Taoism

Taoism (/ˈtaʊɪzəm/, /ˈdaʊɪzəm/) or Daoism (/ˈdaʊɪzəm/) refers

to either a school of philosophical thought ( 道家 ; daojia) or to a
Taoism
道教
religion ( ; daojiao); both share ideas and concepts of Chinese
origin and emphasize living in harmony with the Tao (Chinese: ; 道
pinyin: Dào; lit. 'Way', 'Thoroughfare' or Dao). The Tao Te Ching,
a book containing teachings attributed to Lao Tzu ( 老子 ; Lǎozǐ;
Lao³ Tzŭ³), together with the later writings of Zhuangzi, are both
widely considered the keystone works of Taoism.

In Taoism, the Tao is the source of everything and the ultimate

principle underlying reality.[2][3] Taoism teaches about the various
disciplines for achieving perfection through self-cultivation. This
can be done through the use of Taoist techniques and by becoming
one with the unplanned rhythms of the all, called "the way" or Tao, a Chinese word signifying way,
"Tao".[2][4] Taoist ethics vary depending on the particular school, path, route, road or, sometimes
but in general tend to emphasize wu wei (action without intention),
naturalness, simplicity, spontaneity and the Three Treasures: 慈,
more loosely, doctrine.
道教
儉
compassion, , frugality and 不敢爲天下先 , humility. Chinese

Hanyu Pinyin Dàojiào[1]

The roots of Taoism go back at least to the 4th century BCE. Early
Taoism drew its cosmological notions from the School of Yinyang Literal meaning "Way Tradition"
(Naturalists) and was deeply influenced by one of the oldest texts
of Chinese culture, the I Ching, which expounds a philosophical
system about how to keep human behavior in accordance with the
alternating cycles of nature. The Legalist Shen Buhai (c. 400 – c.
337 BCE) may also have been a major influence, expounding a
realpolitik of wu wei, or qualified inaction.[5]

Taoism has had a profound influence on Chinese culture in the

course of the centuries and Taoists ( 道士 ; dàoshi, "masters of the
Tao"), a title traditionally attributed only to the clergy and not to
their lay followers, usually take care to note the distinction
between their ritual tradition and the practices of Chinese folk
religion and non-Taoist vernacular ritual orders, which are often
mistakenly identified as pertaining to Taoism. Chinese alchemy
(especially neidan), Chinese astrology, Chan (Zen) Buddhism,
several martial arts including kung fu, traditional Chinese
medicine, feng shui and many styles of qigong have been
intertwined with Taoism throughout history.

Today, the Taoist religion is one of the five religious doctrines

officially recognized by the People's Republic of China (PRC),
including in its special administrative regions (SARs) of Hong
Kong and Macau.[6] It is also a major religion in Taiwan[7] and has
a significant number of adherents in a number of other societies Transcriptions
throughout East and Southeast Asia, particularly in Malaysia, Standard Mandarin
Singapore and Vietnam.
Hanyu Pinyin Dàojiào[1]
Bopomofo ㄉㄠˋ   ㄐㄧㄠˋ
Contents Gwoyeu Romatzyh Dawjiaw
Wade–Giles Tao4-chiao4
Definition
Yale Romanization Dàujyàu
Spelling and pronunciation
Categorization IPA [tâu.tɕjâu]

The terms "Taoist" and "Taoism" as a liturgical Wu

framework Romanization Doh入 goh平
History Yue: Cantonese
Doctrines Yale Romanization Douhgaau
Ethics Jyutping Dou6gaau3
Tao and Te
IPA [tòu.kāːu]
Wu-wei
Southern Min
Ziran
Three Treasures Hokkien POJ Tō-kàu

Cosmology Tâi-lô Tō-kàu

Theology Middle Chinese

Texts Middle Chinese dáw kæ̀ w

Tao Te Ching Old Chinese
Zhuangzi Baxter–Sagart *[kə.l]ˤuʔ
I Ching (2014) s.kˤraw-s
The Taoist Canon
Other texts
Symbols and images
Practices
Rituals
Physical cultivation
Society
Adherents
Art and poetry
Political aspects
Relations with other religions and philosophies
See also
References
Citations
General sources
Further reading
External links
Definition

Spelling and pronunciation

Since the introduction of the Pinyin system for

romanizing Mandarin Chinese, there have been those
who have felt that "Taoism" would be more
appropriately spelled as "Daoism". The Mandarin
Chinese pronunciation for the word
4
道 (way, path) is
spelled as tao in the older Wade–Giles romanization
system (from which the spelling 'Taoism' is derived),
while it is spelled as dào in the newer Pinyin
romanization system (from which the spelling Birth places of notable Chinese philosophers from
"Daoism" is derived). Both the Wade–Giles tao4 and Hundred Schools of Thought in Zhou Dynasty.
the Pinyin dào are intended to be pronounced Philosophers of Taoism are marked by triangles in
identically in Mandarin Chinese (like the unaspirated 't' dark green.
in 'stop'), but despite this fact, "Taoism" and "Daoism"
can be pronounced differently in English vernacular.[8]

Categorization

The word Taoism is used to translate different Chinese terms which refer to two semantically distinct
fields:[9]

1. Taoist religion ( 道敎 ; Dàojiào; lit. "teachings of the Tao"), or the "liturgical" aspect[10] – A
family of organized religious movements sharing concepts or terminology from "Taoist
philosophy";[11] the first of these is recognized as the Celestial Masters school.
2. Taoist philosophy ( 道家 ; Dàojiā; lit. "school or family of the Tao") or "Taology" (
[10]
道學
; dàoxué;
lit. "learning of the Tao"), or the mystical aspect – The philosophical doctrines based on
the texts of the Yi Jing, the Tao Te Ching ( 道德經 ; dàodéjīng) and the Zhuangzi ( 莊子 ;
zhuāngzi). The earliest recorded uses of the term Tao to refer to a philosophy or a school of
thought are found in the works of classical historians during Han Dynasty.[12][13] These
works include The Commentary of Zhuo ( 左传 ; zuǒ zhuàn) by Zuo QiuMing ( 左丘明 ) and in
the Records of the Grand Historian ( 史記 ; Shǐjì) by Sima Tan. This usage of the term to
narrowly denote a school of thought precedes the emergence of the Celestial Masters and
associated later religions. It is unlikely that Zhuangzi was familiar with the text of the Tao Te
Ching,[14][15] and Zhuangzi himself may have died before the term was in use.[15]

In ancient China, the use of the term Taoist to narrowly describe a school of thought, rather than a set of
religious teachings, has been recorded as early as 100 BCE [16][17] and such usage precedes the emergence
of the earliest Taoist religious sects such as the Celestial Masters by at least 300 years.

The distinction between Taoist philosophy ( 道家 道教

) and religion ( ) has been maintained by modern
pioneers of Chinese philosophy Feng Youlan ( 馮友蘭 ; 1895-1990) and Wing-tsit Chan (陳榮捷 ; 1901–
1994). The distinction as advocated by outstanding philosophers such as Feng and Chan, however, is
rejected by the majority of Western and Japanese scholars.[18] It is contested by hermeneutic (interpretive)
difficulties in the categorization of the different Taoist schools, sects and movements.[19]
Taoism does not fall under an umbrella or a definition of a single organized religion like the Abrahamic
traditions; nor can it be studied as a mere variant of Chinese folk religion, as although the two share some
similar concepts, much of Chinese folk religion is separate from the tenets and core teachings of Taoism.[20]
The sinologists Isabelle Robinet and Livia Kohn agree that "Taoism has never been a unified religion, and
has constantly consisted of a combination of teachings based on a variety of original revelations."[21]

The philosopher Chung-ying Cheng views Taoism as a religion that has been embedded into Chinese
history and tradition. "Whether Confucianism, Taoism, or later Chinese Buddhism, they all fall into this
pattern of thinking and organizing and in this sense remain religious, even though individually and
intellectually they also assume forms of philosophy and practical wisdom."[22] Chung-ying Cheng also
noted that the Taoist view of heaven flows mainly from "observation and meditation, [though] the teaching
of the way (Tao) can also include the way of heaven independently of human nature".[22] In Chinese
history, the three religions of Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism stand on their own independent views,
and yet are "involved in a process of attempting to find harmonization and convergence among themselves,
三敎合一
so that we can speak of a 'unity of three religious teachings' ( ; Sānjiào Héyī).[22]

The terms "Taoist" and "Taoism" as a liturgical framework

Traditionally, the Chinese language does not have terms defining lay people adhering to the doctrines or the
practices of Taoism, who fall instead within the field of folk religion. Taoist, in Western sinology, is
道士
traditionally used to translate daoshi ( , "master of the Tao"), thus strictly defining the priests of Taoism,
ordained clergymen of a Taoist institution who "represent Taoist culture on a professional basis", are
experts of Taoist liturgy, and therefore can employ this knowledge and ritual skills for the benefit of a
community.[23]

This role of Taoist priests reflects the definition of Taoism as a "liturgical framework for the development of
local cults", in other words a scheme or structure for Chinese religion, proposed first by the scholar and
Taoist initiate Kristofer Schipper in The Taoist Body (1986).[24] Daoshi are comparable to the non-Taoist
法師
fashi ( , "ritual masters") of vernacular traditions (the so-called "Faism") within Chinese religion.[24]

The term dàojiàotú ( 道敎徒 ; 'follower of Taoism'), with the meaning of "Taoist" as "lay member or
believer of Taoism", is a modern invention that goes back to the introduction of the Western category of
"organized religion" in China in the 20th century, but it has no significance for most of Chinese society in
which Taoism continues to be an "order" of the larger body of Chinese religion.

