Semester- 2

PHYCC203: Electricity and Magnetism

Unit- 1

Ms. Riekshika Sanwari

Department of Physics
Patna Women’s College
email:[email protected]
Contact: 9431672759

Dielectric Properties of Matter

Dielectric:
Dielectric is an insulating material or a very poor conductor of electric current.
When dielectrics are placed in an electric field, practically no current flows in
them because, unlike metals, they have no loosely bound, or free, electrons that
may drift through the material. Instead, electric polarization occurs. The
positive charges within the dielectric are displaced minutely in the direction of
the electric field, and the negative charges are displaced minutely in the
direction opposite to the electric field. This slight separation of charge, or
polarization, reduces the electric field within the dielectric.
The presence of dielectric material affects other electrical phenomena. The force
between two electric charges in a dielectric medium is less than it would be in
a vacuum, while the quantity of energy stored in an electric field per unit
volume of a dielectric medium is greater. The capacitance of a capacitor filled
with a dielectric is greater than it would be in a vacuum. The effects of the
dielectric on electrical phenomena are described on a large, or macroscopic
scale by employing such concepts as dielectric constant, permittivity, and
polarization.

Dielectric constant

Dielectric constant is the property of an electrical insulating

material (a dielectric) equal to the ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor filled
with the given material to the capacitance of an identical capacitor in
a vacuum without the dielectric material. The insertion of a dielectric between
the plates of, say, a parallel-plate capacitor always increases its capacitance, or
ability to store opposite charges on each plate, compared with this ability when
the plates are separated by a vacuum. If C is the value of the capacitance of a
capacitor filled with a given dielectric and C0 is the capacitance of an identical
capacitor in a vacuum, the dielectric constant, symbolized by the Greek letter
kappa, κ, is simply expressed as
κ = C/C0
The dielectric constant is a number without dimensions. It denotes a large-scale
property of dielectrics without specifying the electrical behaviour on
the atomic scale. The value of the static dielectric constant of any material is
always greater than one, its value for a vacuum. The value of the dielectric
constant at room temperature (25° C, or 77° F) is 1.00059 for air, 2.25
for paraffin, 78.2 for water, and about 2,000 for barium titanate (BaTiO3) when
the electric field is applied perpendicularly to the principal axis of the crystal.
Because the value of the dielectric constant for air is nearly the same as that for
a vacuum, for all practical purposes air does not increase the capacitance of a
capacitor. Dielectric constants of liquids and solids may be determined by
comparing the value of the capacitance when the dielectric is in place to its
value when the capacitor is filled with air.
The dielectric constant is sometimes called relative permittivity or specific
inductive capacity. In the centimetre–gram–second system the dielectric
constant is identical to the permittivity.

Permittivity

Permittivity is the constant of proportionality that relates the electric field in a

material to the electric displacement in that material. It characterizes the
tendency of the atomic charge in an insulating material to distort in the presence
of an electric field. The larger the tendency for charge distortion (also called
electric polarization), the larger the value of the permittivity. The permittivity of
an insulating, or dielectric, material is commonly symbolized by the Greek
letter epsilon, ε; the permittivity of a vacuum, or free space, is symbolized ε0;
and their ratio ε/ε0, called the dielectric constant, is symbolized by the Greek
letter kappa, κ.
In the rationalized metre-kilogram-second (mks) and SI systems, the magnitude
of the permittivity of a vacuum ε0 is 8.854 × 10−12. Its units and those of
permittivity ε are square coulombs per newton square metre. In the mks system,
permittivity ε and the dimensionless dielectric constant κ are formally distinct
and related by the permittivity of free space ε0; ε = κε0. In the centimetre-gram-
second (cgs) system, the value of the permittivity of free space ε0 is chosen
arbitrarily to be 1. Thus, the permittivity ε and the dielectric constant κ in the
cgs system are identical; both of them are dimensionless numbers.

