tides, T is typically 12 h 25 min or 745 minutes. A tidal current turbine will normally
generate power for both flow directions, so its power characteristic (as a function of time) will
be similar for each half of the cycle. The value of Vmax is not necessarily the same for the two
halves of the cycle; each site has its own peculiarities.
The graph shows the power available (faint line) and the predicted power output (heavy line)
for a small turbine over a typical half-cycle.
14000
12000
10000
Power, Watts
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0 T2 100 200 300 400
Time, minutes
T1
Here the turbine power coefficient is assumed to be 0.4, a cut-in power level of 1 kW
is imposed, and power is limited to a maximum (rated) value of 5 kW. Given the
predictable nature of tidal flows, it should not be necessary to set a cut-out condition
for the turbine during normal operation.
The times at which cut-in and rated power occur (relative to the start of the cycle) are
indicated by T1 and T2 in the Figure.
The energy captured is given by the area under the power curve. In general the power
produced by the turbine is
P = 0.5 Cp ρ πR2 V 3
where R is the radius of the rotor, ρ is the water density and Cp is the power coefficient.
∫
So the energy captured during one quarter of a full tidal cycle is P dt , or
T2
∫ 0 .5 C
T1
p ρ π R 2 Vmax 3 sin 3 ω t + Prated [186.25 – T2]
working in units of minutes for time; t = 186.25 represents the mid-point of the half-cycle
shown in the Figure. Mean power output and capacity coefficient (same definition as for
wind turbines) may easily be calculated.
Note that the turbine produces no power for a period equal to 2T1, spanning the end of one
half-cycle and the beginning of the next.
Questions:
Tidal power
1. A turbine to generate power from marine currents is based upon a wind turbine rotor
specification, for which the variation of power coefficient CP with tip speed ratio XT is shown
in the figure below. It is desired to produce 10 kW from a stream velocity of 2 m/s, with the
turbine running at a tip speed ratio of 5. Specify the rotor diameter and its speed of rotation.
[Hint: source the formula for tip speed ratio.]
The turbine is to operate at constant speed, and to shut down when its output falls below 2 kW.
Use an iterative procedure to estimate the stream velocity at which this will occur. Assume a
water density of 1060 kg/m3 throughout.
[2.69 m; 71.0 rev/min; 1.31 m/s]
0.5
0.4
Power Coefficient
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Tip Speed Ratio
2. At a site for a tidal current turbine, the water velocity varies sinusoidally with a period
of 12 h 25 min. The turbine has a rotor of 15 m diameter and a rated power output of
600 kW. It has a cut-in current speed of 0.5 m/s.
For a tidal steam with a maximum current velocity of 2.5 m/s, determine whether the
turbine will reach its rated power output. Assume a power coefficient of 0.39 and a
water density of 1025 kg/m3.
Determine the energy captured by the turbine over a full tidal cycle, for the above
conditions. Note that
1 1 
 sin t  cos 3  t  cos  t  .
3

 3 
During the tidal cycle, there are periods when the turbine produces zero output. These
periods will be longest for neap tides. If the smallest neap tide at the site gives a
maximum current velocity of 1.7 m/s, calculate the length of the corresponding zero-
output period.
[No; 2907 kWh; 1h 10.8 min]
3. The energy produced per cycle in a tidal power plant, E is a function of the tidal range (2a), the
tidal basin area B, the water density  and the gravitational constant g. A non-
dimensional energy parameter  E may be produced, where
E
E  .
(2a ) 2 Bg
For La Rance tidal barrage system, the mean tidal range is 8.0m and the basin area is 22 km2.
The annual energy produced from the plant is 544 GWh. Compute a value for E, and hence
estimate the annual and time-averaged outputs from a system where the mean tidal range is 5.2
m and the basin surface area is 1.8 km2. Take the water density as 1025 kg/m3.
[0.197; 18.77 GWh; 2.143MW]
Questions:
Tidal power
Answers
1. A turbine to generate power from marine currents is based upon a wind turbine rotor
specification, for which the variation of power coefficient CP with tip speed ratio XT is shown
in the figure below. It is desired to produce 10 kW from a stream velocity of 2 m/s, with the
turbine running at a tip speed ratio of 5. Specify the rotor diameter and its speed of rotation.
[Hint: source the formula for tip speed ratio.]
The turbine is to operate at constant speed, and to shut down when its output falls below 2 kW.
Use an iterative procedure to estimate the stream velocity at which this will occur. Assume a
water density of 1060 kg/m3 throughout.
[2.69 m; 71.0 rev/min; 1.31 m/s]
0.5
0.4
Power Coefficient
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Tip Speed Ratio
𝝎𝑹
𝝀 = 𝑽 = 𝟓, so 𝝎𝑹 = 𝟓𝑽 = 𝟏𝟎 (𝝀 − 𝒕𝒊𝒑 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐)
Also, if λ = 5, Cp = 0.415
Power, P = Cp.½ρAV3
𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝟒
So 10x103 = 0.415x½x1060Ax8; 𝑨 = 𝟏.𝟕𝟓𝟗𝟔𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 = 5.683 m2; 𝑫 = √𝝅 𝑨 = 2.69 m.
𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟐
If 𝝎𝑹 = 𝟓𝑽 = 𝟏𝟎, 𝝎 = = 7.435 rad/s
𝟐.𝟔𝟗
𝟔𝟎
Rotational speed = 𝟐𝝅 = 71.0 rev/min.
Shutdown
𝝎 = 7.435 rad/s and 𝝎𝑹 = 𝟏𝟎 as before.
Guess a value for λ and calculate power.
λ 8 7.2 7.6 7.65 𝝎𝑹 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎
𝛌 = 𝑽 = 𝑽 , so 𝑽 = 𝛌
V (m/s) 1.25 1.389 1.316 1.307
Power = ½ρACpV3
Cp 0.264 0.340 0.303 0.299
= 3.012 CpV3 kW
P (kW) 1.553 2.744 2.057 2.012
Near miss – accept V = 1.31 m/s.
2. At a site for a tidal current turbine, the water velocity varies sinusoidally with a period
of 12 h 25 min. The turbine has a rotor of 15 m diameter and a rated power output of
600 kW. It has a cut-in current speed of 0.5 m/s.
For a tidal steam with a maximum current velocity of 2.5 m/s, determine whether the
turbine will reach its rated power output. Assume a power coefficient of 0.39 and a
water density of 1025 kg/m3.
Determine the energy captured by the turbine over a full tidal cycle, for the above
conditions. Note that
1 1 
 sin  t    3 cos  t  cos  t  .
3 3
During the tidal cycle, there are periods when the turbine produces zero output. These
periods will be longest for neap tides. If the smallest neap tide at the site gives a
maximum current velocity of 1.7 m/s, calculate the length of the corresponding zero-
output period.
[No; 2907 kWh; 1h 10.8 min]
𝝅
At 2.5 m/s, 𝑷 = 𝑪𝒑 . ½𝛒𝐀𝑽𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟗𝒙½𝐱𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓𝐱 𝟒 (𝟏𝟓)𝟐 (𝟐. 𝟓)𝟑 = 551.9x103 W
Therefore will not reach its rated power output.
In general V = 2.5 sin ωt
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
𝝎 = 𝑻 =𝟕𝟒𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟒𝟑𝟒 rad/min.
𝟎.𝟓
At cut-in, 0.5 = 2.5 sin ωt, so 𝝎𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟐.𝟓) = 11.5° = 0.2014 rad.
𝟎.𝟐𝟎𝟏𝟒
Then t = T1=𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟒𝟑𝟒 = 23.87 minutes.
𝑻⁄ 𝑻⁄ 𝟏
Energy capture = ∫𝑻 𝟒 𝑪 . ½𝛒𝐀𝑽𝟑 . 𝒅𝒕
= 𝑪𝒑 . ½𝛒𝐀 ∫𝑻 𝟒[𝟐. 𝟓𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕]𝟑 . 𝒅𝒕 for 𝟒 cycle.
𝟏
𝒑 𝟏
When 𝒕 = 𝑻⁄𝟒,
𝝅 𝑻⁄
𝟑 𝟒 𝟑
= 0.39x½x1025x𝟒 (𝟐. 𝟓) ∫𝑻 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕. 𝒅𝒕
𝟏 𝝎𝑻 𝝅
𝟏 𝟏
𝑻⁄
𝟒
= 𝟐 = 90°
3 𝟑 𝟒
= 551.9x10 x𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟒𝟑𝟒 [𝟑 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕]
𝑻𝟏
6 𝟏 𝟏
= 65.44x10 [𝟑 𝒙𝟎 − 𝟎 − 𝟑 𝒙𝟎. 𝟗𝟒𝟎𝟔 + 𝟎. 𝟗𝟕𝟗𝟖]
= 43.6x106 W-min = 43.6x103 kW-min = 727 kWh
For a full cycle, capture = 4x727 = 2907 kWh
Neap tide
Here, 𝑽 = 𝟏. 𝟕 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕 and for cut-in condition, 𝟎. 𝟓 = 𝟏. 𝟕 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕.
𝟎.𝟓
𝝎𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 (𝟏.𝟕) = 17.1° = 0.2985 rad.
𝟎.𝟐𝟗𝟖𝟓
Then 𝒕 = = 35.4 minutes.
𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟒𝟑𝟒
But total ‘idle’ time = 2t = 70.8 minutes = 1 h 10.8 min.
3. The energy produced per cycle in a tidal power plant, E is a function of the tidal range (2a), the
tidal basin area, B, the water density,  , and the gravitational constant, g. A non-
dimensional energy parameter  E may be produced, where
E
E  .
(2a ) 2 Bg
For La Rance tidal barrage system, the mean tidal range is 8.0m and the basin area is 22 km2.
The annual energy produced from the plant is 544 GWh. Compute a value for E, and hence
estimate the annual and time-averaged outputs from a system where the mean tidal range is 5.2
m and the basin surface area is 1.8 km2. Take the water density as 1025 kg/m3.
[0.197; 18.77 GWh; 2.143MW]
𝟓𝟒𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝟏𝟐.𝟓
𝑬= 𝒙 = 𝟕𝟕𝟔 MWh/cycle
𝟑𝟔𝟓 𝟐𝟒
𝟕𝟕𝟔𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒙𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
ФE = 𝟔𝟒𝒙𝟐𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒙𝒈𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟓 = 0.197
For proposed system:

