AAdvantages of Concrete

 Ingredients of concrete are easily available in most of the places.

 Unlike natural stones, concrete is free from defects and flaws.
 Concrete can be manufactured to the desired strength with an economy.
 The durability of concrete is very high.
 It can be cast to any desired shape.
 The casting of concrete can be done in the working site which makes it
economical.
 The maintenance cost of concrete is almost negligible.
 The deterioration of concrete is not appreciable with age.
 Concrete makes a building fire-safe due to its noncombustible nature.
 Concrete can withstand high temperatures.
 Concrete is resistant to wind and water. Therefore, it is very useful in storm
shelters.
 As a soundproofing material cinder concrete could be used.
 DIS ADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE
 Compared to other binding materials, the tensile strength of concrete is relatively
low.
 Concrete is less ductile.
 The weight of compared is high compared to its strength.
 Concrete may contains soluble salts. Soluble salts cause efflorescence.

PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but significantly lower tensile strength.
The elasticity of concrete is relatively constant at low stress levels but starts decreasing at
higher stress levels as matrix cracking develops.
Concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion, and as it matures concrete shrinks.
All concrete structures will crack to some extent, due to shrinkage and tension.
Concrete can be damaged by fire, aggregate expansion, sea water effects, bacterial corrosion,
leaching, physical damage and chemical damage (from carbonation, chlorides, sulfates)
TYPOLOGIES OF CEMENT CONCRETE
 BASED ON DESIGN
 BASED ON THE PURPOSE
 BASED ON THE BUILDING MATERIAL
BASED ON DESIGN
PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE
In his type of cement there is no provision for reinforcement .so it can bear high compressive forces .it
is weak to bear tensile forces .
It is one of the most commonly used types of concrete. In this type of concrete, the essential
constituents are cement, sand and coarse aggregates designed, and mixed with a specified quantity
of water.
The ratio of essential constituents may be varied within wide limits.  A very commonly used mix
design, commonly known as Nominal Mix Design, is 1:2:4.
Plain concrete is mostly used in the construction of pavements and in buildings, where very high
tensile strength is not required. It is also used in the construction of Dams.
Among the most important properties of ordinary concrete, the following may be mentioned.
 Density: 2200 – 2500 Kg/meter.cube.
 Compressive Strength: 200 – 500 Kg/centimeter.square.
 Tensile Strength: 50 – 100 Kg/centimeter.square.
 Durability: Very Satisfactory.
REIN FORCED CEMENT CONCRETE .
THERE IS THE PROVISION REINFORCEMENT .IT IS ABLE BEAR COMPRESSIVE FORCES AND TENSILE
FORCES ALSO ..
It is also called RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete). In this concrete type, steel in various forms is
used as reinforcement to give very high tensile strength.
In fact, it is because of the combined action of plain concrete (having high compressive strength) and
steel (having high tensile strength).The steel reinforcement is cast in the form of rods, bars, meshes,
and all conceivable shapes.Every care is taken to ensure the maximum bond between the
reinforcement and the concrete during the setting and hardening process.The various elements
of RCC construction are foundation, beam, column and slab. These can be prepared by mixing a right
proportion of cement, sand, gravel with water and steel barsThus, the resulting material (RCC) is
capable of bearing all types of stress in any type of construction. RCC is the most important concrete
type.R.C.C is commonly used for beams,slabs ,columns,foundations ec…

 INGREDIENTS OF REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE AND ITS FUNCTIONS The ingredients of

reinforced cement concrete are:- 1. Cement 2. Sand as fine aggregates 3. Stone aggregates as corse
aggregates 4. Water 5. Steel reinforced bar
ADVANTAGES
Reinforced concrete has a high compressive strength compared to other building
materials.
Due to the provided reinforcement, reinforced concrete can also withstand a good
amount of tensile stress.
Fire and weather resistance of reinforced concrete is fair.
The reinforced concrete building system is more durable than any other building system.
Reinforced concrete, as a fluid material, in the beginning, can be economically molded
into a nearly limitless range of shapes.
The maintenance cost of reinforced concrete is very low.
In structures like footings, dams, piers etc. reinforced concrete is the most economical
construction material.
It acts like a rigid member with minimum deflection.
As reinforced concrete can be molded to any shape required, it is widely used in precast
structural components. It yields rigid members with minimum apparent deflection.
Compared to the use of steel in structure, reinforced concrete requires less skilled labor
for the erection of the structure

DISADVANATGES 1.The tensile strength of reinforced concrete is about one-tenth of its

compressive strength.2.The main steps of using reinforced concrete are mixing, casting, and curing.
All of this affects the final strength.3.The cost of the forms used for casting RC is relatively
higher.4.For multi-storied building the RCC column section for is larger than steel section as the
compressive strength is lower in the case of RCC.5.Shrinkage causes crack development and strength
loss

PRESTRESSED CEMENT CONCRETE

In this type of concrete stresses are applied prior to the use .

Strong enough to bear tensile as well as compressive forces .
PRE-STRESSED CEMENT CONCRETE (PCC)
The cement concrete in which high compressive stresses are artificially induced before their
actual use is called pre-stresses cement concrete. in this type of cement concrete, the high
compressive stresses are induced by pre-tensioning the reinforcement before placing the
concrete, and the reinforcement is released when final setting of the concrete take place.
Uses :This concrete can take up high tensile and compressive stresses without development of
cracks.The quantity of reinforcement can be considerably reduced by using this concrete.
cement, coarse aggregate, fine aggreagate, water and admixtures(minerals or chemicals).
It is a special type of reinforced concrete in which the reinforcement bars are tensioned
before being embedded in the concrete.

Such tensioned wires are held firm at each end while the concrete mix is placed. The result
is that when the concrete sets and hardens, the whole concrete members, so the cast is put
into compression.

This sort of arrangement makes the lower section of the reinforced concrete also stronger against
tension, which is the principal cause of the development of tension cracks in un-tensioned
reinforced concrete.
Since pre-stressing involves the use of jacks and tensioning equipment, the pre-stressed concrete is
also cast in the factories.
Some of its advantages are the following.
1. The potential compressive strength of concrete gets considerably increased.
2. The risk of development of tension cracks in the lower sections of beams is considerably reduced.
3. The resistance to shear is greatly reduced. This eliminates the necessity of stirrups to a great
extent.
4. Lighter members can be used than the un-tensioned (normal) reinforced-concrete.
5. The prestressed concrete is greatly favored in the construction of;
Bridges.
Advantages of Prestressed Concrete
• Lower construction cost
• Thinner slabs, which are especially important in high-rise buildings where floor thickness
savings can translate into additional floors for the same or lower cost
• Fewer joints since the distance that can be spanned by post-tensioned slabs exceeds that of
reinforced construction with the same thickness
• Longer span lengths increase the usable unencumbered floorspace in buildings and parking
structures
• Fewer joints lead to lower maintenance costs over the design life of the structure, since joints
are the major locus of weakness in concrete buildings.
Disadvantages of Prestressed Concrete • The major problem with prestressed concrete is that
it needs specialised construction machineries like jacks anchorage etc.
• Advanced technical knowledge and strict supervision is very important.
• For concrete prestressing, high tensile reinforcement bars are needed which costs greater than
generally used mild steel reinforcement bars.
• Highly skilled labor is needed for prestressed concrete constructions.
Lightweight concrete
Also known as cellular concrete, this is a very 'flowable' material and so can be easily poured by using gravity
and is self-levelling. It is typically used to construct floor slabs, window panels and roofs.
The types of aggregates that are used for lightweight concrete include pumice, scoria, expanded shales
and clays. It has very low thermal conductivity, usually with a k value of around 0.3 W/mK, whereas
plain concrete can be as high as 10-12 W/mK.
A lightweight, durable concrete composition comprising: 55-65 weight percent cement,
1-4 weight percent expanded perlite, 35-45 weight percent pumice, and enough water to
make a smooth slurry of the cement, perlite, pumice and water composition.
ADVANTAGES:
Reduces the dead load of the building.
Easy to handle and hence reduces the cost of transportation and handling.
Improves the workability.
Relatively low thermal conductivity
Comparatively more durable
Good resistance to freezing
REDUCTION OF COST TO THE EXTENT OF ABOUT 30 TO 40%
THE LWC HAS LOWER THERMAL EXPANSION THAN ORDINARY CONCRETE .
SOUND ABSORPTION IS GOOD .
 thawing action when compared to conventional concrete. 
DISADVANTAGES
• Very Sensitive with water content in the mixture.
• Difficult to place and finish because of porosity and angularity of the aggregate .In some mixes
the cement mortar may separate the aggregate and float towards the surface
• Mixing time is longer than conventional concrete to assure proper mixing .
• Lightweight Concrete are porous and shows poor resistance
TYPES OF CONCRETE
PRECAST CONCRETE
Precast concrete means a concrete member that is cast and cured at a location other than its
final designated location. Precast concrete is an alternative to cast-in-situ concrete. While
cast-in-situ concrete is cast in its actual location, precast concrete is cast at another location,
either at the building site or in a factory, and is then lifted to its final resting place and fixed
securely. This means that unlike cast-in-situ construction, which is monolithic or continuous,
precast concrete buildings are made of separate pieces that are bolted or connected together.
ADVANTAGES
 Since precast is manufactured in a controlled casting environment it is easier to control the
mix, placement, and curing
 Quality can be controlled and monitored much more easily
 Since a precaster can buy materials for multiple projects, quantity discounts can lower costs
 Weather is eliminated as a factor—you can cast in any weather and get the same results,
which allows you to perfect mixes and methods
 Less labor is required and that labor can be less skilled
 On site, precast can be installed immediately, there is no waiting for it to gain strength and
the modularity of precast products makes installation go quickly
 Repeatability—it's easy to make many copies of the same precast product; by maximizing
repetition, you can get plenty of value from a mold and a set-up
 Accelerated curing, by heating the precast parts, greatly increases strength gain, reducing
the time between casting the part and putting it into service
With the ability to so tightly control the process, from materials to consolidation to curing, you can
get extremely durable concrete

Disadvantages of Precast Concrete Construction

Very heavy members
Camber in beams and slabs
Very small margin for error
Connections may be difficult
Somewhat limited building design flexibility
y Because panel size is limited, precast concrete can not be used for two-way structural
systems. Economics of scale demand regularly shaped buildings.
Need for repetition of forms will affect building design
. Joints between panels are often expensive and complicated.
Skilled workmanship is required in the application of the panel on site.
Cranes are required to lift panels.
READY MIX CONCRETE
Ready-mix concrete (RMC) is a ready-to-use material, with predetermined mixture of Cement,
sand, aggregates and water.
“Ready mix concrete is concrete whose components are proportioned away from the
construction site for delivery to the construction site by the truck in a ready-to-use-condition.
Need for Ready Mix concrete
• Requirement for higher grades of concrete
• Correct accountability ingredients
• Rapid development of infrastructure industry
 • Increased demand of concrete
• Possibility of manufacture of desired grades
• Mega project demands higher output
• Timely supply of reliable concrete
• Better quality concrete is produced.
• Elimination of storage space for basic materials at site
. • Elimination of Procurement / Hiring of plant and machinery.
• Wastage of basic materials is avoided. 
Ready Mix Concrete • Raw Materials are:- • 1. Water • 2. Additives/Admixtures • 3. Cement • 4.
Aggregates • 5. Air
MERITS OF R.M.C.
1. Better quality concrete is produced. 2. Elimination of storage space for basic materials at
site. 3. Elimination of Hiring plant and machinery 4. Wastage of basic materials is avoided. 5.
Labour associated with production of concrete is eliminated. 6. Time required is greatly
reduced 7. Noise and dust pollution at site is reduced. 8 .No wastage at site 9. Environment
friendly
DEMERITS OF R.M.C. 1. Need huge initial investment. 2. Not affordable for small projects
(small quantity of concrete) 3. Needs effective transportation system from R.M.C to site. 4.
Traffic jam or failure of vehicle creates problem if proper dose of admixture is not given. 5.
Labours should be ready on site to cast the concrete in position to vibrate it and compact it.
6. Concrete's limited time span between mixing and going-off means that ready-mix should
be placed within 90 minutes of batching at the plant. 7.The materials are batched at a central
plant, and the mixing begins at that plant 8.Generation of additional road traffic; furthermore,
access roads, and site access have to be able to carry the weight of the truck and load.