Electric Polarization
Electric polarization is the slight relative shift of positive and negative electric
charge in opposite directions within an insulator, or dielectric, induced by an
external electric field. Polarization occurs when an electric field distorts the
negative cloud of electrons around positive atomic nuclei in a direction opposite
the field. This slight separation of charge makes one side of the atom somewhat
positive and the opposite side somewhat negative. In some materials whose
molecules are permanently polarized by chemical forces, such as water
molecules, some of the polarization is caused by molecules rotating into the
same alignment under the influence of the electric field. One of the measures of
polarization is electric dipole moment, which equals the distance between the
slightly shifted centres of positive and negative charge multiplied by the amount
of one of the charges. Polarization P in its quantitative meaning is the amount of
dipole moment p per unit volume V of a polarized material, P = p/V.
Polarization or dielectric polarization
Consider a dielectric placed in an external electric field E0 (say between the
plates of a charged capacitor). Due to external field, there will be shifting of the
centres of gravity of positive and negative charges. The positive charges are
displaced in the direction of the applied field whereas the negative charges will
get displaced in a direction opposite to the applied field E0. Therefore, the
positive charge is induced on one surface while negative charge on other.

This phenomenon of appearance of the charge on the surfaces of dielectric

induced by the external electric field is called polarization or dielectric
polarization.

The charge on the plates of the capacitor is called free charge and charge
induced on the surfaces of the dielectric is called bound charge.

We can also say that when the atoms are placed in an electric field, they acquire
an induced electric dipole moment in the direction of the field. This process is
called the dielectric polarization and atoms are said to be polarized. The
induced dipole moment p is proportional to applied electric field E, that is, p
proportional to E

p = αE

where α is proportionality constant known as molecular or atomic polarizability

of dielectric.

Also, the induced surface charges appear in such a way that the electric field E p
set up by them opposes the external field E0. The resultant field will be

E = E0 – Ep
Types of Polarization:

The four types of polarization which occur in dielectrics are:

 Electronic polarization,
 Ionic polarization,
 Orientation or dipole polarization,
 Space charge or interfacial polarization

Electronic polarization:

Electronic polarization occurs due to displacement of the centre of the

negatively charged electron cloud relative to the positive nucleus of an atom by
the electric field. Example: Monoatomic gases exhibit only
electronic polarization.

The shifting of electron cloud results in dipole moment and dipole moment p is
defined as the product of the charge and shift distance,

p = qd

Dipole moment p is also directly proportional to electric field strength; E thus p

is proportional to E

p = αeE

where αe is constant of proportionality known as electronic polarizability

constant.

Electronic polarization Pe is given as

Pe =np
where n is number of molecules per unit volume.

By putting value of p in above equation, we get

Pe =n αeE

This polarization is independent of temperature.

Ionic polarization :

Ionic polarization occurs in ionic materials. It occurs when an electric field is

applied to an ionic material then cations and anions get displaced in opposite
directions giving rise to a net dipole moment. This type of polarization typically
occurs in ionic crystal elements such as NaCl, KCl, and LiBr. There is no net
polarization inside these materials in the absence of an external electric field
because the dipole moments of the negative ions are canceled out with the
positive ions. However, when an external field is applied, the ions become
displaced, which leads to an induced polarization. Example: Polyatomic gases.
In absence of electric field E, the distance between the ions is d but in presence
of electric field, distance between the ions increases.

The dipole moment p for each ion pair is equal to the product of charge on each
ion and relative displacement.

p = qd

Thus ionic polarization is given as

Pi =n αiE

where αi is constant of proportionality known as ionic polarizability constant.

This polarization is independent of temperature.