E = ФE(2a)2Bgρ = 0.197 (5.2)2.1.8x106.g.1025 = 96.4 x 109 J
= 26.78 MWh/cycle
Number of cycles per year = 365 x 24/12.5 = 701,
∴ in one year, E = 26.78 x 701 MWh = 18.77 GWh
𝟏𝟖.𝟕𝟕𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟗
Time-averaged output = = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟒𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 W = 2.143 MW
𝟑𝟔𝟓𝒙𝟐𝟒
1

Energy Storage
Storage context
 Some energy sources have in-built storage:
 fossil fuels
 biofuels
 hydro power.
 Others e.g. geothermal energy are available on demand.
 Most plentiful renewable sources (solar and wind) are intermittent, and the
times at which they are available will not necessarily coincide with
consumer demand.
 Consequently renewable output needs to be stored so that we can cover

demand with the available renewable supply
 Heat is a low grade energy* and can be readily stored.

*ease of conversion to work
 Electricity is a high grade energy source.
 It cannot be stored directly an needs to be converted to another form for

storage.
 electricity to battery (chemical) > 70%
 electricity to kinetic >70%.
 Electricity can also be converted to heat > 90% but realistically this is a one-
way process heat to electricity < 50%.
2
Electricity matching of supply to demand
 Electricity demand in the UK varies
continually (typical weekday periods
shown).
 There is a strong seasonal influence on
02-Feb-06 19-Jul-05
70
demand.
60
 The electricity network has no capacity
50
Mean demand, GW
for storing energy. If demand changes,
40
the amount supplied must change
almost immediately. 30
20
 Power stations output must be brought
10
online/ offline or modulated to follow
changes in demand. 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
 Some types of power station will Half-hourly intervals
tolerate this better than others.

 Peak power plants are started when
there is a demand spike and stopped
when the demand recedes.
3
Matching of supply to demand
 At present CCGT,
interconnection, hydro and
pumped hydro are used to
balance supply and demand
 In the future with more RE in
the electricity supply mix this
will become more difficult
 With electrification of heat
and transport there will be
much more electrical demand,
matched by more RE and
nuclear generation
 Gas cannot continue to be Supply mix 2pm
22/10/20
used to fill the gap
Source:
 Need storage to do this. gridcarbon.co.uk
4
Matching of supply to demand
Nuclear
output
steady but Hydro and
interconnect also Wind and solar vary
Gas flexed to inflexible continuously Demand
meet help balance system
demand
Source: gridcarbon.co.uk 5
Energy storage technologies (electricity)
Three main types: bulk,

distributed and fast.
Superconducting Compressed air

Magnetic Energy energy storage
Storage
6
7
Hydraulic pumped storage
 In generating mode, the plant

operates as a conventional
hydro power plant.
 But the generator can

function as a motor, and the
turbine as a pump. Generator
 When demand for electricity Turbine

is low, power may be taken
from the grid to pump water
into the upper reservoir, to act
as an energy store for future Motor
use when demand for
electricity is high.
Pump
Flywheel storage
 Principle: A mass turning at high
speed can store a large amount of
energy in kinetic form Ek=0.5Iω2. Energy Motor/ Flywheel
For a cylinder of mass m and source generator
radius r, I=0.5mr2.
 Storage: Electrical energy from an

intermittent source (such as a wind
turbine) drives an electric motor to
spin up the flywheel. Clutch is
disengaged, electric motor
stopped, flywheel spins freely. Clutch
Longevity of storage is affected by
friction in bearings; friction can be
reduced by magnetic levitation.
 Recovery: Clutch is engaged, electrical machine now functions as a generator and
supplies energy to meet the demand. Speed of generator may not be constant,
so it may be necessary to process its output using an inverter.
8
Compressed air energy storage
 Intermittent energy source supplies an