HIGH DENSITY CONCRETE

High density concrete is also known as Heavy weight concrete. High density concrete is mainly used
for the purpose of radiation shielding, for counterweights and other uses where high density is
required.
Main Components  Cement  Provides limited strength  Not that useful in high density concrete
 Used as binding material  Water  Aggregates  Admixtures - Water reducing admixture is used.
It consists of Lignosulfonic acid, carboxylic acids  Use of Water reducing admixture in high density
concrete  Increase workability  Reduces water requirement  Reduces cement content
requirement  High early strength
Applications of HDC 
High density radiation shielding  Precast blocks  Mass concrete projects  High density concrete
applications columns  Gravity seawall, coastal protection & breakwater structures  Bridge
counterweights  Ballast for ocean vessels  Off shore platforms noise and vibration dampening
Advantages  High neutron and gamma ray attenuation  Good mechanical properties  Relatively
low initial and maintenance cost  Easy to construct
Disadvantages  Space  Weight
NOFINE CONCRETE
 No fines concrete is a special type of concrete with a high porosity used for concrete flatwork
applications that allows water from precipitation and other sources to pass directly through,
thereby reducing the runoff from a site and allowing groundwater recharge.
 No fine concrete also called porous concrete, permeable concrete, and porous pavement.
 The high porosity is attain by a highly interconnected void content.
PROPERTIES
 Compressive strength  Pervious concrete mixture develop compressive strength in the range
3.5 MPa to 28 Mpa, which is suitable for a wide range of application .Typical Values are about 17
Mpa.
• Shrinkage  Drying shrinkage of previous concrete develops sooner, but is much less than
conventional concrete. Roughly 50% to 80% of shrinkage occurs in first 10 days, compared to 20
to 30% in the same period for conventional concrete. Because of this lower shrinkage and the
surface texture, many pervious concrete are made without control joints and allowed to crack
randomly.
Density  It depends on the properties and proportion of the material used, and on the
compaction procedures used in placement. In place density on the order of 1600kg/m^3 to
2000kg/m^3 are common. which is in upper range of lightweight concretes.
• Permeability  It depends on the materials and placing operation. Typical flow rates for water
through previous concrete are 120L/m^2/min to 320L/m^2/min.

The advantages of this type of concrete are: 

 Lower density. 
 Lower cost due to lower cement content.
 Lower thermal conductivity relatively low drying shrinkage.
 No segregation and capillary movement of water.
 Better insulating characteristics than conventional concrete because of the
presence of large voids.

Advantages: The low hydrostatic pressure of this material when it is wet that is around 1/3rd of
dense concrete, permits the use of very large lightweight forms.
2, Mix will not segregate, due to its even grading.
3, Suitable for application where strength requirement are not great.
4,lower cost because of lower cement content ,
5, lower thermal conductivity
6, better insulating characteristics than conventional concrete because of the presence of large
voids.
7, no segregation & capillary movement of water
8, has low drying shrinkage properties
DISADVANATGES
1,Runoff from adjacent areas onto pervious concrete needs to be prevented.
2, The parking areas are generally limited to auto parking and occasional trucks.
3,If reinforcement is required, epoxy coated bars should be used.
4,Concrete is variable in permeability; over vibration significantly reduces permeability.
5, It is still a new material that requires acceptance from cities and states.
WATER PROOFING CEMENT CONCRETE
FOR CEERTAIN TYPE OF WORKS LIKE BASEMENT ,DAMS ,WALLS ,ROOFS ,SWIMMING POOL SEWAGE
UNITS ETC…IMPERMIABILITY OF THE CONCRETE IS ABSOLUTELY ESSENTIAL .IF THE CONCRETE IS
MADE DENSE AND FREE FROM CRACKS ,IT IS WATER IGHT .
ADVANTAGES :
IT MAKES GOOD CONCRETE FROM THE POOR MATERIALS
IT CURES IMMATURE GREEN CONCRETE
IT CORRECTS A BADLY PROPORTIONED CONCRETE MIXTURE .
IT PERMIT LESS RIGID SUPERVISION OF THE WORKMANSHIP.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FERROUS AND NO FERROUS METAL ALONG WITH HEIR

CHARACTER ,APPLICATION AND LIMITATIONS IN BUILT ENVIRONMENT .
. Metals. Two main groups, 1.Ferrous. 2.Non-Ferrous.
EXAMPLES : 1.Mild Steel. 2.Cast Iron. 3.High Carbon Steel. 4.High Speed Steel. 5.Stainless
Steel. Rusting. Magnetism.
Definition - What does Ferrous Metal mean?
A ferrous metal is any metal that is primarily composed of iron and has magnetic properties. A
ferrous metal is known for its hardness, durability and tensile strength. Some common ferrous
metals include:
Alloy steel
Carbon steel
Cast iron
Wrought iron
Ferrous metals are known and used for their strength. The properties that they possess make them
perfect to be used in both the industrial and architectural sector for projects like skyscrapers,
bridges, railroad projects and vehicles. Due to their magnetic properties, ferrous metals are also
widely used in various appliances and engines.
1. Iron Content
The defining difference between ferrous and non-ferrous metals is in their iron content. Both
types may be pure or alloys. In general, ferrous metals contain iron. The very word ferrous
comes from the Latin word for iron, ferrum. This is the reason iron is given the abbreviation Fe in
the periodic table of elements. They may be cast iron, steel, or another type of iron-containing
metal. Stainless steel is a common form of ferrous metal. 
Non-ferrous metals, on the other hand, do not contain any iron. These metals may be raw
metals, purified metals, or alloys. Common non-ferrous metals include aluminum, copper, tin,
and precious metals like gold and silver.
2. Magnetism
Ferrous metals are usually magnetic while nonferrous metals are not. This property allows the
two types of metals to be identified and sorted easily. The reason for this is that iron is a very
polar molecule. The electrons in its atomic ring are not symmetrical. When iron encounters a
magnetic field, its electrons are pulled to one sign of the atom. This creates the attraction
between ferrous metals and magnets.
Non-ferrous metals generally are only attracted to a magnet when an electrical field is run
through them, which polarizes their electrons.
3. Oxidation
Another key feature of ferrous metals is that they can be oxidized, which we commonly call
rusting. Because of the polarity of iron, it is highly likely to lose an electron to other polar
molecules such as water. This makes the iron atom more positive, and thus more likely to
bond to the oxygen in water, creating iron (III) oxide. Iron (III) oxide is the powdery red metal
we call rust. Some ferrous metals, such as stainless steel, do not rust. This is because they
have been combined with a nonferrous metal that balances the iron atom and makes it less
likely to lose an electron and begin the process of forming rust.
Nonferrous metals do not rust.
4. Tensile Strength.
 ferrous metals is that they usually have very high tensile strength. Steel, for example, is one of
the strongest metals in the world. Tensile strength is the ability to undergo a great deal of force
without breaking or deforming. This is due to a mixture of strength and flexibility.
While there are some very strong non-ferrous metals, such as titanium, few metals are as
capable of bearing weight or undergoing force as iron alloys.
Ferrous and non-ferrous metals are very different because they have different atomic chemistry
and interact with their environment in unique ways. Both types of metal are important to the
modern world and used in a variety of ways.

FERROUS METALS
A list of ferrous metal properties:
Durable
Great tensile strength
Usually magnetic
Low resistance to corrosion
A silver-like colour
Recyclable
Good conductors of electricity
Steel
Steel is made by adding iron to carbon which hardens the iron. Alloy steel becomes even tougher as other
elements like chromium and nickel are introduced. Steel is made by heating and melting iron ore in
furnaces. The steel can is tapped from the furnaces and poured into molds to form steel bars. Steel is
widely used in the construction and manufacturing industries.
Carbon Steel
Carbon steel has a higher carbon content in comparison to other types of steel making it exceptionally
hard. It is commonly used in the manufacturing of machine tools, drills, blades, taps, and springs. It can
keep a sharp cutting edge.
Alloy Steel
Alloy steels incorporate elements such as chromium, nickel and titanium to impart greater strength and
durability without increasing weight. Stainless steel is an important alloy steel made using chromium.
Alloy steels are used in construction, machine tools, and electrical components.
Cast Iron
Cast iron is an alloy made from iron, carbon, and silicon. Cast iron is brittle and hard and resistant to wear.
It’s used in water pipes, machine tools, automobile engines and stoves.
The properties of cast iron:
Great castability
Relatively cheap
High compressive strength
Good wear resistance
Low melting point

Wrought Iron
Wrought iron is an alloy with so little carbon content it’s almost pure iron. During the manufacturing
process, some slag is added which gives wrought iron excellent resistance to corrosion and oxidation,
however, it is low in hardness and fatigue strength. Wrought iron is used for fencing and railings,
agricultural implements, nails, barbed wire, chains, and various ornaments.
NON FERROUS METALS
Non-Ferrous Metals' Properties
High corrosion resistance.
Easy to fabricate – machinability, casting, welding etc.
Great thermal conductivity.
Great electrical conductivity.
Low density (less mass)
Colourful.
Non-magnetic.
Aluminum
Aluminum is lightweight, soft and low strength. Aluminum is easily cast, forged, machined and welded.
It’s not suitable for high-temperature environments. Because aluminum is lightweight, it is a good choice
for the manufacturing of aircraft and food cans. Aluminum is also used in castings, pistons, railways, cars,
and kitchen utensils.
In engineering terms, a very special and important metal. May not be so useful in everyday
application because of the price but its combination of low weight and great machinability make it
the go-to metal in yachts, planes and many automotive parts.
Aluminium is also the base metal in many alloys. The best known aluminium grades are probably
duralumin, Y-alloy and magnalium.
Aluminium properties include:
Corrosion resistant
Good conductor of heat and electricity (but less than copper) – in combination with ductility and
malleability replaces copper in some instances
High ductility and lightweight
Becomes hard after cold working, so needs annealing
Copper
Copper is red in color, highly ductile, malleable and has high conductivity for electricity and heat. Copper
is principally used in the electrical industry in the form of wire and other conductors. It’s also used in sheet
roofing, cartridge cases, statutes, and bearings. Copper is also used to make brass, an alloy of copper and
zinc.
Copper is pretty widely spread in the industrial sphere. Add the alloys brass (copper and zinc) and
bronze (copper and tin), and you may already see the many uses of copper. If not, we can help you
out. For mechanical engineers, slide bearings and bushings may be the most known uses.
Still, copper and copper alloy properties allow more applications:
High thermal conductivity – heat exchangers, heating vessels and appliances etc
High electrical conductivity – used as an electrical conductor in wiring and motors
Good corrosion resistance – beautiful but expensive roofing
High ductility – makes the material very easily formable and suitable for making statues