Orientation polarization:
It occurs with molecules that have permanent dipole moments. These molecules
are partially aligned by the field and contribute heavily to the polarization.
Materials such as HCl and H2O will have a net permanent dipole moment
because the charge distributions of these molecules are skewed. For example, in
a HCl molecule , the chlorine atom will be negatively charged and the hydrogen
atoms will be positively charged causing the molecule to be dipolar. The dipolar
nature of the molecule should cause a dipole moment in the material, however,
in the absence of an electric field, the dipole moment is canceled out by thermal
agitation resulting in a net zero dipole moment per molecule. When an electric
field is applied however, the molecule will begin to rotate to align the molecule
with the field, causing a net average dipole moment per molecule .
Thus, the dielectric constant of a nonpolar liquid, such as a hydrocarbon, is
about 2, that of a weakly polar liquid, such as chloroform or ethyl ether, about
5, while those of highly polar liquids, such as ethanol and water, range from 25
to 80.

Interfacial Polarization:

Interfacial or space charge polarization occurs when there is an accumulation of

charge at an interface between two materials or between two regions within a
material because of an external field. This can occur when there is a compound
dielectric, or when there are two electrodes connected to a dielectric material.
This type of electric polarization is different from orientational and ionic
polarization because instead of affecting bound positive and negative charges
i.e. ionic and covalent bonded structures, interfacial polarization also affects
free charges as well. As a result interfacial polarization is usually observed in
amorphous or polycrystalline solids.The electric field will cause a charge
imbalance because of the dielectric material's insulating properties. However,
the mobile charges in the dielectric will migrate over maintain charge neutrality.
This then causes interfacial polarization.

Electric susceptibility:
It is the quantitative measure of the extent to which an electric field applied to
a dielectric material causes polarization, the slight displacement of positive and
negative charge within the material. For most linear dielectric materials, the
polarization P is directly proportional to the average electric field strength E so
that the ratio of the two, P/E, is a constant that expresses an intrinsic property of
the material. The electric susceptibility, χe, in the centimetre-gram-second (cgs)
system, is defined by this ratio; that is,
χe = P/E
In the metre-kilogram-second (mks) system, electric susceptibility is defined
slightly differently by including the constant permittivity of a vacuum, ε0, in the
expression; that is,
χe = P/(ε0E)
In both systems the electric susceptibility is always a dimensionless positive
number. Because of the slight difference in definition, the value of the electric
susceptibility of a given material in the mks system is 4π times its value in the
cgs system.
The amount of charge stored in a capacitor is the product of the voltage and
the capacity. The voltage can be increased, but electric breakdown will occur if
the electric field inside the capacitor becomes too large. The capacity can be
increased by expanding the electrode areas and by reducing the gap between the
electrodes. In general, capacitors that can withstand high voltages have a
relatively small capacity. If only low voltages are needed, however, compact
capacitors with rather large capacities can be manufactured. One method for
increasing capacity is to insert between the conductors an insulating material
that reduces the voltage because of its effect on the electric field. Such materials
are called dielectrics (substances with no free charges). When the molecules of a
dielectric are placed in the electric field, their negatively
charged electrons separate slightly from their positively charged cores. With
this separation, referred to as polarization, the molecules acquire an electric
dipole moment. A cluster of charges with an electric dipole moment is often
called an electric dipole.
There is an electric force between a charged object and uncharged matter, such
as a piece of wood. The force is attractive. The reason is that under the
influence of the electric field of a charged object, the negatively charged
electrons and positively charged nuclei within the atoms and molecules are
subjected to forces in opposite directions. As a result, the negative and positive
charges separate slightly. Such atoms and molecules are said to be polarized and
to have an electric dipole moment. The molecules in the wood acquire an
electric dipole moment in the direction of the external electric field. The
polarized molecules are attracted toward the charged object because the field
increases in the direction of the charged object.
The electric dipole moment p of two charges +q and −q separated by a
distance l is a vector of magnitude p = ql with a direction from the negative to
the positive charge. An electric dipole in an external electric field is subjected to
a torque
τ = pE sin θ
where θ is the angle between p and E.
The torque tends to align the dipole moment p in the direction of E.
The potential energy of the dipole is given by
Ue = −pE cos θ
or in vector notation
Ue = −p · E.
In a nonuniform electric field, the potential energy of an electric dipole also
varies with position, and the dipole can be subjected to a force. The force on the
dipole is in the direction of increasing field when p is aligned with E, since the
potential energy Ue decreases in that direction.

