CONTENTS

Theory of Magnetization 2

Characteristics of Magnetic Materials 6

Permanent Magnet Materials 10

Energy and Permanent Magnets 14

Magnet Design 16

Magnet Stability 24

Permanent Magnet Measurements 27

Magnetization and Demagnetization........................................................................... 28

Glossary of Magnet Terms 30

Symbols 34

Specifying the Permanent Magnet 36

Typical Magnetic and Physical Properties 37

Hitachi Magnets Demagnetization Curves 38 - 40

~HITACHI METALS AMERICA, LTD.

Magnetic Materials Division
7800 NEFF ROAD • EDMORE, MICHIGAN 48829
PHONE (517) 427-5151 • FAX (517) 427-5772 or 427-5571

1
 The Theory of Magnetism
For centuries, magnets were looked upon as magical de-
vices or curios. Not until the closing years of the 19th
century did they begin to find commercial applications.

Fig. 1. In the 1600's, William Gilbert discovered that a magnet could be made by
heating an iron bar, then letting it cool in the direction of the earth's field.

Modern life as we know it would not be possible Early studies by Gilbert and Oersted
were it not for permanent magnets. If you think this The first great theoretical study of magnetism
is an exaggeration, consider the number of every- was conducted by William Gilbert and reported
day devices that would cease to operate without in 1600. For the first time, the magnet was viewed
permanent magnets: electric clocks would stop ... scientifically rather than as an object of magic or
your radio or TV would be useless ... all electrical . superstition.
communication would fail ... and the distribution of Starting with lodestones, Gilbert developed
power would be impossible. It has been estimated methods of making magnets from iron, discovered
that your home contains more than 50 permanent the effect of pole pieces, and establ ished that the
magnets, while commercial and military applica- world itself is a magnet. He found, for example, that
tions number in the thousands. red heat destroyed permanent magnetism, and,
To be sure, magnets play only one part, and many conversely, that a red-hot iron bar left to cool in the
other scientific discoveries were necessary to de- direction of the earth's field became permanently
velop our present-day technology. However, the magnetic.
story of man's understanding of magnetism paral- He could not go beyond this, as the science of
lels his understanding ofthe other natural sciences. electricity had not yet been developed. Conse-
The first permanent magnets known were disco- quently, permanent magnets remained an interest-
vered in Magnesia - thus the name "magnes" - ing but useless curio forthe nextfew hundred years.
several thousand years ago. Since these were used
by early mariners as an aid in navigation, they were Oersted discovers the origin of magnetic
called lodestones, after the lodestar (or guiding fields
star). It is known now that these magnets were a The origin of magnetic fields was discovered by
variety of magnetite, Fe304, which is magnetic in the Hans Christian Oersted in 1820. Before Oersted,
natural stage. No attempt was made to explain the many had assumed there was some interaction be-
attractive force of the lodestone, but rather it was tween electricity and the magnetic phenomena, but
considered to possess supernatural powers. this fact had not been established. Oersted found
2
that when a compass was brought near a wire carry- electromagnets. The spinning motion of the elec-
ing a direct current, the compass needle pointed in a trons is the same as the electrons moving through a
direction at right angles to the current. By moving coil ofwire. The effect is the same as Faraday found:
the compass needle around the current-carrying magnetic fields are produced by charges in motion
wi re, Oersted was able to explore the magnetic field, or by an electric current.
and showed it to be in the form of circles ringing the In most materials there is an identical number of
wire. electrons spinning in one direction as in the other.
The first important relationship between electric- Since the polarity of the magnetic field is deter-
ity and magnetism was established: magneticfields mined by the direction ofthe electron spin, the equal
are produced by charges in motion or by an electri- numbers of opposite magnetic fields cancel each
cal current. other out, and there is no magnetic field produced.
It followed logically that when a coil of wire was The peculiarity of a ferromagnetic material is that
wound around a small cylinder and energized, it there are more electrons spinning in one direction
would produce an external magnetic field very than in the other. Each atom then is a small elec-
much likethat of a magnetized iron bar, with poles at tromagnet. We now see the basic building block of
either end. Again the trail ended here, as it was all magnetism, namely the atomic magnet, which,
necessary to have an understanding of atomic because of the direction of electron spin, has a
physics (a subject unheard of at that time) to ap- magnetic moment. We need only enlarge the pic-
preciate the similarity of permanent magnets and ture ofthe atomic magnetto see how a ferromagne-
electromagnets. tic material produces magnetic flux.
The idealized picture is one where all the atoms
Alloys increase magnetic strength are so arranged that the electrons spin in the same
Understanding the causes of magnetism had to direction. In this case, all of the atomic magnetic
wait. However, magnets began to find commercial moments will also be in the same direction and their
applications, and man began to find ways to make magnetic forces will be combined. A magnetized
them stronger and more useful. Although these de- piece then derives its magnetism from the coordi-
velopments were achieved largely by trial and error, nated circular spin ofthe electric charges in the third
in some cases accidentally, they were impressive. shell ofthe atom. We need only find how it is possi-
Toward the end ofthe 19th century, itwas found that ble to align the elemental magnets and we will have
alloy additions of tungsten or chromium would the complete story.
greatly increase the usefulness of permanent mag-
Atoms are aligned by electrostatic force
nets. It was subsequently found that the addition of
cobalt further improved the properties and useful- Our discussion so far has neglected one important
ness of magnet steels. The magnetic properties of factor - the kinetic theory of matter. According to
these steels were developed by heat treating in ex- this well-established theory, atoms are constantly
actly the same manner they were hardened. In fact, vibrating and rotating. The higher the temperature
it became common practice to refer to the magnetic of the material, the higher will be the kinetic energy
properties in terms ofthe hardness ofthe alloy, thus of the atoms; that is, they will be vibrating more
the term "magnetically hard" and "magnetically vigorously. If each atom of our magnet were to act
soft." independently of its neighbor, the atoms would be
The most significant advance was the develop- vibrating and rotating with so much energy that it
ment of Alnico permanent magnets in the early would require a fantastically large magnetizing
1930's. Permanent magnets finally achieved suffi- force to align these particles. Such a force would
cient strength and stabil ity to find widespread use in have to be far greater than anything we can pro-
industry. To this day, Alnico magnets are the most duce. Therefore, it is necessary that some internal
widely used magnetic material, and it appears they force be present to restrict the independent action of
will be for years to come. the atoms.
Such a force does exist in some elements, and
Each atom is a small magnet accounts for the difference between magnetic and
But let us go back to where Oersted left off and see non-magnetic materials. This electrostatic force,
if, in light of the knowledge gained in the last called exchange interaction, maintains neighboring
hundred years, we can now explain the inner work- groups of atoms parallel against the forces of ther-
ings of the permanent magnet. To do this, we must mal agitation. It can then be seen why a material
look into the structure of matter. becomes non-magnetic when it is heated above its
It is well known now that an atom can be regarded Curie temperature. The additional heat provides
as a positively charged nucleus surrounded by elec- enough atomic thermal agitation to overcome the
trons which not only move about the nucleus in constraining forces of exchange interaction, and it is
definite orbits, but also spin on their own axes. It has no longer possible to maintain the atomic align-
been found that magnetism is associated almost ment.
entirely with this spinning motion ofthe electrons in
the third shell of the atomic structure. Here, then, is
the similarity between permanent magnets and
3
 The domain - a practical building block is a special classification of materials called fer-
It would be ideal if this exchange Interaction would romagnetic because they show a far greater mag-
align all the atoms in a magnet; tremendously netizability. It can also be said that the reason they
strong permanent magnets would result. Such is are ferromagnetic is that internal forces (exchange
not the case. For some reason, not now understood, interaction) are present that hold groups of atoms
these forces are only effective over a limited volume parallel and form domains, as we have previously
(estimated at a million-billion atoms or 10- 8 cubic seen. This group of ferromagnetic materials is the
centimeters). In these limited volumes, called do- one we are concerned with in our study of mag-
mains, all the atomic moments are aligned, and the netism.
domain is magnetically saturated at all times.
The concept of a domain is the most significant
Magnetization changes internal energy
factor in understanding magnetism, as it represents When a magnetizing field is applied, it is only
the practical building block of magnets. necessary to control the orientation of the domains
A magnetic material is saturated magnetically at to control the potential energy of the magnet. More
all times. In the unmagnetized condition, the do- precisely, the external magnetizing field changes
mains are randomly oriented, and internal flux the balance of the much larger internal energies of
paths exist; no field exists outside the magnet. the magnetic system. (This is similar, in a sense, to
the case where a relatively small current controls
Classification of materials large values of power in an electrical circuit.)
We now have a qualitative picture of how a mag- External work is required to orient the domains
net works, and we can group materials according to and magnetize the piece. It is important to recognize
their magnetic properties - or their reaction to an that a like amount of external work is required to
applied magnetic field. demagnetize the piece. Once magnetized, a piece
If a bar of a given material is suspended between will stay that way until external energy is applied.
the poles of a powerful magnet, it will either be We have seen that the distinguishing feature of
aligned with the field or turn at right angles to the ferromagnetic materials is the presence of an inter-
field. Those which are repelled by the field are called nal force that holds groups of atoms parallel, form-
diamagnetic, while those which align are ing domains. Where two domains come together,
paramagnetic. The difference is attributable to their the change in direction of magnetization does not
atomic structure. Paramagnetic materials are com- occur abruptly, but extends over hundreds of
posed of atoms which have a magnetic moment atomic planes forming "domain boundaries". This
even when no field is applied. The atoms of is shown schematically in Figure 2. Between the
diamagnetic materials do not normally have a domains atomic magnets are progressively rotated,
magnetic moment. When an external magnetic field becoming less stable. It can be readily seen that
is applied, there will be a slight field induced, but it these intermediate areas will be easily affected by
will be ofthe same polarity, and the bar is repelled. an external field, since less energy is required to
change their magnetization.
Ferromagnetic materials Magnetizing consists of: (1) stretching the do-
Within the area of paramagnetic materials, there main boundaries, (2) growth of those domains

Fig. 2
Reversal of magnetization
between adjacent domains
does not occur abruptly, but
extends through the thick-
ness of the boundary or wall
separating the two domains.