electric motor to drive an air compressor.
 In a domestic context, compressor waste
heat may be put to use.
 Stored energy recovered as electricity by
using an air turbine to drive a generator.
heat
 Potential problems: noise and pressure
vessel integrity.
 Industrial scale systems may be motor compressor air storage
constructed around caverns in natural salt
or limestone deposits, which then act as
the air reservoir.
air turbine
 Where such systems have been built, the
heat produced by the compressor is
dissipated so the overall efficiency 25-
45%.
9
Battery storage
 Reversible conversion of
DC electricity to chemical
energy (lead-acid, Li-on,
NICAD)
 Round trip efficiency
70%+.
 Rectifier converts AC to DC
for storage.
 Inverter converts DC to AC
for final use.
Rectifier Battery Inverter
~
10
Re-chargeable batteries
 Battery technology has developed rapidly in the last 10-15 years.
 Import/export efficiency can be as high as 75% for lead acid batteries; over 80% possible for
other types. For many small-scale applications it is much lower, between 20% and 50%.
 Recent research is directed towards use in road vehicles, where high efficiency and energy
density are required. Modern EVs use lithium ion batteries.
 Li-ion
 advantages – high energy density; low rate of self-discharge; low maintenance.
 disadvantages – relatively rapid degradation.
Lead acid Nickel Nickel Lithium

(sealed) Cadmium metal Ion
hydride
Energy density 40 65 90 150
(Wh/kg)
Cycle life 250 1500 400 500+
Charge time (h) 12 1 3 <1
11
Introduced 1970 1950 1990 2000
TESLA Powerwall
 Application – home energy storage

 Battery – rechargeable lithium-ion
 Inverter – fully integrated
 Energy – 14 kWh
 Power – 5 kW continuous, 7 kW peak
 Mounting – wall or floor mounted, indoor or
outdoor
 Round trip efficiency – 89% for AC, 91.8% for
DC
 Cost – $5,500
 Operating temperature range – -20 C to 50 C
 Warranty – unlimited cycles for up to 10
years
 Dimensions – 1150 mm x 755 mm x 155 mm
 Weight – 122 kg
12
Superconducting Magnetic Energy
Storage (SMES) & Supercapacitors
 SMES:
• Stores energy within the magnetic field of a coil
of superconducting wire with near-zero loss of
energy.
• Can store and discharge large quantities of
energy almost instantaneously.
• Enables short bursts of power to maintain grid
reliability with high penetration of stochastic
RES.
http://www.superpower-
 Super capacitors: inc.com/content/superconducting-magnetic-energy-
• energy stored in an electric field, no chemical storage-smes#acp
reactions
• high rate of charge (and discharge if required)
• long life cycle, high cycle efficiency (95% or
more)
• Both relatively expensive in terms of cost per

KWh/W; Image:
supercapacitor
Eaton Ltd.
13
Characterisation of performance
100
1s
Super-
SMES
conducting
10 1 min
Magnet
Energy
Power MW Storage High speed
1 Low speed flywheel
flywheel
Supercapacitor
0.1 Battery
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

Stored Energy MWs
14
Power versus energy
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360128515300149
15
Hydrogen economy
 Could hydrogen replace fossil fuel, Direct
Primary
acting as an energy store to serve energy heating
all demands? source
IC engines
 The electrolysis process has an H2
efficiency of ~70% (will improve

with research). Fuel cell
Electrolysis Electricity
 Commercial fuel cells are presently
less than 60% efficient.
 Hydrogen must be either
compressed or liquefied to have
an acceptable energy density –
both processes require significant
energy inputs.
 Hydrogen gas is has a low ignition
energy long-term storage and
transportation is problematic and
costly.
Alternative routes to electric road vehicle
propulsion. 16
Hydrogen round-trip efficiency
17
Aqueous flow batteries
Arrows
show
discharge
Electrolyte tanks
separated by a membrane
across which electrons
and protons can transfer,
reversibly storing and
generating electricity
(arrows show discharge).
 Conventional electrolyte: vanadium redox.

 Future electrolyte: 9,10-anthraquinone-2,7-disulphonic acid (AQDS) as found in rhubarb.
 From Huskinson B et al, ‘A metal-free organic-inorganic aqueous flow battery’, Nature,
505, pp195-198 , 2014: AQDS on the -ve side and a bromine-based redox couple on the
+ve side yields a peak galvanic power density exceeding 0.6 W/cm2 at 1.3 A/cm2 and a
better than 99% storage capacity retention per cycle.
 Advantages – highly scalable; rapid charging/ discharging; low charge loss.
 Disadvantages – low power density; relatively large and complex
18
Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G)
• Typical vehicle battery sizes

range from 7 – 85 kWh
• Connected power exchanges
range from 3-50 kW
• Household vehicles are
inactive for 95% of the time.
• 1,000,000 PHEV/EVs 7 – 85
Image:
GWh of storage capacity NY
• Output: 3-50 GW Times
• All UK pumped storage

capacity 27GWh
• Total UK generating capacity <
100 GW
Thermal storage
 Different scales: domestic and district
heating/ cooling schemes.
 Different time scales
• Short term – minutes, hours, days
• Long term – weeks, seasonal
 Storage of heat and ‘coolth’
 Domestic scale –
• Chilled/hot water tank, phase change
materials, storage heaters (short term)
• Ground storage with heat pump (long
term)
 Large/district scale
• Hot water tanks, molten salts, phase
change material, hot oil (short term)
• Ground storage, aquifiers (long term).
20
Energy storage selection
TES evaluation example
Chilled Low temp.
Attribute Ice water fluid
 Readiness for deployment at
scale Volume good poor fair
 Speed of charge/ discharge Footprint good fair good
 Storage capacity
Modularity excellent poor good
 Ability to schedule
 Life expectancy and Economy of scale poor excellent good
reliability Efficiency fair excellent good
 Unit capital cost (£/kW and
Low temp. good poor excellent
£/kWh) capability
 Environmental impact Ease of retrofit fair excellent good
 Round-trip energy efficiency
 Ease of installation (size/ Rapid fair good good
charge/discharge
weight)
Reliability fair excellent good
Remote siting from poor excellent excellent

chillers
Dual-use as fire poor excellent poor
protection 21
Recap
 The production of increased amounts of renewable-generated
electricity brings problems of matching supply to demand.
 It therefore becomes relevant to develop technologies
capable of converting and storing large amounts of energy.
 A number of well-established methods are available, but all
have different characteristics.
 Major research is being directed towards improving existing
methods of energy storage and conversion, and developing
new approaches such as flow batteries.
 Need gives rise to new ideas: e.g. vehicle-2-grid.
 Future zero-carbon energy system will require a range of
storage technologies as each works at different
• Energy levels (Wh, kWh, MWh, GWh)
• Powers (W, kW, MW, GW)
• Timescales (mS, S, m, h, days, months) 22
Image: shetland.org