History
Lao Tzu is traditionally regarded as one of the founders of Taoism and is closely associated in this context
with original or primordial Taoism.[25] Whether he actually existed is disputed;[26][27] however, the work
attributed to him—the Tao Te Ching—is dated to the late 4th century BCE.[28]

Taoism draws its cosmological foundations from the School of Naturalists (in the form of its main elements
—yin and yang and the Five Phases), which developed during the Warring States period (4th to 3rd
centuries BCE).[29]

Robinet identifies four components in the emergence of Taoism:

1. Philosophical Taoism, i.e. the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi

2. techniques for achieving ecstasy
3. practices for achieving longevity or immortality
 4. exorcism[26]

Some elements of Taoism may be traced to prehistoric folk religions in

China that later coalesced into a Taoist tradition.[30] In particular, many
Taoist practices drew from the Warring-States-era phenomena of the wu
(connected to the shamanic culture of northern China) and the fangshi
(which probably derived from the "archivist-soothsayers of antiquity, one
of whom supposedly was Lao Tzu himself"), even though later Taoists
insisted that this was not the case.[31] Both terms were used to designate
individuals dedicated to "...  magic, medicine, divination,... methods of
longevity and to ecstatic wanderings" as well as exorcism; in the case of the
wu, shamans or sorcerers is often used as a translation.[31] The fangshi
were philosophically close to the School of Naturalists, and relied much on
astrological and calendrical speculations in their divinatory activities.[32]

The first organized form of

religious Taoism, the Way of the
Lao Tzu Riding an Ox
Celestial Masters's school (later
(1368–1644) by Zhang Lu
known as Zhengyi school),
developed from the Five Pecks of
Rice movement at the end of the
2nd century CE; the latter had been founded by Zhang Taoling,
who said that Lao Tzu appeared to him in the year 142.[33] The
Wudangshan, one of the Taoist Way of the Celestial Masters school was officially recognized by
sacred places. ruler Cao Cao in 215, legitimizing Cao Cao's rise to power in
return.[34] Lao Tzu received imperial recognition as a divinity in
the mid-2nd century BCE.[35]

By the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), the various sources of Taoism had coalesced into a coherent
tradition of religious organizations and orders of ritualists in the state of Shu (modern Sichuan). In earlier
ancient China, Taoists were thought of as hermits or recluses who did not participate in political life.
Zhuangzi was the best known of these, and it is significant that he lived in the south, where he was part of
local Chinese shamanic traditions.[36]

Female shamans played an important role in this tradition, which was particularly strong in the southern
state of Chu. Early Taoist movements developed their own institution in contrast to shamanism but
absorbed basic shamanic elements. Shamans revealed basic texts of Taoism from early times down to at
least the 20th century.[37] Institutional orders of Taoism evolved in various strains that in more recent times
are conventionally grouped into two main branches: Quanzhen Taoism and Zhengyi Taoism.[38] After Lao
Tzu and Zhuangzi, the literature of Taoism grew steadily and was compiled in form of a canon—the Tao
Tsang—which was published at the behest of the emperor. Throughout Chinese history, Taoism was
nominated several times as a state religion. After the 17th century, it fell from favor.

Taoism, in form of the Shangqing school, gained official status in China again during the Tang dynasty
(618–907), whose emperors claimed Lao Tzu as their relative.[39] The Shangqing movement had
developed much earlier, in the 4th century, on the basis of a series of revelations by gods and spirits to a
certain Yang Xi in the years between 364 and 370.[40]

Between 397 and 402, Ge Chaofu compiled a series of scriptures which later served as the foundation of
the Lingbao school,[41] which unfolded its greatest influence during the Song dynasty (960–1279).[42]
Several Song emperors, most notably Huizong, were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts
and publishing editions of the Taotsang.[43]
 In the 12th century, the Quanzhen
School was founded in Shandong.
It flourished during the 13th and
14th centuries and during the Yuan
dynasty became the largest and
most important Taoist school in
Northern China. The school's most
revered master, Qiu Chuji, met with
Genghis Khan in 1222 and was Qiu Chuji (1503) by Guo Xu
successful in influencing the Khan
towards exerting more restraint
during his brutal conquests. By the Khan's decree, the school also was
exempt from taxation.[44]

Aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism were consciously

synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school, which eventually became
Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes under the Ming (1368–
1644).[45]

During the Qing dynasty (1644–1912), however, due to discouragements

A part of a Taoist
of the government, many people favored Confucian and Buddhist classics
manuscript, ink on silk, 2nd
over Taoist works.
century BCE, Han Dynasty,
During the 18th century, the imperial library was constituted, but excluded
unearthed from Mawangdui
virtually all Taoist books.[46] By the beginning of the 20th century, Taoism
tomb 3rd.
went through many catastrophic events. (As a result, only one complete
copy of the Tao Tsang still remained, at the White Cloud Monastery in
Beijing).[47]

Today, Taoism is one of five official recognized religions in the People's Republic of China. The
government regulates its activities through the Chinese Taoist Association.[48] However, Taoism is
practiced without government involvement in Taiwan, where it claims millions of adherents.

World Heritage Sites Mount Qingcheng and Mount Longhu are thought to be among the birthplaces of
Taoism.

Doctrines

Ethics

Taoism tends to emphasize various themes of the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi, such as naturalness,
spontaneity, simplicity, detachment from desires, and most important of all, wu wei.[49] The concepts of
those keystone texts cannot be equated with Taoism as a whole.[50]

Tao and Te

道
Tao ( ; dào) literally means "way", but can also be interpreted as road, channel, path, doctrine, or line.[51]
In Taoism, it is "the One, which is natural, spontaneous, eternal, nameless, and indescribable. It is at once
the beginning of all things and the way in which all things pursue their course."[52] It has variously been
denoted as the "flow of the universe",[53] a "conceptually necessary ontological ground",[54] or a
 demonstration of nature.[55] The Tao also is something that
individuals can find immanent in themselves.[56]

德
The active expression of Tao is called Te ( ; dé; also spelled—and
pronounced—Teh, or even De; often translated with Virtue or
Power),[57] in a sense that Te results from an individual living and
cultivating the Tao.[58]
Xianguting Temple, a Taoguan in
Weihai, Shandong, China
Wu-wei

The polysemous term wu-wei or wuwei ( 無爲 ; wúwéi) constitutes the leading ethical concept in Taoism.[59]
Wei refers to any intentional or deliberated action, while wu carries the meaning of "there is no ..." or
"lacking, without". Common translations are nonaction, effortless action, or action without intent.[59] The
meaning is sometimes emphasized by using the paradoxical expression "wei wu wei": action without
action.[60]

In ancient Taoist texts, wu-wei is associated with water through its yielding nature.[61] Taoist philosophy, in
accordance with the I Ching, proposes that the universe works harmoniously according to its own ways.
When someone exerts their will against the world in a manner that is out of rhythm with the cycles of
change, they may disrupt that harmony and unintended consequences may more likely result rather than the
willed outcome. Taoism does not identify one's will as the root problem. Rather, it asserts that one must
place their will in harmony with the natural universe.[62] Thus, a potentially harmful interference may be
avoided, and in this way, goals can be achieved effortlessly.[63][64] "By wu-wei, the sage seeks to come
into harmony with the great Tao, which itself accomplishes by nonaction."[59]

Ziran

Ziran ( 自然 ; zìrán; tzu-jan; lit. "self-so", "self-organization"[65]) is regarded as a central value in

Taoism.[66] It describes the "primordial state" of all things[67] as well as a basic character of the Tao,[68]
and is usually associated with spontaneity and creativity.[69] To attain naturalness, one has to identify with
the Tao;[68] this involves freeing oneself from selfishness and desire, and appreciating simplicity.[66]

樸
An often cited metaphor for naturalness is pu ( ; pǔ, pú; p'u; lit. "uncut wood"), the "uncarved block",
which represents the "original nature... prior to the imprint of culture" of an individual.[70] It is usually
referred to as a state one returns to.[71]

Three Treasures

The Taoist Three Treasures or Three Jewels ( 三寶 慈

; sānbǎo) comprise the basic virtues of ci ( ; cí, usually
儉
translated as compassion), jian ( ; jiǎn, usually translated as moderation), and bugan wei tianxia xian ( 不
敢爲天下先 ; bùgǎn wéi tiānxià xiān, literally "not daring to act as first under the heavens", but usually
translated as humility).

