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Dielectric
In  electromagnetism, a  dielectric  (or  dielectric
material  or  dielectric medium) is an  electrical
insulator  that can be  polarised  by an applied  electric field.
When a dielectric material is placed in an electric field, electric
charges  do not flow through the material as they do in
an electrical conductor, because they have no loosely bound, or
free, electrons that may drift through the material, but instead
they shift, only slightly, from their average equilibrium
positions, causing  dielectric polarisation. Because
of  dielectric polarisation, positive charges are displaced in the
direction of the field and negative charges shift in the direction
opposite to the field (for example, if the field is moving parallel
to the positive  x  axis, the negative charges will shift in the
negative x direction). This creates an internal electric field that A polarised dielectric material
reduces the overall field within the dielectric itself. If a
dielectric is composed of weakly  bonded  molecules, those
molecules not only become polarised, but also reorient so that their  symmetry axes  align to the
field.[1]

The study of dielectric properties concerns storage and dissipation of electric and  magnetic
energy  in materials.[2][3][4]  Dielectrics are important for explaining various phenomena
in electronics, optics, solid-state physics and cell biophysics.[5][6]

Contents
Terminology
Electric susceptibility
Dispersion and causality
Dielectric polarisation
Basic atomic model
Dipolar polarisation
Ionic polarisation
In cells
Dielectric dispersion
Dielectric relaxation
Debye relaxation
Variants of the Debye equation
Paraelectricity
Tunability
Applications
Capacitors
Dielectric resonator
BST thin films
Some practical dielectrics
See also

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References
Further reading
External links

Terminology
Although the term insulator implies low electrical conduction, dielectric typically means materials
with a high polarisability. The latter is expressed by a number called the relative permittivity. The
term insulator is generally used to indicate electrical obstruction while the term dielectric is used to
indicate the energy storing capacity of the material (by means of polarisation). A common example
of a dielectric is the electrically insulating material between the metallic plates of a capacitor. The
polarisation of the dielectric by the applied electric field increases the capacitor's surface charge for
the given electric field strength.[1]

The term dielectric was coined by William Whewell (from dia + electric) in response to a request

from  Michael Faraday.[7][8]  A  perfect dielectric  is a material with zero electrical conductivity
(cf.  perfect conductor  infinite electrical conductivity),[9]  thus exhibiting only a  displacement
current; therefore it stores and returns electrical energy as if it were an ideal capacitor.

Electric susceptibility
The  electric susceptibility  χe  of a dielectric material is a measure of how easily it  polarises  in
response to an electric field. This, in turn, determines the electric permittivity of the material and
thus influences many other phenomena in that medium, from the capacitance of  capacitors  to
the speed of light.

It is defined as the constant of proportionality (which may be a tensor) relating an electric field E to
the induced dielectric polarisation density P such that

where ε0 is the electric permittivity of free space.

The susceptibility of a medium is related to its relative permittivity εr by

So in the case of a vacuum,

The electric displacement D is related to the polarisation density P by

Dispersion and causality

In general, a material cannot polarise instantaneously in response to an applied field. The more
general formulation as a function of time is

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That is, the polarisation is a convolution of the electric field at previous times with time-dependent
susceptibility given by χe(Δt). The upper limit of this integral can be extended to infinity as well if
one defines  χe(Δt) = 0  for  Δt  < 0. An instantaneous response corresponds to  Dirac delta
function susceptibility χe(Δt) = χeδ(Δt).

It is more convenient in a linear system to take the Fourier transform and write this relationship as
a function of frequency. Due to the convolution theorem, the integral becomes a simple product,

The susceptibility (or equivalently the permittivity) is frequency dependent. The change of
susceptibility with respect to frequency characterises the dispersion properties of the material.

Moreover, the fact that the polarisation can only depend on the electric field at previous times
(i.e., χe(Δt) = 0 for Δt < 0), a consequence of causality, imposes Kramers–Kronig constraints on the
real and imaginary parts of the susceptibility χe(ω).