Storage Case Study: The NINES Smart Grid Project
NINES overview and aims
 Shetland power grid pre-2015
o Lerwick Diesel power station 66MWe
o Sullom Voe Power Station Gas Turbines
20MWe
o 3MWh advanced lead acid battery
o Burradale wind farm 3.56 MWe
 Island system with no connection to the UK
 Peak demand 60 MW Winter and Summer
demand 11MW
 Wind farm capacity factor > 50%
 High carbon emissions

 Lots of wind power spilled in summer
 Proposal use active network management

(ANM) with storage-based DSM to maximise
wind power use and minimise operation of
carbon intensive power from Lerwick and Image: Northlink Ferries
Sullom Voe.
NINES infrastructure and operation
 ANM schedules generation from wind

farms, and uses a 1MW/3MWh battery
and DSM to dynamically balance
electricity demand and supply.
 Network-controlled storage heaters and

water heaters shift load and store energy
during periods of excess supply.
 224 DSM homes with a total demand of

1.6 MW (= 708 installed appliances) +
12MWh thermal store from Lerwick
district heating.
 Expectations that intelligent charge

scheduling will reduce consumption
without impacting occupant comfort.
Issues investigated: equipment capability, charge scheduling, control authority,
next day energy estimation, communications, energy & comfort impacts.  … and increase use of RE from wind
farm, reducing demand on power station
shifting demand to periods of high RE
availability.
NINES technologies
Storage
heater • Domestic Charge
Energy schedule
Storage
Control
(DESC)
Water Thermal
heater store
status
Active Network
 ANM controls power station units and switches wind Manager (ANM)
generators in response to demand.
 Energy storage devices are controlled centrally: 1 MW
battery, and district heating store domestic energy
storage with total capacity of 2.1 MW distributed across
200+ dwellings.
 DESC uses space and water heaters to store energy to
level out demand; heaters respond to external charge
schedule and grid frequency.
 Basic instruction is a power input schedule by ¼ hour for
the upcoming 24 hour period based on anticipated
supply, demand and network status.
DSM equipment and control
 Heaters accept instructions for

input power every 15 minutes,
and relay back status
information to the ANM.
 Charging automatically
terminates if network frequency
drops and increases when it
rises.
 Heater controllers employ a
charge control algorithm to
predict the next day’s Daily
Energy Requirement (DER).
 Heater DER depends on the next day’s temperature forecast and

Storage user settings.
heater  Water heaters, DER is the average of the energy used in the
previous 3 days.
 Algorithm prioritises customer requirements over network
Water needs.
heater
 Gives 7.2 kW/house flexible power, 42.4 kWh/house storage
capacity, supports 2.4 kW/house of additional wind generation.
Impact on energy consumption and service
delivery
 NINES heating operation with flexible

schedules generated by the ANM
compared to previous tele-switching
regime.
 Active scheduling uses 10-18% less

energy compared to previous tele-
switching mode (where heaters are
charged to a set level irrespective of
demand and then leak heat).
 Active scheduling delivered the same

levels of comfort and hot water provision
as conventional storage/water heating
control.
Scheduled/ delivered energy compared to DER
 DESC maps target power profile to a set

of instructions that each heater follow.
 Heaters operate at discrete charge values, the smallest unit

for scheduling is the minimum power for 15 minutes, the
‘charge unit’ (CU). For space heaters this varies between
0.10 and 0.28 kWh, for water heating 0.09 kWh.
 Target energy delivery can be higher or lower than DER by
several charge units each day (more over- than under-
delivery observed).
 With space heaters:
 38% of target profiles were within ±2 CUs of DER each day,
and 57% within ±5 CUs;
 10% of target profiles would deliver more than 20 CUs in
excess of DER and 4% would under-supply by the same
amount.
 With water heaters:
 18% of device days are within ±2 CUs;
 tanks have to be cycled through 60 C once a day for health
and safety reasons;
Outcomes and lessons learned
 NINES project provided 1.44 MW of flexible load through distributed

storage on housing.
 Peak loads could be reduced by up to 0.5MW.
 Each house could provide about 2.5 kW of flexible load on average and
6kW of load that could be manipulated for short periods of time for
frequency response.
 Load shifting could displace 385 MWh of fossil fuel each year (shifting load
to periods of high renewable generation).
 However due to communications issues only 50-60% of systems were

available for load shifting at any one time.
 Value of load shifting was £200, but system cost was £350, so significant
technology cost reductions required.
Future rollouts
 Occupants of social housing the

most to gain from storage and
intelligent DSM
― poorly controlled storage
heating
― high fuel bills
― high heat load
 NINES-type DSM help address
these issues.
 Paradoxically the large heating
load makes his type of housing
more attractive to the DSM
Service Provider as each house
provides larger controllable
capacity.
Recap
 Shetland has a high-carbon electricity system

 NINES project set up to investigate approaches to increase use of RE and reduce
reliance on diesel/gas generation
 Active network management controlling generation (inc. wind) storage and supply
using forecasts of next day demand and supply implemented.
 Domestic demand side management trialled controlling the demand of electric
storage heating and water heating according to a schedule (determined based on
day-ahead demand supply forecasts)
 Local (household need) given priority over network need
 Over half of heating system followed schedule reasonably closely
 Water heating control was limited
 NB System was a prototype and performance will improve with refinement
 Best suited to implementation in social housing
1

Biofuels
ME922/927 Biofuels
2
Biofuel types
 Solid: wood; waste products from
agriculture (crop residues) and forestry;
energy crops grown specifically for energy
yield; human and animal wastes - sewage
and slurries; domestic and industrial solid
wastes.
 Liquid: methanol (substitute for gasoline);

vegetable oils (substitute for diesel).
 Gaseous: generally methane.
 Combustion produces CO2 but the amount

released equals the amount absorbed
during growth, so the carbon cycle is closed
(IF burned biomass is re-grown).
3
Biomass developing world

 Most biomass use is in the developing
world
 Often NOT a sustainable fuel
 Use is > supply
 Deforestation
 Topsoil erosion
 3 billion people worldwide cook on open

fires or primitive stoves
 Cooking with biomass on open fires
indoors results in very serious health
problems
 Nearly 2 million people die prematurely
from illness attributable to indoor air
pollution from household solid fuel use.
(source: WHO, 2011 factsheet 292)
UK renewable energy use
(c.f. the 125 Million tonnes of oil equivalent of fossil fuels consumed.)
ME922/927 Biofuels 4
UK biomass
 Biomass and waste combustion

account for the vast majority
(>70%) of bioenergy in the UK.
Provides heat and power.
 For electricity process is similar to

fossil fuel combustion plant –
Rankine cycle or combined cycle.
 Biomass encompasses a wide

range of fuel types from chipped
timber to sewage gas to waste.
 Photos from Lockerbie Biomass

power station
6
UK biomass
 June 2013: Forth Energy proposal for

120 MWe Biomass CHP plant costing
£325m.
 Plants also proposed for
Grangemouth, Rosyth.
 Biomass sourced from US.
 70% of Drax power station output