Lead
Lead is a soft, heavy, malleable metal with a low melting point and low tensile strength. It can withstand
corrosion from moisture and many acids. Lead is widely used in electrical power cables, batteries, building
construction and soldering.
For the average person, lead may ring a bell related with bullets (which are now without lead) and
gas (which has a sign “unleaded”). Although at first added to fuel to decrease motor knocks, it
turned out to be heavily unhealthy when vaporised into the atmosphere.
The same goes for bullets and shooting range employees who got health problems because of it. But
why add it in the first place? Because lead is the heaviest common metal. As it doesn’t react easily
with other substances, they are still used in batteries and power cables, acid tanks and water pipes.
Lead properties are:
Very heavy
Resistant to corrosion – doesn’t react with many chemicals
Soft and malleable
Zinc
Zinc is a medium to low strength metal with a very low melting point. It can be machined easily, but
heating may be required to avoid cleavage of crystals. Zinc is most widely used in galvanizing, the process
of applying a protective zinc coating to iron or steel to prevent rust.
Zinc on its own doesn’t mean much to the average person. As an alloying element, on the other
hand, it has a wide range of purposes. It is mainly used for galvanising steel in all kinds of fields.
Galvanising makes a material more durable against corrosion
Tin
Tin is very soft and malleable, ductile with low tensile strength. It’s often used to coat steel to prevent
corrosion. Tinplate steel is used to make tin cans to hold food. In the late 19th century, tin foil was
commonly used to wrap food products, but has since largely been replaced by aluminum foil. Tin can also
be alloyed with copper to produce tin brass and bronze.
Advantages
• High strength - weight ratio
• Weighs more than Aluminum and Titanium Alloys
• High quality and tough material
• Recyclable and eco friendly
 Disadvantages
• Tends to corrode by rusting
• Machine ability is affected by the magnetic field
• Requires more energy to form shapes or re-work
Non-Ferrous Metals’ Properties
Non-ferrous metals’ advantages make them usable in many applications instead or iron
and steel.
The properties of non-ferrous metals:

 High corrosion resistance

 Easy to fabricate – machinability, casting, welding etc
 Great thermal conductivity
 Great electrical conductivity
 Low density (less mass)
 Colourful
 Non-magnetic


EXPLAIN THE ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF FLOOR COVERING AND PAVING WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO PVC AND MARBLE
FLOORING
Floor covering is a term to generally describe any finish material applied over a floor structure to
provide a walking surface.
Flooring is the general term for a permanent covering of a floor, or for the work of installing such
a floor covering. Both terms are used interchangeably but floor covering refers more to loose-laid
materials.
Materials almost always classified as floor covering include carpet, area rugs, and resilient
flooring such as linoleum or vinyl flooring.
Materials commonly called flooring include wood flooring, laminated wood, ceramic tile, stone,
terrazzo, and various seamless chemical floor coatings.
PVC FLOORING
IT IS MADE OF PLASTIC MATERIAL ,CALLED POLY VINYL CHLORIDE FABRICATED IN THE FORM
OF TILES OF DIFFERENT SIZES AND DIFFERENT COLOUR SHADES .THESE TILES NOW WIDELY
USED IN ALL RESIDENTIAL AS WELL AS NON RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS .HE TILES ARE LAID ON
THE CONCRETE BASE .ADHESIVE OF SPECIFIED MAKE IS APPLIED ON THE BASE AS WELL AS
ON THE PVC TILE WITH THE HELP OF A NOTCHED TROWEL .
THE TILE IS LAD WHEN WHEN HE ADHESIVE HAS SET SUFFICIENTLY ,IT IS GENTLY PRESSED
WITH THE HELP OF A 5KG WEIGHT WOODEN ROLLER AND THE OOZING OUT ADHESIVE IS
WIPED OFF.THE FLOOR IS WASHED WITH WARM SOAP WATER BEFORE USE .PVC TILE
FLOORING IS RESILIENT ,SMOOTH,GOOD LOOKING AND CAN BE EASILY CLEANED ,HOWEVER IT
IS COSTLY AND SLIPPERY AND CAN BE DAMAGED VERY EASILY WHEN IN CONTACT WITH
BURNING OBJECTS .
MARBLE FLOORING

Marble 14. Marble is a beautiful and distinguished material, and is the most widely used of all
natural stones for wall facing. In large buildings it is used for lobbies, stair halls, and toilet rooms.
Recent years have seen a revival of the use of marble as a home finishing material for vestibules,
living kitchens, and bathrooms. Its richness as a decorative material is responsible for its wide use
places. As a fireplace material, it resists deterioration from .
Marble is a type of metamorphic rock and is used widely for floorings in commercial buildings,
kitchens, bathrooms etc. they are stain proof and easily cleanable. Hence, they are used where extra
cleanliness is required especially in bathrooms. They are also available in different colors and
designs.
MARBLE SLABS MAY BE LAID IN DIFFERENT SIZES ,USUALLY IN RECANGULAR OR SQUARE
SHAPES .THE BASE CONCRETE FLOORING IS PREPARED .OVER THE BASE CONCRETE 20MM THICK
BEDDING MORTAR OF EITHER 1:4 CEMENT:SAND MIX IS SPREAD UNDER THE AREA OF EACH
INVIDUAL SLAB.THE MARBLE IS THEN LAID OVER IT.GENTLY PRESSED WITH WOODEN MALLET AND
LEVELLED. THE MARBLE SLAB IS THEN AGAIN LIFTED UP ,AND FRESH MORTAR IS ADDED TO THE
HOLLOWS OF HE BEDDING MORTAR .THE MORTAR IS ALLOWED TO HARDEN SLOWLY.CEMENT
SLURRY IS SPREAD OVER IT ,THE EDGES ALREADY LAID SLABS ARE SMEARED WITH CEMENT SLURRY
PASTE ,AND THEN MARBLE SLAB IN QUESTION IS PLACED IN POSITION.IT IS GENTLY WITH WOODEN
MALLET SO THAT CEMENT PASE OOZES OUT FROM THE JOINT WHICH SHOULD BE AS THIN AS
POSSIBLE .THE OOZED OUT CEMENT IS CLEANED WITH CLOTH .THE PAVED AREA IS PROPERLY CURED
FOR ABOUT A WEEK .
1. Advantages and Disadvantages of Marble Flooring
2. 2. • Marble is very evergreen, timeless and royal flooring. The advent of new technology
and new materials has not been able to take away the charm of marble flooring.
3. 3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Marble Flooring • Marble creates a very magnificent
aesthetic impact on the interiors especially Italian marble. • Marble flooring is very
durable and can last for ages. It is a heavy stone and can take heavy loads on it. • Marble
flooring is scratch resistant.
4. 4. • The first advantage is that you would find about marble flooring is the design patterns
that it can form on the floor. It is extremely good, and with a little spending power, quality
of marble gets better. The designs which are typical of marble flooring are exquisite, and
with a very good budget, you would be able to go for good exquisite Marbles which can
 adorn your floor. It is actually one of the most elegant flooring styles, and can certainly
give your house the look of prosperity and ensure that you would be able to get a good
value for the resale of that house.
5. 5. • Marble flooring is extremely durable, and it can certainly bring about a good amount
of change in your house. Being extremely durable, it can withstand any sort of external
pressure, and any sudden change of weight can easily be handled by this material.
6. 6. Disadvantages of Marble • Marble requires proper care and maintenance. Acid should
never be used on marble as it shall loose its shine. Marble should be regularly polished
over a period of time to give it a new look. If proper precautions are not taken the marble
becomes yellowish in colour. • Italian marble is usually very soft and prone to cracks.
Proper resins have to be used to make the surface strong and solid and avoid further
cracks.
7. 7. • Proper sealants should be used in marble flooring as the marble is highly porous and
prone to staining. It absorbs stains very quickly especially kitchen stains hence are not
appropriate for kitchen counter tops. • Marble is very heavy and lot of labour is required in
lifting the stone. Only very professional contractors can work with marble flooring and
insert design infill’s in the floor. • Marble flooring becomes very cold in winters.

IMPORTANCE OF FLOORING
Flooring, the general term used to refer to the material covering the bare floor plate, is one of
the largest elements to consider when designing a space. Since the floor is underfoot and
takes up so much real estate in any space, it has a significant impact on the aesthetic of your
office.
“It is important to realise that although our first interaction with a space is a visual one, the
first physical contact a person will have with the space will be the flooring. The finish that is
underfoot will immediately have an impact on our psyche even if it is subconscious.”
Flooring impacts not only the user perception, it impacts your project budget, the
productivity of your employees, and the maintenance ease of the office space. Functionality,
budget and style need to be primarily factored in while selecting a type of flooring. While
your first visual impact of the office space might be generic, your first physical contact will
be the flooring of the space. Flooring is one of the most important elements in any building
and influences so many factors that will ultimately have an impact on whether the space
was a success or not. Most office spaces use a combination of various flooring types
depending on the area they are utilized for. Materials such as wooden floorings, carpets and
epoxy flooring are commonly used, their sub-type, style and colour being dependent on the
theme and budget of the office.
What Is the Purpose of Flooring?
The importance of flooring can’t be overstated. Flooring can:
Affect the Design of Your Home: When someone walks into a room, the
floor can affect their impression of a space subconsciously. Since the floor is
underfoot and takes up so much real estate in any space, it has a significant
impact on the aesthetic of your home. If you want to change the look of a room,
change the floors. Flooring can make your space look instantly cooler, warmer,
larger, smaller, more intimate, cozier and more luxe.
Improve or Hamper the Functionality of Your Home: Think about having
an expensive and very delicate floor. Or, imagine rolling out of bed on a cool day
and sinking your toes into silky-soft plush carpet. Your flooring directly impacts
the way you experience your home. Flooring can affect acoustics in a family room
or home office, letting you enjoy family time or work more. It can make it easier
to walk around barefoot or in slippers. It can help you save on heating bills by
making your feet warmer and more comfortable. Your floor directly impacts the
way you behave in your home, which is why 50 Floor will always ask about your
lifestyle, foot traffic, pets and other details to make sure you find the right floor
options for you.
Impact the Health of Your Home: If you suffer from allergies or any condition
that makes you aware of indoor air quality, you need to think about your floor
choices. Some flooring is better at resisting the buildup of common allergens,
such as particulate matter, dust and dander.
Determine How Much You Spend on Maintenance: Choosing floors that fit
your lifestyle is essential, which is why 50 Floor will always ask you about your
willingness to spend money and time on cleaning. Some flooring is specifically
designed to be easy to clean, while some types are designed to last for a long
time, so you don’t have to redo your floors as often. If you have high-traffic areas
or have pets or small children, for example, you may want to find a solution that
is easy to clean and maintain and can handle some extra scuffing and activity.
Affect Your Home’s Value: Beautiful floors make your home more inviting
and can improve its value. They can even help make your space more attractive to
buyers.