Dielectric polarisation

Basic atomic model

In the classical approach to the

dielectric, the material is made up of
atoms. Each atom consists of a cloud
of negative charge (electrons) bound
to and surrounding a positive point
charge at its center. In the presence of
an electric field, the charge cloud is
distorted, as shown in the top right of
the figure.

This can be reduced to a

simple dipole using the  superposition
principle. A dipole is characterised by
its  dipole moment, a vector quantity
shown in the figure as the blue arrow Electric field interaction with an atom under the classical dielectric
labeled  M. It is the relationship model
between the electric field and the
dipole moment that gives rise to the
behaviour of the dielectric. (Note that the dipole moment points in the same direction as the
electric field in the figure. This isn't always the case, and is a major simplification, but is true for
many materials.)

When the electric field is removed the atom returns to its original state. The time required to do so
is the so-called relaxation time; an exponential decay.

This is the essence of the model in physics. The behaviour of the dielectric now depends on the
situation. The more complicated the situation, the richer the model must be to accurately describe
the behaviour. Important questions are:

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Is the electric field constant or does it vary with time? At what rate?
Does the response depend on the direction of the applied field (isotropy of the material)?
Is the response the same everywhere (homogeneity of the material)?
Do any boundaries or interfaces have to be taken into account?
Is the response linear with respect to the field, or are there nonlinearities?

The relationship between the electric field E and the dipole moment M gives rise to the behaviour
of the dielectric, which, for a given material, can be characterised by the function F defined by the
equation:

When both the type of electric field and the type of material have been defined, one then chooses
the simplest function F that correctly predicts the phenomena of interest. Examples of phenomena
that can be so modelled include:

Refractive index
Group velocity dispersion
Birefringence
Self-focusing
Harmonic generation

Dipolar polarisation

Dipolar polarisation is a polarisation that is either inherent to  polar molecules  (orientation
polarisation), or can be induced in any molecule in which the asymmetric distortion of the nuclei is
possible (distortion polarisation). Orientation polarisation results from a permanent dipole, e.g.,
that arising from the 104.45° angle between the asymmetric bonds between oxygen and hydrogen
atoms in the water molecule, which retains polarisation in the absence of an external electric field.
The assembly of these dipoles forms a macroscopic polarisation.

When an external electric field is applied, the distance between charges within each permanent
dipole, which is related to  chemical bonding, remains constant in orientation polarisation;
however, the direction of polarisation itself rotates. This rotation occurs on a timescale that
depends on the torque and surrounding local viscosity of the molecules. Because the rotation is not
instantaneous, dipolar polarisations lose the response to electric fields at the highest frequencies. A
molecule rotates about 1 radian per picosecond in a fluid, thus this loss occurs at about 1011 Hz (in
the microwave region). The delay of the response to the change of the electric field
causes friction and heat.

When an external electric field is applied at infrared frequencies or less, the molecules are bent and
stretched by the field and the molecular dipole moment changes. The molecular vibration
frequency is roughly the inverse of the time it takes for the molecules to bend, and this distortion
polarisation disappears above the infrared.

Ionic polarisation

Ionic polarisation is polarisation caused by relative displacements between positive and

negative ions in ionic crystals (for example, NaCl).

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If a crystal or molecule consists of atoms of more than one kind, the distribution of charges around
an atom in the crystal or molecule leans to positive or negative. As a result, when lattice vibrations
or molecular vibrations induce relative displacements of the atoms, the centers of positive and
negative charges are also displaced. The locations of these centers are affected by the symmetry of
the displacements. When the centers don't correspond, polarisation arises in molecules or crystals.
This polarisation is called ionic polarisation.

Ionic polarisation causes the  ferroelectric effect  as well as dipolar polarisation. The ferroelectric
transition, which is caused by the lining up of the orientations of permanent dipoles along a
particular direction, is called an  order-disorder phase transition. The transition caused by
ionic polarisations in crystals is called a displacive phase transition.