(2.8GW/4GW) from a variety of
biomass fuels
 Mainly sourced from North America
 Remaining units converted to gas.
ME922/927 Biofuels
7
Waste-to-power plant
ME922/927 Biofuels
UK biogas
 Biogas from landfill accounts for 6% of UK

renewables electricity output
 Equivalent to all hydro power output
 Double benefit as it burns methane (that

would otherwise leak into the atmosphere)
to produce CO2
 Methane has 72 times the GWP20 potential

of CO2
 Can be used in CHP schemes
 Example at Glasgow Summerston.
Landfill methane
ME922/927 Biofuels
10
Biomass heating
 Boilers have high efficiency (~90%)
and low emissions; output can be
scheduled and matched to variable
demand (microprocessor control of
fuel and air supply).
 Issues are expense (up to £15,000

for a 25 kW automatic feed unit),
cleaning & ash removal and space for
fuel pellet storage.
 Fuel prices are cheaper than

electrical or oil heating in remoter
areas of UK.
 ME922/927 Biofuels
11
Fuels for heating
 Sweden, Finland and Austria

have mature biomass boiler Energy
Bulk Energy density
markets (80% of new Austrian Fuel
density by
mass
density by volume
(kg/m3) (MJ/m3)
houses equipped with a wood (GJ/tonne)
pellet boiler). Wood chips

12.5 250 3,100
(30% m.c.)
Log wood
 Efficiency of production ~80- (20% m.c.)
14.7 350-500 5,200-7,400
85%. Wood
19 400-600 7,600-11,400
(oven dry)
Wood pellets 17-18 600-700 10,800-12,600
 Future developments Miscanthus
13 140-180 1,800-2,300
• Torrefied pellets. (25% m.c.)
• Pelletising of different biomass House coal 27-31 850 25,500-25,400
types. e.g. Miscanthus pellets, Anthracite 33 1,100 36,300
pellets from cork residues and Heating oil 42.5 845 36,000
shrubs. Natural gas
38.1 0.9 35.2
(NTP)
• Development of low-dust
LPG 46.3 510 23,600
biomass boilers.
12
Biomass for transport: biodiesel
 Much of the diesel sold

in the UK already
contains a percentage
of biodiesel.
 Demonstration
schemes already in
place (e.g. biobus –
diesel from recycled
cooking oil – Ayrshire).
 Equates to ~9% of total

UK fuel use in 2019.
ME922/927 Biofuels
13
Bio-diesel: future prospects
See the renewable transport fuel obligation: https://www.gov.uk/renewable-

transport-fuels-obligation.
14
Biofuels for transport: costs and emissions
 High
production
costs
 Variable
GHG savings
Conventional
diesel 6 €/MWh
15
Bio-diesel: production efficiency
 WTW – well to wheel

 WTT – well to tank
 TTW – tank to wheel
 Higher % of fuel energy

used in production
than conventional
transport fuels.
ME922/927 Biofuels
16
Bio-fuels for transport: land use efficacy
source: concawe/JEC/EUCAR
ME922/927 Biofuels
17
Bio-diesel: land use
 Western
Europe
population
density makes
widespread
use of
biofuels
unlikely
18
Recap
 Majority of biofuel use in developing world – issues of

sustainability and health impacts
 UK RE use is dominated by biofuels – not all are zero carbon
 Biomass heating nascent in UK but widespread in Europe
 Use of transport biofuels growing – cost, efficiency of

production and land use are issues
 New sources emerging e.g. biofuel from algae

20

Microgeneration
Microgeneration definition
 OFGEM: “The term ‘microgeneration’ is used to refer
to electricity generation equipment of the smallest
capacity which covers generation of electricity up to
50 kWe.”
 BEIS: Extended to renewable heat: plant fuelled or

partly fuelled by renewable sources (less than 100 or
200 kW thermal output).
21
Types of microgeneration
 Heat and electricity:
• microCHP (Stirling, ICE)
• fuel cells (SOFC, PEM)
 Heat only:
• biomass (woodchip, biogas)
• solar thermal (flat plate evacuated tube);
• heat pumps (GSHP, ASHP, WSHP).
 Electricity only:
• SWECS
• PV
• micro hydro
22
Legislative Drivers
• EU 20/20/20 target, UK 15%
of total energy provision
from renewables by 2020 …
12.3% achieved by 2019.
• To boost green energy

provision the Feed-in Tariff
(FIT; 2009) and the
Renewable Heat Incentive
(RHI; 2011) were introduced.
• FIT was very successful, but

was a high cost means of
boosting the small renewable
electricity generation market
– now closed
• RHI less successful but

continues – 8% of heat from
renewables.
23
Installations - electricity
 Feed in tariff – FIT – payment for renewable
generated electricity (<5MW) + export
payment Source: OFGEM
 FIT was wildly successful (particularly PV)
 Resulted in tariff cuts to reduce scheme

costs and eventual scheme closure 2019
 Led to substantial reductions in costs for PV

and the emergence of subsidy free PV farms
in UK
24
Installations - heat
• Renewable Heat Incentive (RHI) qualifying
technologies:
• air, water and ground-source heat pumps;
• solar thermal;
• biomass boilers;
• renewable combined heat and power;
• use of biogas and bioliquids;
• injection of biomethane into the natural gas grid.
• Domestic tariffs:
Solar thermal 10.44 p/kWh
Biomass boiler < 200kW 2.96 p/kWh
ASHP 2.61 p/kWh
GSHP 9.09 p/kWh
• Domestic installations must be accompanied by

energy efficiency improvements.
25
Technologies - Heat Pumps
 Promoted via RHI.
 Three broad categories:
• ground source;
• water source;
• air source.
Source EST
26
Technologies - Heat pumps
𝑄𝑠 + 𝑄𝑤
𝑆𝑃𝐹 =
𝐸𝑒
𝑄𝑠 − space heat delivered (kWh)
𝑄𝑤 − water heat delivered (kWh)
𝐸𝑒 − electrical consumption (kWh)
 Performance measured by SPF – seasonal
performance factor.
 For a heat pump to be considered
renewable SPF > 2.5 according to EU.
 Typical values
from field
trials (EST).
Image: regenpower.co.uk
Technologies - Heat pumps
 CO2 (kg) saving per kWh of heat output:
𝜀𝐺 𝜀𝐸 𝜀𝐸 − carbon intensity grid electricity (kgCO2/kWh)

s= −
𝜂𝐵 𝑆𝑃𝐹 𝜀𝐺 − carbon intensity natural gas − 0.18 (kgCO2/kWh)
𝜂𝐵 − gas boiler efficiency (~0.85)
 2017 intensity –
0.2kgCO2/kWh.
 Savings improve as
grid decarbonises.
Image: regenpower.co.uk
Technologies - combined heat and power (CHP)
 CHP – provision of heat

and power from a single
fuel source
 Efficiencies of 85-90%
possible
 Heat recovery from prime

Source EST
mover
 Promoted via FITS.
 Wide range of scales –
 Carbon savings compared to
• kW (micro-small
separate provision of heat and
scale)
power.
• multi MW
(industrial)
 Limited uptake in the UK.
29
Technologies - combined heat and power (CHP)
 CO2 (kg) saving per kWh of heat output  2019 intensity –