4
 A B c D
Anisotropic forces
These resisting forces are called anisotropic forces
and can be accounted for by one of the following
mechanisms:
(1) crystal anisotropy, due to a preferred crystal-
lographic plane of easy magnetization;
(2) strain anisotropy, due to a preferred direction
of magnetization with respect to physical
strain;
(3) shape anisotropy, due to a preferred direction
of magnetization along the length of a single
domain particle; and
(4) exchange anisotropy, due to the coupling
of the atomic spin system of two dissimilar
materials.
All modern high coercive force materials such as
IN ENSITY OF FI ELD the Alnicos, ferrites, and Hicorex derive their
Fig. 3 magnetic properties from fine, single-domain parti-
cles whose coercive force is developed by one or
oriented in the same direction as the applied field, more of the above mechanisms. As particle size is
(3) rotation of the domain against its normal direc- reduced, a continuous increase in coercive force is
tion of magnetization. This is shown in simplified observed. An understanding ofthe contributions of
form in Figure 3, with the corresponding effect of anisotropic forces and the effect of particle size is
magnetization of the material plotted against mag- the basis for a new series of permanent magnet
netizing force. materials.
At first, the effect is to stretch the domain bound- It has been found that Hicorex and ferrite develop
aries, which causes only a slight magnetization of a very high coercive force strictly from crystal
the piece. This initial magnetization is reversible; anisotropy. The Alnico series develops coercive
the domain boundaries will return to their original force primarily from the shape anisotropy of sub-
position if the field is removed. As the intensity is microscopic particles precipitated during heat
increased, the boundaries move and those domains treatment. To be useful, magnets must have both
more closely aligned with the field grow at the ex- high coercive force to resist demagnetization and a
pense of the unfavorably aligned ones. This is ac- high flux-carrying capacity or induction.
companied by a sharp increase in irreversible mag- The coercive force of Lodex results from the
netization. Finally, the domains are rotated, or growth of shaped iron cobalt particles in an elec-
forced, to align with the applied field. This creates trolytic cell. These particles are assembled and or-
only a slight increase in magnetization; when the dered to form a wide range of unit properties. The
field is removed, the domains will rotate back to Lodex process actually synthesizes that which be-
their preferred direction. The boundaries of soft fore was possible only in a high temperature metal-
magnetic materials must be made easy to move in lurgical reaction.
response to low fields, whereas the boundaries of There are still many gaps in our understanding of
permanent magnets must be made difficult to move magnetism. As we learn more about the structure of
so they will resist demagnetizing fields. matter, we learn more about magnetism and howto
apply it to our needs. Just as rapid progress in both
our understanding ofthe physics of magnetism and
Fine particle theory
how to make stronger magnets has been made in
One obvious approach to impede domain- recent years, so will rapid progress be made in the
boundary motion is to introduce structural in- years ahead. This will be accomplished when we
homogeneities into the material. Early permanent learn how to control the anisotropic forces respon-
magnets, such as quench-hardened steels, derived sible for developing coercive forces. We cannot say
their properties from non-magnetic inclusions now just what form the magnets of the future will
which served this purpose. take. We do know they will play an even greater part
A far more effective means to impede domain- in contributing to our comfort and security.
boundary motion is to prepare particles smaller
than the width of a normal domain boundary. Such
particles will be too small to contain a boundary and
will have to be a single domain. Magnetization can
then take place only by the rotation of the magnetic
moment, a much more difficult process than simple
domain-boundary motion. The greater the forces
wh ich resist the rotation of the domain, the greater
are the coercive forces of the material.
5
 Characteristics of Magnetic Materials
Magnetic energy is not created. It is either stored in the
permanent magnet or in the surrounding space. It cannot
be used up or destroyed.
Like otherfields of special study, magnetism has a
language all its own, and a comprehensive discus-
Assume that a piece of magnetic material which
sion of magnets requires the use of expressions and
has not been magnetized is placed between the
words which are peculiar to this field. This is unfor-
poles of an electromagnet (Figure 4) and the current
tunate, as the beginner in this subject is requi red not
in the magnetizer is gradually increased. This sub-
only to learn new concepts, but at the same time
jectsthe magnetto a gradually increasing magnetiz-
must learn a whole new vocabulary. To minimize
ing force H(oersteds), which is proportional to the
this, it is often helpful to consider the analogy bet-
increasing current. If at the same time the resultant
ween electrical and magnetic circuits. The analogy
induction, B(gauss), of the permanent magnet is
is far from being complete. However, many magne-
measured and plotted against the magnetizing
tic circuit concepts are more easily understood by a
force, the dotted curve from 0 toX shown in Figure 5
consideration of the electrical equivalent.
is developed.
Terminology of magnetic measurement PointX represents the point at which the magnet
In an electrical circuit, an electromotive force (E) is saturated, or +B max . Additional magnetizing
causes a current (I) to flow through a resistance (R). force will not increase magnetization once a piece is
Likewise a magnetomotive force (mmf) establishes satu rated.
the flux (<jJ) in a circuit having a reluctance (.92 ). If the magnetizing force, H, is gradually reduced
The unit of magnetizing force is called a gilbert from the highest applied value, +Hmax to zero, the
and the unit in the magnetic field is a maxwell, or resultant induction in the material decreases to a
one line of flux. Rather than to express these in value B r , known as the residual induction. If the
absolute quantities, it is customary in magnetic magnetizing force is then reversed (by reversing the
work to express these terms on a unit basis. Thus, current in the coil of wire) and increased in the nega-
magnetizing force is measured in oersteds, or gil- tive direction, the resultant induction in the material
berts per centimeter. Magnetic field intensity is is reduced to zero. At this point, the value of the de-
measured in gauss, or maxwells per square cen- magnetizing force is -He, known as the coercive
timeter. It is more common to work with the recip- force. Increasing the demagnetization force to
rocal of reluctance or permeance. (Permeance is a -Hmax results in changing the value of B from
function of magnet design and will be discussed in positive to negative or changi ng the polarity of the
detail later.) With these basic terms and only a few material. The balance of the curve is obtained by
more, it is possible to describe the important charac- repeating the process but starting with -H max .
teristics of magnetic materials. Thus, we obtain the normal hysteresis loop for the
magnetic material.
This type of curve applies to all magnetic materi-
als. Materials which have a low coercive force are
low energy or soft magnetic materials. High coer-
Permanent cive force materials are high energy materials or
Magnet permanent magnets.
Soft magnetic materials are used in applications
Soft Iron~ where they are alternately magnetized and demag-
netized by an external force. The most common use
of soft magnetic materials is in transformers, where
it is desirable to get a large change in magnetization
by applying only a small magnetizing force. The
student of physics will remember that the area en-
D-C Power Supply closed by this hysteresis loop represents heat losses
in the transformer - as it represents the energy
which must be used to move the domains. Con-
Fig.4. Magnetizing force is applied to magnetic material by an elec- sequently, it is desirable to have a material that is
tromagnet, while flux is measured by a flux meter. very easy to magnetize - and conversely, to
demagnetize.
It follows that the greater the energy required to
magnetize a piece, the greater will be the energy
required to demagnetize it. Therefore, large hys-
teresis loops are desired for permanent magnets, as
the loop represents the amount of energy the mag-
net can store.
6
 density. The permeability of air is one; the applica-
The demagnetization curve tion of one oersted of magnetizing force will result in
It will be readily noted that the portion of the a flux density of one gauss. For diamagnetic sub-
hysteresis loop below the -H, + H axis is the exact stances, the permeability is less than unity. For
opposite of the upper half. It merely represents the paramagnetic substances, it is greater than unity.
opposite polarity, or reverse magnetization. For For ferromagnetic substances, it is much higher.
permanent magnets it can be ignored. The first However, the value of permeability of all known
quadrant of the curve (the +H portion) is only ap- diamagnetic substances is but slightly less than
plicable while the magnet is being magnetized, and one, while the values of permeability for
has no importance to permanent magnet operation paramagnetic substances are only slightly greater
after magnetization. * This means that only the sec- than one.
ond quadrant of the hysteresis loop, (from +8 r to For the purposes of most calculations, little error
-He in Figure 5) the demagnetization curve, is will be encountered if the permeability of all but the
necessary to describe completely the magnetic ferromagnetic materials is assumed to be one. In
characteristics of a permanent magnet. fact, it has become common practice to refer to
anything in a magnetic circuit other than a fer-
Permeability romagnetic material as an air gap.
The magnitude offlux density produced is directly Permeability not only varies from material to
dependent on the magnetizing force, but is also material, but also varies within a material depend-
dependent upon the medium in which the flux is ing on the intensity ofthe appl ied field. If permeabil-
measured. Certain materials offer less resistance, ity were constant, the magnetization curve would be
i.e., are more permeable, to flux than other materi- a straight line. The effect of three equal increments
als. Permeability (J.L) then is a measure of how much of magnetizing force, I1H, I1H1, and I1H2, is shown
flux will be produced in a material by the application graphically as 118, 1181, and 1182, in Figure 6. By
of a given magnetizing field. It is expressed as the definition, permeability is the amount of flux pro-
mathematical ratio of the flux produced divided by duced by a given magnetizing force. Since three
the magnetizing field applied: equal amounts of applied field cause varying
J.L = 81H or 8 = J.L H. amounts offlux, it is obvious that the permeability is
The usefulness of a material in a magnetic circuit constantly changing. When the magnet is saturated,
may be classified according to its permeability. A the permeability will become 1, or the same as air,
soft magnetic material, such as pure iron, has a very and become a constant. When referring to permea-
high permeability. This means even the application bility, it is always necessary to distinguish at what
of a small magnetizing force will result in a largeflux point it is measured.

+B
( Gauss)

x ~X
~
/'
/
Ir S2
( Oersteds)
z
o
i=
u /
1/
::::>
<:)
- H-,--------"-I------i''--------JL-.:'-----------'- +H z

V/ Sl l>

B r : Residual Induction ViS

He: Coercive Force

MAGNETIZING FORCE
-B

Fig. 5. Hysteresis loop plots flux measurement as magnetizing Fig. 6. Relationship between permeability and magnetizating force
force is applied, withdrawn, reversed, withdrawn, and applied is graphically shown on magnetization curve above.
again.

"In a few specialized applications, permanent magnets are used as hysteresis rotors and are
alternately magnetized and demagnetized.
7
 Intrinsic magnetic properties force or torque. These new materials with high
Hei values also have unit permeability; their leak-
The most distinguishing mark of a ferromagnetic
age characteristics are different from the earlier
material, is the non-I inear relationship between B
class of materials, and they store and release energy
and H. This is clearly seen in any hysteresis loop
quite differently when subjected to variable loads or
where an applied magnetizing force has caused a
air gaps.
relatively large flux density (induction).
However, it should be noted that not all observed Plotting the external energy curve
flux is produced by the magnet. If no ferromagnet The external energy curve is obtained by plotting
were present, the magnetizing force of one oersted the product ofthe value of Band Hfor every point on
would produce an induction of one gauss. The ob- the demagnetization curve. (It is conventional to
served flux, then, is the sum ofthe flux which would refer to the value ofB and Hfor a given point on the
exist without the magnet, plus that produced by the magnetization curve as Bdand Hdrespectively.)
magnet. The energy available is zero at both the He and B r
Flux density produced by the magnet alone is points, and reaches a peak at a point known as the
called the intrinsic induction, and can be found by maximum energy product, or (BdHd)max. The point
simple arithmetic or by graphical means, as shown at which the energy product peaks will be different
in Figure 7. The solid curve represents the total for different grades of magnetic material.
measured induction. The straight line at the lower For the most efficient utilization of magnetic mat-
right represents the induction of air. The dotted erial (that is, the smallest size magnet for a given
curve is the arithmetic difference between the two, output), a magnet should be designed to operate at
and is the intrinsic induction (Bi) caused by the the point of maximum energy. If Bd and Hd
ferromagnetic material. Since the permeability of represent, respectively, the flux density in gauss
air is one, and B = f.L H, the induction due to air is at and the demagnetizing force in oersteds,
all times equal to the applied magnetizing force. the expression BdHd represents the energy in
B = Bi + H or Bi = B - H s:rr-
It ·should be noted that in the first quadrant, ergs that each cubic centimeter of magnet mater-
normal induction is always greater than intrinsic ial can supply for external use. The product of Bd
induction. In the second quadrant (the demag- and Hd is, therefore, proportional to the magnetic
netizing curve), the intrinsic induction is greater. external energy, and it is accepted practice to de-
This is because of the negative value of H in the scribe the quality of a permanent magnet in terms of
second quadrant. the maximum product of BdHd- The higher this pro-
Alnico and Lodex permanent magnets are charac- duct (expressed in gauss-oersteds), the stronger
terized by values of intrinsic coercive force will be the magnet.
(He;) much lower than the residual magnetization For convenience, the values of energy products
(B r ). As a consequence, this class of permanent are shown by means of a series of hyperbolic curves
magnets have intrinsic and normal demagnetiza- (as shown in Figure 8) which are superimposed on
tion curves differing very little. Until mid-century, lit- the demagnetization curve. The intersection of the
tle distinction was necessary. With the development demagnetization curve with the hyperbolic curves
offerrite magnets where Heiis of the same order as shows the available energy product at that point.
B r , and the development of Hicorex where it is sev- The point at which the maximum available energy
eral times larger, we have magnets exhibiting a occurs is readily seen.
great distinctiun-5elWeen normal and intrinsic Although the factors concerned with the actual
properties. Intrinsic properties govern performance design of permanent magnets will be discussed in
in many applications, particularly those where the later pages, it will be well to consider permeance
magnet is placed in an external field to produce briefly at this point.

B
-&EMdGNEtIZI~G F6RC~ MA~Nn:ZIN~ FO~CE r -
l.,.....- f.--

....- -; ~

/ - - r- - /

INTRINSIC ~ NORMAL /
DEMAGNETIZATION ~I'--MAGNETIZATION

CURVE r---- if Tcu i VE

- i/ INTRINSIC
MAGNETIZATION -
/VNORMAL
/.
1 J.
DEMAGNETIZATION
,I '/.- CURVE

//4f-- iCUR E
JI
£ ---- ------ -
I.-- GAUSS-OERSTEDS
IIV Demaonetization Extern a I Eneroy
Fig. 7. Intrinsic induction (dotted curve) produced by a .magnetalone Curve
is the arithmetic difference between total measured induction and Curve
the induction of air.
8
 Permeance is a function of design
Permeance is simply a measure of how easy it is
forthe flux to pass from one pole th rough the ai r gap '- ,15~" " ... _, _, "~~",,.,,~~'''~\\\~\\\~ \ \ \ \\\\\\\\\
(external path) to the other pole. The higher the
.... PERMEANCE COEFFICIENT SLOPE B/H
••
ENERGY PRODUCT B H lCl06

1/'/ 5j'
3

permeance, the easier the path, the higher the

operating point, and the higher the flux density.
In describing the hysteresis loop, it was pointed
10~

"'" 1\."~ 1/~~,[1,.-~,

1/ l-.H)' ,0' ,

out that after magnetization and before removal V

V
V1 rx/
from the magnetizer, the magnet operates at 8 r, or
atthe top ofthe curve. This is because the iron ofthe
5 _

--
,t.---- t.---- j.......--
5-
V 1...--/
J-.-- V v
Irf / l'-.
y ~
magnetizer provides a perfect path (or short circuit) 4l===' I-- ~ l.----
for the flux flow. After the magnet is removed from
31-- ~
the magnetizer, the flux now has to pass through the l'\.
500 "'" 300 200 '00
air to getto the other pole. Th is is not as easy a path DEMAGNETIZING FORCE, H -OERSTEDS

as the iron ofthe magnetizer; less flux will flow, and

the operating point will fall down to the left. How far
Fig. 8. The intersection ofthe demagnetization and energy-product
down the curve it falls will be determined by the curves shows the point at which maximum energy is available for a
given magnetic material.
shape of the magnet.
The operating point of a long slender magnet will How to determine best material
be high on the curve; hencethe magnetwill operate Figure 9 shows how the operating load line is
at a high level of induction. Short stubby magnets used to determine the best material for a given ap-
fall farther down the curve and have lower induc- plication. Curves of both Alnico 5 and Alnico 8 are
tion. Thus, the higher the length to diameter ratio drawn on the same plot and the operating load lines
(LID), the higher the operating point of the magnet. OYand OX for two hypothetical magnet designs are
(Length always refers to the direction of magnetiza- superimposed. (Remember, these load lines are
tion, while the diameter is the effective diameter of merely graphic representations of the permeance.)
the cross-sectional area at right angles to the It will be readily seen that when an Alnico 5 mag-
length.) net and an Alnico 8 magnet are subjected to the
Permeance is not a function ofthe magnet mater- same permeance shown by the load line OX (Figure
ial, but is strictly determined by the geometry of the 9), Alnico 5 will produce an amount of flux equal to
magnet circuit. The permeance coefficient is the pointX, while Alnico 8 will produce an amount equal
slope (-8/H) of the line (GA) drawn from the to X'. In the case of the load line OY, Alnico 8 will
magnet's operating point on the demagnetization produce more flux
curve to the origin (as shown in Figure 8), while the It will also be noted that Alnico 5 develops its
line itself is called the operating load line. maximum energy at a high level of induction, while
Alnico 8 develops its maximum product at a lower
level of induction. This inherent difference in the
properties of the materials accounts for the reason
Alnico 5will be superiorto Alnico 8 in designs where
the induction is high, while Alnico 8 will be better at
low induction levels.