In cells

Ionic polarisation enables the production of energy-rich compounds in cells (the  proton
pump in mitochondria) and, at the plasma membrane, the establishment of the  resting potential,
energetically unfavourable transport of ions, and cell-to-cell communication (the  Na+/K+-
ATPase).

All cells in animal body tissues are electrically polarised – in other words, they maintain a voltage
difference across the cell's  plasma membrane, known as the  membrane potential. This electrical
polarisation results from a complex interplay between ion transporters and ion channels.

In neurons, the types of ion channels in the membrane usually vary across different parts of the
cell, giving the dendrites, axon, and cell body different electrical properties. As a result, some parts
of the membrane of a neuron may be excitable (capable of generating action potentials), whereas
others are not.

Dielectric dispersion
In physics, dielectric dispersion is the dependence of the permittivity of a dielectric material on
the frequency of an applied electric field. Because there is a lag between changes in polarisation and
changes in the electric field, the permittivity of the dielectric is a complicated function of frequency
of the electric field. Dielectric dispersion is very important for the applications of dielectric
materials and for the analysis of polarisation systems.

This is one instance of a general phenomenon known as  material dispersion: a frequency-
dependent response of a medium for wave propagation.

When the frequency becomes higher:

1. dipolar polarisation can no longer follow the oscillations of the electric field in
the microwave region around 1010 Hz;
2. ionic polarisation and molecular distortion polarisation can no longer track the electric field past
the infrared or far-infrared region around 1013 Hz, ;
3. electronic polarisation loses its response in the ultraviolet region around 1015 Hz.

In the frequency region above ultraviolet, permittivity approaches the constant  ε0  in every
substance, where ε0 is the permittivity of the free space. Because permittivity indicates the strength
of the relation between an electric field and polarisation, if a polarisation process loses its response,
permittivity decreases.

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Dielectric relaxation
Dielectric relaxation  is the momentary delay (or lag) in the  dielectric constant  of a material.
This is usually caused by the delay in molecular polarisation with respect to a changing electric field
in a dielectric medium (e.g., inside capacitors or between two large conducting surfaces). Dielectric
relaxation in changing electric fields could be considered analogous to  hysteresis  in
changing magnetic fields (e.g., in inductor or transformer cores). Relaxation in general is a delay or
lag in the response of a linear system, and therefore dielectric relaxation is measured relative to the
expected linear steady state (equilibrium) dielectric values. The time lag between electrical field
and polarisation implies an irreversible degradation of Gibbs free energy.

In physics, dielectric relaxation refers to the relaxation response of a dielectric medium to an

external, oscillating electric field. This relaxation is often described in terms of permittivity as a
function of  frequency, which can, for ideal systems, be described by the Debye equation. On the
other hand, the distortion related to ionic and electronic polarisation shows behaviour of
the resonance or oscillator type. The character of the distortion process depends on the structure,
composition, and surroundings of the sample.

Debye relaxation

Debye relaxation is the dielectric relaxation response of an ideal, noninteracting population of

dipoles to an alternating external electric field. It is usually expressed in the complex
permittivity ε of a medium as a function of the field's angular frequency ω:

where  ε∞  is the permittivity at the high frequency limit,  Δε  =  εs  −  ε∞  where  εs  is the static, low
frequency permittivity, and τ is the characteristic  relaxation time  of the medium. Separating into
the real part   and the imaginary part   of the complex dielectric permittivity yields:[10]

The dielectric loss is also represented by the loss tangent:

This relaxation model was introduced by and named after the physicist Peter Debye (1913).[11] It is
characteristic for dynamic polarisation with only one relaxation time.

Variants of the Debye equation

Cole–Cole equation
This equation is used when the dielectric loss peak shows symmetric broadening.
Cole–Davidson equation
This equation is used when the dielectric loss peak shows asymmetric broadening.
Havriliak–Negami relaxation

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This equation considers both symmetric and asymmetric broadening.

Kohlrausch–Williams–Watts function
Fourier transform of stretched exponential function.
Curie–von Schweidler law
This shows the response of dielectrics to an applied DC field to behave according to a power
law, which can be expressed as an integral over weighted exponential functions..