0.2 kgCO2/kWh.
1
1 1+
s= − 𝐻𝑃𝑅 𝜀 + 𝜀𝐺  Savings deteriorate
𝐺
𝜂𝐵 𝜂𝐶𝐻𝑃 𝐻𝑃𝑅 as grid
decarbonises.
HPR - heat: power ratio
30
Technologies - biomass heating
 Uptake encouraged by renewable heat

incentive (RHI).
 More expensive and more maintenance

required than gas boiler.
 Efficiency < gas boiler.
 Substantial running cost savings

compared to oil boilers or electricity in
off-gas grid areas.
 Usually combined with a substantial

thermal store.
 Question marks over carbon savings and

air pollution.
31
Technologies - wind power
Source EST
 Uptake encouraged by FITS.
 Most small wind turbines installed in rural areas

- good wind resource.
 Performance in urban areas is usually very poor.
32
Technologies - solar thermal
Source EST
 Uptake encouraged by renewable heat incentive (RHI).
 Efficiencies ~ 70% but dependent on heating system and

control as well as collector.
 Usually installed with thermal storage.
 Poor uptake in UK compared to PV. 33

Technologies - photovoltaics
Source EST
 Explosive growth due to FITS.
 Growth in rooftop PV and PV farms.
 PV capacity was ~0 in 2009 now >13 GW.
 Now a significant part of the UK power

generation mix.
34
Solar variability
 Solar thermal and solar PV vary diurnally (over the course of a day).
 Also exhibit significant seasonal variability.
35
Thermal Storage
Positives:
 allows intermittent supplies to
meet demands;
 provides more benign operating
environment for hybrid
microgeneration;
 allows different temperature
sources to be couple;
 facilitates load management.
Negatives:
 typically increases standby losses;
 takes up space.
36
Microgeneration controllability
Electrical Thermal
Dispatchable
Micro-
hydro
Biomass
CHP boiler
Heat
storage +
storage +
storage +
Pump
Non dispatchable
Solar
SWECS PV
thermal
 Two broad categories:

• dispatchable – output can be controlled to accommodate fluctuations;
• non-dispatchable – output is generally variable and unpredictable.
 Energy storage can turn a non-despatchable resource into a dispatchable one.
37
Zero energy buildings
 Microgeneration is increasingly being deployed
in buildings – opening up possibility of zero
energy buildings.
 Autonomous Zero Energy Buildings – all demand

are met by on-site generation; no external
network connections.
 Net-zero site energy – local generation

completely offsets on-site demand; demand and
supply are not temporally matched but balance
over a year.
 Net-zero source energy - local generation

completely offsets primary energy demands;
demand and supply are not temporally matched
but balance over a year.
38
Zero energy buildings
hybrid PV Energy
façade efficiency &
demand
DWT management
PV façade
Charge 48 V DC PV spoiler
control -
+
-
+
DWT
PES -
+
-
+
Inverter
Building loads
Back-up charge control
Demand: 68 kWh/m2.yr
RE supply: 98 kW/m2.yr
The Lighthouse Building, Glasgow
39
Microgeneration and the electricity
network
 Microgeneration power feeds into the low
voltage (LV) network.
 In Europe the LV network operates at 220-240 V

a.c.
 LV network couples directly to dwellings.
 So microgeneration feeding into this part of the

network has a direct impact on the power
supplied to other dwellings.
 Local power used locally … but with significant

penetration power could flow back up through
the voltage levels – i.e. reverse power flow.
40
Changes in Voltage
 Adding power into a network

causes the local voltage to rise.
higher
voltage due
 Taking power from a network to PV
causes the local voltage to drop.
 A surplus of PV power in the

middle of the day could result in
high LV network voltage levels.
 Excessive heat pump operation in

the morning/evening could cause
periods of low voltage.
Source: Cobben et al PV Upscale, WP 4 Report
41
Harmonics and losses
 Harmonics cause increased

energy losses in electricity
network
 Can shorten lifespan in electrical

components.
 Also having increased power

flows in LV network increases I2R
losses
Source: Saribulut et al Electric Power Systems

Research, Vol 86.
42
Microgeneration for network
support
• The interaction between microgeneration and the
network can be beneficial as well as causing problems.
• Microgeneration technologies can act co-operatively

with the network to improve its operation.
• For power producing technologies (e.g. PV):

• provision of power when the local network is
heavily loaded (positive participation);
• stopping operation at times of low loading
(negative participation).
• For power absorbing technologies (e.g. heat pumps):
• absorbing power at times of high renewables/
microgeneration production;
• stopping operation at time of heavy network
loading.
• To provide support as described, microgeneration

technologies need to be controlled and dispatchable.
43
Micro-grids
CHP HP BB Storage PV FC WT
Direct use
Energy efficiency
Export Import Demand
reshaping
}
Public CHP – combined heat and power
electricity supply HP - heat pump
Active BB – biomass boiler
network PV – photovoltaic component
FC – fuel cell
control WT - wind turbine
Distributed
generation 44
Recap
• Power and/or heat from zero or low-carbon microgeneration.
• Strong growth since 2009 but FIT removed 2019.
• RHI still operational.
• Heat pumps could be a low-carbon replacement for domestic

boilers, but CHP viability limited in the long term.
• Patchy performance history so-far (e.g. urban wind).
• Power quality issues for PV and wind.
• Could play a part in future power supply as part of a microgrid.
• Storage essential.
45
Energy and Climate Change Policies
Policy Drivers – The Science of Climate Change
Foote E, (1856) On the Heat

in the Sun’s Rays, American
Journal of Science, XXII (6)
pp387-383.
Policy drivers – the science of climate change
 Scientific underpinnings of climate change

science have been developing since the 1890’s
 But it wasn’t until the 1990’s with advances in

computer modelling of future global
temperatures with increasing concentrations
of CO2 and analysis of historical CO2 levels
from ice cores that the concept of “Global
Warming” gained widespread acceptance
 General consensus now that it is highly likely The “hockey stick curve” from: Mann, Michael
that human activities are changing the earth’s E.; Bradley, Raymond S.; Hughes, Malcolm K.
(1999), "Northern hemisphere temperatures
climate, particularly through combustion of during the past millennium: Inferences,
uncertainties, and
fossil fuels and the release of CO2 into the limitations" (PDF), Geophysical Research
atmosphere Letters, 26 (6): 759–762
International policy response (UN)
 Climate change is an international

problem
 Action to tackle climate change is

therefore an international effort
 Image shows the evolution of

international climate summits and
agreements under the auspices of the
UN
 These are key drivers for international

and national policy making
 COP (Conference of the Parties) in Image: Iberdrola

Glasgow 2021
Key international events for climate policy
 November 1988 - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change (IPCC) established. IPCC assessments on climate
change are the scientific underpinning of international
climate negotiations.
• involves thousands of scientists worldwide
reviewing evidence on impacts and trajectory of
climate change
 1992 UNFCCC - The United Nations Framework