As the practical, political side of Taoist philosophy, Arthur Waley translated them as "abstention from
aggressive war and capital punishment", "absolute simplicity of living", and "refusal to assert active
authority".[72]

The Three Treasures can also refer to jing, qi and shen ( 精氣神 ; jīng-qì-shén; jing is usually translated as
essence, qi as life force, and shen as spirit). These terms are elements of the traditional Chinese concept of
the human body, which shares its cosmological foundation—Yinyangism or the Naturalists—with Taoism.
Within this framework, they play an important role in neidan ("Taoist Inner Alchemy").[73]

Cosmology

Taoist cosmology is cyclic—the universe is seen as being in a constant process of re-creating itself.[74]
Evolution and 'extremes meet' are main characters.[65] Taoist cosmology shares similar views with the
School of Naturalists (Yinyang)[29] which was headed by Zou Yan (305–240 BCE). The school's tenets
harmonized the concepts of the Wu Xing (Five Elements) and yin and yang. In this spirit, the universe is
seen as being in a constant process of re-creating itself, as everything that exists is a mere aspect of qi,
which "condensed, becomes life; diluted, it is indefinite potential".[74] Qi is in a perpetual transformation
between its condensed and diluted state.[75] These two different states of qi, on the other hand, are
embodiments of the abstract entities of yin and yang,[75] two complementary extremes that constantly play
against and with each other and one cannot exist without the other.[76]

Human beings are seen as a microcosm of the universe,[20] and for example comprise the Wu Xing in form
of the zang-fu organs.[77] As a consequence, it is believed that a deeper understanding of the universe can
be achieved by understanding oneself.[78]

Theology

Taoist theology can be defined as apophatic, given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness and
unknowable nature of the Tao, and the primacy of the "Way" rather than anthropomorphic concepts of
God. This is one of the core beliefs that nearly all the sects share.[34]

Taoist orders usually present the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon of deities, visualizing the
hierarchy emanating from the Tao. Lao Tzu is considered the incarnation of one of the Three Purities and
worshiped as the ancestor of the philosophical doctrine.[25][79]

Different branches of Taoism often have differing pantheons of lesser deities, where these deities reflect
different notions of cosmology.[80] Lesser deities also may be promoted or demoted for their activity.[81]
Some varieties of popular Chinese religion incorporate the Jade Emperor, derived from the main of the
Three Purities, as a representation of the most high God.

Persons from the history of Taoism, and people who are considered to have become immortals (xian), are
venerated as well by both clergy and laypeople.

Despite these hierarchies of deities, traditional conceptions of Tao should not be confused with the Western
theism. Being one with the Tao does not necessarily indicate a union with an eternal spirit in, for example,
the Hindu sense.[55][62]

Texts

Tao Te Ching

The Tao Te Ching or Daodejing is widely considered the most influential Taoist text.[82] According to
legend, it was written by Lao Tzu,[83] and often the book is simply referred to as the Lao Tzu. Authorship,
precise date of origin, and even unity of the text are still subject of debate,[84] and will probably never be
known with certainty.[85] The earliest texts of the Tao Te Ching that have been excavated (written on
bamboo tablets) date back to the late 4th century BCE.[86] Throughout the
history of religious Taoism, the Tao Te Ching has been used as a ritual
text.[87]

The famous opening lines of the Tao Te Ching are:

道可道非常道 (pinyin: dào kĕ dào fēi cháng dào)

The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao

名可名非常名 (pinyin: míng kĕ míng fēi cháng míng)

The name that can be named is not the eternal name.[88]

There is significant, at times acrimonious, debate regarding which English 1770 Wang Bi edition of the
translation of the Tao Te Ching is preferable, and which particular Tao Te Ching
translation methodology is best.[89] The Tao Te Ching is not thematically
ordered. The main themes of the text are repeatedly expressed using variant
formulations, often with only a slight difference.[90]

The leading themes revolve around the nature of Tao and how to attain it. Tao is said to be ineffable and
accomplishes great things through small means.[91] Ancient commentaries on the Tao Te Ching are
important texts in their own right. Perhaps the oldest one, the Heshang Gong commentary, was most likely
written in the 2nd century CE.[92] Other important commentaries include the one from Wang Bi and the
Xiang'er.[93]

Zhuangzi

The Zhuangzi or Chuang Tzu ( 莊子 ), named after its traditional author Zhuangzi, is a composite of writings
from various sources, and is generally considered the most important of all Taoist writings.[94] The
commentator Guo Xiang (c. CE 300) helped establish the text as an important source for Taoist thought.
The traditional view is that Zhuangzi himself wrote the first seven chapters (the "inner chapters") and his
students and related thinkers were responsible for the other parts (the outer and miscellaneous chapters).
The work uses anecdotes, parables and dialogues to express one of its main themes, that is aligning oneself
to the laws of the natural world and "the way" of the elements.[95][96]

I Ching

The I Ching or Yijing was originally a divination system that had its origins
around 1150 BCE.[97] Although it predates the first mentions of Tao as an
organized system of philosophy and religious practice, this text later
became of philosophical importance to Taoism and Confucianism.

The I Ching itself, shorn of its commentaries, consists of 64 combinations

of 8 trigrams (called "hexagrams"), traditionally chosen by throwing coins
or yarrow sticks, to give the diviner some idea of the situation at hand and,
through reading of the "changing lines", some idea of what is
The eight trigrams of the I
developing.[98]
Ching, known as ba-gua
The 64 original notations of the hexagrams in the I Ching can also be read as a meditation on how change
occurs, so it assists Taoists with managing yin and yang cycles as Laozi advocated in the Tao Te Ching (the
oldest known version of this text was dated to 400 BCE). More recently as recorded in the 18th century, the
Taoist master Liu Yiming continued to advocate this usage.[99]

The Taoist Canon

The Taoist Canon ( 道藏 , Treasury of Tao) is also referred to as the Taotsang. It was originally compiled
during the Jin, Tang, and Song dynasties. The extant version was published during the Ming Dynasty.[100]
The Ming Taotsang includes almost 1500 texts.[101] Following the example of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka, it is
洞
divided into three dong ( , "caves", "grottoes"). They are arranged from "highest" to "lowest":[102]

1. The Zhen ("real" or "truth" 眞) grotto. Includes the Shangqing texts.

2. The Xuan ("mystery" 玄) grotto. Includes the Lingbao scriptures.
3. The Shen ("divine" 神) grotto. Includes texts predating the Maoshan (茅山) revelations.