Paraelectricity
Paraelectricity is the nominal behaviour of dielectrics when the dielectric permittivity tensor is
proportional to the unit matrix, i.e., an applied electric field causes polarisation and/or alignment
of dipoles only parallel to the applied electric field. Contrary to the analogy with a paramagnetic
material, no permanent  electric dipole  needs to exist in a paraelectric material. Removal of the
fields results in the dipolar polarisation returning to zero.[12]  The mechanisms that
causes  paraelectric  behaviour are distortion of individual  ions  (displacement of the electron
cloud from the nucleus) and polarisation of molecules or combinations of ions or defects.

Paraelectricity can occur in crystal phases where electric dipoles are unaligned and thus have the
potential to align in an external electric field and weaken it.

Most dielectric materials are paraelectrics. A specific example of a paraelectric material of high
dielectric constant is strontium titanate.

The LiNbO3 crystal is ferroelectric below 1430 K, and above this temperature it transforms into a

disordered paraelectric phase. Similarly, other  perovskites  also exhibit paraelectricity at high
temperatures.

Paraelectricity has been explored as a possible refrigeration mechanism; polarising a paraelectric

by applying an electric field under  adiabatic process  conditions raises the temperature, while
removing the field lowers the temperature.[13]  A  heat pump  that operates by polarising the
paraelectric, allowing it to return to ambient temperature (by dissipating the extra heat), bringing it
into contact with the object to be cooled, and finally depolarising it, would result in refrigeration.

Tunability
Tunable dielectrics are insulators whose ability to store electrical charge changes when a voltage is
applied.[14]

Generally,  strontium titanate  (SrTiO

3) is used for devices operating at low temperatures,

while  barium strontium titanate  (Ba1−xSrxTiO3) substitutes for room temperature devices. Other
potential materials include microwave dielectrics and carbon nanotube (CNT)
composites.[14][15][16]

In 2013 multi-sheet layers of strontium titanate interleaved with single layers of  strontium
oxide  produced a dielectric capable of operating at up to 125 GHz. The material was created
via molecular beam epitaxy. The two have mismatched crystal spacing that produces strain within
the strontium titanate layer that makes it less stable and tunable.[14]

Systems such as  Ba

1−xSr
xTiO
3  have a paraelectric–ferroelectric transition just below ambient
temperature, providing high tunability. Films suffer significant losses arising from defects.

Applications
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Capacitors

Commercially manufactured capacitors typically use a  solid  dielectric

material with high permittivity as the intervening medium between the
stored positive and negative charges. This material is often referred to
in technical contexts as the capacitor dielectric.[17]

The most obvious advantage to using such a dielectric material is that

it prevents the conducting plates, on which the charges are stored,
from coming into direct electrical contact. More significantly, however,
a high permittivity allows a greater stored charge at a given voltage.
This can be seen by treating the case of a linear dielectric with
permittivity  ε  and thickness  d  between two conducting plates with Charge separation in a
parallel-plate capacitor
uniform charge density σε. In this case the charge density is given by
causes an internal electric
field. A dielectric (orange)
reduces the field and
increases the capacitance.

and the capacitance per unit area by

From this, it can easily be seen that a larger  ε  leads to greater charge stored and thus greater
capacitance.

Dielectric materials used for capacitors are also chosen such that they are resistant to ionisation.
This allows the capacitor to operate at higher voltages before the insulating dielectric ionises and
begins to allow undesirable current.

Dielectric resonator

A dielectric resonator oscillator (DRO) is an electronic component that exhibits resonance  of the

polarisation response for a narrow range of frequencies, generally in the microwave band. It
consists of a "puck" of ceramic that has a large dielectric constant and a low dissipation factor. Such
resonators are often used to provide a frequency reference in an oscillator circuit. An unshielded
dielectric resonator can be used as a dielectric resonator antenna (DRA).