Convention on Climate Change.
• Objective of UNFCCC “stabilization of greenhouse
gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level
that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the climate system.”
• 196 country signatories (Parties). Annual
“Conference of the Parties” (COP) to negotiate
multilateral responses to climate change.
Key international events for climate policy
 1997- Kyoto Protocol – The world's first

greenhouse gas emissions reduction treaty.
Commits industrialized countries and
economies in transition to limit and reduce
greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions in
accordance with agreed individual targets.
 2015 COP 21 Paris Agreement - 195 nations

agreed to act in order keep a global
temperature rise this century well below 2
degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels
and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature
increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius.
International frameworks (EU)
 2002 Energy Performance in Buildings Directive - required that member states
strengthen their building regulations and introduce energy performance certification of
buildings in order to improve energy efficiency. Updated 2010.
 2003 Energy Taxation Directive - intended to ensure the functionality of the EU internal
energy market and contribute to a low-carbon, energy-efficient economy, with the aim
of protecting the environment and the climate.
 2005 EU Emissions Trading System (ETS) - sets a cap on the total amount of certain
greenhouse gases that can be emitted by 11,000 heavy energy-using installations
(power stations & industrial plants) and airlines. Cap is reduced over time so that total
emissions fall.
 2009 Renewable Energy Directive 20/20/20 - requires that 20 percent of the energy
consumed within the European Union is renewable. Also required 20% reduction in
primary energy demand - target is pooled among the member states. To be replaced
2021
 2012 Energy Efficiency Directive - established a set of binding measures to help the EU
reach its 20% energy efficiency target by 2020. All EU countries are required to use
energy more efficiently at all stages of the energy chain, including energy generation,
transmission, distribution and end-use consumption. Updated 2018.
International frameworks (EU)
 2019 EU Green Deal – a raft of proposed measures with the

principal aim of making the EU climate neutral by 2050. Including
legislation on
• Clean energy - more stringent emissions reductions targets
– 50% on 1990 levels by 2030, EU energy systems
integration, energy system based on renewables, improved
energy efficiency etc.
• Sustainable industry – introducing legislation on a circular
economy
• Buildings – new buildings and building renovation
• Sustainable mobility – stringent emissions standards for
vehicles, EV charging infrastructure hydrogen vehicles
• Food sustainability “farm to fork” – reducing use of
pesticides (protecting biodiversity), encouraging organic
farming, reducing food waste.
• Energy Innovation (Horizon programme academic/industry
research)
UK energy policy
 UK energy policy attempts to address the “energy trilemma”
balancing emissions, cost and security of supply
 1989 Non Fossil Fuels Obligation (NFFO, SRO in Scotland) –

required electricity suppliers to source a portion of their
generation from zero-carbon sources
 2002 Renewables Obligation & Renewables Obligation
(Scotland) - placed an obligation on licensed UK electricity
suppliers to source an increasing proportion of electricity
from renewable sources, e.g. 2003 – 3%, 2017 – 34.8%
 2008 Climate Change Act - now principal policy driver,
originally committed UK to an 80% reduction in GHG
emissions by 2050; amended 2019 so UK has a carbon
neutral target by 2050 (Scotland 2045)
• Established the Committee on Climate Change who
advise and report on UK climate change policy
• Introduced 5 year carbon budgets as staging posts
UK energy policy
 Energy Acts (2008 onwards)
• Feed-in-Tariff (FIT) (replaced by FIT generation and export -OFGEM
renewable export guarantee, 2019) –
payment for small scale renewable
generation
• Renewable heat incentive (RHI) –
payment for heat production from
clean sources
• Contracts for difference (CFD) -
incentivises investment in renewable
energy providing developers with
protection from volatile wholesale
prices
₋ Renewable generators located in the UK that
meet the eligibility requirements can bid for
a CfD contract – strike price
₋ If electricity price < strike price – generator’s
payment is topped up. If price > strike price,
generator pays back. Brings more certainty
to cost calculations
UK energy policy
 Offshore wind strike price has dropped dramatically over 5 years
 Due to dropping down the ‘learning curve’ and economies of

scale
 Disadvantages other technologies such as wave and tidal in the

competitive bidding process
Source: OWC
UK progress in cutting emissions
UK leaving the EU
 EU energy legislation embedded in UK law and standards, e.g.
• 20/20/20 targets
• Emissions trading scheme
Image: LNP
• Energy labelling
• Building standards
• Internal energy market
 UK exit from EU mean all of these policies/arrangements must

either be replicated or changed depending upon UK’s future
relationship with the EU post transition (2021 onwards)
 But UK physically connected with EU via gas pipelines and

electricity interconnectors (France, Netherlands, Belgium,
Ireland) – contingencies needed – UK imports electricity from
EU
 So still require compliance with REMIT – EU regulations on

electricity market transparency
 Also means exit from organisations such as Euratom – trade in

nuclear materials and technologies
Energy policy in Scotland
 Setting energy policy is a reserved matter for Westminster
 However – Scottish Government can and does use other

instruments to influence energy supply and demand
• e.g. use of planning laws to favour onshore wind over nuclear
• Scottish building regulations to influence built environment
energy efficiency
• Incentivising new energy technologies such as floating wind,
wave and tidal
 Also sets energy goals such as 100% net electricity demand from
renewables by 2020 (likely to be met)
 Requires local authorities to set local energy efficiency action plans

LEEAP
 Energy also features heavily in “city deals” – co-funded by Scottish

and UK Governments
 Phase out of petrol and diesel vehicles by 2032
 Scotland’s target for net-zero, set by the IPCC is 2045 due to the
predominance of low-carbon generation
Image: The Guardian
Policy successes
 Feed-in Tariff (FIT) 2009-2019
 Prior to the introduction of the FIT, the
UK’s PV generation capacity was
negligible.
 Between 2009 and the scheme’s closure
in 2019 over 13GW of solar capacity was
added.
 PV installation costs reduced
dramatically
 PV (solar farm) generation now
competitive with wind and expanding
rapidly
 Small scale wind and micro hydro
markets stimulated in Scotland (less
hopeful long term outlook than PV)
Policy successes
 2011 Scottish Government set
target of equivalent of 100% of
Scotland's electricity demand to be
generated from renewable sources
by 2020
 Planning law used to accelerate
growth of onshore wind
 In 2011 renewable generation
covered approximately 30% of
demand
 In 2019 ~90% of electrical demand
was covered by renewables
 It looks likely that this ambitious
target will be reached in 2020 or
soon after as several large offshore
wind farms (e.g. Beatrice) begin Source: Scottish Renewables
operation
Policy failures
 Green Deal (2012-2015)
 Homes and businesses carry out an energy
refurbishments (insulation, boiler and glazing
replacement, advanced control etc.) funded by a
loan (<£10,000)
 Unsecured loan repaid through energy bill (<25
years at < 6.9% fixed rate) with the costs expected
to be outweighed by the cost savings from the
energy measures
 Loan lodged against the property (not
owner/occupier) and passed on if sold
 Failed due to lack of public awareness,
competition from Energy Company Obligation
(ECO – free energy efficiency improvements
funded by utilities) and perceived high interest
rate.
 Only 15,000 refurbishments were undertaken
over 3 years.
Recap
 Climate science has been the driver for national and
international energy policy since the early 90s
 Scientific basis for climate policies set by IPCC
 International agreements (UN and EU) drive national
climate and energy policies
 Centre piece of UK energy policy is the climate change act
 Overseen by the Committee on Climate Change (CCC)
 UK has seen policy successes (FIT) and failures (Green Deal)
 Overall UK emissions dropping – significant decarbonisation
of electricity and industry – but rising emissions from
transport
 Pace of change in energy and climate policy is accelerating
Modelling and Simulation
Modelling and Simulation
 Modelling (developing mathematical models of physical systems) and
simulation (using those models to make predictions of the system’s
behaviour) underpins the development and operation of our energy
system. For example:
• Climate modelling and simulation sets the context for
international and national focused on curbing emissions and
mitigating the effects of climate change
• Partial equilibrium models (e.g. MARKAL) are used to map out
the future trajectory of the energy system and identify the
optimum mix of technologies to achieve policy goals
• GIS (Geographical information system) modelling is used to
inform the planning and development of renewable energy
schemes
• Urban energy models are used to inform us of the impact of
energy efficiency policy decisions on energy networks and the
energy performance of urban areas
• Building energy models are used to design energy new efficient
buildings and guide building retrofit projects
Modelling challenges
 “All models are wrong, but some are useful”, G E P Box,
Statistician
 Reliable, realistic modelling of any part of the energy system is