DEMAGNETIZATIO N EXTERNAL ENERGY

CURVE CURVE

ALNICO 5
ALNICO 5 12

L . - - - - Bd Hd M A X - - - - -1
In
In
:::>
~I-_-
g
6
i:
I
ro
Y H z~-­
d o
B
d 4 ;::::
ALNICO u
:::>
8 o
B
d y' z
2

)
0
1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 2 3 4 5
6
EXTERNAL EN ERGY B H X 10
DEMAGNETIZING FORCE H (OERSTEDS) d d
(GAUSS-OERSTED )

Fig. 9. The intersection of the operating load lines and demagnetization curves shows where the maximum flux and energy are
produced for Alnico 5 and Alnico 8.
9
 Permanent Magnet Materials
Many magnetic materials are available. Knowledge
and careful analysis is needed to make the right choice.
As one reviews the history of permanent magnet metal is economical. The properties of cast aniso-
materials, it is interesting to note how improve- tropic magnets are ideally suited to magnetic cir-
ments in unit properties have influenced mag- cuits having high permeance gaps. The best induc-
netoelectric and magnetomechanical equipments tion properties are achievable in cast anisotropic
and devices. The first uses ofthe permanent magnet magnets.
were in applications where a permanent magnet Sintered Alnico magnets have features which
was truly a necessity. The compass, the magQeto, make them especially suitable in very small preci-
and the D'Arsonval meter were the first applications sion devices. The mechanical strength and toler-
of early magnets. The weak fields from rather ex- ances are improved over cast Alnico magnets. It is
cessive volumes were tolerated in these first uses. possible to sinter magnets with small holes and
With each significant increase in properties, desig- intricate shapes. In very small sizes sintered mag-
ners have explored the possibility of improving an nets are generally less costly than cast magnets due
existing permanent magnet design or replacing to the nature of the process techniques involved.
electromagnetic excitation. Permanent magnets are Sintered magnets are available in both isotropic and
high leverage components that have great impact anisotropicform and with a wide range of unit prop-
on the size, efficiency, stability, and cost of a great erties. Their magnetic properties are essentially like
number of devices. the cast magnets of equivalent grade.

Early Steel Magnets Lodex®

Man's first attempt to improve on the natural Lodex permanent magnets represent a remark-
lodestone involved compositional changes in early able new sequence of process events in magnet-
steel. It was a significant discovery that additions making. Thefine particles are formed by electroplat-
of cobalt improved the coercivity to the 200-300 ing from an iron-cobalt anode into a mercury
oersted range and the permanent magnet became cathode. Under controlled plating cell conditions,
an industrial component of considerable interest. elongated single domain regions are formed. These
unique fine particles are coated with a lead matrix
and the mercury is removed. The resulting magnetic
Alnico
material is then ground to fine powder and pressed
Isotropic Alnico magnets were developed in' the at room temperature in die systems to make both
early 1930's. The level of coercive force was essen- isotropic and anisotropic grades of Lodex. There are
tially doubled and good structural stability was no elevated temperature cycles involved, and con-
achieved. Permanent magnets for the first time sequently magnets are produced to very close
were truly permanent under such adverse environ- mechanical and magnetic tolerences. Like sintered
mental conditions as stray fields, shock, and ele- magnets, Lodex magnets are most economical in
vated tem peratu reo relatively small sizes and where tolerances and
The development of anisotropic Alnico just prior mechanical features are key considerations. The
to 1940 was truly a remarkable milestone in perma- magnetic properties of Lodex are easily changed by
nent magnet technology. The energy product was adjusting the ratio of iron cobalt to lead matrix.
improved by a factor of four with a simple process Lodex magnets are also offered in three grades
addition: cooling in a magnetic field. For the first made by extrusion forming. Lodex magnets are the
time, permanent magnets surpassed electromag- first high coercive force magnets developed which
nets in terms of volumetric efficiency. The new are machineable.
properties quickly found use in loudspeakers and
the size of the permanent magnet industry grew Ceramic Permanent Magnets
substantially. A new class of ceramic permanent magnets was
Cast anisotropic Alnico magnets are still the announced in 1952. The coercive force of the
largest commercially produced group of permanent ceramic magnets result from the high crystal anis-
magnet materials. Major improvements ofthe coer- trophy of barium and strontium iron oxide. The very
cive force by alloy additions, and improved orienta- high resistance to demagnetization, coupled with
tion by controlling the crystal structure during cast- the inexpensive and non-strategic raw materials,
ing, have been achieved. Alnico 5-DG and Alnico 5-7 have made this class of permanent magnets attrac-
are examples of improved properties made possible tive in magnetic circuit and device uses.
by controlled crystal structu reo Alnico 6 and Alnico 8 The material is available in isotropic and anisot-
are examples ofthe progress in alloying additions to ropic grades. The isotropic grade is produced by
improve coercive force. The cast magnet forming pressing the mixed raw materials to shape and sin-
process is most effective when used to produce tering at elevated temperatures. The anisotropic
relatively large simple shaped magnets in large vol- grades developed in 1954 are prepared by prefiring
ume, because casting as a technique for forming raw materials and milling the resulting compound
10
 into single crystals approximating a single domain nets differ from metallic magnets in terms of their
in size. The milled powder is then wet or dry pressed resistivity. Ceramic magnets are virtually electrical
in a die under the orienting influence of a magnetic insulators at room temperature and hence, in appli-
field. The pressed compacts are then sintered at cations where high frequency fields are present,
elevated temperatures. Careful control of particle they are a good choice.
size, composition and density permit the production The physical density of ceramic magnets is of the
of several anisotropic grades which differ in terms order of half that of many metallic magnets and, so,
of energy product and coercive force. compare rather favorably when evaluated on the
Ceramic magnets are very hard and brittle and basis of magnetic field energy per unit of weight.
must be ground to maintain close mechanical toler- Ceramic magnets, due to their high m.m.f. and rela-
ances. Several varieties of rubber and plastic tively low induction, are characteristically of large
bonded ceramic magnets are available with more cross sectional area and short dimension in the axis
acceptable physical properties but with considera- of magnetization.
ble s_acrifice in magnetic properties. Ceramic mag-

Properties of Hicorex 90, 96, and 99

During the past decade the unit properties of Hicorex makes the magnet virtually immune to accidental de-
permanent magnets have improved substantially. New magnetizing effect. It allows the designer to use thin
alloys of higher unit properties have been developed. A magnets (in the direction of magnetization) in his
host of new alloys with different sets of properties suited device. It makes the magnet less prone to demagnet-
to specific applications have been introduced in the izing effect in repulsion mode devices. It allows the
market. The above progress in material development has designer to magnetize the magnet and then assemble
resulted in the use of Hicorex in a number of devices it into his device without using a keeper as is con-
where alnico and ceramic were virtually impossible to ventionally done with some grades of alnico.
function.
Thermal Characteristics
The unit properties of Hicorex permanent magnets are
In contrast to ceramic magnets, the coercivity of
markedly different than those of alnico and ceramic
Hicorex magnets increases at low temperature (below
materials. A one to one replacement of alnico or ceramic
room temperature). Like ceramic and alnico the induction
by Hicorex will be very expensive and at times detrimental
value of Hicorex increases with decreasing temperature
to system performance. It is very important for the de-
and decreases with increasing temperature.
signer to have a good knowledge of the magnetic
properties of Hicorex before designing a system. At temperature above 24°C Hicorex 90 suffers .04%/oC
reversible loss. The decrease in intrinsic coercivity (Hci),
The following are some key properties of Hicorex and however amounts to A%/oC.
their associated advantages in systems design.
Scientists have measured rare earth cobalt magnets at
Maximum Energy Product (BH) max: 7°K (kelvin) to exhibit 64 MgOe. This same magnet
exhibited only 15 MgOe at room temperature.
The high energy product (5-6 times that of ceramic
and 3-4 times that of alnico) allows the system to Primary Application Areas of Hicorex
use a much smaller volume of magnet, thus miniaturizing
Hicorex permanent magnets are being used in a broad
the size of the system, increasing the system torque or
spectrum of devices ranging from a small cube (less
force to inertia ratio, and reducing the system mechanical
than 0.5 mg) for a Hall effect biasing magnet to more
time constant.
than a 250 gram block for a torque motor used in
medical application. The following are some typical areas
Remanence Br of application of Hicorex permanent magnets.
The values of remanence in Hicorex permanent
magnets range from 8200 gauss to around 10600 gauss Motors
depending on the specific alloy. This high value of in- Small servo motors, step motors, basket motors, inside
duction results in high flux density in the gap thus out motors, pancake motors, synchronous motors, etc.
improving torque, output power, efficiency and force
) constant of dynamic devices. Generators
Small radial and tangential generators.
Intrinsic and Normal Coercivity, Hci, Hc Voice Coil Actuators (VC)
Hicorex has very high coercive force. The intrinsic VC actuators for small speakers, head-sets, computer
coercivity (Hci) of Hicorex is up to 30 times higher than head positioning of linear, rotary and limited motion
alnico and 10 times higher than ceramic. This property types. 11
 Impact Printers Microwave Devices
Line printers, dot matrix printers and hybrid (line/ Used in TWT's, magnetrons and isolators.
matrix) printers.
Inertial Devices
Sensors Used in gyros and a host of missile guidance systems.
Hall effect, reed switch and some mercury proximity
Medical Devices
switches.
Brain scanner and computer axial tomography (cat)
Couplings scanner.
Used in radial, axial or linear couplings.

Notes on Magnetization and Demagnetization of Hicorex Magnets

Magnetization Demagnetization

As stated earlier, Hicorex has a very high anisotropy

Hicorex has the highest anisotropy field of any hard field. This characteristic makes it difficult to demagnetize
magnetic material commercially available today. There- the magnet beyond a specific level after it has been
fore, Hicorex needs to be magnetized at a substantially magnetized.
higher magnetic field strength than that required for
alnico and ceramic. It is nearly impossible to field demagnetize (to zero
magnetization) the typical Hicorex 90 or 96 magnet. The
only effective method for accomplishing complete de-
Hicorex magnets can be magnetized to around 98-99% magnetization of Hicorex 90 or 96 is to heat the magnet
of their theoretical saturation values using DC or pulsed above its Curie Point (around 750°C) in controlled atmos-
field of 15,000-25,000 oersteds. The period of the pulse phere. However, this will substantially reduce the
should be no less than 20m sec., and the magnet should magnetic property of the magnet unless proper reheat
be in a closed magnetic circuit (nearly zero gap) during treatment steps are to follow. Therefore, the manufacturer
magnetizing in both cases. should be consulted when demagnetizing is required. The
Hicorex 99 grades can be field demagnetized using
fields equal to the intrinsic coercive force. This feature
Note that if an air gap is formed between the magnet is an advantage in some applications where the ability
and one of the pole pieces, the self demagnetizing force to demagnetize is important. However, these grades
acting on the magnet will increase the field requirement provide less protection against demagnetization. Their
for saturation. For more detail the manufacturer should use as a substitute for the Hicorex 90 grades should be
be consulted. reviewed with the manufacturer.

Manufacturability as a Function of Magnet Geometry

Within a given alloy, the desired geometry of a magnet

dictates its magnetic properties to a great extent. In order
to achieve maximum properties for a given Hicorex
alloy (or any other rare earth cobalt permanent magnets),
Upp" POn,h r\ _

M~
the powder is aligned in a magnetic field just prior to
compaction in the press. The degree of alignment is a
Powde, (i) (i) (i) (i) M
COil=ttsr~~
function of the level of alignment field. There are two
distinctly different methods of alignment as described
in the following paragraphs.
Lower Punch Ff/~~;~
1. Parallel Alignment
H: Alignment Field P: Press Direction
In this method the alignment field is parallel to the
direction of pressing. The alignment field is produced Fig. lOa.
by a solenoid (coil) placed around a die system in the
press. Fig (1) demonstrates this method schematically.

12
 2. Perpendicular Alignment The very large magnetic moment per unit volume of
The alignment field in this method is generated by an this class of materials, coupled with the great resis-
electromagnet whose poles are placed against the tance to demagnetization, make it possible to invert
outside walls of the die system (fig. 2). The direction the design of many devices. Moving magnet met-
of alignment is perpendicular to the direction of ers, loudspeakers, actuators, and motors are pres-
pressing. No die system shown. ently under development. Rare earth magnets
promise to have major impact on a number of

Uppe,P,"ch ~ equipments and devices. New device concepts and

continued progress in reducing the cost of the rare

pOWder~ ~
earth elements will allow these magnets to become
widely used.
i=t 8 8 8 8 i=t
Iron Chromium Cobalt (Fe Cr Co)
CoH . .
The most recent addition to the family of permanent
Lower Punch ~ magnets (commercially viable) is Iron Chromium Cobalt
alloy.
Fig. lOb. H: Alignment P: Direction of Press
The magnetic properties of the Fe-Cr-Co system de-
Using a given alloy (for example Sm C05), the magnet pends on the spinodal microstructure, which consists of
will exhibit higher magnetic properties using per- Fe rich alpha 1 and Cr rich alpha 2 phases.
pendicular alignment rather than using parallel The alloy is cast, solution annealed, quenched and
alignment. subjected to an isothermal magnetic field treatment after
which it is step aged. The magnetic field treatment es-
Examining the two methods of alignment one can see
sentially doubles the energy product of the magnet.
that there are limitations on the configuration of
Fe Cr Co alloy has properties which essentially fall be-
the magnets if perpendicular alignment is to be
tween those of cast random Alnico 5 and columnar
used. For example an axially aligned ring magnet can
Alnico 5. However,. the cobalt content used in this alloy
not be manufactured using the perpendicular technique
is reported to be anywhere between 8-13% (vs 24% for
of alignment. Therefore it is necessary to consider
alnico).
the shape of the magnet to be used when designing
This alloy is available from Hitachi Magnetics Corpor-
a magnetic circuit to be sure that the desired magnetic
ation in certain configurations. Typical magnetic and
properties can be obtained. See magnetic properties
physical properties of the alloy are shown (page 32).
of H-90A vs H-90B and H-99A vs H-998 (page 32).
Please contact manufacturer for further details.
Property Data
Hicore~ (Rare Earth-Cobalt Magnets) The back pages of this manual shows the typical
H icorex magnets represent a tremendous step magnetic and physical properties of the permanent
forward in energy product and coercive force. In the magnet materials offered by Hitachi Magnetics
intermetallic compounds of rare earth elements and Corp. Some complete demagnetization curves are
cobalt, the attachment of the magnetization to the shown illustrating the very wide choice of unit prop-
crystal axis has resulted in record levels of coercive erties available. This chart can serve as a convenient
force, a ten-fold improvement over ceramic mag- worksheet for graphical analysis and comparison of
nets. These magnets are sintered and always alternate property and geometry combinations.
oriented since magnetization would be virtually im- Refer to the individual product line brochures for
possible without a well oriented magnet structure. more complete data.