Taoist generally do not consult published versions of the Taotsang, but individually choose, or inherit, texts
included in the Taotsang. These texts have been passed down for generations from teacher to student.[103]

The Shangqing School has a tradition of approaching Taoism through scriptural study. It is believed that by
reciting certain texts often enough one will be rewarded with immortality.[104]

Other texts

While the Tao Te Ching is most famous, there are many other important texts in traditional Taoism.
Taishang Ganying Pian ("Treatise of the Exalted One on Response and Retribution") discusses sin and
ethics, and has become a popular morality tract in the last few centuries.[105] It asserts that those in
harmony with Tao will live long and fruitful lives. The wicked, and their descendants, will suffer and have
shortened lives.[91]

Symbols and images

The taijitu ( 太極圖 ; tàijítú;
commonly known as the "yin and
yang symbol" or simply the "yin
yang") and the Ba-gua 八卦
("Eight Trigrams") have importance
in Taoist symbolism.[106] In this
cosmology, the universe creates
itself out of a primary chaos of
material energy, organized into the
A spider web ceiling depicting a
Basic depiction of the taijitu cycles of Yin and Yang and formed
taijitu surrounded by the Ba-gua ua.
symbol without trigrams into objects and lives. Yin is the
receptive and Yang is the active
principle, seen in all forms of
change and difference such as the annual season cycles, the natural landscape, the formation of both men
and women as characters, and sociopolitical history.[107] While almost all Taoist organizations make use of
it, its principles have influenced Confucian, Neo-Confucian or pan-Chinese theory. One can see this
symbol as a decorative element on Taoist organization flags and logos, temple floors, or stitched into
clerical robes. According to Song dynasty sources, it originated around the 10th century CE.[108]
Previously, a tiger and a dragon had symbolized yin and yang.[108]

Taoist temples may fly square or triangular flags. They typically feature mystical writing or diagrams and
are intended to fulfill various functions including providing guidance for the spirits of the dead, bringing
good fortune, increasing life span, etc.[109] Other flags and banners may be those of the gods or immortals
themselves.[110]

A zigzag with seven stars is sometimes displayed, representing the Big Dipper (or the Bushel, the Chinese
equivalent). In the Shang Dynasty of the 2nd millennium BCE, Chinese thought regarded the Big Dipper
as a deity, while during the Han Dynasty, it was considered a qi path of the circumpolar god, Taiyi.[111]

Taoist temples in southern China and Taiwan may often be identified by their roofs, which feature dragons
and phoenixes made from multicolored ceramic tiles. They also stand for the harmony of yin and yang
(with the phoenix representing yin). A related symbol is the flaming pearl, which may be seen on such
roofs between two dragons, as well as on the hairpin of a Celestial Master.[112] In general though, Chinese
Taoist architecture lacks universal features that distinguish it from other structures.[113]

Practices

Rituals

In ancient times, before the Taoism religion was founded, food

would sometimes be set out as a sacrifice to the spirits of the
deceased or the gods. This could include slaughtered animals, such
as pigs and ducks, or fruit. The Taoist Celestial Master Zhang
Daoling rejected food and animal sacrifices to the Gods. He tore
apart temples, which demanded animal sacrifice and drove away its
priests. This rejection of sacrifices has continued into the modern
day, as Taoism Temples are not allowed to use animal sacrifices
A hall of worship of the Erwang
(with the exception of folk temples or local tradition.)[114] Another Temple, a Taoist temple in
form of sacrifice involves the burning of joss paper, or hell money, Dujiangyan, Sichuan. There are
on the assumption that images thus consumed by the fire will elements of the jingxiang religious
reappear—not as a mere image, but as the actual item—in the spirit practice (incense and candle
world, making them available for revered ancestors and departed offerings).
loved ones. The joss paper is mostly used when memorializing
ancestors, such as done during the Qingming festival.

Also on particular holidays, street parades take place. These are lively affairs that involve firecrackers and
flower-covered floats broadcasting traditional music. They also variously include lion dances and dragon
dances; human-occupied puppets (often of the "Seventh Lord" and "Eighth Lord"), Kungfu-practicing and
palanquins carrying god-images. The various participants are not considered performers, but rather
possessed by the gods and spirits in question.[115]

Fortune-telling—including astrology, I Ching, and other forms of divination—has long been considered a
traditional Taoist pursuit. Mediumship is also widely encountered in some sects. There is an academic and
social distinction between martial forms of mediumship (such as tongji) and the spirit-writing that is
typically practiced through planchette writing.[116]
Physical cultivation

A recurrent and important element of Taoism are rituals, exercises and

substances aiming at aligning oneself spiritually with cosmic forces, at
undertaking ecstatic spiritual journeys, or at improving physical health and
thereby extending one's life, ideally to the point of immortality.[117]
Enlightened and immortal beings are referred to as xian.

A characteristic method aiming for longevity is Taoist alchemy. Already in

very early Taoist scriptures—like the Taiping Jing and the Baopuzi—
alchemical formulas for achieving immortality were outlined.[118]

A number of martial arts traditions, particularly the ones falling under the
category of Neijia (like T'ai Chi Ch'uan, Pa Kwa Chang and Xing Yi
Quan) embody Taoist principles to a significant extent, and some
Chinese woodblock practitioners consider their art a means of practicing Taoism.[119]
illustration of a waidan
alchemical refining furnace, Society
1856 Illustrated Manual of
External Medicine (外科圖
說 )
Adherents

The number of Taoists is difficult to estimate, due to a variety of

factors including defining Taoism. According to a survey of
religion in China in the year 2010, the number of people practicing
some form of Chinese folk religion is near to 950 million (70% of
the Chinese).[120] Among these, 173 million (13%) claim an
affiliation with Taoist practices.[120] Furthermore, 12 million people
claim to be "Taoists", a term traditionally used exclusively for
initiates, priests and experts of Taoist rituals and methods.[120]
The White Cloud Temple in Beijing
Most Chinese people and many others have been influenced in
some way by Taoist traditions. Since the creation of the People's
Republic of China, the government has encouraged a revival of Taoist traditions in codified settings. In
1956, the Chinese Taoist Association was formed to administer the activities of all registered Taoist orders,
and received official approval in 1957. It was disbanded during the Cultural Revolution under Mao
Zedong, but was reestablished in 1980. The headquarters of the association are at the Baiyunguan, or
White Cloud Temple of Beijing, belonging to the Longmen branch of Quanzhen Taoism.[121] Since 1980,
many Taoist monasteries and temples have been reopened or rebuilt, both belonging to the Zhengyi or
Quanzhen schools, and clergy ordination has been resumed.

Taoist literature and art has influenced the cultures of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Organized Taoism seems
not to have attracted a large non-Chinese following until modern times. In Taiwan, 7.5 million people (33%
of the population) identify themselves as Taoists.[122] Data collected in 2010 for religious demographics of
Hong Kong[123] and Singapore[124] show that, respectively, 14% and 11% of the people of these cities
identify as Taoists.

Followers of Taoism are also present in Chinese émigré communities outside Asia. In addition, it has
attracted followers with no Chinese heritage. For example, in Brazil there are Taoist temples in São Paulo
and Rio de Janeiro which are affiliated with the Taoist Society of China. Membership of these temples is
entirely of non-Chinese ancestry.[125]
Art and poetry

Throughout Chinese history, there have been many examples of art

being influenced by Taoist thought. Notable painters influenced by
Taoism include Wu Wei, Huang Gongwang, Mi Fu, Muqi
Fachang, Shitao, Ni Zan, Tang Mi, and Wang Zengzu.[126] Taoist
arts represents the diverse regions, dialects, and time spans that are
commonly associated with Taoism. Ancient Taoist art was
commissioned by the aristocracy; however, scholars masters and
adepts also directly engaged in the art themselves.[127]

Political aspects

Taoism never had a unified political theory. While Huang-Lao's

positions justified a strong emperor as the legitimate ruler,[128] the
"primitivists" (like in the chapters 8-11 of the Zhuangzi) argued Six Persimmons, a Taoist-influenced
strongly for a radical anarchism. A more moderate position is 13th-century Chinese painting by the
presented in the Inner Chapters of the Zhuangzi in which the monk, Mu Qi.
political life is presented with disdain and some kind of pluralism or
perspectivism is preferred.[129] The syncretist position in texts like
the Huainanzi and some Outer Chapters of the Zhuangzi blended some Taoist positions with Confucian
ones.[130]

Relations with other religions and philosophies

Many scholars believe Taoism arose as a countermovement to Confucianism.[131] The philosophical terms
Tao and De are indeed shared by both Taoism and Confucianism.[132] Zhuangzi explicitly criticized
Confucian and Mohist tenets in his work. In general, Taoism rejects the Confucian emphasis on rituals,
hierarchical social order, and conventional morality, and favors "naturalness", spontaneity, and
individualism instead.[133]

The entry of Buddhism into China was marked by significant interaction and syncretism with Taoism.[134]
Originally seen as a kind of "foreign Taoism", Buddhism's scriptures were translated into Chinese using the
Taoist vocabulary.[135] Representatives of early Chinese Buddhism, like Sengzhao and Tao Sheng, knew
and were deeply influenced by the Taoist keystone texts.[136]

Taoism especially shaped the development of Chan (Zen) Buddhism,[137] introducing elements like the
concept of naturalness, distrust of scripture and text, and emphasis on embracing "this life" and living in
the "every-moment".[138]

On the other hand, Taoism also incorporated Buddhist elements during the Tang dynasty. Examples of such
influence include monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the doctrine of emptiness, and
collecting scripture in tripartite organization in certain sects.