challenging
• Energy processes are dynamic (change with time)
• The problem is systemic (interlinkages between all of

the different elements)
• Energy systems are typically non-linear (change in

output is not proportional to a change in input)
• Many of the system excitations are stochastic
 Depending on what we want information we want to extract,

we may need to account for some or all of these aspects in a Ocean current simulation – Los
model Alamos National Labs
 However due to a lack of knowledge or data all models are

inevitably simplifications of reality and so are subject to error
Climate modelling
 Climate modelling and its predictions
underpins global climate policy making and Source: US EPA.
ultimately dictates the future direction of

society and its supporting energy systems
 Climate is by it’s very nature dynamic,

systemic, non-linear and stochastic
 Early 70’s saw initial predictions of

anthropogenic climate change – though
models were relatively unsophisticated and
had many simplifications and assumptions
 Over time models have become more

refined and complex – accounting for
increasing numbers of physical
phenomena
 Reliability verified by hindcasting

Difference between global average temperature and 1970-1990 Baseline
Climate modelling
Equilibrium modelling (MARKAL)
 Determines the energy system that meets
the energy service demands over discrete
time periods at least cost.
 Makes equipment investment decisions

and operating, primary energy supply, and
energy trade decisions, by region.
 Outputs the optimal mix of technologies

and fuels at each period, together with
the associated emissions to meet the
demand.
 Outputs are energy system configurations,

which meet the end-use energy service
demands at least cost while also adhering TIMES inputs and outputs (Remme et al., 2001)
to various constraints (e.g. 80% emissions
reduction, 40% renewable electricity
penetration etc.).
Equilibrium modelling (MARKAL)
interrogations
http://2050-calculator-tool.decc.gov.uk/#/home
Policy Support - GIS
 GIS used to identify potential sites for wind farms
 Example here is Sutherland
 Examining systemic relationships between data – e.g. wind

resource/planning/SSI/distance to grid, etc.
Policy Support - GIS
 Opportunities for siting

PV on derelict land in
and around Glasgow
 Again looking at
systemic links between
data
Urban energy modelling
 Using modelling and simulation to answer technical “what if?”
questions
 Can PV and batteries mitigate the impact of EV charging on energy
networks
 Example Results from 50kWh battery and 50 vehicle fleet.
 Processing raw data provides information for decision making
 E.g. number of vehicles and charges supported by PV array, impact on substation, etc.
City Centre Substation

City Centre Substation
1000
1000
900
900
800
800
700
700
Power (kW)
600
Power (kW)
600
500
500
400
400
300
300
200
200
100
100
0
0
0 50 100 150
0 50 100 150
Time (hours)
Time (hours)
Building energy modelling
 Again using modelling
and simulation to
answer “what if?”
questions, here in the
design of low carbon
heating systems
 Detailed modelling of
a building with a heat
pump and thermal
store (including phase
change materials)
 Assessing ability to
shift electrical heating
load in time
Recap
 Modelling and simulation underpinning all aspects of our energy

systems from the global to the component level
• Guiding policy (e.g. climate models, MARKAL)
• Urban planning (e.g. GIS)
• Energy systems planning (e.g. EV charging)
• Engineering design (e.g. building simulation)
 Modelling and simulation used to make predictions of future state,

exploring future scenarios and answering “what if?” questions
 Systems modelled are often complex (dynamic, systemic, non-

linear, stochastic) and models may need to reflect this complexity
depending of the answers being sought

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1

ME927 Energy Resources and Policy

Dr Stephanie Ordonez Sanchez

“This module examines sustainable

Solar farm, UK Image: Anesco

• Energy challenges and opportunities

• Monday (12-2pm): view week’s video topic

1. An appreciation of recent history

constraints and drivers.

Force (Mass x Acceleration)

• MacKay D, Sustainable energy – without the hot

Coal power plant, Germany Image: NYTimes

ME927 Energy Resources and Policy

Shell Global Scenarios to 2050

• One symptom of human

Deviation monthly mean surface temperatures to 1850-1900 baseline.

Fossil Nuclear Renewable

GOAL: CARBON NEUTRAL BY 2050

Lomborg, The Skeptical

10% land use 10% land use

 environment protection  security of supply

Used to indicate the

By Pahazzard - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0,

Data for different sources

Need to convert units to

Power station ………… 1 @ 2000 MW

Renewable energy systems 3-5 x larger if the

Shell Global Scenarios to 2050 (www.shell.com/scenarios)

BP Energy Outlook, 2019 Edition

Fossil Nuclear Renewable

• Renewable electricity sources

• *Storage at scale and

• High volume power

Growth in oil reserves:

… horizontal axis turbine evolved from wind technology

Fossil Nuclear Renewable

Electricity Fuels Heat

end use Demand-side

Note the variation at

MacKay, www.withouthotair.com Sub-total 83

Aberdeen Hydrogen Bus. Image Van Hool

• Massively increased electrical

electrical infrastructure (inc.

• EVs also present a n

• Huge scope for demand • Modern PassivHaus - space heating

• Reduced fuel bills &

Passive Houses – Dunoon Image: e-architect

 Local heat/power generation

Fossil Nuclear Renewable

• the problem of supply

 With so many options, how do we identify the optimum

 Feasibility (technical, social acceptability) – requires

𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝜂% 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 7.776×109 𝐽

𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 1.690×1010 𝐽

The Carnot cycle efficiency is therefore 66.3%

2. Combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) plant

3. Small-scale generating plant

Fuel CO2 emission

T1 = 400oC = 673K; T2 = 15oC = 288K