The One Best Solution

J2
The design of a permanent magnet for a particular
30
Progress in application involves a number of complex relation-
28 MAGNET DEVELOPMENT
ships. The choice of permanent magnet material
Rare Earth and its magnetic circuit arrangement are predomin-
"012
antly affected by cost, volumetric efficiency, stabil-
I
"0 ity, physical strength, or a combination of these
CD 20 10c
13 factors. The cost depends not only on the magnetic
"
"0 18 FeCo Fine
o
et 16 Particle material chosen but also on its size, shape, toler-
>-
ances, finishing required, and the quantity ordered.
"c~ 12'"
UJ Ferrite As a general rule, the sintered Alnico magnets and
E
) E 10
'x
'" 8
Alnico
the Lodex magnets offer the best solution for small,
intricately shaped, close-tolerance, electromechan-
::; Steel

. ~ Figure 10c, at left, shows the property improvement of

permanent magnets with time. The rate of improvement has
---._-------------- ---~:.:.:..-.:.:::-.:.
been significant since 1940. (Values are best properties
1900 1920 '9«l 1960 1960
achieved in laboratory.)
YEARS
13
 ical device problems. Lodex permanent magnets this is that the high-quality permanent magnet leads
have the distinct advantage of being formed by cold to a smaller and more efficient device or equipment.
pressing techniques and thus to very close toler- Hicorex permanent magnets are examples of a
ances. Where a large magnet is involved, it is gener- major change in properties, and many new device
ally most economical to form the magnet by casting concepts are possible which can have great influ-
ifthere is a choice. Designers have, to a large extent, ence on the performance features and worth of the
utilized the very best permanent magnet properties device. Such change can, in many instances, justify
available in spite oftheir higher cost. The reason for the higher cost of these new magnets.

Energy and Permanent Magnets

Only when there is a change in the balance of internal energies
is energy released or absorbed by the permanent magnet.

The permanent magnet can be thought of as a creased reluctance, taking positions essentially 1800
grouping of domains, a domain being the smallest from their direction in (c). Mechanical energy
region in which atoms have a common magnetic is required to pull the magnet.from the magnetizer.
moment. In the completely demagnetized condi- This energy is proportional to area DDBr on the
tion, domain boundaries and orientations are so hysteresis loop, and is the potential energy of the
arranged that internal paths exist and the external or system. Area TDB r represents the potential energy
magnetostatic energy is zero. stored in the magnet, while DDT represents avail-
In general, any fields used to magnetize or de- able energy stored in space surrounding the
magnetize materials only change the balance of the magnet.
much larger internal energies. This leads to one of Finally, at (e) the magnet is returned to the iron
the most fundamental and important laws of per- core, reducing the gap to zero. Mechanical work will
manent magnets: No energy is required to maintain be done by the magnet, and the operating point will
a magnetic field. Only when there is a change in the recoil from D to S. The domains near the poles will
balance of the internal energies, resulting in a revert to nearly the same positions as in (c). The
change of magnetization, is energy either absorbed potential energy stored in the external field and
or released by the permanent magnet. Magnets are within the magnet will have been converted to
then intrinsically stable, and some form of external mechanical work in returning the magnet to the
work must be done to alter the magnetic field. magnetizer.
The mechanism by which permanent magnets It will be noted that the operating point did not
establish external field energy is shown pictorially return to B r , but rather to a lower level of induction
in Figure 11 where the movement of domains, desig nated by S on the loop. As the magnet is cycled
shown as arrows, is indicated for various stages of back and forth, a minor hysteresis loop will be
magnetization. traced from point D to point S. In this simple exam-
At (a) there is no external field, because the do- ple, it can be seen how mechanical work is con-
mains, although fully magnetized, satisfy minimum verted to magnetic field energy, and how this
energy requirements by taking positions that form magnetic field energy can be converted back to
closed magnetic circuits within the material. mechanical energy.
At (bl, under the influence of a high external field,
the domains are rotated against the forces of aniso- Self-demagnetization
tropy into the direction of the field. The external The most important concept peculiar to perma-
energy, extracted from the magnetizing field, is nent magnets is that of self- demagnetization, or the
shown graphically as the area enclosed by DABs. rotation ofthe domains nearthe ends ofthe magnet.
At (c), the magnetizing field has been reduced to The preceding example has shown how this rota-
zero, and the magnetic moments of the domains tion stores energy within the magnet. It is this effect
rotate back to easy direction of magnetization. At which accounts for the main difference between
this point, a new minimum-energy balance is permanent magnets and electromagnets; namely,
achieved, but since the size and shape of the do- magnets have negative magnetomotive force DH as
mains have changed during magnetization, this shown in Figure 11 (d) and (e).
minimum energy balance cannot be satisfied by Since the mmf of a permanent magnet is due to
internal paths. The result is an external field the rotation of domains against their original direc-
which establishes flux equal to B r . Area AB,Bs tion of magnetization, it will be negative with re-
represents the energy returned from the magnet spect to the magnetizing field. (This can be seen
to the electrical circuit, while area DAB r represents from the fact that permanent magnets operate in the
the work done in rearranging the domains. At this second quadrant, while electromagnets operate in
point, no external field energy is available. the first quadrant.)
At (d), a gap is introduced at each end of the This self-inflicted demagnetization is also a func-
magnet by pulling it from the iron core. The do- tion of the shape of the magnet. Its influence is at a
mains near the end of the magnet change their minimum in a long, slender magnet, and at a max-
orientation due to the imbalance created by the in- imum in a short magnet with a large cross section.
14
 B
/ / / //

"" "" - \\ (a)

Before magnetizing force is
applied, domains are in
~ ~
random positions, and there

I I I I ~+
H is no external energy.

(Al
I ~

Bs A

-- -- - - -
-- - - - - (b)
When magnetizing force is
applied, domains are
oriented in direction of
o
I I I I applied field.

(Bl
I +

./" ....- -....... --

----
""" .-/ ....- ..-/ (c)
Even though magnetizing
force is reduced to zero,
complete demagnetization
~ ~ ~
does not occur.
I I I
(el ~+ o

~I
- (d)
Air gap is introduced, and
domains at ends of magnet
reverse to satisfy
new energy balance.

( Ol

.-/
.-/
--- -....- ----- ....-
....- (e)
Gap is closed and field
energy is converted to
mechanical work.

(El H

Fig. 11. Graphic conception of permanent-magnet

domains under various conditions.

15
 Magnet Design
It is the shape of a permanent magnet which influences the
amount of flux produced.

The basic purpose of any magnet is to store seen how difficult it is to direct tlux to those parts ot
energy or to convert energy from one form to the magnetic circuit where it can be usefully applied.
another. This is generally achieved by setting up a The flux produced by a permanent magnet may be
magnetic field at some point in space commonly divided into two groups: useful flux, and leakage
called the air gap, or by storing the energy within the flux. The fundamental problem in circuit design is to
magnetic material. minimize the unavoidable flux leakage to improve
The design of permanent magnets is complicated the efficiency of the circuit.
by many factors, two of which are: (1) the elusive
How to design for maximum energy
qualities of flux; (2) equal volumes of magnetic
material will produce different amounts of flux de- For efficient use of magnetic material, the magnet
pending on their shape. should be designed to operate at the flux density
In electrical circuits, current can be made to flow where the available external energy BdHd is at
through definite paths called conductors. This is maximum. There is a simple construction shown in
true because some materials offer Iittle resistance to Figure 12 which will quickly located this approxi-
the flow of current, while others offer high resis- mate point. A straight line drawn between the coor-
tance. In fact, some materials are insulators, and dinates of B r , and He, and the origin will intersectthe
completely block the flow of current. There are demagnetization curve at the point of maximum
no materials which will block the flow of flux energy. The exact location of the maximum energy
in a magnetic circuit, so we cannot direct it as product can only be determined by plotting BH
conveniently. products and graphically determining the point
where BHgoes through a maximum.
The magnetic circuit
The permanent magnet can be designed to oper-
The magnetic circuit may be divided into two ate at this optimum point by using the correspond-
parts: ing values of Hd and Bd obtained from the demag-
(1) The permanent magnet itself, which supplies the netization curve of the desired magnetic material.
magnetomotive or driving force; These values can be applied in the formulae on the
(2) The path the flux takes in getting from one pole of following page to find the length and area of the
the magnet to the other. magnet when the required flux density and dimen-
Since there are no magnetic insulators, it can be sion of the air gap are known.

-----I ENERGY PRODUCT

_ _ _ _ _ DEMAGNETIZATION
CURVE CURVE -I

-
B

\ ./
~
B,
--- ~ ..... (%Hd ) Max.
II
OPERATING POINT

"- /
I /' Bd ,
-........... -
10 "1\
9

/ \
B I
I
I
\
\
7
II

~o - ..g
'"'"
::::J
to
6
/
\ '"«:, /
V\~- :z
0
" 5

/
f= 4
1\ (,)
::::J
0
~ :3
/
\
2
/
\

-H BOO
He
600
..,/
400
Hd

200
\ II
a 2 :3 4 5 x 10'

DEMAGNETIZING FORCE EXTERNAL ENERGY

OERSTEDS
( Ilt Hd)
Fig. 12. For maximum energy, a magnet should be de-
signed to operate at the flux density where the line drawn
from the origin to the coordinates of Br and Hc intersects
the demagnetization curve.
16
 Design Formulas
I-HOW TO DETERMINE MAGNET LENGTH 3-HOW TO DETERMINE LOAD LINE
If the size and shape of the magnet are establ ished, its
load line, B/H, can be found as follows:
Lm = BgLg
Hd

Am= BgAg therefore, Bd = BgAg

where L m = necessary length (cm.) of magnet Bd Am
Bg = flux density (gauss) desired in the air gap
(equal numerically to H , in air)
g Lm= ~ therefore, Hd = BgLg
Lg = length (cm.) of the air gap parallel to lines Hd Lm

of flux
Hd = magnetizing force (oersteds) of the magnet, Combining the two equations:
corresponding to the operating point on
the demagnetization curve. BgAg
Bd Am AgLm
Hd - - - AmLg
BgLg
2-HOW TO DETERMINE MAGNET AREA Lm

Am = BgAg
Bd
4-HOW TO DETERMINE FLUX DENSITY
where Am = necessary area (square cm.) of magnet
Draw a line having a slope of Bd/Hd through the
perpendicular to direction of magnetization origin and the second quadrant as shown in
Bg = flux density (gauss) desired in the air gap Figure 12. Read the value of Bd where this line
(equal numerically to Hg , in air) intersects the demagnetization curve and substitute
A g = cross sectional area (square cm.) of the air gap this value in the following formula:
perpendicular to lines of flux
Bd = flux density (gauss) of the magnet,
corresponding to the operating point of the
AmBd
demagnetization curve. Bg =
Ag

Design Problems
EXAMPLE I EXAMPLE 2

Find the length and area of a permanent magnet Calculate the flux density in an air gap when the
(neglect leakage flux) which will establish a dimensions of the magnet and circuit are known
specified flux density through an air gap of known (neglect flux leakage).
dimensions.
Using the same dimensions as in the preceding
Let: Bg = 5000 gauss
problem.
A g = 2 square cm.
Let: L m = 5.26 cm.
Lg = 0.5 cm.
Am = 1.05 sq. cm.
and from the curve in Figure 12 where A g = 2 sq. cm.
BdHd is at a maximum: Lg = 0.5 cm.
Bd = 9500 gauss
Bd AgLm _ 2 x 5.26 10.52 10,520
Hd = 475 oersteds
Hd - AmLg - 1.05 x 0.5 0.525 - 525
and subsituting in the given formula:
Lm = BgLg 5000 x 0.5 526 Draw a straight line of the demagnetization curve
Hd 475 = . cm.
through the origin and the point where B = 10,520,
Am = BgAg 5000 x 2 1 05 H = 525.
Bd 9500 =. sq. cm.
Read Bd where this line intersects the demagnetiza-
tion curve. (See Figure 12.)

Bd = 9500 gauss
17
 Permeance calculations

Permeance is a measure of conduction or the ease 100 o.

of establishing flux between two regions. For con-

'0 o.
venience in magnet design, the total permeance Pt
is divided into two parts: Gap permeance Pg (or R~

useful permeance) and limb permeance PI (or una-

voidable leakage permeance). The fundamenal law
of magnet design (the magnetic analog Of Ohm's
10 o. r I
~
--
8/H r ~~ r R (R i L)

M
Le = EFF~CTIVE ~ENGTH ~ACTOR
Law) is: I -,""""i-<'D,..