The polarization of a medium P gives the electric dipole moment per unit
volume of the material; it is expressed in units of coulombs per metre square.
When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, it acquires a polarization that
depends on the field. The electric susceptibility χe relates the polarization to the
electric field as P = χe E. In general, χe varies slightly depending on the strength
of the electric field, but for some materials, called linear dielectrics, it is a
constant. The dielectric constant κ of a substance is related to its susceptibility
as
κ = 1 + χe /ε0
It is a dimensionless quantity.
The presence of a dielectric affects many electric quantities. A dielectric
reduces by a factor K the value of the electric field and consequently also the
value of the electric potential from a charge within the medium. The insertion of
a dielectric between the electrodes of a capacitor with a given charge reduces
the potential difference between the electrodes and thus increases the
capacitance of the capacitor by the factor K. For a parallel-plate capacitor filled
with a dielectric, the capacity becomes C = Κε0A/d. A third and important effect
of a dielectric is to reduce the speed of electromagnetic waves in a medium by
the factor √𝐾.
Electric displacement
Electric displacement is the auxiliary electric field or electric vector that
represents that aspect of an electric field associated solely with the presence of
separated free electric charges, purposely excluding the contribution of any
electric charges bound together in neutral atoms or molecules. If electric
charge is transferred between two originally uncharged parallel metal plates,
one becomes positively charged and the other negatively charged by the same
amount, and an electric field exists between the plates. If a slab of insulating
material is inserted between the charged plates, the bound electric
charges comprising the internal structure of the insulation are displaced slightly,
or polarized; bound negative charges (atomic electrons) shift a fraction of an
atomic diameter toward the positive plate, and bound positive charges shift very
slightly towards the negative. This shift of charge, or polarization, reduces the
value of the electric field that was present before the insertion of the insulation.
The actual average value of the electric field E, therefore, has a
component P that depends on the bound polarization charges and a
component D, electric displacement, which depends on the free separated
charges on the plates. The relationship among the three vectors D, E, P in the
metre-kilogram-second (mks) or SI system is:
D = ε0E + P
ε0 is a constant, the permittivity of a vacuum.
In the centimetre-gram-second (cgs) system the relationship is:
D = E + 4πP.
The value of the electric displacement D may be thought of as equal to the
amount of free charge on one plate divided by the area of the plate. From this
point of view D is frequently called the electric flux density, or free charge
surface density, because of the close relationship between electric flux and
electric charge. The dimensions of electric displacement, or electric flux
density, in the metre-kilogram-second system are charge per unit area, and the
units are coulombs per square metre. In the centimetre-gram-second system the
dimensions of D are the same as those of the primary electric field E, the units
of which are dynes per electrostatic unit, or statvolts per centimetre.

Relation between E, P and D:

There will be electric field due to polarized charges, this field is called electric
field due to polarization (Ep).

Rewrite equation:

E = E 0 – Ep (1)

Polarization vector, P is equal to the bound charge per unit area or equal to the
surface density of bound charges (because surface charge density is charge per
unit area),

Thus, P = qb/A = σp (2)

Where qb is bound charge and σp is surface density of bound charges.

P is also defined as the electric dipole moment of material per unit volume.

P = np

where n is number of molecules per unit volume.

Displacement vector, D is equal to the free charge per unit area or equal to the
surface density of free charges,

Thus D = q/A = σ (3)

where q is free charge and σ is surface density of free charges.

As for parallel plate capacitor:

E = σ /ε0 (4)

Ep = σp /ε0 (5)

By substituting equations 4 and 5 in equation 1, we get

E = σ /ε0 – σp /ε0

Or ε0E = σ – σ0

By putting equations 2 and 3 in above equation, we get

ε0E = D – P

or D = ε0E + P

This is the relation between D, E and P.