Ideological and political rivals for centuries, Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism deeply influenced one
another.[139] For example, Wang Bi, one of the most influential philosophical commentators on Lao Tzu
(and the I Ching), was a Confucian.[140] The three rivals also share some similar values, with all three
embracing a humanist philosophy emphasizing moral behavior and human perfection. In time, most
Chinese people identified to some extent with all three traditions simultaneously.[141] This became
institutionalized when aspects of the three schools were synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school.[142]
Some authors have undertaken comparative studies of Taoism and Christianity. This has been of interest for
students of the history of religion such as J. J. M. de Groot,[143] among others. A comparison of the
teachings of Lao Tzu and Jesus of Nazareth has been made by several authors, such as Martin
Aronson,[144] and Toropov & Hansen (2002), who believe that there are parallels that should not be
ignored.[145] In the opinion of J. Isamu Yamamoto, the main difference is that Christianity preaches a
personal God while Taoism does not.[146] Yet, a number of authors, including Lin Yutang,[147] have
argued that some moral and ethical tenets of the religions are similar.[148][149] In neighboring Vietnam,
Taoist values have been shown to adapt to social norms and formed emerging sociocultural beliefs together
with Confucianism.[150]

Confucianism, Taoism, and The Hanging Monastery, a

Buddhism Are One, a painting monastery with the combination
in the litang style portraying of three philosophies: Taoism,
three men laughing by a river Buddhism, and Confucianism.
stream, 12th century, Song
dynasty.

See also
Bagua
Baopuzi
Chinese culture
Chinese ritual mastery traditions
Dragon Gate Taoism
Five precepts (Taoism)
Hong Kong Taoist Association
Lingbao School
Neidan
Pu (Taoism)
Qingjing Jing
Quanzhen Taoism
Shangqing School
Taiji
Tao Te Ching
Taoism in Hong Kong
Taoism in Malaysia
Taoism in Singapore
 Taoism in Vietnam
Taoist Church of Italy
Taoist coin charm
Taoist diet
Taoist music
Taoist schools
Taoist Tai Chi
Ten precepts (Taoism)
Way of the Celestial Masters
Way of the Five Pecks of Rice
Yao Taoism
Zhengyi Taoism
Zhizha

References

Citations
1. Yin, Binyong. "Proper Nouns in Hanyu Pinyin" (http://pinyin.info/readings/yin_binyong/o2_pr
oper_nouns.pdf) (PDF). Chinese Romanization: Pronunciation and Orthography. Translated
by Felley, Mary. p. 176.
2. Elizabeth Pollard; Clifford Rosenberg; Robert Tignor (16 December 2014). Worlds Together,
Worlds Apart: A History of the World - From the Beginnings of Humankind to the Present (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=rSjDoQEACAAJ). W.W. Norton. p. 164. ISBN 978-0-393-
91847-2.
3. Creel (1982), p. 2.
4. Woodhead, Partridge, & Kawanmi, Linda, Christopher, & Hiroko (2016). Religions in the
Modern World. New York: Routledge. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-415-85880-9.
5. Creel (1982), pp. 48, 62–63; Bishop (1995), p. 92 (https://books.google.com/books?id=-E5L
ZeR7QKwC&pg=PA92); Ching & Guisso (1991), pp. 75 (https://books.google.com/books?id
=ynfrlFZcUG8C&pg=PA75), 119.
6. "Religion in China" (https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/religion-china). Council on Foreign
Relations. 11 October 2018.
7. "Taiwan 2017 International Religious Freedom Report" (https://www.ait.org.tw/taiwan-2017-i
nternational-religious-freedom-report/). American Institute on Taiwan. US Federal
Government. 29 May 2018.
8. Carr (1990), pp. 63–65. "Converting the various pronunciation respelling systems into IPA,
British dictionaries (1933–1989, Table 3) give 9 /taʊ.ɪzəm/, 2 /taʊ.ɪzəm, daʊ.ɪzəm/, and 1
/daʊ.ɪzəm/; American dictionaries (1948–1987, Table 4) give 6 /daʊ.ɪzəm, taʊ.ɪzəm/, 2
/taʊ.ɪzəm, daʊ.ɪzəm/, 2 /taʊ.ɪzəm/, and 1 /daʊ.ɪzəm/".
9. Pregadio (2008), Vol. 1, p. xvi.
10. Pregadio (2008), Vol. 1, p. 327, "Taoshih".
11. Robinet (1997), p. xxix.
12. Kohn (2000), p. 44.
13. Chad Hansen. "Taoism" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/taoism/). Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20130624092211/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/taoism/) from the original on
24 June 2013. Retrieved 1 October 2008.
14. Chad Hansen. "Taoism" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/taoism/). Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20130624092211/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/taoism/) from the original on
24 June 2013. Retrieved 1 October 2008.
15. Graham (1989), pp. 170–171
16. "Daoist Philosophy | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy" (https://iep.utm.edu/daoism/).
Retrieved 27 January 2022.
17. Hansen, Chad (2020), Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), "Daoism" (https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/s
pr2020/entries/daoism/), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2020 ed.),
Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, retrieved 27 January 2022
18. Robinet (1997), p. 3; Kohn (2000), p. xi
19. Mair (2001), p. 174.
20. Robinet (1997), p. 103
21. Robinet (1997), p. 2.
22. Meister, Chad; Copan, Paul, eds. (2010). The Routledge companion to philosophy of
religion. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415435536.
23. Pregadio (2008), Vol. 1, p. 326, "Taoshih".
24. Wu (2014), pp. 105–106.
25. Robinet (1997), p. 63.
26. Robinet (1997), p. 25.
27. Kirkland (2004), p. 62.
28. Kirkland (2004), p. 61.
29. Robinet (1997), p. 6
30. Demerath (2003), p. 149; Hucker (1995), pp. 203–204
31. Robinet (1997), p. 36
32. Robinet (1997), p. 39.
33. Robinet (1997), p. 54.
34. Robinet (1997), p. 1.
35. Robinet (1997), p. 50.
36. Nadeau (2012), p. 42.
37. Catherine Despeux. "Women in Taoism (https://books.google.com/books?id=EXVk1tr6lEYC
&q=shamanism)". In Kohn (2000), pp. 403–404.
38. Chan (2005), p. 93.
39. Robinet (1997), p. 184
40. Robinet (1997), p. 115
41. Robinet (1997), p. 150
42. Robinet (1997), p. xvi
43. Robinet (1997), p. 213
44. Eskildsen (2004), p. 17.
45. Kohn (2000), p. xvii
46. Schipper (1993), p. 19
47. Schipper (1993), p. 220
48. "Human Rights Without Frontiers "Religious Freedom in China in 2006" " (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20090327075017/http://www.hrwf.net/advocacy/ext/religious_freedom_china.pdf)
(PDF). Archived from the original (http://www.hrwf.net/advocacy/ext/religious_freedom_chin
a.pdf) (PDF) on 27 March 2009. (30.6 KB) An address given to the Delegation EU–China of
the European Parliament.
49. Chan (1963).
50. Kirkland (2004), p. 3.
51. DeFrancis (1996), p. 113.
52. Chan (1963), p. 136.
53. Cane (2002), p. 13.
54. A. Chan, cited in Kohn (2000), p. 20
55. Martinson (1987), pp. 168–169.
56. LaFargue (1994), p. 283.
57. Sharot (2001), pp. 77–78, 88
58. Maspero (1981), p. 32
59. Van Voorst (2005), p. 170
60. Kirkland (2004), p. 60.
61. Oldmeadow 2007, p. 109.
62. Fasching & deChant (2001), p. 35.
63. Chan (1963), p. 137.
64. Living in the Tao: The Effortless Path of Self-Discovery, Mantak Chia
65. Dr Zai, J. Taoism and Science: Cosmology, Evolution, Morality, Health and more (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=-WzMCQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover1) Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20160417051124/https://books.google.com/books?id=-WzMCQAAQBAJ&print
sec=frontcover1) 17 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Ultravisum, 2015.
66. Fowler (2005), p. 122.
67. Slingerland (2003), p. 97.
68. Girardot (1988), p. 56.
69. Fowler (2005), p. 121; Girardot (1988), p. 56.
70. Kraemer (1986), p. 286.
71. Girardot (1988), p. 70.
72. Waley (1958), p. 225
73. Blofeld, John. Taoism. Shambhala, 2000.
74. Robinet (1997), p. 7
75. Robinet (1997), p. 8
76. Robinet (1997), p. 9.
77. Kohn (2000), p. 825
78. Occhiogrosso (1994), p. 171.
79. Maspero (1981), p. 41
80. Segal (2006), p. 50
81. Maspero (1981), p. 92
82. Miller (2003), p. ix
83. "Taoism: Overview" (http://www.patheos.com/Library/Taoism.html). Patheos. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20091016124951/http://www.patheos.com/Library/Taoism.html) from
the original on 16 October 2009. Retrieved 16 May 2011.
 84. Eliade (1984), p. 26.
85. Watts (1975), p. xxiii.
86. "Laozi" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/laozi/). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Stanford University. 2018. "The discovery of two Lao Tzu silk manuscripts at Mawangdui,
near Changsha, Hunan province in 1973 marks an important milestone in modern Lao Tzu
research. The manuscripts, identified simply as "A" (jia) and "B" (yi), were found in a tomb
that was sealed in 168 B.C. The texts themselves can be dated earlier, the "A" manuscript
being the older of the two, copied in all likelihood before 195 B.C.