--
o. I
1-'-- ~+ V
Flux = Magnetomotive force x total permeance o.
o.
c/> = mmf . Pt
Since c/> = BAm (flux density times magnet area)
o. v---
I---""'"
~
8tH
mmf = HL m (unit magnetizing force 10

times length of magnet)

/
and Pt = PI + Pg (leakage permeance
+ gap permeance)
..,. 0
0

0 /
./
./

BAm = HL m (PI + Pg ) ,. 0
j

or BtH = Lm (Pg + PI).

Am
0 I
For an open-circuit magnet with no defined air gap,
all the permeance is leakage permeance. This leak-
.,I , I
age permeance is a function of the exposed limb
area for surface. A convenient engineering approx- "
imation for permeance as a function of area is:
PI = 1.77v1S:" Where S = the exposed surface
1
1 , ,
LENGTH I DIAM ETER (LID)
. ,

area of the magnet limb or 'h the

Fig. 14. Demagnetizing coefficients for rod magnets with axial
tota I su rface area of the mag net magnetization.
Lm ,J7'
and BtH = Am x 1.77vS.
This fairly universal formula, applicable to a wide
variety of magnet configurations, has been used to
plot the curves in Figures 14-16, which graphically

s( I ( show the relation of magnet configuration and per-

meance. On each curve, the formula is given so val-
ues not plotted may be calculated. All are variations

/ of the basic formula, with adjustments to account

for the exposed surface area.

Ifthe same magnet is now bent into a U or C config-

p= I. 77.ys uration as in Figu re 17, the poles are moved closer
together and there will be a definite exchange offlux
in a region called the air gap. The free pole concept
Fig. 13. Each limb or surface of a magnet may be thought of as a
is no longer correct, since the permeance of the air
spherical pole.
gap will now have a greater effect. The analysis
This relationship is based on the premise that each must be modified to include this additional per-
limb ofthe magnet may be thought of as a spherical meance, which is a function of gap geometry. For
pole whose surface is the same as the surface of the very small air gaps, it can be expressed as the area
limb. In most cases, the center of the effective pole is of the gap (Ag) divided by the length of the gap (Lgl,
not located at the physical end; therefore, an ad- and the permeance formula becomes:
justment for the effective length (L e ) of the magnet
must be made. In most commercial materials, this
8tH = .7 ~~ [l.77VS + ~~ ]
effective pole spacing can be considered 0.7 of the Gap permeance does not follow a linear relation
length (L m ).* The useful formula then becomes: with Ag/L g ; a modification must be made as the
Lm , rr; length ofthe gap is increased. Thecurve in Figure 17
8tH = Le x Am 1.77 v S =
shows how this varies. For long gaps, it is necessary

;~ ;~ vIS:"
to find the gap permeance as a function of gap
.7 1.77VS = 1.24 geometry from this curve and substitute this in the
permeance equation.

*Notable exceptions are barium ferrite and rare earth cobalt, where
pole spacing is essentially the full length of the magnet.

18
 10 0

~.~
I I
70

~ ,,~\*\
I '
T L
:/5-"
--"---i-w;~v Dol'---.... ,/'/// //,.x....

~"/
* // >/
, W/T'I

~
0 ./
L
30 ./
/ M
/ "...WIT=2 /
20
/ ./
V- I
....... W/T =4
60
50
'0
V
Oil Do' .8

B/H
V / /
V " ,/
wA'IO
I I
30

/
/"
.......- DilDo =.6

/ / / / W/T= 20
20

B/H
/ / "I~ %~
Di I Do = .4
Di/Do=.2
10
9 1/
/ / /
V ~
.......-V 10
9
~ Oil Do = 0

I
I
/ / /
/
, ,
6

/ V / V /" / '"/ , '" '"

,/ / I"" Y ;/
I / / / 3

/ V ~ /'
// / / / 2

1/ J'/ /
/
/ 0
9
•
It ~V /

ill / /
/ v B/H. 1.77Le VL(W+Tl +WT
.7
6
4 Le->---IL(Do+Di) (D02 -Di 2 )
~B/H= (00
I I
WT
I I I I I I .•
'I--- 2 0 i2 ) 2 +
I
4
I
-
Le = EFFECTIVE LENG+H ~AC~OR 3
I I
La = EFFECTIVE LENGTH FACTOR
2

1 .I
4 10 II 12 13 ,... .2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 1.!5 2.0 2.5 3.0
LIT LIDo
Fig. 15. Demagnetizing coefficients for bar magnets. Fig. 16. Demagnetizing coefficients for ring magnets with axial
magnetization.

o I

IV~ =.7 i~ [ 1.77 y S + ~~ ]

V
/
/1,/
/V
,1-------------+----+--:;;p"oq.....-I-+-+-+--1f---++----+---+--I-+---------1
~/'
- - - --
0'--------------..l.----~2
--------
-----J3L--4l..-~'~6~7
...J.~9.,J:'O-----J.,20----:03':-0---c.l:-
o ---:,'O'------::!,O.O
~~ AREA OF GAP I LENGTH OF GAP

Fig. 17. Permeance for air gaps of a circular section as a function of

the gap geometry.

19
 Calculating £lux leakage lengthy and complicated; so the design is usually an
"empirical" process for which considerable experi-
The magnet establishes and conducts both useful
ence is necessary.
and leakage flux. The shape of the magnet and its
magnetic circuit determine flux leakage. The design Circuit permeance
formula may be modified to account for this by
introduction of leakage factors f and F as follows: In Figures 13-16, the mag nets are in the open-circuit
condition (with no pole pieces), and permeance is
Lm = fBgLg strictly a function of magnet geometry.
Hd
When assembled in a magnetic circuit where soft
steel pole pieces direct the flux path, the shape of
Magnet magnetomotive force the magnet is only one consideration. Since per-
where f = .
Gap magnetomotlve force meance is a measure ofthe ease with which the flux
FBgAg can get from one pole to the other, it follows that
Am permeance may be increased by providing an easier
Bd
flux path. Since not all magnets are used in the open
Total flux required for circuit circuit condition, it is important to consider the per-
wh ere F = ""'-----::--:---:-.-...:..--=:--------
Useful air gap flux meance of the complete magnetic circuit.

Figure 18 shows a typical meter magnet, as well as

The factor f adjusts for the fact that magnetomotive the complete magnetic circuit of a meter movement.
force per unit length in both the magnet and gap is The permenace of the magnet alone is represented
not constant; and usually varies between 1.0 for by the operating line OX, while OY represents the
very small gaps to 1.5 for very large gaps. The leak- total permeance of the circuit. If no air gap were
age factor F is a ratio of the total permeance to gap present, the permeance would increase, and the
permeance, and varies from 1.05 to 20. magnet would operate at Br.
Itcan beseen readily that design problems would be The leakage permeance is determined by the shape
simple ifthevalues offandFwere known. However; of the magnet, and the total permeance will be de-
their calculation is difficult; in many cases trial and termined by the magnet and the pole pieces. The
error may be necessary. In general, the actual calcu- difference represents the useful or gap permeance.
lation of leakage flux for a typical magnet design is

(f)

IO~
(f)
::::>
<t
<.!)

X 8 9
MAGNET x:
PERMEANCE 6 I
m
z
4 0
~
u
::::>
c
2 z

-----------------:6~O:-:O=-----4~O~O;::----------;2~O~O~--~O o
DEMAGNETIZING FORCE, H-OERSTEDS

Fig. 18. Permeance data for typical meter magnet. OX represents

limb permeance ofthe magnet alone, while OY represents the total
permeance of the circuit.
20
 from one form to another, it is necessary to control
both the leakage and total permeance to develop
In many applications, the operating point of the
maximum volumetric efficiency. *
magnet changes continuously, and the magnet
produces different amounts of flux. This may be
caused by changing the size of the air gap, as in
holding assemblies or magnetic latches, or by the
application of an external demagnetizing influence, A

as in motors or generators. In either case, the effect

is the same-changing the permeance of the
magnetic circuit-and it is necessary to design for
these fluctuations.
Assume that the permeance of the keepered
magnet shown in Figure 19 is such that the operat-
ing load Iine is OA. When the keeper is removed, the
operating load line drops to 08, or the minimum
B
permeance condition.
If the keeper is now replaced, the permeance in-
creases back to OA. However, instead of retracing
the original demagnetization curve, the operating
point will recoil along a minor hysteresis loop to
point A'. After several cycles of removing and re-
placing the keeper, this minor loop will be stabilized
and may be considered a straight line. The slope of
this minor loop, called the recoil permeability, is an o
DEMAGNETIZING FORCE - H
intrinsic property of the magnetic material, and is
one of the most important factors to be considered
Fig. 19. Demagnetization curve for variable-gap magnet, showing
in designing variable-gap applications. The ex- minor hysteresis loop developed by several cycles of removing
and replacing the keeper.
tremes of magnet permeance and the recoil per-
meability must be considered in designing a
magnetic circuit for volumetric efficiency.
In these dynamic applications, a portion of the
flux changes from leakage paths to the useful path
as conditions change. Consequently, there is a
MAGNET ASSEMBLY
corresponding change in the useful and leakage

;;~_L
energies.
The operating conditions to produce the
maximum useful energy for a given magnetic mate-
rial can be seen graphically in Figure 20. The operat- --------,-.I
r----~---
ing point ofthe keepered magnet is shown by point ~ VARIABLE GAP
G (total permeance), while the operating point ofthe
KEEPER
unkeepered magnet is shown by point C (leakage
permeance). G
The particular minor loop on which the magnet OJ
Z
operates will be determined by point C. o
For every material there is a specific point on the t3
=>
o
demagnetization curve where the resultant minor
recoil loop will establish maximum useful energy.
~"' "'D ~

The criterion is to set the leakage permeance to

intersect this point. Generally speaking, the materi-
als with low values of recoil permeability are capa-
ble of producing high values of useful energy.
As the keeper is brought near the magnet, the
operating point will move up the minor loop until it -.......~---~r---IE
reaches point K. Assuming that the leakage per-
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _. . . 0
meance remains constant, a useful flux DE exists,
and the useful magnetomotive force is EF. Thus, the DEMAGNETIZING FORCE - H
total useful energy is represented by the rectangular
area KDEF. It can be shown graphically that this area
Fig. 20. Operating conditions determine the maximum useful
will be a maximum when point K is set to intersect energy (represented by KDEF) for a given magnetic material.
the minor loop half way between C and G. In *For a complete discussion of magnet design, the reader is referred
to "Permanent Magnets and Their Application", John Wiley &
magnetic applications where energy is converted Sons, Inc., 1962.
21
 High Permeability Circuit Elements
Alnico
In permanent magnet circuits, it is often desirable
to use high-permeability flux-carrying members to
complete a magnetic circuit using only a short Steel
length of permanent magnet material as in Fig. 21 a;
to change the level of flux in a magnetic circuit as in (0) (b)
Figure 21 b; or to change the direction of flux when
working with anisotropy permanent magnet mater-
ials as in Figure 21c. The characteristics of some
s
commonly used magnetically soft materials are
shown in Figure 22. By far, the most generally used
is cold-drawn steel because of its cost and availabil- S

ity. It is desirable to locate the permanent magnet as

close to the air gap as possible to minimize flux
leakage especially if working the steel near satura-
tion. Figure 23 shows a collection of permanent
magnet circuit arrangements in common use, many
with high-permeability elements.
(c)

Fig. 21. The use of high permeability steel in permanent magnet

circuits.

24 r----'---"------'-----'---'-----'----+---L----L-I-1-~ I I I I I
f - - D-C magnetization curves Cobalt iron alloY~J::b--4-~f:::F=t=:t=i=H=t=1
22 f - - for retu rn path s --+--+-+-+- __
-b "'+...,+.--+-t---t-+--+-+----+---+---+--t-ir-+-1
.........-"9....

v ... V
Cold-drawn steel, annealed~--t"..~L...--'--+----+--+-+--+-1~

.. v
---~ ........J.......

I---~ .--V
__ --lQsintered iron

I---+--+----,IJ----'f------¥--+_+-+--hoof""'~=--+-_+-+ \JMaIleable iron casti ngs -+--+-+-----1-+-+-11-+-+1

N I.D 00 0 o 0 0 o 08 o
o 8 8 0 00
~ N (Y') ~ I.D 00
~ N (Y')55 as 8
~
~

Magnetizing force (H), oersteds

Fig. 22. Magnetization curves for some high permeability

materials.
22
 N s

Fig. 23. Typical assemblies used in permanent magnet applica-

tions. Shaded portions are permanent magnet material; unshaded
portions are high permeability material.

23
 Magnet Stability
In addition to design parameters, physical characteris-
tics and environment must be carefully considered in
the application of permanent magnets.