TYPOLOGIES OF GLASS
COMPOSITION OF GLASS Glass is made from the following raw materials: Sand; soda- ash;
limestone; dolomite; feldspar; sodium sulphate. These substances are themselves compounds of
various elements and a chemical analysis shows that flat glass is made up from the following
materials, used in various proportions: Silica (S2O2) 71.0 to 78.0% Alumina (Al2O3) 0.5 to 1.5%
Iron oxide (Fe203) 0.05 to 0.15% Calcium oxide (CaO) 5.0 to 10.0% Magnesium oxide (MgO) 2.0
to 5.0% Sodium oxide (Na2O) 13.0 to 16.0% Potassium oxide (K2O) 0.0 to 1.0% Sulphur trioxide
(SO3) 0.0 to 0.5%

1. BASIC TYPES OF GLASS • float glass • sheet glass • patterned glass • wired glass 
MODIFIED VARIETIES OF GLASS • Reflective glass • Insulating glass • Safety glass • -
Laminated safety glass • -Toughened safety glass • Glass bricks • Tinted glass, etc…
2. FLOAT GLASS • Most widely used type of glass • Monolithic and highly transparent •
Produced by flowing molten glass • over a bath of molten tin and • slowly cooling . • Has
uniform thickness, flatness • and excellent optical quality. • Manufactured in two main
varieties, i.e.; clear and tinted. • Used in mirrors, windows, curtain walls and doors. • float
glass can be toughened, a process that creates safety glass out of annealed glass. •
Available in thicknesses 2-19 mm • Can be coloured during manufacturing.
3. SHEET GLASS • There are three different kind of sheet glasses: • - Annealed flat glass •
- Processed flat glass • - Misc. glass • Actual color green (or sometimes blue). • Sizes
available: 2mm, 3mm, 4mm, 5mm, 6mm, 8mm, 10mm, 12mm, 15mm and 19mm. • Uses:
windows, shelves, large size doors and table tops Thickness Cost 4-6mm Rs 53/sqm 8-
12mm Rs 63/sqm  PRIZE
4. PATTERNED GLASS • Sometimes referred to as “figured” or “rolled” glass. • Has a
pattern or texture impressed on one or both sides in the process of rolling. • This glass
surface has a patterned decorative design which provide translucency and some degrees
of obscurity. • Patterns are classified as decorative or glazing i.e., used primarily for their
functional properties. • Uses: decorative glazing of windows, bathroom partitions, door. •
Is difficult to clean as dust settles between the crevices • Thickness: 4mm, 6mm, • Sizes:
2140 x 1280 mm, 2140 x 1320 mm respectively.
5.  PATTERNED GLASS
6.  WIRED GLASS • Fine twisted hexagonal wire netting or mesh inserted during the
process of rolling. • May be patterned, smooth rolled or ground and polished. • Used
primarily in fire rated windows, doors, skylights and applications requiring a safety glazing
material. • When broken, loose pieces of glass are held by the wire netting. • Georgian
wire mesh, 13mm provided. • Thickness: 5 to 7 mm. • Size: 3300 x 1830 mm.
7.  REFLECTIVE GLASS • Coating of a metal compound applied on one surface by
chemical deposition. • Reflects light and solar heat • May be applied on any type of glass
and thickness upto half an inch • Uses: principally used in curtain wall glazing and
structural glazing, train windows(AC compartments), doors and windows of commercial
buildings, partitions and internal wall cladding. • Disadvantages: Causes light pollution
and is hazardous to traffic. Thickness Cost 4-6mm Rs 53/sqm 8-12mm Rs 63/sqm
8. REFLECTIVE GLASS
9. INSULATING GLASS • Factory assembled unit consisting of two or more panes of glass
separated by air spaces. • Moisture proof • The periphery of the air spaces is hermetically
sealed. • There are two types of such sealed units: • - Organic seal type: Two or more
panes of glass separated by air spaces sealed at their edges with an organic seal. • -
Glass edge type: Two sheets of clear single strength or double strength glass fused
together at their edges enclosing a nominal 3/16 inches air space. This type of glass is
not produced with multiple air spaces.
10. INSULATING GLASS
11. SAFETY GLASS • Developed basically for vehicular purposes where safety from fracture
of glass is a major concern. • Requirement of uninterrupted vision rules out the use of
wired glass. • Is of two types- Laminated safety glass Toughened safety glass
12. LAMINATED SAFETY GLASS • Made in the form of a sandwich consisting of an
interlayer of transparent plastic material such as celluloid between two sheets of plate or
sheet glass. • Celluloid placed between sheets already coated with gelatin and specially
prepared enamel. • Adhesion achieved by applying considerable heat and pressure. •
When one or both sheets of this composite material are broken the glass adheres to the
inter layer so that there is no danger from the flying fragments
13. TOUGHENED SAFETY GLASS • Pieces of sheet or plate glass suspended in electric
furnace until soft and suddenly cooled by blowing air on both sides. • Fragments have no
 cutting edge. • Toughened glass withstands a dead load more than four times that of
ordinary glass. • Additional compressive stresses in the surfaces makes the glass
stronger. • Can safely accommodate high tensile forces due to the pre-stress. • Fracture
can occur once the pre-stress has been exceeded.
14. GLASS BRICKS • These are hollow glass units or blocks of glass shaped to work as
bricks • Joined with the help of silicon sealants to obtain seamless finish • The two outer,
exposed surfaces may be smooth or textured. • Glass blocks can be coloured and have
decorated surfaces. • Walls of glass blocks meeting fire resistance are also possible. •
Found in Indonesian, Sri Lankan, Chinese, USA, German varieties • Srilankan and
Indonesian varieties: Rs 80 per piece European clear: Rs 350/pc European coloured: Rs
450/pc Chinese clear: Rs 52/pc Chinese coloured: Rs 152/pc
15.  TINTED GLASS • Manufactured by adding a dye at the molten glass stage • Used to
minimize solar heat gain and glare while it also absorbs heat. • Available in grey, bronze,
green, blue and blue/green • Allows for increased control of comfort and energy usage
Sizes available: Grey and Bronze - 4mm, 5mm, 6mm,8mm,and 10mm Blue - 6mm Green
- 5mm, 6mm, and 10mm Blue/Green - 6mm and 10mm
16. . Thickness Rate/sq ft (Rs.) 3mm 22 4mm 30 5mm 35 6mm 38 8mm 70 10mm 90
17. THE MAJOR COMPANIES INVOLVED IN GLASS MANUFACTURING:- • Saint-gobain •
Asahi India • Goldplus group • Allied glasses • Float glass India ltd.

Floor Coverings Surfaces placed over the structural floor

Flooring Materials Used as the top surface of a floor
Structurally part of the floor; fairly permanentCommon materials include:WoodTileConcreteBrick
Attached to the floor but not part of the structureMost expensive background treatment in a living
room design
1. Soft floor coverings2. Resilient floor coverings
  Soft Floor CoveringsInsulate cold floors, provide sound control and walking comfort, add
color and texture to a room, can cover entire floor or portions of it.Three types:
Carpeting
Rugs
Padding
Carpeting
In today's market, most is made of nylon
Wall-to-wall covers an entire floor, making rooms appear large and luxurious.Can hide
damage or faults in the surface of a floorMaintained by routine vacuumingHigh traffic areas
will eventually show wear and dirt; can be professionally cleaned
Rugs Room-size rug: Exposes a small border of the floor
Shows off beautiful wood floor while keeping warmth and comfort
Rugs Area rugs: Vary in size, but not as large as a room-size rug
Used to define areas of a room, add interest, and even serve as a focal pointCan be moved
from room to room to create a new look
 Padding
Used under carpeting/rugs to lessen wear and increase resilienceWill extend the life and
increase resilience of a rugAdds luxury and warmthMade of hair, jute, sponge, or foam
rubber
Resilient Floor Coverings
Provides cushioning for walking and noise controlMade of materials other than fiberAvailable in a
wide range of colors and patterns
Vinyl
Laminate

Vinyl Available in many colors, patterns, textures

Available in tile or sheet formGood walking comfort and sound absorption

 LaminateDecorative surface fused to a sturdy core under intense heat and pressureResistant to
traffic, stains, and fadingEasy to clean, comfortable walking, good sound absorptionCan take on
the look of oak flooring at a much lower price.

DOORS AND WINDOWS

Doors may be defined as an openable barrier secured in a wall opening. It is provided to give an
access to inside of a room.It consists of two parts:-1. Door frame2. Door shutter
 Functions of a DoorPrimary
function :- Means of accessSecondary function:-
PrivacyFunctional Requirements of Doors
Access
StrengthSecurity
Daylight
Ventilation
Thermal Insulation
Weather Resistance
Fire resistance
A WINDOW is also a vented barrier secured in a wall opening. The functionof the window is to
admit light and air to the building and to give a view to the outside.WINDOW consists of two
parts:-1. Window frame2. Window shutter

SILL:-This is the lowest orbottom horizontal part of awindow frame, not providedin door
frames.HORN:- These are thehorizontal projections of aframe..REBATE :- It is thedepression or
recess madeinside the door frame toreceive the door shutter.

1. 3. LOCATIONS OF DOORS AND WINDOWS  There should be minimum number of

doors in a room so as avoid obstruction.  The door should be so located such that when
opened, it shall not obstruct the required width of passage way.  Doors should not be
located at the centre of a long wall but should be located near the corner of wall nearly
20cm away from the corner.  In case if there are two doors in a room, these should be
located in opposite walls so that good ventilation & free circulation of air can take place. 
The location of door should meet the functional requirements of the room.
2. 4. LOCATIONS OF DOORS AND WINDOWS  In general size of the door should be
such that if two persons walking shoulder to shoulder should conveniently pass through
the doors.  Windows should be located opposite to each other or opposite to door
wherever possible to achieve cross ventilation.  For fresh air & maximum light, window
should be located in the prevailing directions of wind or on northern side.  The height of
sill of windows from floor level should be 0.75m. Cont…..
3. 5. LOCATIONS OF DOORS AND WINDOWS  The minimum area of windows should be
1/10th of the floor area of the room for hot-dry climate & 1/6th of the floor area for hot-wet
climate.  The number & sizes of windows depends on the type of building, privacy,
 required, ventilation & light requirements.  The location of windows depends, on the
internal arrangements of the rooms

BATTENED AND LEDGED DOORS These doors consist of vertical boards called battens which are
nailed or screwed to the horizontal members called ledges.  Generally the battens are about 100
to 150 mm wide and 20 to 30 mm thick.  Doors made with narrow battens like these have a
better appearance.  It is better to use boards which are up to 30 cm wide. These wider boards
are less likely to twist and warp at the ends. The boards should be well seasoned so that they
won't crack at the ends

 BATTENED, LEDGED & BRACED DOOR  This is a ledged and battened door to which braces
have been added to prevent sagging .  These braces must slope upwards from the hinge edge
of the door and they are housed with a skew notch into the ledges.  The skew notch helps to
distribute the force from the weight of the door so that the ledges have an even pressure on
them.  This type of door construction may be used for large openings because of its greater
strength.

FRAMED AND PANELLED DOOR  The styles are continuous from top to bottom i.e. they are in
single piece.  Various rails are jointed to the styles at the bottom.  The entire frame is grooved
on all the inside faces to receive the panels.  The minimum width of style is kept as 100 mm. the
minimum width of bottom rail and lock rail is kept as 100 mm.