Until recently, the Mawangdui manuscripts have held the pride of place as the oldest extant
manuscripts of the Lao Tzu. In late 1993, the excavation of a tomb (identified as M1) in
Guodian, Jingmen city, Hubei province, has yielded among other things some 800 bamboo
slips, of which 730 are inscribed, containing over 13,000 Chinese characters. Some of
these, amounting to about 2,000 characters, match the Lao Tzu. The tomb...is dated around
300 B.C."
87. Kohn & LaFargue (1998), p. 158.
88. Lao Tzu. "Tao Te Ching, 1. chapter, translated by Livia Kohn (1993)" (http://www.bopsecrets.
org/gateway/passages/tao-te-ching.htm). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2012052908
0507/http://www.bopsecrets.org/gateway/passages/tao-te-ching.htm) from the original on 29
May 2012. Retrieved 29 May 2012.
89. Kohn & LaFargue (1998), pp. 185–186
90. Kim (2003), p. 13.
91. Van Voorst (2005), p. 165.
92. Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 73
93. Schipper & Verellen (2004), pp. 74–77
94. Idema & Haft (1997), p. 90.
95. "Zhuangzi" (https://web.archive.org/web/20130502064843/http://taoism.about.com/od/chuan
gtz1/p/Zhuangzi.htm). About.com. Archived from the original (http://taoism.about.com/od/chu
angtz1/p/Zhuangzi.htm) on 2 May 2013. Retrieved 2 May 2013.
96. "Zhuangzi" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/116716/Zhuangzi). Encyclopædia
Britannica Online. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130627083811/http://www.britan
nica.com/EBchecked/topic/116716/Zhuangzi) from the original on 27 June 2013. Retrieved
2 May 2013.
97. Pittman, Allen. Walking the I Ching (https://books.google.com/books?id=HG-fUg2TqRQC&p
g=PA21) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20151018093755/https://books.google.com/
books?id=HG-fUg2TqRQC&pg=PA21) 18 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Blue
Snake Books, 2008. p. 21
98. Wing, R. L. The I Ching Workbook (https://books.google.com/books?id=Mw-KtYRQHhoC&p
g=PA15) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20151017045900/https://books.google.com/
books?id=Mw-KtYRQHhoC&pg=PA15) 17 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine
Doubleday, 1979. pp. 15, 20.
99. e.g. Cleary, Thomas, tr. The Taoist I Ching (https://books.google.com/books?id=w9NFEyUKf
QkC&pg=PT17) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20151101080655/https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=w9NFEyUKfQkC&pg=PT17) 1 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine.
Shambhala, 1986. p. 6.
100. Schipper & Verellen (2004), pp. 1, 30
101. Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 36
102. Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 15; Little & Eichman (2000), p. 46
103. Schipper & Verellen (2004), p. 44
104. Robinet (1997), p. 132
105. "Jordan: The Taoist Canon" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070216160701/http://weber.ucs
d.edu/~dkjordan/chin/hbcanondaw-u.html). Weber.ucsd.edu. Archived from the original (htt
p://weber.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/chin/hbcanondaw-u.html) on 16 February 2007. Retrieved
16 May 2011.
106. Little & Eichman (2000), p. 131–139
107. Feuchtwang, Stephan (2016). Religions in the Modern World (Third ed.). New York:
Routhledge. p. 150.
108. Little & Eichman (2000), p. 131
109. Kohn (2004), p. 116
110. Kohn (2004), p. 119
111. Little & Eichman (2000), p. 128.
112. Schipper (1993), p. 21.
113. Little & Eichman (2000), p. 74.
114. David "Race" Bannon, "Chinese Medicine: From Temples to Taoism," T’ai Chi, Vol. 20, No.
3 (1996): 28–33.
115. Schipper (1993), pp. 28–29
116. Silvers (2005), pp. 129–132
117. Kohn (2000), p. 672; Robinet (1997), p. 228 & 103
118. Schipper & Verellen (2004), pp. 70–71; Robinet (1997), p. 73
119. Silvers (2005), pp. 135–137
120. 2010 Chinese Spiritual Life Survey, Purdue University's Center on Religion and Chinese
Society. Data reported in Wenzel-Teuber & Strait (2012), p. 29–54
121. "Taoism: Modern Age" (http://www.patheos.com/Library/Taoism/Historical-Development/Mod
ern-Age.html). Patheos. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20111115093751/http://www.
patheos.com/Library/Taoism/Historical-Development/Modern-Age.html) from the original on
15 November 2011. Retrieved 16 May 2011.
122. "Taiwan Yearbook 2006" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070708213510/http://www.gio.gov.t
w/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/22Religion.htm). Taiwan Government Information Office,
Department of Civil Affairs, Ministry of the Interior. 2006. Archived from the original (http://ww
w.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/22Religion.htm) on 8 July 2007.
123. "2010 Yearbook – Religion" (http://www.yearbook.gov.hk/2010/en/pdf/E18.pdf) (PDF). Hong
Kong Government. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20140630094849/http://www.year
book.gov.hk/2010/en/pdf/E18.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 30 June 2014. Retrieved
20 October 2014.
124. "Census of population 2010: Statistical Release 1 on Demographic Characteristics,
Education, Language and Religion" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110303155259/http://ww
w.singstat.gov.sg/pubn/popn/C2010sr1/cop2010sr1.pdf) (PDF). Singapore Department of
Statistics. 12 January 2011. Archived from the original (http://www.singstat.gov.sg/pubn/pop
n/C2010sr1/cop2010sr1.pdf) (PDF) on 3 March 2011.
125. Murray, Daniel M. & Miller, James. "The Taoist Society of Brazil and the Globalization of
Orthodox Unity Taoism." Journal of Taoist Studies, vol. 6, 2013, pp. 93-114.
doi:10.1353/Tao.2013.0003 (https://doi.org/10.1353%2FTao.2013.0003); Murray, Daniel M.,
and James Miller. "TRADUÇAO: A Sociedade Taoísta do Brasil e a globalizaçao do
Taoismo da Ortodoxia Unitária." Religare: Revista Do Programa De Pós Graduaç Ao Em
Ciências Das Religi Oes Da Ufpb 12 (2016): 315–43.
126. Chang (1968).
127. Augustin, Birgitta. "Taoism and Taoist Art" (http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/Taoi/hd_Taoi.
htm). The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 16 July 2014.
128. Hansen (2000), pp. 224–226, 370–374.
129. Graham (1989), pp. 172, 306–311.
130. Roth, Harold D. (27 September 2014). "Huainanzi: The Pinnacle of Classical Taoist
Syncretism". Tao Companion to Taoist Philosophy. Springer Netherlands. pp. 341–365.
doi:10.1007/978-90-481-2927-0_15 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-90-481-2927-0_15).
ISBN 9789048129263.
131. Fisher (1997), p. 167.
132. Markham & Ruparell (2001), p. 254.
133. Maspero (1981), p. 39.
134. Maspero (1981), p. 46.
135. Prebish (1975), p. 192.
136. Dumoulin, Heisig & Knitter (2005), pp. 70, 74.
137. Mollier (2008).
138. Dumoulin, Heisig & Knitter (2005), pp. 68, 70–73, 167–168.
139. Markham & Ruparell (2001), pp. 248–249.
140. Schipper (1993), p. 192.
141. Windows on Asia (http://www.asia.msu.edu/eastasia/China/religion.html) Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20090220182953/http://www.asia.msu.edu/eastasia/China/religion.html)
2009-02-20 at the Wayback Machine Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University.
142. Moore (1967), pp. 133, 147.
143. Werblowsky (2002), p. 25.
144. Aronson (2002), p. .
145. Toropov & Hansen (2002), pp. 169–181.
146. Yamamoto (1998), pp. 69–70.
147. Ruokanen & Zhanzhu Huang (2010), p. 137.
148. Zhiming (2010), p. .
149. Chung (2001), p. 141–145.
150. Napier et al. (2018).