The success of any device which utilizes perma- Magnetization changes in a permanent magnet,
nent magnets depends on the ability of the magnet however, are more complex because of the simul-
to supply a constant amount of flux to the air gap in taneous and less predictable variations in coercive
any environment to which the device is subjected. force with respect to temperature. Generally, coer-
Once magnetized, the flux produced by a magnet cive force will decrease with increased temperature,
will remain constant unless external energy is ap- but certain materials will exhibit the opposite
plied to change the balance ofthe internal energies. characteristics in some temperature ranges.
Most appl ications are subject to influences which Figure 26 shows the remanent changes which
do exert external energy on the magnet. Some ap- occur with widely-used magnetic materials when
plications are insensitive to these variations. How- they are cooled below room temperature. A coeffi-
ever, for most applications it is desirable to have a cient of reversible remanence is given, since the
constant supply of flux, or at least to keep the varia- variation over these temperature ranges closely ap-
tions to a minimum. proaches a straight line. In Figure 27, similar data is
Fortunately, changes in magnetization are fully given for losses when magnets are heated above
predictable and may be minimized. The accuracy of room temperature, showing irreversible loss and
precision electrical instruments using permanent stable remanence at the indicated temperature as a
magnets over many years of service will attest to the percentage of the initial room temperature rema-
degree of stability that can be achieved by proper nence. Initially, most magnetic materials exhibit
design. Assuming that a magnet is prepared byac- some irreversible loss when heated, and then ex-
cepted standards, and the external influences to hibit a reversible remanence decrease with temper-
which itwill be exposed are fully known, the magne- ature. The irreversible loss is attributed to changes
tic flux will not suffer unexplained change. in coercive force; the reversible loss is due to mag-
There are six factors, in addition to the intrinsic netization changes.
magnetic properties ofthe material, which influence To eliminate irreversible loss in service due to
magnet stability: temperature change, it is recommended that the
a. structural stability magnet be cycled in the magnetized condition
b. temperature effects through a temperature range somewhat greater
c. relaxation effects than that expected in service.
d. magnetic field effects If variations with temperature cannot be toler-
e. mechanical stress ated, and it is not possible to maintain constant
f. radiation temperature, compensation can be made. The most
practical method employs a temperature-sensitive
Structural stability
shunt adjacent and parallel to the permanent mag-
Structural instability is due to changes in the crys- net. At low temperatures the shunt permeability in-
tallographic structure of the material itself, and rep- creases, enabling the shunt to carry or direct more
resents a permanent change in magnetization. In flux from the air gap. At higher temperatures, the
the early martensitic steels, these changes could reverse condition exists; the shunt permeability de-
occur at room temperature, and presented a serious creases and less air-gap flux is diverted. For these
problem to the designer. Today's magnetic materi- applications, the most widely-used materials are
als, however, are insensitive to these variations at 30-32% nickel-iron alloys, often referred to as Curie
room temperature; only elevated temperatures alloys.
need be considered. Figure 25 lists the temperature
ranges at which no structural change has been ob- Relaxation effects
served over relatively long periods of time. Also Relaxation effects are caused by the time requi red
listed are the Curie temperatures above which the for all parts of the magnet to reach equilibrium con-
material is useless as a permanent magnet. dition, in the presence of normal small disturbing
influences. An abrupt change in the magnetization
Temperature effects of a permanent magnet will, therefore, be followed
As the temperature of a ferromagnetic material is by a slow approach to equilibrium. These changes
raised above absolute zero, the intensity of mag- are small; for most applications, they can be
netization will steadily decrease. This is an intrinsic ignored.
property ofthe material, and is due to the increased
thermal agitation of the elementary electron spin
alignment. The individual domain magnetization
will therefore vary reversibly with temperature.
24
 Reversible
% Irreversible loss at Temperature
Room Temperature Coefficient,
PERM. COEF. After Exposure to % Remanence
8fH
Material -190°C -60°C Change per °C
Alnico 2 25 0 0 -0.025
16 0 0 -0.021
9 0 0 -0.018
6 0 0 -0.009
Temperature Curie Temperature 0 0 -0.014
± IDOC 3
Material °C
Alnico 1. 450* 780 Alnico 5 50 0 0 -0.022
Alnico 2 450* 815 25 4.6 1.4 -0.012
Alnico 3 450* 760 16 9.0 2.5 -0.002
Alnico 4 450* 800 9 6.2 3.6 +0.010
Alnico 5 550 890 6 7.9 3.1 +0.016
Alnico 6 550 875 3 8.5 3.4 +0.007
Alnico 8 550 860 Alnico 6 50 0 0 -0.045
Remalloy 500 900 30 1.8 0.4 -0.020
Cunico 500* 860 16 8.5 1.3 -0.007
Cunife 400* 450 9 10.1 4.1 +0.007
Vicalloy 500 855 6 10.5 4.2 +0.022
Hicorex 250 700 3 7.9 3.1 +0.046
Barium Ferrite 400* 450 Alnico 8 28 0 0 -0.013
10 0.5 0.1 +0.003
*These Materials, while structurally stable, suffer a considerable remanence loss at 7 0.7 0.3 +0.015
these temperatures, especially those with low Curie temperatures. 3 1.3 0.5 +0.033
Barium Ferrite 1.5 4.0 0* -0.19
(Isotropic) 0.6 1.3 -0.19
0.3 2.4 -0.19
Barium Ferrite 4.0 0* -0.19
Fig. 25. Maximum temperature below which no structural change is found. [(BH) max
Anisotropic] 1.5 -0.19
Barium Ferrite 1.2 0* -0.19
[<Hc) max
Anisotropic]
Hicorex 90 A&B 10 -.045
2 -.045
Fig. 26. Magnetization changes on cooling below room temperature (20°C). I -.045
0.5 -.045

t In the case of the low temperature irreversible loss occurring in oriented barium
ferrite, only the smallest dimension ratio resulting in no irreversible loss at -60°C
is shown. This is the recommendation of a major producer, to avoid catastrophic
loss. The minimum dimension ratio will depend upon the lowest temperature to be
encountered.

Fig. 27. Magnetization losses on heating above room temperature (20°C).

Temperature, °C
PERM. COEF.
100 200 300 400 500
8fH
Material II I II II II I II
Alnico 2 50 2.0 98 3.1 94 4.2 90 6.1 86 8.2 80
16 3.1 98 4.0 92 6.9 88 8.6 84 12.0 78
6 3.5 97 4.7 91 7.4 89 10.7 85 13.1 81
Alnico 5 50 0.1 99.9 0.2 96 0.4 93.6 0.7 91.2 1.2 88.0
20 0.4 99.6 0.8 96.3 1.1 93.8 1.7 91.1 2.0 88.2
7 0.5 99.4 1.7 96.6, 2.1 94.1 2.6 92.2 3.0 88.6
Alnico 6 150 0.1 98.2 0.2 95.6 0.4 93.0 0.8 89.7 1.8 86.5
18 0.5 98.7 0.9 95.6 1.2 92.7 2.0 89.4 3.0 85.2
7 0.7 99.1 1.2 97.2 1.5 94.2 2.1 90.5 3.3 86.0
Alnico 8 28 0.7 98.8
9 0.7 99.0
7 0.9 99.4
3 1.0 99.8
Barium Ferrite <All Grades) All 0 85 o 68 50
Hicorex 90,A* 0.5 0.1 96.5 0.5 91.2
0.4 0.3 96.3 2.0 89.7
0.3 0.6 95.9 2.5 89.2
0.2 1.0 95.5 3.5 88.2
1.8 94.7 5.5 86.2
1.0 0.5 95.7 1.7 88.4
0.5 1.0 95.2 3.2 86.9
0.4 1.1 95.1 5.2 84.9
0.3 1.3 94.9 6.6 83.5
1.5 94.7 8.5

Column I: % irreversible remanence loss at room temperature after heating to indicated temperature.
Column II: % of initial room temperature remanence found stable with magnet at indicated temperature.
*Note: Hicorex reversible temperature coefficient is nearly constant for all load lines.

25
 External fields
Magnetic field effects are brought about by the
presence of an a-c field, a d-c field, or an adjacent
permanent magnet. The ability of a magnet to with-
stand these external fields is directly proportional to
the magnet's intrinsic coercive force. As a result, B/H

high coercive materials are required where an ex-

ternal demagnetizing influence will be great. To as-
sure stability of operation, a magnet should be sub-
jected to a demagnetizing force sl ightly greater than
aJ
it will see in operation.
If the magnitude of the external field is known, its
o
aJ
Z
effect on the flux output of the magnet can be calcu- o
lated from the intrinsic demagnetization curve. Fig- i=
u
:::>
ure 28 shows the intrinsic and normal demagnetiza- Cl
z
tion curves for a typical magnetic material. If the
magnet operates at point a on the normal curve, it
can be seen that the intrinsic induction is rep-
resented by a' (satisfying the equation B; = B + H). A
line thru a' and the origin will represent the effective
permeance. The effect of a demagnetizing field !:1H
may be found by drawing a line parallel to the effec- Bi BI
tive permeance line through a point representing
!:1H on the -H axis. The intersection of this line with DEMAGNETIZING FORCE
the intrinsic curve will locate the new level of intrin-
sic induction, b'. The normal induction at this point
is represented by point b on the normal curve, and
the flux density will have been reduced by an
Fig. 28. Intrinsic and normal demagnetization curves for a typical
amount !:1B. magnet material, showing the effects of a demagnetizing field.
If the external field is removed, the magnet will
not return to its original position on the demagneti-
zation curve, but will recoil along a minor hysteresis
loop (whose slope is the recoil permeability of the
material) until it again intersects the original effec-
tive permeance line. This path is shown in Figure 29
as b to c . The net permanent effect of the demag- B/H
netizing influence will be a reduction of flux density
to !:1B. Further application of an external field with
strength no greater than !:1H will have little or no
further effect on induction.
Mechanical stress aJ
o
Mechanical stress or shock has long been known aJ
Z
to demagnetize steel bars. Modern high-coercive- o
i=
force permanent magnets, however, are generally u
:::>
Cl
insensitive to these mechanical degradations. Gen- z
erally, a mechanical stress large enough to demag-
netize permanent magnets would have to be so
great that it would physically damage the magnet.
For practically all applications, mechanical stresses
can be ignored as contributing to instability.
B
Radiation
Hci Hc
Radiation effects have caused increasing concern
DEMAGNETIZING FORCE
in recent years. Experiments conducted on present
commercially-available permanent magnets have
shown no harmful effects on magnetic stability
when magnets were subjected to moderate levels of
Fig. 29. When the external field is removed, the permanent magnet
radiation.
will recoil along a minor hysteresis loop. and flux density will be
reduced by an amount LlB.
26
 Permanent Magnet Measurements
In development of properties, in design analysis, and in
quality control of a particular permanent magnet,
component-measurements are vital.

The accurate measurement of magnetic proper-

ties is a very important part of permanent magnet
technology.
....---SEARCH COIL
Magnetic Flux Measurement Systems
MOVING " :--... S
The two most widely used approaches to the COIL POlEPJECE
measurement of magnetic flux are the induced vol- MAGNET
S M
tage method and the Hall Effect method. The basic
elements of the induced voltage method are shown
in Figure 30. A search coil is inserted in a magnetic
field so as to thread the lines offlux. When the coil is
withdrawn, a voltage is generated. This voltage,
when applied to an indicating instrument having a
long natural period of vibration, gives a deflection
proportional to the product of coil turns and flux CONTROL
BOX
Iines threading the coil. Since the turns and coil area
can be determined accurately, the deflection can be
made proportional to total flux or to the average ot'
the flux density over the coil area. The most com-
Fig. 30. Basic elements of induction method.
monly used indicating instruments are flux meters,
ballistic galvanometers and electronic integrating
display devices.
The basic elements in the Hall Effect approach are
shown in Figure 31. A thin plate of material such as
indium arsenide is placed in a magnetic field with its
plane perpendicular to the field. A longitudinal con-
trolled current through the material produces a
transverse voltage. This voltage is proportional to
Meter
the field intensity and hence indicates flux density
directly on a d.c. instrument.

Types of Measurements
The type of measurement or test which a particu-
lar permanent magnet is given depends on how the
magnet is used in actual service and on the magnet-
ic circuit load conditions involved. Many magnets
may be tested by a simple open circuit measure-
ment offlux. In cases where the magnet's operating
load line is heavily determined by other magnet
ci rcuit elements, it is necessary to develop test con-
ditions that simulate the actual load conditions. In
some instances, a force measurement is the most
meaningful indication of performance. In produc-
tion testing, in many instances a reference magnet
is used to compare quality. Many automated
equipments are in use at Hitachi Magnetics Corp. for
testing permanent magnets of specific sizes and
specifications in large quantities. I
.... I
'~

Fig. 31. Schematic diagram.of a Hall effect gaussmeter.

27
 Magnetization and Demagnetization
Changing the state of magnetization is an important
factor in working with today's high coercive force
permanent magnet materials.