FLUSH DOOR  The flush door consists of a frame which has stiles(a), top and bottom
rails (b & c) and top narrow intermediate rails (d). It is covered on each side by a sheet of
plywood (e).  When two additional members are placed between the rails (g) a pane of
glass can be set in them to provide additional light for the room.  Sometimes flush doors
for the outside of the building are covered on one or both sides by sheets of thin metal
usually aluminum or galvanized iron.
1. FLUSH DOOR  Well seasoned wood is used for the frame.  Plywood-covered flush
doors cannot be used where they will be exposed to rain and sun.  There are two types
of flush doors  Solid Core Flush Door or Laminated Core Flush Door.  Hollow and
Cellular Core Flush Door
LOUVERED DOOR  Louvered Doors permit free ventilation through them and at the
same time maintain the privacy of the room.  However, these doors dust which is very
difficult to be cleaned.  These doors are generally used for bath rooms of residential and
public buildings.  The door may either be louvered to its full height or it may be partly
louvered and partly panelled as shown in fig.  The louvers are arranged at such an
inclination that vision is obstructed while they permit free passage of air.
1. REVOLVING DOOR  Such doors are provided only in public buildings such as libraries,
museums, banks etc. where there are constant visitors.  Such door provide entrance to
the one and exit to the other person simultaneously, and close automatically when not in
use.  This door also suitable for air-conditioned buildings or for building situated at a
place where strong breeze blow throughout the year.  The door consists of centrally
placed mullion to which four radiating shutters are attached, as shown in fig.
2.  PIVOTED WINDOW  In this windows, the shutter are allowed to swing round pivots
fixed to the window frame.  The shutter can swing or rotate either horizontally or
vertically.
3.  DOUBLE HUNG WINDOW  This type of window consists of frame and pair of shutters,
arranged one above the other.  The shutter can slide vertically within the grooves
provided in window frame.  By provision of sliding, the window can be cleaned effectively
and at the same time ventilation can be controlled effectively since the window can
opened at top and bottom at desired extent
4. 46. CASEMENT WINDOW  These are the main and common types of window usually
provided in buildings.  The shutters of the window open like shutters of the door.  The
shutter consists of styles, top rails, bottom rails and intermediate rails, thus dividing into
panels
5. 49. BAY WINDOW  Bay windows projects outside the external wall of the room.  The
projection may be triangular, circular, rectangular or polygonal in plan.  They are provide
extra space in the room and improve overall appearance of the building
6. 51. DORMER WINDOW  A dormer window is a vertical window provided on the slopping
roof as shown in image.  Such a window provides ventilation and lighting to the enclosed
space below the roof .  This window very much improve the appearance of the building.
7. 54. SKY LIGHTS  A sky light is provided on a sloping roof to admit light.  The window
projects above the top slopping surface.  They run parallel to the sloping surface.
8.
FLOOR COVERINGS

Floor covering, material made from textiles, felts, resins, rubber, or other natural or man-
made substances applied or fastened to, or laid upon, the level base surface of a room to provide
comfort, durability, safety, and decoration. Such materials include both handmade and machine-
made rugs and carpets and smooth-surfaced floor coverings. Although the
words carpet and rug are frequently used interchangeably in referring to textile floor
coverings, in modern usage carpets are fastened to the floor and usually cover an entire floor area,
and rugs are not fastened and rarely cover the entire floor. Carpets and rugs may be classified as
handmade or machine-made. Smooth-surfaced coverings generally adhere to a subfloor and are
manufactured as sheet goods or tiles.

Floor tiles
Tiles are available in all manner of sizes, shapes and patterns, and are ideal for use in areas that
require waterproofing.
 

Wooden floorboards
Floorboards create a warm, classic look, while at the same time offering both strength and rigidity.
 
 

Carpet and underlay

Carpet can add colour and warmth to your home, as well as a comfortable, forgiving surface on
which to walk.
 

Parquetry floors
Parquetry involves patterns and designs made from pieces of wood, and can help to give a classy,
ornate look to your floor.
 

Vinyl and linoleum

Linoleum (or lino for short) is a popular floor covering, thanks mostly to its excellent durability and
affordable cost.
 
Floating floor
Floating floor offers a nice wood-like veneer for your floors without the cost or permanence of timber
floorboards.
 

Special floor finishes

Depending on your purposes, there are many other types of special finishes available with which to
cover your floors.
 

Polished concrete floors

Polished concrete floors provide a smooth, high sheen finish that stands among the toughest wearing
floors available.
 

Bamboo floors
Bamboo offers a low-cost and sustainable alternative to hardwood timber floors. Learn more about
how bamboo floors are made, and how they rate in terms of durability and longevity.

STRUCTURAL STEEL
Structural steel is a category of steel used as a construction material for making
structural steel shapes. A structural steel shape is a profile, formed with a specific cross
section and following certain standards for chemical composition and mechanical
properties. Structural steel shapes, sizes, composition, strengths, storage practices, etc.,
are regulated by standards in most industrialized countries

Composition

Structural steel is a carbon steel, meaning it has a carbon content of up to 2.1 percent by weight.
After iron, carbon is the most important element in carbon steel. Increasing the amount of carbon
in the composition of steel results in materials that have high strength and low ductility.
Depending on how the steel will be used will determine the carbon level or content needed.

Low-carbon steel, also known as mild steel, is the most widely used form of carbon steel and
what is most commonly used for construction purposes, which is why low-carbon steel is what is
most often thought of when referring to structural steel. Low-carbon steel typically contains 0.04
percent to 0.30 percent carbon content, which makes it strong yet more ductile than other forms
of steel with higher carbon content. Although both medium and high-carbon steels (steels with a
carbon content ranging from 0.31 percent to 1.50 percent) can also be considered structural
steel, these are typically used for mechanical engineering purposes.

Shape
An overview of structural steel would not be complete without discussing the different shapes of
structural steel. Getting back to its basic definition, structural steel is simply steel designed for
different uses in building construction.
A structural steel shape is a profile formed with a specific cross section. Below are a few common
structural steel shapes:
I-beam: An I-shaped cross section capped with flanges on either side
Z-shape: Half a flange going in opposite directions resembling a “Z”
Angle: An L-shaped cross section
Tee: A T-shaped cross section

 Bar: A rectangular, cross-sectioned long piece of steel

 Rod: A round or square long piece of steel

The main kinds of structural steel are generally categorized according to the under
mentioned categories of chemical composition:

 Carbon-manganese steels: The major chemical ingredients are iron, carbon,

and manganese. These are normally called mild structural steels or carbon
steels. The strength and ductility are high, and being economical is therefore
widely used. The famous category amongst this type is ASTM grade A36.
 High-strength, low-alloy steels: This is a recent development in the steel
industry. Chemical elements are added to improve the strength. A commonly
used type is ASTM grade A572.
 High-strength tempered and quenched alloy steels: These are used for
structural purposes and generally available is ASTM grade A514

Parallel Flange Channels 

These channelled beams are U-shaped with right angled corners, similar to the shape of a
staple. They come in various different sizes, however, the two sides are always the same
length and are parallel to one another. They also offer a high strength to weight ratio and have
similar uses to angled sections.

Tapered Flange Beams 

Taper flange beams come in an I-shaped and are also available in a vast variety of sizes. In
construction, these are often used as cross-sections for girders. Though they have a
particularly resistance ratio, it is not usually recommended when pressure is present along the
length as they are not torsion (twisting) resistant. 

Universal Beam 
Universal beams, also known ad I-beams or H-beams, come in the shape of their namesake:
an ‘I’ when standing upright, and a ‘H’ on their side. Universal beams are usually made of
structural steel and are used in construction and civil engineering, among other industries.

Universal Column 
Universal beams are also widely used for structural purposes. They are similar to beams and
are often referred to as I-beams or H-beams, however, all three sections are the same in
length. As their name suggests, they are mainly used for columns, and have a brilliant load-
bearing capabilities.

Angled Sections 
Angled structural steel sections can come as either equal or unequal. Both will be right
angled, however, unequal sections have different sized axis’ making them L-shaped. This
kind of section is much stronger (up to 20%) with a much higher strength to weight ratios.
Angled sections are used in residential construction, infrastructure, mining and transport.
Also, they are available in a wide range of lengths and sizes.

Circular Hollow Sections 

Circular Hollow Sections come as a hollow tubular cross sections and have a much higher
resistance to torsion that tapered flange beams. The density of the walls is uniform within the
entire circle which makes this beams great for use with multi-axis loading processes.

Rectangular Hollow Sections 

These types of structural steel are much like the circular hollow sections,however they have
rectangular cross sections. They are very popular in many mechanical and construction steel
applications. Their flat surfaces make them prime for use in joining and metal fabrication.

Square Hollow Sections 

 Like their hollow section counterparts (except with square cross sections), these are used
within smaller applications such as columns or posts. However, they are unsuitable for beams
as their shapes are inherently difficult to bolt into other types of shape. They are also known
as ‘box sections’.

Flat SectionsArguably the most versatile type of steel section as they require to be attached
to another section. In some cases, they can be attached to another section as a strengthening
tool. They are also often referred to as ‘plates’ (for example, checker plates).

SCAFFOLDING AND FRAME WORK

Scaffolding :

Scaffolding is nothing but a fixed/movable platform which can be used for working at
heights . They are usually used for activities such as plastering, painting, brick work at
heights etc.

Scaffolding is a temporary structure to provide a platform at different levels of a building for

workers and materials. It is used across and around the building to be able to carry weight and
move. It is also used to provide access in inaccessible places like high rise structures or
excavated deep trench. Scaffolding system provides full access to ensure full safety of person
working in those inaccessible places

There are various types of scaffolding :

1. Tube and Coupler Scaffolding: Assembled using tubes and couplers at joints.
2. Bamboo/Wooden Scaffold : It is made using bamboo materials. It is considered unfit
for industrial use.

3. Suspended Scaffold : It is used for cleaning glass at malls usually.

Types
Scaffolding has six types namely – single, double, ladder, cantilever, suspended and steel.
Below are their material compositions.

Single Scaffolds - Single scaffolds consist of standards, putlogs, ledgers, wooden boards, and
braces. They are used for ordinary buildings.

Double Scaffolds - It consists of two rows of standards at 15 cm and1.5 m. Shores are

provided and are also used for superior works.

Ladder Scaffolds - It consists of brackets for plate form.

Cantilever Scaffolds - It consists of cantilever, struts, standards, putlogs and plate forms. It is
used above ground level.

Suspended Scaffolds - It consists of ropes, and working platforms, Ropes can be raised
manually or mechanically. They are often used for light construction and finishing works of
multi-storey buildings.

Steel or Tubular Scaffolds - It consists of steel tubes (1-1/2” –2-1/2” diameter), coupler or
clamps to hold pipes in different positions, prop nuts to hold single pipes,  bolts, nuts and
washers, and wedge and clip.

Formwork has only two types namely steel and wooden. A steel formwork is made up of
steel sheets, angle iron and tee iron while a wooden formwork is made up of props, planks
battens, ledgers and sheeting.

Shuttering/Formworks can also be named based on the type of structural member

construction such as slab formwork for use in slab, beam formwork, column formwork
for use in beams and columns respectively etc.

Formwork, on the other hand, is a temporary structure which is used as a mould to pour the
concrete. It is a vertical or horizontal arrangement made to keep concrete in position until it
gains strength and shape. It is a kind of sheeting system provided for structures such as
columns, walls and concrete slabs

The construction of formwork takes time and involves expenditure upto 20 to 25% of the
cost of the structure or even more. Design of these temporary structures are made to
economic expenditure. The operation of removing the formwork is known as stripping.
Stripped formwork can be reused. Reusable forms are known as panel forms and non-
usable are called stationary forms.

Timber is the most common material used for formwork. The disadvantage with timber
formwork is that it will warp, swell and shrink. Application of water impermeable cost to
the surface of wood mitigates these defects.