General sources
Aronson, Martin (2002). Jesus and Lao Tzu: The Parallel Sayings (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20151124153501/https://books.google.com/books?id=Pf1D3KH_5FUC&source=gbs_na
vlinks_s). Ulysses Press. ISBN 978-1569753194. Archived from the original (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=Pf1D3KH_5FUC) on 24 November 2015.
The Divine Classic of Nan-Hua; Being the Works of Chuang Tsze, Taoist Philosopher (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=zhkNAAAAYAAJ). Translated by Balfour, Frederic Henry.
Kelly & Walsh. 1881.
Bishop, Donald H., ed. (1995). Chinese Thought: An Introduction (https://books.google.com/
books?id=-E5LZeR7QKwC). Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 9788120811393. Retrieved
21 August 2017.
Cane, Eulalio Paul (2002). Harmony: Radical Taoism Gently Applied. Trafford Publishing.
ISBN 1-4122-4778-0.
Carr, Michael (1990). "Whence the Pronunciation of Taoism?". Dictionaries. 12: 55–74.
doi:10.1353/dic.1990.0004 (https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fdic.1990.0004). S2CID 201790095
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201790095).
Chan, Wing-tsit (1963). A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy (https://archive.org/details/so
urcebookinchin00chan). Princeton. ISBN 0-691-01964-9.
Chan, Kim-Kwong (2005). "Religion in China in the Twenty-first Century: Some Scenarios".
Religion, State & Society. 33 (2): 87–119. doi:10.1080/09637490500118570 (https://doi.org/
10.1080%2F09637490500118570). S2CID 73530576 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corp
usID:73530576).
Chang, Chung-yuan (1968). Creativity and Taoism, A Study of Chinese Philosophy, Art, and
Poetry. New York: Harper Torchbooks. ISBN 978-0-06-131968-6.
Ching, Julia; Guisso, R. W. L., eds. (1991). Sages and Filial Sons: Mythology and
Archaeology in Ancient China (https://books.google.com/books?id=ynfrlFZcUG8C). Chinese
University Press. ISBN 978-962-201-469-5.
Chung, David (2001). Syncretism: The Religious Context of Christian Beginnings in Korea.
SUNY Press.
Creel, Herrlee Glessner (1982) [1970]. What Is Taoism?: And Other Studies in Chinese
Cultural History (https://books.google.com/books?id=5p6EBnx4_W0C&pg=PA48).
University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226120478.
DeFrancis, John, ed. (1996). ABC (Alphabetically Based Computerized) Chinese-English
Dictionary. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1744-3.
Demerath, Nicholas J. (2003). Crossing the Gods: World Religions and Worldly Politics.
Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-3207-8.
Dumoulin, Heinrich; Heisig, James W.; Knitter, Paul (2005). Zen Buddhism: A History (India
and China). World Wisdom. ISBN 0-941532-89-5.
Eliade, Mircea (1984). A History of Religious Ideas, Volume 2. Translated by Trask, Willard
R. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Eskildsen, Stephen (2004). The Teachings and Practices of the Early Quanzhen Taoist
Masters (https://books.google.com/books?id=vFBy3cvteTQC&q=quanzhen). SUNY Press.
ISBN 9780791460450.
Fasching, Darrell J.; deChant, Dell (2001). Comparative Religious Ethics: a narrative
approach (https://archive.org/details/comparativerelig0000fasc). Blackwell Publishing.
ISBN 0-631-20125-4.
Fisher, Mary Pat (1997). Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths. I.B.
Tauris. ISBN 1-86064-148-2.
Fowler, Jeaneane (2005). An Introduction To The Philosophy And Religion Of Taoism (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=9wi-ZDdmaqEC&pg=PA122). Sussex Academic Press.
ISBN 9781845190866.
Girardot, Norman J. (1988). Myth and Meaning in Early Taoism: The Themes of Chaos (Hun-
Tun) (https://books.google.com/books?id=UhmCyjTKmaMC&pg=PA56). University of
California Press. ISBN 9780520064607.
Graham, Angus (1989). Disputers of the Tao (https://archive.org/details/disputersoftaoph000
0grah). Open Court. ISBN 0-8126-9087-7.
Hansen, Chad D. (2000). A Taoist Theory of Chinese Thought: A Philosophical
Interpretation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513419-2.
Hucker, Charles O. (1995). China's Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and
Culture. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-2353-2.
Idema, Wilt; Haft, Lloyd (1997). A Guide to Chinese Literature. Ann Arbor: Center for
Chinese Studies, University of Michigan. ISBN 978-0-89264-123-9.
Kim, Ha Poong (2003). Reading Lao Tzu: A Companion to the Tao Te Ching With a New
Translation. Xlibris Corporation. ISBN 1-4010-8316-1.
Kirkland, Russell (2004). Taoism: The Enduring Tradition. London and New York:
Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-26321-4.
Kohn, Livia, ed. (2000). Taoism Handbook (https://books.google.com/books?id=EXVk1tr6lE
YC). Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-9004112087.
Kohn, Livia (2004). The Taoist Monastic Manual: A Translation of the FengTao Kejie. New
York: Oxford University Press.
Kohn, Livia; LaFargue, Michael, eds. (1998). Lao-Tzu and the Tao-Te-Ching. SUNY Press.
ISBN 0-7914-3599-7.
Kraemer, Kenneth (1986). World Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religions.
Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-2781-8.
LaFargue, Michael (1994). Tao and Method: A Reasoned Approach to the Tao Te Ching.
SUNY Press. ISBN 0-7914-1601-1.
Little, Stephen; Eichman, Shawn (2000). Taoism and the Arts of China. Chicago: Art Institute
of Chicago. ISBN 0-520-22784-0.
Mair, Victor H. (2001). The Columbia History of Chinese Literature. Columbia University
Press. ISBN 0-231-10984-9.
Markham, Ian S.; Ruparell, Tinu (2001). Encountering Religion: an introduction to the
religions of the world. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-20674-4.
Martinson, Paul Varo (1987). A theology of world religions: Interpreting God, self, and world
in Semitic, Indian, and Chinese thought (https://archive.org/details/theologyofworldr0000mar
t). Augsburg Publishing House. ISBN 0-8066-2253-9.
Maspero, Henri (1981). Taoism and Chinese Religion (https://archive.org/details/taoismchin
eserel00henr). Translated by Kierman, Jr., Frank A. University of Massachusetts Press.
ISBN 0-87023-308-4.
Miller, James (2003). Taoism: A Short Introduction. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1-
85168-315-1.
Mollier, Christine (2008). Buddhism and Taoism Face to Face: Scripture, Ritual, and
Iconographic Exchange in Medieval China. University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-
3169-1.
Moore, Charles Alexander (1967). The Chinese Mind: Essentials of Chinese Philosophy
and Culture. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-0075-3.
Nadeau, Randal L. (2012). The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=yQnFKpTepo8C). Malden, MA: Blackwell. ISBN 9781444361438.
Napier, Nancy K.; Pham, Hiep-Hung; Nguyen, Ha; Nguyen, Hong Kong; Ho, Manh-Toan;
Vuong, Thu-Trang; Cuong, Nghiem Phu Kien; Bui, Quang-Khiem; Nhue, Dam; La, Viet-
Phuong; Ho, Tung; Vuong, Quan Hoang (4 March 2018). " 'Cultural additivity' and how the
values and norms of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism co-exist, interact, and influence
Vietnamese society: A Bayesian analysis of long-standing folktales, using R and Stan" (htt
p://ssrn.com/abstract=3134541). CEB WP No.18/015 (Centre Emile Bernheim, Université
Libre de Bruxelles). arXiv:1803.06304 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1803.06304).
Bibcode:2018arXiv180306304V (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018arXiv180306304V).
Retrieved 13 March 2018.
Occhiogrosso, Peter (1994). The Joy of Sects (https://archive.org/details/joyofsects00pete).
Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-42564-3.
Oldmeadow, Harry (2007). Light from the East: Eastern Wisdom for the Modern West.
Indiana: World Wisdom. ISBN 978-1-933316-22-2.
Prebish, Charles (1975). Buddhism: A Modern Perspective (https://archive.org/details/buddh
ismamodernp0000preb). Penn State Press. ISBN 0-271-01195-5.
 Pregadio, Fabrizio, ed. (2008). The Encyclopedia of Taoism. 2 volume set. London:
Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7007-1200-7.
Robinet, Isabelle (1997) [1992]. Taoism: Growth of a Religion. Stanford: Stanford University
Press. ISBN 0-8047-2839-9.
Ruokanen, Miikka; Zhanzhu Huang, Paulos (2010). Christianity and Chinese Culture. Wm.
B. Eerdmans Publishing.
Segal, Robert Alan (2006). The Blackwell Companion to the Study of Religion'. Blackwell
Publishing. ISBN 0-631-23216-8.
Schipper, Kristopher (1993) [1982]. The Taoist Body. Berkeley: University of California
Press.
Schipper, Kristopher; Verellen, Franciscus (2004). The Taoist Canon: A Historical
Companion to the Taotsang. Chicago: University of Chicago.
Sharot, Stephen (2001). A Comparative Sociology of World Religions: virtuosos, priests, and
popular religion. New York: NYU Press. ISBN 0-8147-9805-5.
Silvers, Brock (2005). The Taoist Manual. Honolulu: Sacred Mountain Press.
Slingerland, Edward Gilman (2003). Effortless Action: Wu-Wei as Conceptual Metaphor and
Spiritual Ideal in Early China (https://books.google.com/books?
id=gSReaja3V3IC&pg=PR4). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513899-3.
Toropov, Brandon; Hansen, Chadwick (2002). "Chapter 15: The Tao and the Judeo-Christian
Tradition". The Complete Idiot's Guide to Taoism (https://www.google.com/books/edition/The
_Complete_Idiot_s_Guide_to_Taoism/BRdmQzAJdxsC). ISBN 978-1-44-069573-5.
Van Voorst, Robert E. (2005). Anthology of World Scriptures (https://archive.org/details/antho
logyofworld00vanv). Thomson Wadsworth. ISBN 978-0-534-52099-1.
Waley, Arthur (1958). The Way and Its Power: A Study of the Tao Te Ching and Its Place in
Chinese Thought (https://archive.org/details/wayitspowerstudy00laoz). Grove Press.
ISBN 0-8021-5085-3.
Watts, Alan (1975). Tao: The Watercourse Way (https://archive.org/details/taowatercoursewa
00watt_0). New York: Pantheon. ISBN 978-0-394-73311-1.
Werblowsky, Raphael Jehudah Zwi (2002). The Beaten Track of Science: The Life and
Work of J.J.M. de Groot. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.
Wenzel-Teuber, Katharina; Strait, David (2012). "People's Republic of China: Religions and
Churches Statistical Overview 2011" (http://www.china-zentrum.de/fileadmin/downloads/rct
c/2012-3/RCTC_2012-3.29-54_Wenzel-Teuber_Statistical_Overview_2011.pdf) (PDF).
Religions & Christianity in Today's China. II (3). ISSN 2192-9289 (https://www.worldcat.org/i
ssn/2192-9289). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170427151725/http://www.china-z
entrum.de/fileadmin/downloads/rctc/2012-3/RCTC_2012-3.29-54_Wenzel-Teuber_Statistica
l_Overview_2011.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 27 April 2017.
Wu, Nengchang (2014). "Religion and Society. A Summary of French Studies on Chinese
Religion" (https://web.archive.org/web/20170827012653/http://www.academia.edu/6919287/
2014_Religion_and_Society._A_Summary_of_French_Studies_on_Chinese_Religion).
Review of Religion and Chinese Society. 1: 104–127. doi:10.1163/22143955-04102008 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1163%2F22143955-04102008). Archived from the original (https://www.acad
emia.edu/6919287) on 27 August 2017.
Yamamoto, J. Isamu (1998). Buddhism, Taoism, and Other Far Eastern Religions.
Zondervan.
Zhiming, Yuan (2010). Lao Tzu and the Bible. AuthorHous. ISBN 9781449091101.