Generally the user of the permanent magnet must permanent magnet. Considerable force is required
know howto magnetize, since the magnet manufac- to remove the magnet, and distortion of the field
turer ships most of the magnets he produces in a shape can be a serious problem with this approach.
demagnetized condition. This is done because the Consequently, permanent magnets are only used as
cost of shipping magnetized magnets is high due to magnetizers on very small magnets where uniform-
the special packaging needed to protect each mag- ity and distortion are not important.
net from the field influence of its neighbors. In addi- Usually, steady fields for magnetization are pro-
tion, demagnetized magnets are easier to assemble duced by electromagnets with a variable air gap. A
into a magnetic circuit, and there is less chance of typical electromagnet is shown in Figure 32. The
magnetic dirt being picked up during assembly of principle considerations involved in designing this
such devices as meters and loudspeakers. Thus, type of magnetizer are: (1) the core cross section
most magnets are magnetized tlfter assembly and must be adequate to carry satu ration induction level
then given a final "knockdown" for stabilization or for the largest permanent magnet to be magnetized;
calibration. and (2) the ampere turns must be sufficient to pro-
duce the total field required by the magnet to be
Requirements for Complete Magnetization
magnetized, and by the yoke and air gaps that might
As a general rule of thumb, the field strength (H s) be present. The electromagnet has leakage energy
needed to saturate a magnet is about three to four associated with it, and for this reason, the core ofthe
times the Hci of the magnet. It has been previously electromagnet is usually several times as large as
noted that air gaps can create substantial self- the magnet to be saturated. Electromagnets can be
demagnetizing effects and, hence, in magnetizing arranged with any number of poles. Permanent
many magnet assemblies, ten to 20 times the Hci is magnet rotors having many poles may be mag-
required. netized in a matching electromagnetic structure. In
In addition to using the correct magnitude offield, such an example, all poles must be magnetized
the field must also be of the correct shape. By ar- simultaneously to ensure a uniform magnet.
ranging current carrying conductors and high per- In the case of impulse equipment, magnetization
meability pole pieces in various configurations, a can be achieved by a current pulse, provided its
great variety of field shapes can be achieved. Sub- magnitude is sufficient to deliver the peak field re-
jecting a magnet to field strengths in excess of that quired. The development of permanent magnet
required for saturation is not objectionable. It materials with high coercivity and high energy pro-
should be noted that fields of an incorrect shape and ducts has led to the need for high output magnetiz-
orientation will leave the magnet magnetized at an ers. Many of the present-day permanent magnet
angle with respect to the required axis. The end configurations cannot be fully magnetized by plac-
result is partial magnetization. ing them in contact with conventional electromag-
Although magnetization is theoretically achieved nets. Instead, they are magnetized by the field set up
in an extremely short time, the circuit inductance around conductors carrying short duration currents
and eddy currents induced in the magnet can influ- of great magnitude. Often it is necessary to wrap the
ence the rate of magnetization, and can be a major limbs of a permanent magnet with a few turns of
cause of incomplete magnetization. In high induc- heavy wire which carry the high current pulse. It
tion solenoids and electromagnets, the current may should be noted that it is very easy to design a
requi re time in the order of several seconds to reach magnet that cannot be fully magnetized; thus the
steady-state values. In addition, the fields produced magnetization must be considered during the early
by the eddy currents oppose the penetration of the stages of design. Impulse magnetization is used in a
field. If the pulse is of short duration with respect to growing number of situations because of its low
the time constant of the eddy currents, more than cost and abil ity to operate directly from the alternat-
one pulse, or longer pulses, may be required. Such ing current supply lines. The basic elements of an
is the case with metallic magnets of appreciable impulse supply are shown in Figure 33. A condenser
cross section. (C) is charged to a voltage (V), at a rate determined
by resistor (R). The condenser is then discharged
Magnetizing Equipment through the coil or magnetization fixture (L). If Rz is
Magnetizing equipment can be divided into two greater than LC, the resulting pulse will be uni-
types: steady-state equipment and impulse equip- directional without oscillation. The field developed
ment. Steady-state fields from permanent magnets around a single conductor can be estimated as:
are occasionally used to magnetize other perma- H = 1/5r
nent magnets. Many small permanent magnets are where I = peak current in amperes, H = field
magnetized by insertion into the air gap of a large strength in oersteds and r = maximum radius of the
28
 magnet in centimeters (distance from conductor ~his approach requires accurate knowledge of Hcr
center to outside of magnet). A properly designed and the slope fLr. For this reason, demagnetization
impulse system can develop peak power several by applying precise amount of reverse field is sel-
hundred times the maximum demand from the line dom used. Permanent magnets are generally de-
during charging with no need to switch large cur- magnetized by applying an alternating magnetic
rents. Discha rge times of the order of 0.01 second field and slowly reducing its magnitude to zero. Fig-
are common and there is consequently negligible ure 36 (a) shows the resulting hysteresis loops as
heating of the coil or magnetizing conductor sys- the alternating field and induction approach zero. It
tem. Large values of capacitance are economically is possible to slowly remove the magnet from a
obtained by paralleling electrolytic capacitors ofthe fixed magnitude alternating field and achieve the
type used in photoflash equipment. Figure 34 shows same result. The rate of decay is a very significant
a typical system using an ignitron tube for switch- factor. Figure 36 (b) shows the results of reducing
ing. Figure 35 shows conductor arrangements to the peak potential too rapidly. The symmetry of the
magnetize two magnet shapes. interior loops is destroyed and the magnet will re-
tain an appreciable level of induction. This method
Demagnetization
is successful if the initial magnitude of peak field is
Demagnetization is not as frequent a problem as of the same order of magnitude as required for sat-
magnetization in permanent magnets, but complete uration and if the rate of decay per cycle is small.
demagnetization is extremely difficult to achieve
and can be a serious problem for both manufacturer Calibration
and user of permanent magnets. A permanent Permanent magnets in many devices require pre-
magnet may be demagnetized by applying a reverse cise adjustment. Saturated magnets are given a
field of sufficient magnitude to drive it into the third "knockdown" to a given level of B to ensure stability
quadrant of the hysteresis loop such that when the and also to allow for variations in properties arising
field is removed it will recoil to zero induction as from production and assembly tolerances. Mag-
shown in Figure 36. By definition, the field that ac- netization equipment are often integrated together
complishes this is called the remanent or relaxation to provide precise calibration of permanent
coercive force (H cr ). To completely demagnetize by magnets.

Fig. 32

~"
i . +_'----".:
'0'
Fig. 33

( )
Fig. 34 '"
Fig. 36 (a) Exposing a magnet to a gradually reduced alternating
flux field, initially of magnitude H ax' will remove any external
traces of magnetic induction. (b) IffRe amplitude ofthe alternating
field is reduced too quickly, the symmetry of the hysteresis loop
about the origin may be destroyed and the magnet will retain some
induction.
29
 Glossary of Magnet Terms

Air Gap A non-magnetic discontinuity in a fer- Demagnetizing Force, Hd A magnetizing force ap-
romagnetic circuit. For example, the space between plied in such a direction as to reduce the remanent
the poles of a magnet, although filled with brass or induction in a magnetized body. (See Demagnetiza-
wood or any other non-magnetic material, is tion Curve.)*
nevertheless called an air gap.

Diamagnetic Material A material having a permea-

Circuit, Closed Magnetic A circuit where the bility less than that of a vacuum.*
magnetic flux is conducted continually around a
closed path through ferromagnetic materials. For
example a steel ring.
Dyne The force producing an acceleration of one
centimeter per second per second when applied to a
one gram mass.
Circuit, Open Magnetic When a magnet does not
have a closed external ferromagnetic circuit and
does not form a complete conducting circuit itself,
the magnet is said to be open circuited. For exam- Eddy Current Loss, Pe That portion of the core loss
ple, a permanent magnet ring interrupted by an air due to currents circulating in the magnetic material
gap. as a result of electromotive forces induced by vary-
ing induction. *

Coercive Force, He The magnetizing force required

to bring the induction to zero in a magnetic material
Electromagnet A magnet, consisting of a solenoid
which is in a symmetrically cyclically magnetized
with an iron core, which has a magnetic field exist-
condition. *
ing only during the time of current flow through the
coil.

Coercive Force, Intrinsic, Hei The mag netizi ng force

required to bring to zero the intrinsic induction of a
magnetic material which is in a symmetrically cycli- Energy-Product Curve, Magnetic The curve ob-
cally magnetized condition. * tained by plotting the product of the coordinates of
the demagnetization curve (BdHd) as abscissas
against the induction Bd- *

Coercivity That property of a material measured by

the maximum value of the coercive force. * Note 1.- (BdHd)max corresponds to the max-
imum value of the external energy.

Note 2. - The demagnetization curve is usually

Core Loss (Iron Loss), Pc The power expended in a
plotted to the left of the vertical axis (negative
magnetic material subjected to a varying magnetiz-
values of Hd) and the energy product curve to the
ing force.*
right.

Cyclically Magnetized Condition A magnetic mat-

Erg The work done by a force of one dyne whose
erial is in a cyclically magnetized condition when,
point of application is moved through one centime-
under the influence of a magnetizing force which
ter in the direction of the force.
varies cyclically between two specific limits, its suc-
cessive hysteresis loops are identical. *

Ferromagnetic Material A paramagnetic material

Demagnetization Curve That portion of the hys- which exhibits a high degree of magnetizability.
teresis loop which lies between the residual induc-
tion point, Brand the coercive force point, He. Points
on this curve are designated by the coordinates Bd Gauss The c.g.s. unit of magnetic induction. (See
and Hd- * Induction, Magnetic.)*

30
 Gilbert The c.g.s. unit of magnetomotive force. Induction, Saturation, Bs The maximum intrinsic
(See Magnetomotive Force.)* induction possible in a material.*

Keeper A magnetic conductor used to complete the

Hysteresis, Magnetic The property of a magnetic
magnetic circuit of a permanent magnetto protect if
material by virtue of which the magnetic induction
against demagneti;?:ing influences.
for a given magnetizing force depends upon the
previous conditions of magnetization. *

Kilogauss One kilogauss is equal to 1000 gauss.

Hysteresis Loop A curve (usually with rectangular

coordinates) which shows, for a magnetic material
Leakage, Flux FThat portion of the flux which does
in a cyclically magnetized condition, for each value
not pass through the air gap, or useful part of the
of the magnetizing force, two values ofthe magnetic
magnetic circuit.
induction, one when the magnetizing force is in-
creasing, the other when it is decreasing. *

Linkage, Flux ¢N The product of the number of

Hysteresis Loss, Ph The power expended in a turns in an electric circuit by the average value ofthe
magnetic material, as a result of magnetic hys- flux linked with the circuit.*
teresis, when the magnetic induction is cyclic. *

Load Line Graphic representation of permeance.

Induction Curve, Normal A curve depicting the rela-
tion between normal induction and magnetizing
force. * Magnetic Field Strength,H See Magnetizing Force.

Induction, Intrinsic (or Ferric Induction), B; The ex-

Magnetic Flux, ¢ A condition in a medium pro-

o cess of the induction in a magnetic material overthe

induction in vacuum, for a given value of the mag-
netizing force.*
duced by a magrietomotive force, such that when
altered in magnitude a voltage is induced in an elec-
tric circuit linked with the flux.*

The equation for intrinsic induction is:

The c.g.s. unit of magnetic flux is called the max-
B; = B-fLVH
well and is defined by the equation:

e= -N ~ 10-8
dt
Induction, Magnetic (or Magnetic Flux Density),
where:
B Flux per unit area through an element of area at
e = induced emf. in volts, and
right angles to the direction of the flux.*
~f = time rate of change of flux in maxwell per
The c.g.s. unit of induction is called the gauss second.
and is defined by the equation:
B= ~
dA
Flux Density, B See Induction Magnetic.

Induction, Normal, B The limiting induction, either Magnetic Line of Force An imaginary line in a
positive or negative, in a magnetic material which is magneticfield which at every point has the direction
of the magnetic flux at that point.*
in a symmetrically cyclically magnetized condition. *

Magnetizing Force, H Magnetomotive force per

Induction, Remanent, Bd See Remanence. un it length. The c.g.s. unit is called the oersted and is
defined by the equation:

Induction, Residual, B r The magnetic induction dY

H=
corresponding to zero magnetizing force in a dl
magnetic material which is in a symmetrically cycli-
cally magnetized condition. * where I is in amperes and L is in centimeters. *

31
 where Y is in gilberts and L in centimeters. For a Permeability, Intrinsic, fLi The ratio of intrinsic
toroid, or at the center of a long solenoid, the mag- normal induction to the corresponding magnetizing
netizing force in oersteds may be calculated as force. *
follows:
0.47TNI
H Permeability, Normal, fL The ratio of the normal
L
induction to the corresponding magnetizing force. *
In the c.g.s. system the flux density in a vacuum is
numerically equal to the magnetizing force and,
Magnetomotive Force, :T That which tends to pro- consequently, the magnetic permeability is
duce a magnetic field. In magnetic testing it is most numerically equal to the ratio of the flux density
commonly produced by a current flowing through a to the magnetizing force. Thus:
coil of wire, and its magnitude is proportional to the
current, and to the number of turns.* B
fL=
H
The c.g.s. unit of magnetomotive force is called
the gilbert and is defined by the equation:
Note.-In a non isotropic medium the permeabil-
:T= OA7TNI ity is a function ofthe orientation ofthe medium,
since, in general, the magnetizing force and the
where I is in amperes. magnetic flux are not parallel.

Magnetomotive force may also result from a

magnetized body.
Permeability, Relative, fL Permeability of a body re-
lative to that of a vacuum. In the c.g.s. system the
relative permeability is the same as the normal
The c.g.s. unit of magnetic flux.*
permeability. *
Note:-1 maxwell equals 10- 8 webers.

Permeability, Space, fLv The factor that expresses

Oersted, H The c.g.S. unit of magnetizing force.* the ratio of magnetic induction to magnetizing force
in a vacuum. In the c.g.s. electromagnetic system of
units the permeability of a vacuum arbitrarily taken
as unity.*
Paramagnetic Material A material having a per-
meability which is slightly greater than that of a
vacuum, and which is approximately independent Permeance, P The ratio of the flux through any
of the magnetizing force.* cross section of a tubular portion of a magnetic
circuit bounded by lines of force and by two equipo-
tential surfaces to the magnetic potential difference
Permanent Magnet Material Shaped piece of fer- between the surfaces, taken within the portion
romagnetic material which once having been mag- under consideration. *
netized, shows definite resistance to external de-
magnetizing forces, i.e., requires a high coercive
force to remove the resultant magnetism.
Poles, Consequent Additional magnetic poles
which are present at otherthan the ends of a magne-
tic material.
Permeability, Differential, fLd The slope of the nor-
mal induction curve.*
Poles, North and South Magnetic The north pole of
a magnet, or compass, is attracted toward the north
Permeability, Incremental, fLt::.. The ratio of the cyc- magnetic pole of the earth, and the south pole of a
lic change in magnetic induction to the correspond- magnet is attracted toward the south magnetic pole
ing cyclic change in magnetizing force when the of the earth. This is based upon tradition and not
mean induction differs from zero. * physics, as, actually, two unlike poles will attract
each otherwhile like poles repel. However, the north
seeking pole of a magnet is designated by the letter
Permeability, Initial, fJ.o The slope of the normal N, and the other pole by S. The N pole of one magnet
induction curve at zero magnetizing force. * will attract the S pole of another magnet.