BST thin films

From 2002 to 2004, the United States  Army Research Laboratory  (ARL) conducted research on
thin film technology. Barium strontium titanate (BST), a ferroelectric thin film, was studied for the
fabrication of radio frequency and microwave components, such as voltage-controlled oscillators,
tunable filters and phase shifters.[18]

The research was part of an effort to provide the Army with highly-tunable, microwave-compatible
materials for broadband electric-field tunable devices, which operate consistently in extreme
temperatures.[19] This work improved tunability of bulk barium strontium titanate, which is a thin
film enabler for electronics components.[20]

In a 2004 research paper, U.S. ARL researchers explored how small concentrations of acceptor
dopants can dramatically modify the properties of ferroelectric materials such as BST.[21]

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Researchers "doped" BST thin films with magnesium, analyzing the "structure, microstructure,
surface morphology and film/substrate compositional quality" of the result. The Mg doped BST
films showed "improved dielectric properties, low leakage current, and good tunability", meriting
potential for use in microwave tunable devices.[18]

Some practical dielectrics

Dielectric materials can be solids, liquids, or gases. (A high vacuum can also be a useful,[22] nearly
lossless dielectric even though its relative dielectric constant is only unity.)

Solid dielectrics are perhaps the most commonly used dielectrics in electrical engineering, and
many solids are very good insulators. Some examples include porcelain,  glass, and most  plastics.
Air, nitrogen and sulfur hexafluoride are the three most commonly used gaseous dielectrics.

Industrial coatings such as Parylene provide a dielectric barrier between the substrate and its
environment.
Mineral oil is used extensively inside electrical transformers as a fluid dielectric and to assist in
cooling. Dielectric fluids with higher dielectric constants, such as electrical grade castor oil, are
often used in high voltage capacitors to help prevent corona discharge and increase
capacitance.
Because dielectrics resist the flow of electricity, the surface of a dielectric may
retain stranded excess electrical charges. This may occur accidentally when the dielectric is
rubbed (the triboelectric effect). This can be useful, as in a Van de Graaff
generator or electrophorus, or it can be potentially destructive as in the case of electrostatic
discharge.
Specially processed dielectrics, called electrets (which should not be confused
with ferroelectrics), may retain excess internal charge or "frozen in" polarisation. Electrets have
a semi-permanent electric field, and are the electrostatic equivalent to magnets. Electrets have
numerous practical applications in the home and industry.
Some dielectrics can generate a potential difference when subjected to mechanical stress, or
(equivalently) change physical shape if an external voltage is applied across the material. This
property is called piezoelectricity. Piezoelectric materials are another class of very useful
dielectrics.
Some ionic crystals and polymer dielectrics exhibit a spontaneous dipole moment, which can
be reversed by an externally applied electric field. This behaviour is called the ferroelectric
effect. These materials are analogous to the way ferromagnetic materials behave within an
externally applied magnetic field. Ferroelectric materials often have very high dielectric
constants, making them quite useful for capacitors.

See also
Classification of materials based on permittivity
Paramagnetism
Clausius-Mossotti relation
Dielectric absorption
Dielectric losses
Dielectric strength
Dielectric spectroscopy
EIA Class 1 dielectric
EIA Class 2 dielectric
High-k dielectric
Low-k dielectric
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leakage
Linear response function
Metamaterial
RC delay
Rotational Brownian motion
Paschen's law – variation of Dielectric strength of gas related to pressure
Separator (electricity)

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Further reading
Jackson, John David (10 August 1998) [1962]. Classical Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). John Wiley
& Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-30932-1. OCLC 535998.
Scaife, Brendan K. P. (3 September 1998). Principles of Dielectrics. Monographs on the
Physics & Chemistry of Materials (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-198-56557-4.

External links
Dielectric Sphere in an Electric Field
Dissemination of IT for the Promotion of Materials Science (DoITPoMS) Teaching and Learning
Package "Dielectric Materials" from the University of Cambridge
 Texts on Wikisource:
"Dielectric". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric 11/12
12/27/21, 9:09 AM Dielectric - Wikipedia

"Dielectric". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dielectric 12/12