Further reading
 Barrett, Rick (2006). Taijiquan: Through the Western Gate. Blue Snake Books. ISBN 1-
58394-139-8.
Bertschinger, Richard (2011). The Secret of Everlasting Life: The first translation of the
ancient Chinese text on immortality. Singing Dragon. ISBN 978-1-84819-048-1.
Carr, David T.; Zhang, Canhui (2004). Space, Time, and Culture. Springer. ISBN 1-4020-
2823-7.
Chang, Stephen T. (1985). The Great Tao. Tao Longevity LLC. ISBN 0-942196-01-5.
Jones, Richard H. (2004). Mysticism and Morality: a new look at old questions. Lexington
Books. ISBN 0-7391-0784-4.
Keller, Catherine (2003). The Face of the Deep: A Theology of Becoming. Routledge.
ISBN 0-415-25648-8.
Klaus, Hilmar (2009). The Tao of Wisdom. Laozi – Taodejing (in Chinese, English, and
German). Aachen: Hochschulverlag. ISBN 978-3-8107-0055-1.
Kohn, Livia (1993). The Taoist Experience: An Anthology. Albany: SUNY Press. ISBN 978-
0-7914-1579-5.
Komjathy, Louis (2013). The Taoist Tradition: An Introduction. London and New York:
Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1441168733.
Komjathy, Louis (2014). Taoism: A Guide for the Perplexed. London and New York:
Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1441148155.
Mair, Victor H (1983). Experimental Essays on Chuang-tzu. Hawaii. ISBN 0-88706-967-3.
Martin, William (2005). A Path And A Practice: Using Lao Tzu's Tao Te Ching as a Guide to
an Awakened Spiritual Life. Marlowe & Company. ISBN 1-56924-390-5.
Pas, Julian F.; Leung, Man Kam (1998). Historical Dictionary of Taoism. Scarecrow Press.
ISBN 0-8108-3369-7.
Robinet, Isabelle (1993) [1989]. Taoist Meditation: The Mao-shan Tradition of Great Purity.
Albany: SUNY Press.
Saso, Michael R. (1990). Taoism and the Rite of Cosmic Renewal (2nd ed.). Pullman:
Washington State University Press. ISBN 978-0-87422-054-4.
The Taoist Translations of Thomas Cleary: A Reader’s Guide (https://www.shambhala.com/t
homas-clearys-taoist-translations/). Shambala Publications.
Sivin, Nathan (1968). Chinese Alchemy: Preliminary Studies. Cambridge: Harvard
University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-12150-8.
Sommer, Deborah (1995). Chinese Religion: An Anthology of Sources. Oxford University
Press. ISBN 978-0-19-508895-3.
Tian, Chenshan (2005). Chinese Dialectics: From Yijing To Marxism. Lanham: Lexington
Books. ISBN 0-7391-0922-7.
Welch, H.; Seidel, A. (1979). Facets of Taoism. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-
300-01695-6.
Zhuangzi (2018). Kalinke, Viktor (ed.). Gesamttext und Materialien (in Chinese and
German). Leipzig: Leipziger Literaturverlag. ISBN 978-3-86660-222-9.—with Pinyin
transcription, interlinear and literary translation, contains a complete dictionary of the book
Zhuangzi and a concordance to Lao Tzu.

Popular (non-academic) interpretations of Taoism

Dyer, Wayne (2007). Change Your Thoughts, Change Your Life: Living the Wisdom of the
Tao (https://archive.org/details/changeyourthough00dyer_0). Hay House. ISBN 978-1-4019-
1750-0.
Gerstner, Ansgar (2009). The Tao of Business. Earnshaw Books. ISBN 978-988-18-1547-7.
 Goodspeed, Bennett W. (1983). The Tao Jones Averages: A Guide to Whole-Brained
Investing (https://archive.org/details/taojonesaverages00goodrich). E.P. Dutton.
ISBN 9780525242017.
Hoff, Benjamin (1983). The Tao of Pooh. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-006747-7.
Wilde, Stuart (1995). Infinite Self: 33 Steps to Reclaiming Your Inner Power (https://archive.o
rg/details/infiniteself33st00wild). Hay House. ISBN 978-1-56170-349-4.
The Tao of Steve, a 2000 film directed by Jenniphr Goodman and starring Donal Logue.

External links
BBC religions – Taoism (http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/taoism)
Taoism (https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00wlgbg) on In Our Time at the BBC
"Taoist philosophy" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/Taoism). Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Early Taoist texts (http://ctext.org/Taoism) – Chinese Text Project
FYSK Taoist Culture Centre Database (http://en.Taoinfo.org)
Patheos Library – Taoism (http://www.patheos.com/Library/Taoism.html)
Tao Directory (http://www.taodirectory.co.uk)
Taoist Texts (http://www.sacred-texts.com/tao/index.htm) at the Internet Sacred Text Archive
Wikipedia of Taoism (http://en.Taoinfo.org/wiki/)
Collection: "Daoism/Taoism" (https://exchange.umma.umich.edu/resources/23944) from the
University of Michigan Museum of Art

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taoism&oldid=1074675758"

This page was last edited on 1 March 2022, at 14:39 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0;

additional terms may apply. By
using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the
Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.