A good formwork should satisfy the following requirements:

1. It should be strong enough to withstand all types of dead and live loads.

2. It should be rigidly constructed and efficiently propped and braced both horizontally
and vertically, so as to retain its shape.

3.The joints in the formwork should be tight against leakage of cement grout.

4. Construction of formwork should permit removal of various parts in desired sequences

without damage to the concrete.

5.The material of the formwork should be cheap, easily available and should be suitable
for reuse.

6. The formwork should be set accurately to the desired line and levels should have
plane surface.

7. It should be as light as possible.

8. The material of the formwork should not warp or get distorted when exposed to the
elements.

9. It should rest on firm base.

ADHESIVES

HOT MELT ADHESIVES

ACRYLIC ADHESIVES
WATER BASED AHESIVES
Additives
 
(in construction materials), natural or synthetic materials that are mixed into binding agents, concretes
, and mortars to impart the required properties to the finished product and reduce its cost. Additives ar
e classified in a number of groups depending on their purpose and characteristics.
Active  mineral  additives. Active mineral additives are finely ground materials that contain hydrated 
silica or metakaolinite in a chemically active form. When water is added to a mixture of these material
s with lime or portland cement, they react chemically with the latter (at standard temperatures), with th
e formation of poorly soluble hydrosilicates and other calcium compounds. As a result, the lime acquir
es the ability to harden in water, and the cement takes on increased strength in fresh and sulfate-
containing waters. Active mineral additives may be subdivided into natural materials (diatomites, tripol
i, gaizes, and volcanic ash, tuffs, and trasses) and synthetic materials (granulated blast-furnace slags, 
boiler slags and ash, nepheline slurry, rubble, and argillite). They are used extensively in the producti
on of cement and lime-pozzolana binding agents, as well as for increasing the strength, water resistan
ce, and salt resistance of concretes and mortars.
Filler  additives. Filler additives are finely ground limestones, dolomites, sands, low-active slags, and 
ash. They are introduced to replace large particles of clinker and lime that are not completely hydrate
d during the hardening process. Such replacement, which does not essentially affect the strength of th
e binding agents, reduces their shrinkage strains and lowers costs. Filler additives are used in the pro
duction of sand, carbonate, and masonry cements, as well as for reducing the expenditure of binding 
agents and increasing the strength of concretes and mortars.
Acid-resistant, alkali-resistant,  and heat-resistant additives. Additives for acid-resistant, alkali-
resistant, and heat-resistant concretes and mortars are finely ground inorganic materials that are char
acterized by high resistance to the action of acids, alkalies, or high temperatures. In playing the role of 
microscopic fillers, they promote an increase in the resistance of concretes and mortars to aggressive 
actions. Acid-resistant additives include andesite, basalt, diabase, granite, and quartz, as well as porc
elain and stone casting; alkali-resistant additives include compact limestones, dolomite, magnesite, ca
lcareous sandstone, and varieties of these rocks. Finely ground chromite, magnesite, fire clay, crushe
d material from semiacidic refractory products, and metallurgical magnesite are used as additives for 
heat-resistant concretes and mortars.
Surface-active additives. Surface-active additives are organic substances that can be adsorbed into 
particles of cement and can change their surface properties. They are subdivided into plasticizers (co
ncentrates of sulfite-nucleic braggite), which increase the wettability of cement dust by water, and hyd
rophobic plasticizers (saponite-naphtha, asidol, and organosilicon liquids), which decrease wettability. 
Both types of these additives increase the convenience of laying concrete and mortar mixes, reduce t
he expenditure of cement, and increase the frost and corrosion resistance of concretes. Surface-
active additives are used to produce plasticized and hydrophobic portland cements, as well as to redu
ce water requirements of the mixes and to increase the strength of concretes in aggressive mediums.
Foaming and  blowing  additives. Foaming and blowing additives are materials used in making cellul
ar concretes (foam concretes and gas concretes). Foaming agents are organic surface-active substan
ces whose aqueous solutions form foam when agitated. To increase the staying power of the foam, st
abilizers (animal glue or water glass) are usually added to the foaming agent. Blowing additives are s
ubstances that as a result of chemical reactions occurring directly in the binding agent paste are capa
ble of giving off gases, which form tiny pores by swelling the mass of paste. Glue-rosin, tarsaponite, a
nd alumosulfonaphthene materials are used to make foam concretes; aluminum powder and industrial 
Perhydrol are used to make gas concrete.
Additives  to  accelerate or  retard  setting and  hardening. Additives to accelerate or retard the sett
ing and hardening of binding agents are substances that affect the speed of hydration of the binding a
gents. Calcium chloride and sodium chloride, as well as sodium sulfate and potash, are used to accel
erate the setting and hardening of portland cement and its varieties. Keratin and lime-glue retarders ar
e used to retard the setting of semihydrous gypsum plaster.
Cold-resistant additives. Cold-resistant additives include sodium chloride, calcium chloride, sodium 
nitrate, and potash. They are added to lower the freezing point of the water in concrete or mortar mix 
and to ensure their hardening at a temperature below 0°C.

ALUMINIUM AS BUILDING MATERIAL

Modern building and construction is more than merely erecting buildings as functionally as
possible. In addition to functional and economic criteria, aesthetic and design considerations
together with ecological demands placed on building projects play an equally important role.
This means the materials used are of major significance. Aluminium, the building material for
the modern age, established itself as an important factor in the building and construction
industry during the course of the 20th century. Aluminium enables every possible
architectural concept to be realised – regardless of whether it is a new build or a
modernization. Possible applications range from façades and roof and wall manufacturers of
Aluminium building products systems to interior decoration and the design of living are world
leaders technologically – not least space, and include windows and doors, balconies
because the companies have furthered the and conservatories development of modern
windows and façades in the fields of surface treatment, thermal insulation and
soundproofing, air conditioning and solar heating. 
2.1 Strength versus weight
One of Aluminium’s primary appeals to specifiers is its exceptional strength to weight
ratio. At 2.7g/cm2, Aluminium is 66% lighter than steel. It is also far less susceptible
to brittle fractures. Indeed, when aluminium and steel structures are compared,
Aluminium’s greater modulus of elasticity means that weight ratios of 1:2 are easily
attained.
While Aluminium has a relatively high co-efficient of linear expansion, at 24 X 10-6/’C
– in its pure form, the material’s low modulus of elasticity (65,500N/mm 2 for 6063
alloy) enables temperature induced stresses to be accommodated. Indeed, these are
generally far lower than in a comparable steel structure (M of E = 210,000N/mm 2).
This is graphically illustrated by Aluminium’s load-deflection curve, which is
continuous, without a yield point.
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Aluminium sections are generally thinner and deeper than equivalent steel sections
to achieve the required strength and rigidity since, Aluminium is not affected
bymoisture and aluminium windows do not warp, stick or rot. In door construction,
typically using hollow-section extrusions, sight lines are improved because multi-
point locks and other door furniture can be fitted within the frame. This is in addition
to the intrinsic lightness, strength and rigidity of Aluminium frames
2.2 Low maintenance – low cost-in-use
While Aluminium has a natural, built-in durability (it forms a protective layer of oxide
as soon as it is exposed to air), most Aluminium construction products are treated or
coated. One way in which the oxidization process can be enhanced is anodization;
an electrolytic process which increases the thickness of the natural oxide layer from
0.00001mm to between 0.005 and 0.025mm (25 Microns). This enhances the ability
of Aluminium to withstand attack in aggressive environments. Natural anodizing
results in a similar silvery finish to oxidized Aluminium, but it can also introduce a
range of colours.
This is because, after anodizing, the surface film remains porous, allowing it to
accept colouring agents, such as organic dies, pigments, electrolytes or metallic.
Attractive gold, bronze, gray, black and even blue finishes are commonly achieved in
this way. For a wider choice of colours, most specifiers opt for an electrostatically
sprayed polyester powder coating. This is a common finish for curtain walling,
rainwater goods and cladding panels, where the powder coating is used to provide
resistance to the acidity of rainwater. In this process, charged paint particles are
blown onto the extrusion (which has undergone a twelve-stage pre-treatment
process) and then stove, at between 200 and 210’C, for 10 to 12 minutes. This
provides a high quality surface with excellent adhesion, accurate colouration and
very even film thickness.

2.3 Fabricated for the fast track

One of the principal reasons for Aluminium’s enduring and growing popularity is its
compatibility with today’s fast track construction techniques and just-in-time ordering.
Nowhere is this seen more clearly than in curtain walling, where the accuracy of
factory-finished sections allows rapid erection on site and, in him, allows internal
finishing to proceed more quickly. The end result is earlier building occupancy and
greater profit margins for the ultimate customer. Aluminium shop fronts, window
systems and door assemblies offer comparable on-site benefits, which are now
being enhanced by fabricators’ computer-controlled machining rigs which can drill,
miter, grind and countersink to exact tolerances enabling the easiest possible
installation of ironmongery, glazing beads and other secondary components.
2.4 Guaranteed performance through quality control
Although basic material costs will always be important to specifiers, they should be
balanced against the cost of fabrication and subsequent service performance. This is
an area where Aluminium, being ideally suited to highly automate manufacturing
procedures to exact tolerances, offers many benefits. Aluminium extrusions, for
instance, are subjected to a rigorous quality regime, from hardness testing of the raw
extrusion to conical bends, sawing, scratching, gouging, hammering and weight
drops to guarantee coating performance. It is this combination of quality control,
excellent cost in use and systems technology that has helped develop new markets
for Aluminium systems companies in the health, education, leisure and transport
sectors where changes in the funding of building procurement, such as PFI and
fund-holding schools has changed the emphasis from lowest capital cost to lowest
cost in use. Specifiers are increasingly looking for effective systems solutions by
involving system suppliers early in the design process to ensure the most elegantly
engineered solution at the lowest cost.
2.5 Aluminum recyclable at end of building’s life
The ability to recycle aluminum building products is also becoming more important
as more building owners decide to deconstruct rather than demolish older buildings.
Instead of simply going in with a wrecking ball, owners are now much more
deliberate about how they take down a building in order to extract as much
recyclable material as possible. By doing so, they not only retain the scrap value of a
material such as aluminum but also eliminate the environmental impact and cost of
dumping it in a landfill.
Aluminum recycling also reduces energy consumption. To produce aluminum from
recycled material, for example, requires only 5% of the energy required to produce
aluminum from bauxite. In addition, every ton of recycled aluminum saves four tons
of bauxite.

2.6 Aluminum Can Be Formed into Variety of Shapes:

Because it is ductile, aluminum can be formed into a number of shapes and profiles.
Its uses are by no means limited to flat panels. Consequently, aluminum wall
cladding systems can help create some of the most attractive and functional
exteriors on buildings today. In addition, large wall panels, either flat or formed,
require fewer joints, producing fast and economical installation.
Aluminum wall systems are not meant for use only in new construction. Retrofit
applications are viable as well, especially when an owner wishes to change the
“image” of a building. Aluminum wall panels, especially composite panels, are ideal
for re-cladding older structures, as well as providing contemporary design options for
all types of new buildings.