32
 Reluctance, !J? The reciprocal of permeance Stabilization A treatment of a magnetic material
designed to increase the permanency of its magne-
tic properties or condition.*

o For uniform J.L and A

L Symmetrically Cyclically Magnetized Condition A

pA magnetized material is in a symmetrically cyclically
where A is area in square centimeters and L is magnetized condition when it is cyclically mag-
length in centimeters. * netized and the limits of the applied magnetizing
forces are equal and of opposite sign, so that the
limits of induction are equal and of opposite sign.*
Remanence (or Remanent Induction), Bd The
magnetic induction which remains in a magnetic
circuit after the removal of an applied magnetomo-
Weber The practical unit of magnetic flux. It is the
tive force. *
amount of magnetic flux which, when linked at a
Note.- If there is an air gap in the magnetic uniform rate with a single-turn electric circuit during
circuit, the remanence will be less than the re- an interval of 1 sec., will induce in this circuit an
sidual induction. electromotive force of 1 volt. *

Retentivity The property of a magnetic material 1 weber = 10 8 maxwells.

measured by the maximum value of the residual
induction. *

Soft Magnetic Material Shaped piece of fer-

romagnetic material which once having been mag-
netized is very easily demagnetized, i.e., requires a *Definitions from A.S.T.M. Designation A 340-64,
slight coercive force to remove the resultant mag- "Standard Definitions of Terms with Symbols,
netism. Relating to Magnetic Testing," 1964.

33
 SYMBOLS

A Cross sectional area of Bs Saturation induction. P Permeance.

magnetic material.
Pc Core loss.
F Flux leakage.
Ag Cross sectional area of
Pe Eddy current loss.
the air gap perpendicular
Magnetomotive force.
to the lines of flux.
F Magnetic potential difference. Hysteresis loss.
Ph
Magnetizing force.
Am = Cross sectional area of
magnet perpendicular to R Reluctance.
direction of magnetization. H Magnetic intensity. Permeability
Magnetic induction.
He Coercive force. fL Normal permeability.

B Normal induction. fLd Differential permeability.

Magnetic flux density. Hci Intrinsic coercive force.

fLi Intrinsic permeability.

Bd Remanent induction; values Hd Demagnetizing force; values

of magnetic induction on of demagnetizing force on fLo Initial permeability.
the demagnetization curve. the demagnetization curve.
fLr Reversible permeability.

Bg Magnetic flux density in Hg Magnetizing force in the

the air gap. air gap. fLv Space permeability.

L Length of mag netic fLt> Incremental permeability,

B'I Intrinsic induction.
circuit element.
¢ Magnetic flux.

Br Residual induction. N Total number of turns. ¢N Flux linkage.

Reference to the Technical Literature

1. Permanent Magnets, F. G. Spreadbury, Pitman & Sons, Ltd., London 1949.

2. Permanent Magnets and Their Application, R. J. Parker & R. J. Studders, J. Wiley & Sons, NY 1962.

3. Permanent Magnets & Magnetism, D. Hadfield, J. Wiley & Sons, NY 1962.

4. High Temperature Stability of Permanent Magnets of the lron-Nickel-Aluminum System, A. G.

Clegg and M. McCraig, British J. Appl. Phys., 1441958.

5. Ferrites, J. Smit and H. Wijn, J. Wiley & Sons, NY, 1959.

6. Cobalt-Rare Earth Permanent MagnetAlloys, D. L. Martin and M. G. Benz, Cobalt, 50,11 (Mar 1971).

7. The Properties and Potential Uses of Rare Earth Permanent Magnets, R. J. Parker, Intermag
Conference Workshop, Denver, Co., 1971.

34
 Units
Throughout this manual C.G.S. units have been used. Today most permanent magnet problems are
solved using C.G.S. units. However, there is a strong trend to use the 5.1. or MKSA System of units in
scientific and technical education. In order to convert between the two systems of units, this Table is
presented for reference.

QUANTITIES, SYMBOLS, UNITS, AND CONVERSION FACTORS

Quantity Unit, C.G.S. Unit, S.I. (S.I.)/(C.G.S.)
Ratio*
Length, L Centimeter, em meter, m 10 2
Mass, M gram, g kilogram, kg 103
Time, t second, s second, s 1
Electric current, I abampere ampere, A 10-'
Temperature, T degree celsius DC kelvin, K (K = DC + 273.16)
Force, F dyne newton, N 10 5
Work or energy, E erg = dyn.cm joule, J = Nm 10 7
Power, P erg/s watt, W = J/s 10 7
Magnetic flux cP maxwell weber, Wb 10 8
Flux density, B gauss, G tesla, T = Wb/m 2 104
Mag netic constant, JLo
(permeability of space) (unity) henry/meter, H/m 10 7 /4 TT
Intensity of magnetization, J e.m.u. = G/4 TT tesla, T = N/Am 104 /4 TT
= dyn/cm 2 Oe
Magnetic field strength, H oersted,Oe ampere/meter, A/m 4 TT/l0 3
Magnetomotive force, F gilbert, Gb ampere, A 4 TT/l0
Reluctance, .9P m gilbert/maxwell I/henry, H-' 4 TT/10 9

Permeance (inverse of
reluctance) P maxwell/gilbert henry, H 10 9 /4 TT

* A quantity in 5.1. units must be multiplied by this ratio to convert it to C.G.S. units.

35
 Specifying the Direction of
Permanent Magnet Magnetization
The permanent magnet is by and large a specialty com- Specification of the direction of magnetization is needed
ponent and must be carefully integrated into a magnetic in all anisotropic materials and should be noted on draw-
circuit environment. For best results, a drawing must be ing with an arrow and the letter M:
supplied giving all dimensions, tolerance surface condi- ~M~
tions, type of material, direction of magnetization, and
some information about the type of magnetic circuit in-
volved. The quantity and delivery requirements are
needed since they influet1ce the tooling, time required for
tooling, and cost.
State of Magnetization·
The following considerations should be carefully re-
viewed in orderto arrive at a drawing which describes the It is necessary to specify the state of magnetization. Al-
though most permanent magnets are shipped unmag-
conditions to be met.
netized, the new high coercive force materials make it
possible to magnetize before assembly and hence, in a
growing number of instances, customers are specifying
magnetized magnets.
Choice of Material
There are many materials available, but not all are suita-
ble forvarious shapes and sizes of production magnets. In Testing Permanent Magnets
many instances HMC can make recommendations if suffi-
cient information is given about the design.
The unit property curves are typical of property achieve-
ment on easily measured test bars, and they are intended
only as a design guide. When acceptance test levels are
appropriate on a specific magnet, the user and producer
Grinding must exchange information and arrive at a mutually ac-
ceptable test method and level. In establishing test levels,
Most permanent magnet materials require grinding to it is well to bear in mind the tolerances involved, and to
achieve close tolerances. Ground surfaces can add ap- carefully consider cost, by having an acceptance level
preciable cost, and one should carefully study the need. In placed in the manufacturing quality distribution curve so
many instances, "as cast" or "as sintered" tolerances can that a high yield is possible.
be used, with a saving in cost.

Surface Conditions
Many magnets that require close tolerances and a grind
do not need high qual ity surface conditions. Generally the
surface conditions are not critical to the performance of
the magnetic circuit. Before one adds a surface mark to a
drawing, it should be considered carefully because of the
cost of producing and inspecting high finish surfaces.

36
 Typical Magnetic and Physical Properties
of Hitachi Metals America Permanent Magnets

CAST ALNICO
2 2,500 7,200 540 1.60 4,500 365 12.0 6.4 0.256 3,000 7,200 45 12.4 65
3 2,500 6,700 450 1.40 4,300 320 13.0 6.5 0.249 12,000 22,500 45 13.0 60
4 3,500 5,200 700 1.20 3,000 380 8.0 4.1 0.253 9,100 24,000 45 13.1 75
5 3,000 12,400 640 5.50 10,000 550 18.0 4.3 0.264 5,450 10,500 50 11.6 47
5DG 3,500 12,600 670 6.25 10,450 600 17.0 4.0 0.264 5,200 9,000 50 11.4 47
5-7 3,500 13,000 730 7.25 11,150 650 17.0 3.8 0.264 5,000 8,000 50 11.4 47
6 4,000 10,200 770 3.75 7,000 535 13.0 5.3 0.268 23,000 45,000 50 11.4 50
150.8 5,000 5,800 1,300 2.20 3,400 650 5.2 1.9 0.262 39,500 30,000 56 11.0 50
8A 8,000 8,500 1,600 5.20 5,200 1,000 5.0 2.0 0.262 39,500 30,000 56 11.0 50
8B 8,000 7,800 1,850 5.20 4,500 1,150 3.9 1.9 0.262 39,500 30,000 56 11.0 50
8C 8,000 9,000 1,480 5.20 5,800 900 6.4 2.1 0.262 39,500 30,000 56 11.0 50

SINTERED ALNICO
2 2,500 6,800 520 1.50 4,300 350 12.3 6.4 0.247 65,000 70,000 43 12.4 68
150.8 5,000 5,800 1,200 2.10 3,000 700 4.3 1.9 0.252 50,000 55,000 43 11.6 53
5 3,000 10,500 590 3.50 8,000 435 18.4 4.0 0.253 50,000 55,000 44 11.3 50
6 4,000 8,600 790 3.00 6,000 500 12.0 4.5 0.249 55,000 100,000 44 11.3 53
8A 8,000 7,600 1,550 4.50 4,700 960 5.0 2.1 0.252 50,000 55,000 43 11.6 53
8B 8,000 6,500 1,800 4.50 4,100 1,100 3.7 1.9 0.252 50,000 55,000 43 11.6 53

CERAMIC
YMB-1BB 7,000 3,950 2,400 3.70 .187 >10' Ceramic 5
YBM-2D 12,000 3,500 2,950 3,250 2.85 .178 >10' Ceramic 6
YBM-2CS 10,000 3,850 2,750 2,850 3.45 .182 >10'
YBM-2B 13,000 3,950 3,100 3,200 3.70 .182 >10' Ceramic 8
YBM-2BA 10,000 4,275 2,400 4.35 .184 >10'
YBM-2BB 12,000 4,225 2,950 4.20 .184 >10'
YBM-2BC 15,000 3,600 3~200 4~OOO 3.05 .178 >10' Ceramic 7
YBM-2BD 15,000 3,850 3~100 3,650 3.50 .182 >10'
YBM-7BE 15,000 3,800 3~300 3~900 3.40 .178 >10'
YBM-3 12,000 2,150 1,800 3,600 1.00 .180 >10' Ceramic 1
Radial Oriented
YBM-4A 2~500 2~OOo 3~OOO 1~4
YBM-4B 2~700 2~300 3~OOO rj
HICOREX
90A 35,000· 8,200 7,500 >30,000 16 4,000 4,000 1.0 1.05 .295 5,000 50
90B 20,000· 8,700 8,200 >15,000 18 4,250 4,250 1.0 1.05 .298 5,000 50
96A 20,000 9,000 8,300 15,000 19.5 4,400 4,400 1.0 1.05 .298 5,000 50
96B 15,000 9,400 8,800 15,000 21.5 4,560 4,560 1.0 1.05 .298 5,000 50
99A 15,000 9,700 6,000 6,500 21.5 1.3 .300 55 50
99B 15,000 10,000 6,000 6,500 24.0 1.2 .300 55 50
99C 15,000 10,600 6,000 6,500 27.0 1.15 .300 55 50

FeCrCo
KHJ-1 3,000 12,900 600 5.6 10,500 550 20 2.8 .274 28,300 36 11.3 68
KHJ-2 11,500 750 4.5 8,200 550 15 4.4
KHJ-3B 13,500 700 7.0 11,600 600 20 2.5

• Recommended magnetizing fields are for closed magnetic circuits and for magnets that have been thermally demagnetized. Higher fields are
required if demagnetization state was achieved by a magnetic field. 37
 @ HITACHI METALS AMERICA, LTD.
Magnetic Materials Division
7800 NEFF ROAD • EDMORE, MICHIGAN 48829 U.S.A.
PHONE (517) 427-5151 • FAX (517) 427-5772 or (517) 427-5571

Sales Offices
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Charlotte, NC 28217 U.S.A. Edmore, MI 48829 U.S.A.
Tel. 704/525-6796 Tel. 517/427-5151
FAX 704/522-7189 FAX 517/427-5772

HITACHI METALS, LTD.

MAGNETIC MATERIALS DIVISION
Japan Office
Hitachi Metals, Ltd.
Magnetic Materials Division
Kishimoto Bldg.
Germany Office 2-1 Marunouchi 2 Chome Singapore Office
Hitachi Metals Europe GmbH Chiyoda ku, Tokyo, Japan Hitachi Metals Singapore Pte. Ltd.
Immermannstrasse 14-16, 4000 Tel. 03(3284)4511 78 Shenton Way #12-01
Dusseldorf 1, Germany FAX 03(3215)6853 Singapore 0207
Tel. 211/16009-0 Tel. 222/3077
FAX 211/16009-29 FAX 222/5232

MANUFACTURING PLANTS
Hitachi Magnetics Corporation Hitachi Metals, Ltd. - Kyushu Works
7800 Neff Road 35 Nagahama Cho Kand Cho Kyoto-Gun
Edmore, MI 48829 U.S.A. Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan
Tel. 517/427-5151 Tel. 093-436-2700
FAX 517/427-5571 FAX 093-434-6528

Hitachi Metals North Carolina, Ltd. Hitachi Metals, Ltd. - Kumagaya Works
1 Hitachi Metals Drive 5200 Mikajiri Kumagaya City
China Grove, NC 28023 U.S.A. Saitama Prefecture, Japan
Tel. 704/855-2800 Tel. 0485-31-1111
FAX 704/855-2750 FAX 0485-33-1657