PROPERTIES, ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

3.1 Properties
1. Durability:
Aluminium building products are made from alloys, which are weather-proof,
corrosion-resistant and immune to the harmful effects of UV rays, ensuring optimal
performance over a very long serviceable lifetime.
2. Design flexibility:
The extrusion process offers an almost infinite range of forms and sections, allowing
designers to integrate numerous functions into one profile. Rolled products may be
manufactured flat, curved, shaped into cassettes, or sandwiched with other
materials. In addition, aluminium can be sawed, drilled, riveted, screwed, bent,
welded and soldered in the workshop or on the building site.
3. Hundreds of surface finishes:
Aluminium can be anodized or painted in any colour, to any optical effect, using any
number of surface touches, in order to meet a designer’s decorative needs. Such
processes also serve to enhance the material’s durability and corrosion resistance,
as well as providing an easy-to-clean surface.
4. High reflectivity:
This characteristic feature makes aluminium a very efficient material for light
management. Aluminium solar collectors can be installed to lower energy
consumption for artificial lighting and heating in winter, while aluminium shading
devices can be used to reduce the need for air conditioning in summer.
5. Fire safety:
Aluminium does not burn and is therefore classed as a non-combustible construction
material. Aluminium alloys will nevertheless melt at around 650°C, but without
releasing harmful gases. Industrial roofs and external walls are increasingly made of
thin aluminium cladding panels, intended to melt during a major fire, allowing heat
and smoke to escape and thereby minimizing damage.
6. Optimal security:
Where high security is required, specially designed, strengthened aluminium frames
can be used. While the glass for such applications may well be heavy, the overall
weight of the structure remains manageable thanks to the light weight of the
aluminium frame.
3.2 Advantages
1. Lightweight
Aluminium is one of the lightest available commercial metals with a density
approximately one third that of steel or copper.
2. Excellent Corrosion Resistance
Aluminium has excellent resistance to corrosion due to the thin layer of aluminium
oxide that forms on the surface of aluminium when it is exposed to air
3. Strong at Low Temperatures
Where as steel becomes brittle at low temperatures, aluminium increases in tensile
strength and retains excellent toughness.
4. Easy to Work
Aluminium can be easily fabricated into various forms such as foil, sheets, geometric
shapes, rod, tube and wire.
5. Easy Surface Treatment
For many applications, aluminium requires no protective or decorative coating; the
surface supplied is entirely adequate without further finishing
3.3 Disadvantages:
1. Thermal insulation was almost definitely insufficient: aluminium being a good
thermal conductor.
2. Poor water proofing due to the inadequately designed/executed joints between the
roof aluminium sheets
3. General noise caused by rain or hail falling on aluminium roof and wall sheets.
3.4 Applications
The best application can be obtained in some typical cases, which are characterised
in getting profit at least of one of the main basic properties: lightness, corrosion
resistance and functionality. The structural applications which best fit these
properties in the field of civil engineering are the following:
1. Long-span roof systems in which live loads are small compared with dead loads,
as in the case of reticular space structures and geodetic domes covering large span
areas, like halls and auditoriums.

2. Structures located in inaccessible places far from the fabrication shop, for which
transport economy and ease of erection are of extreme importance, like for instance
electrical transmission towers, which can be carried by helicopter.

3. Structures situated in corrosive or humid environments such as swimming pool

roofs, river bridges, hydraulic structures and offshore super-structures.

4. Structures having moving parts, such as sewage plant crane bridges and moving
bridges, where lightness means economy of power under service.

5. Structures for special purposes, for which maintenance operations are particularly
difficult and must be limited, as in case of masts, lighting towers, antennas towers,
sign motorway portals, and so on.

6.1 Opportunities for creative design

Whether it be office towers, congress centres or shopping arcades, museums or universities,
airport terminals, railway stations, football stadiums or simply residential buildings, façades
made from aluminium profiles and panels offer architects unlimited opportunities for creative
architects unlimited opportunities for creative design.
CONCLUSIONS
It is certain that Aluminium will become even more widely used in construction as pressure
grows for buildings that are flexible, easy to maintain and offer low cost-in-use.

BRASS AS BUILDING MATERIAL

Brass
An alloy of copper and zinc, brass has a number of applications in the
construction industry. It can be used exclusively for its stunning gold-like
decorative look in buildings, in areas such as locks or door knobs where there is a
low friction requirement. Special corrosion resistant brass is also suited where
water temperatures are high or where contamination is present in the water.

COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES: Brass is a fusion of copper and zinc. Copper

and zinc are added in different amounts to produce various types of brass. These days the
proportion is 67% copper and 33% zinc. Usually, 2% of lead is added to brass to improve its
handling.

PROPERTIES
 Brass usually appears bright gold, reddish-gold, or silverish. Brass appears rosy when there is a
higher percentage of copper and silver when there is more zinc in it.
 Brass is a highly malleable metal and is easy to cast.
 The melting point of brass is 900-940 degrees Centigrade.
 It’s highly acoustic properties make it an ideal metal for musical instruments.
 It shows low friction.
 It conducts heat well.
 Brass withstands corrosion.
 Exposure to ammonia produces stress cracking.
 It is a non-magnetic compound and first not interact with magnets.

USES OF BRASS
Brass is corrosion resistant and easily malleable. It got widely used to make all accurate
scientific and navigational instruments, for example, clocks, navigational apparatuses, and
watches. Many brass clocks made in the 17th and 18th century are still in working condition.
Since brass has a gold-like luster, it is used for decoration purposes. Due to its low melting
point, it is used for making utensils. It got used for making a wide variety of musical
instruments because of its acoustic nature and economical price as compared to gold and
silver.

 FOR DECORATION
Brass has several uses in the construction field. It has a beautiful gold-like luster, which
makes it an ideal choice for decorative fittings, for example, latches, handles, and doorknobs.

 FOR LOW FRICTION EQUIPMENT

In places where low friction is needed, brass is a popular choice, such as bearings, hinges,
zippers, plugs, sockets, gears, casings for ammunition.

 CORROSION RESISTANT APPLICATION

Brass tarnishes but doesn’t rust. Many companies manufacture architectural brass that keeps
shining for months without the need for regular polishing.

 HIGH MALLEABLE FACTOR

Unlike other metals, brass is quite flexible and can easily be shaped into wire, foil, sheets,
tubes, rods, or plates. This makes it a perfect choice for use in architectural material.

 DUCTILE AND MALLEABLE

Brass is highly malleable and ductile. It can be machined, cast, rolled, hot stamped and drawn
relatively quickly as compared to other metals, making it most suited for making detailed
equipment for construction.

 NON-DEGRADABLE AND BRITTLE RESISTANT

Brass doesn’t damage or degrade if exposed to the sun’s UV rays for a while. It will not be
affected if left too long in the sun. On the other hand, it will not be changed if exposed to sub-
zero temperatures.

Door Knobs and Locks

Your door knobs and locks are some of the fixtures you don’t expect to replace throughout the
life of your home. Therefore, they have to be made from a material that can last for decades
and won’t easily break, especially because it plays a major role in your home’s security. Brass
offers more than just longevity. It also has fine tolerances in machining and allows for smooth
operation of moving parts. Some say brass is ideally suited for the production of all kinds of
security hardware and ironmongery. 
Handrails
There are two reasons for choosing brass as the main material for all your building’s handrails.
One, brass is very easy to extrude, which is how most metal handrails are made. Another, its
base metal is copper, which is known for its antibacterial property. Fixtures like handrails that
you and your family frequently touch or hold can instantly harbor harmful bacteria. Using an
antibacterial metal like brass can help prevent the spread of disease in your home. 
Balustrades 
Below the handrails are the balustrades, another special architectural element that appears and
performs best when made of brass. Unlike handrails that are usually produced through
extrusion, balustrade designs can be cast, formed, or fabricated using brazing and soft soldering
techniques. All of these metalworking techniques work effectively when the metal to be worked
has the properties of brass. 
Decorative and Protective Finishes
Whether you want etched metal or plain plate covering for some of the surfaces in your building
for finishing, brass can certainly be the perfect choice. There are modern decorative treatments
for toning brass that you can use. You no longer have to stick to only a single tone or shade and
try to adjust the rest of the design to match it. Brass can have a range of colors from gold-like
yellow, through dull yellows and amber browns, to chocolate brown and black.
 
Brass Door Hardware
Brass Door Knockers
Brass Door Knobs Brass Door Hinges
Brass Door Pull
• Brass Fittings
Brass Rods
Brass Inserts
Brass Tubes
Brass Elbow •
Brass Builder Hardware
Brass Cabinet
Brass Spring
Brass Bolts
Brass Anchors
ADVANTAGES
Superb colour and texture
Will accept a mirror-like polish
• Will not corrode
• Can be manufactured as rod, profile, tube, plate, sheet, foil and wire
• Good strength and ductility • Easily processed by casting, extruding, rolling, drawing and hot
stamping • Excellent machining qualities • No degradation in sunlight • Will not soften in high
temperatures (up to 200oC) • Will not embrittle in sub-zero temperatures (down to -100 oC)
1.  Brass is cost-effective • No plating or painting required • Brass also has excellent
thermal conductivity making it a first choice for heat exchangers (radiators). • Brasses
have a range of attractive colours ranging from red to yellow to gold to silver. •
Pathogens, which can be spread by touch, die in a few hours on brass surfaces. • It is a
metal ideally suited to the production of almost every item of architectural hardware
including mortice locks, lever handle and ball handle sets, finger plates, escutcheon
plates, window furniture and many other products • Brass is recyclable – Without loss of
properties – The recycling infrastructure is already in place
2. 47. DISADVANTAGES • Brass requires a good deal of maintenance since it is prone to a
blackish tarnish. Disadvantages of Brass Doors • These doors can be scratched or
dented which gives bad look. • Brass doors are suitable for only interiors as they fade
away in harsh weather conditions. • They require polishing to protect their surface. •
Color of brass doors fades with the passage of time. • These doors have warm feeling in
summer and cold in winter when they are touched.

GLASS AS BUILDING MATERIALS

Over the years architects have leveraged the use of exquisite building materials to create
building masterpieces. However, no other material has come to match the elegance of glass as
a building material. This article looks at the 10 advantages of using glass as a building
material.
Glass has a variety of properties and uses that present architects with a whole new range of
possibilities.
It is mostly used as a transparent glazing material in most buildings, but its possibilities are
endless. Glass is a substance that is made from the application of heat on sand or quartz.
IMPORTANCE
Glass, a fascinating material, and usually quite viable in most places, glass have
become an extraordinarily useful material in architecture. Both, classic and modern,
its use in the construction industry has stood the test of times for over centuries now.
Glass, when discovered, was considered a magical material and was fascinating to
the world. The translucent and the transparent nature of the material often
accompanied every other material, be it cement, mud or, steel in today’s times. It has
now moved heights, literally, with more and more skyscrapers in the world using it
with steel as the prominent construction material.
Glass has various uses, and its special importance in architecture.

As A Window Pane:
The use of glass started as a material for the window panes. It mainly
contributed as a barrier from the extreme weather changes, like the
scorching heat, rain, etc. while still maintaining the visual connection with
the outside world. This still continues to be the biggest market for glass-
sellers in the world today. Now, along with windows, there are sliding
doors, not a very recent invention but widely popular now. It helps to keep
the visual connection to the maximum.

As A Lightweight Structural Wall (External Surface):

Glass has multiple uses, as an exterior material. Due to its varying
properties of appearances, it can be used for various functionalities in a
building in various aspects. Over the time,  the material was processed and
lightweight glass came into existence, and all designers and architects
were keen on exploring the lighter material, unlike the heavier materials
with load bearing construction technique (prominent then).

As a Roofing Material:
Apart from the surface, glass was started to use as skylights and roofs. The
colder places took it as an opportunity for more sunlight and heat in the
buildings. And, climatically hot places use solar control glasses for
optimizing sunlight and heat radiations.

As a Partition, in the interiors of a Building:

Glass found its use in the interiors of the buildings as well, mostly used as
partition walls, curtain walls amongst two rooms, with doors and windows,
as an element of décor, etc.
10 ADVANTAGES OF USING GLASS AS A BUILDING MATERIAL

1. Unlike any other material, glass can transmit, absorb or refract light.As a result, it can be
both translucent and transparent. Such characteristics add extraordinary beauty to your
building.
2. Glass can transmit 80% of daylight in all directions.It can do so without any weathering,
clouding or yellowing.
3. It is weather resistant.Glass can withstand effects of rain, wind and the sun without losing
its integrity and appearance.
4. Glass is also rust resistant. Unlike any other, it won’t degrade by chemical and the
surrounding environmental effects.
5. It has a smooth and glossy surface. As a result, glass is dust-proof and thus easy to clean.
6. It is economic. Consider the fact that glass saves energy by allowing in natural light even
when you close your windows and doors. It also saves you on the electricity bill cost.
7. You are much safer from electric hazards. The glass is a very excellent insulator. It is thus
impossible for it to conduct electric current.
8. Variety of colors. When you combine the glass in insulated or laminated units, it changes
in color and appearance.
9. Glass can be pressed, blown and drawn to any shape. Consequently, it is used in buildings,
shop fronts, windows and doors. After lamination with plywood or a metal sheet, you can
also use it for furniture.
10. It is especially excellent for showrooms and showcases. Glass provides the means to
showcase a product..

he Advantages:

 Easily Moulded: Glass is basically a translucent material, created by the application of heat to

sand. It can easily be moulded into any shape which makes it one of the most versatile
materials to be used in the construction of buildings and also, one of the most frequent ones.
 Visible transmittance: Using glass in architecture not only allows you to get visually
connected to the outer world, but it also allows natural light to flow in even if the house is
closed.

 Weather and Rust Resistance: Unlike any other material, glass can withstand the effects of
water, wind, sun and other environmental effects, without losing an inch of its appearance and
integrity.

 Excellent insulator against electricity: Glass is considered to be an excellent insulator. In the

absence of free electrons, it ensures that you are safe from any possible electric hazards.

 Recyclable: A glass is 100 percent recyclable i.e. it does not degrade during the recycling
process and can even be used as a raw material in the construction industry.

 Adds to the beauty of the structure: Using glass as a building material accentuates the
beauty and elegance of the building. It has a smooth and a glossy surface, which makes it an
ideal material for showrooms and showcases.

The Disadvantages:

 Easily breakable: Glass, when subjected to the slightest of stress, breaks without strain.
Further, the broken edges of glass are sharp enough to cause injury.

 Unsafe for earthquake proven areas: Buildings in the earthquake proven areas need to be
specially designed in order to take the additional stress. However, glass, being brittle in nature,
tends to collapse easily.

 Heat Absorbent: Glass generates a high level of solar radiation and traps heat which
eventually warms up the interiors. Therefore, it might not be suitable for the construction of
buildings, typically existent in the hot regions.

 Increase in the cost of security: Using glass in a building enhances the cost of security
because of the transparency that it offers.

 Increase in the overall cost of the building: Glass, being an expensive material as compared
to the other materials used in the construction industry, eventually augments the total cost of
the building. 

 Various types of glass used in the construction industry:

There are multiple types of glasses used in the construction of buildings. Some of them are
discussed below:

 Float Glass: Made up of sodium silicate and calcium silicate, these glasses cause glare and are
majorly used in the shop fronts and public places.

 Shatterproof Glass: Such type of glass is used for windows, skylights and floor etc. Due to
the presence of plastic polyvinyl butyral, it does not form sharp edges when shattered.

 Laminated Glass: A combination of several layers of normal glass, laminated glass is thicker
as compared to the latter. These are used for the purpose of aquariums and bridges etc.
 Extra Clean Glass: Such type of glass is stain proof with a beautiful appearance and is also
easy to maintain.

 Chromatic Glass: Used in ICUs, meeting rooms etc. chromatic glass has the capability to
protect the interiors from daylight.

 Tinted Glass: This is nothing but a coloured glass, generally used for architectural purposes.

 Toughened Glass: A strong glass with low visibility is termed as toughened glass. It is also
popularly known as tempered glass.

 Insulated Glazed Units: Insulating glass is a glazed unit, separated into two or three layers
by air or vacuum. These tend to improve the thermal performance, thereby reducing the
heating and air conditioning costs, significantly.

INSULATING MATERIAL IN CONSRUCTION

Insulating Material All those material that retard or stop the flow of Heat Electricity Sound
through them may be broadly defined as insulating materials. The same material may not be
insulator against all the three types of energy waves; it may not be insulator against heat or
electricity or sound or more than one ofthe two transmissions. The importance of Insulating
material cannot be over emphasized in engineering practice. Since heat and electricity are the
main source of energy in many important operations, a safe handling of these source may be
impossible without insulators. The insulator may be studied under three general headings,
thermal insulators, electrical insulators and sound insulators.

Thermal Insulator
The main function of thermal insulator is to act as a partial or total barrier in the passage of heat.
A thermal insulator, therefore, should posses following properties; It should have very low
thermal conductivity; It should have a very high softening point. It should be stable to thermal
shocks, i.e. should not break on repeated heating and cooling. It should be stable chemically and
physically at high temperature for prolonged period at stretch. It should be resistant to moisture
and vibration and have good strength too. Thermal Insulator The situation where a thermal
insulator may be required are varied. The flow of Heat has to be stopped from a working place to
the outside environment, such as furnace to outside; The flow of heat has to be stopped from an
outside source to a place, for instance in special rooms where equipment is to be worked at low
temperature or comfort has to be insured in a hot climate from inside living
Types of Heat Insulators • Following are some common heat Insulating materials used in
engineering Industries; Magnesium Plastic This consist of thoroughly blended mixture of
hydrated magnesium carbonate and asbestos. It is applied as a plastic mass cover over the
surface from which the escape of Heat is to be controlled. Aluminum foils. These are essentially
thin sheets made from aluminum and its alloys. When wrapped over steam pipes and other
appliance, it serves as a good insulating material.

There are many forms of thermal insulation materials are available in the market as follows:

1. Slab or block insulation

2. Blanket insulation
3. Loose fill insulation
4. Bat insulating materials
5. Insulating boards
6. Reflective sheet materials
7. Lightweight materials
1. Slab or Block Insulation
1. The blocks are made of mineral wool, cork board, cellular glass, and cellular rubber or
saw dust etc. These are fixed to the walls and roofs to prevent heat loss and maintains
required temperature. These boards are available in 60cmx120cm (or more area) with
2.5cm thickness

2. Blanket Insulation
1. Blanket insulation materials are available in blanket shape or like paper rolls which are
directly spread over the wall or ceilings. They are flexible and having a thickness about
12 to 80mm. these blankets are made of animal hair or cotton or wood fibers etc..

3. Loose Fill Insulation

Stud space is provided in wall where windows and doors are to be provided. In that
studding space of wall loose fill of some insulating materials is provided. The materials
are rock wool, wood fiber wool, cellulose etc

4. Bat Insulating Materials

These are also available as blanket rolls but bat insulating rolls are having more thickness
than blanket type materials. These are also spreader over the walls or ceilings.

5. Insulating Boards
Insulating boards are made from pulp of wood, cane or other materials. These pulp is
pressed hard with some stress at suitable temperature to make it as a solid boards. They
are available in many sizes in the market. And these are generally provided for interior
lining of walls as well as for partition walls

6. Reflective Sheet Materials

Reflective sheet materials like aluminum sheets, gypsum boards, steel sheet Materials
will have more reflectivity and low emissivity. So, these materials are having high heat
resistance. The heat gets reduced when solar energy strike and gets reflected. These are
fixed outside of the structure to stop the heat entrance into the building.

7. Lightweight Materials
Without using any thermal insulating materials as said above we can achieve the thermal
insulation from the following methods.

 By providing roof shading

 By proper height of ceiling
 Orientation of building
1. Fiberglass
Fiberglass is the most common insulation used in modern times. Because of how it is made,
by effectively weaving fine strands of glass into an insulation material, fiberglass is able to
minimize heat transfer. The main downside of fiberglass is the danger of handling it. Since
fiberglass is made out of finely woven silicon, glass powder and tiny shards of glass are
formed. These can cause damage to the eyes, lungs, and even skin if the proper safety
equipment isn’t worn. Nevertheless, when the proper safety equipment is used, fiberglass
installation can be performed without incident.

Fiberglass is an excellent non-flammable insulation material, with R-values ranging from R-

2.9 to R-3.8 per inch. If you are seeking a cheap insulation this is definitely the way to go,
though installing it requires safety precautions. Be sure to use eye protection, masks, and
gloves when handling this product.

Fiberglass glasses are formed into pieces in the form of fibers by preparing them for use in
different forms. Fiberglass, which is also described as glass fiber, is mostly used as
insulation, cladding, surface coating and roofing raw material in construction and
construction sector.

Use and Advantages of Fiberglass in Construction Area

The main material of Fiberglass FRP 's is preferred in the construction area due to the
fact that the strength and productivity advantages come from the beginning. FRP is
used as a highly effective insulation material due to its waterproof properties. The
waterproof feature of fiberglass material is effectively used in exterior and roof panel
applications. Again, the benefits of this feature are utilized in indoor installations and in
areas where water is used extensivel

2. Mineral Wool

Mineral wool actually refers to several different types of insulation. First, it may refer to glass
wool which is fiberglass manufactured from recycled glass. Second, it may refer to rock wool
which is a type of insulation made from basalt. Finally, it may refer to slag wool which is
produced from the slag from steel mills. The majority of mineral wool in the United States is
actually slag wool.

Both types of mineral wool are typically sold in batts and as loose-
fill and can be used for all home insulation applications, including
walls, roofs, attics, ceilings, and floors. Like other types of
insulation, mineral wool offers thermal insulation benefits. Many
builders also prefer it because it provides noise insulation and fire
protection as added side benefits. 
Mineral wool can be purchased in batts or as a loose material. Most mineral wool does not
have additives to make it fire resistant, making it poor for use in situation where extreme
heat is present. However, it is not combustable. When used in conjunction with other, more
fire resistant forms of insulation, mineral wool can definitely be an effective way of
insulating large areas. Mineral wool has an R-value ranging from R-2.8 to R-3.5.
Energy-Efficiency:Mineral wool insulation can improve the energy
efficiency of homes
Durability
The insulation value (R-value) of mineral wool remains unchanged
over time. While other standard insulation options will decrease
over time as materials compact, the initial R-value of mineral wool
will remain unchanged.
Fire Protection

Mineral wool insulation can protect buildings from the spread of fire,
thus reducing vulnerability to household fires.
Versatility

Mineral wool insulation is similar in appearance and function to the

more commonly used fiberglass loose-fill insulation. This allows
mineral wool insulation to be swapped into conventionally
constructed homes easily as a more sustainable option than
fiberglass for major home renovations
Sound Insulation

Mineral wool insulation can improve the acoustic performance of a

home.
 2. Cellulose
3. 11. CELLULOSE • Cellulose insulation is one of the most eco-friendly form of insulation. •
Cellulose is made from recycled cardboard, paper, and other similar material comes in
loose foam. • Cellulose is also most fire resistance forms of insulation. • It is use to
reduce building heat loss and gain , noise trance mission.
4. 12. APPLICATION OF CELLULOSE • It is install on walls, ceiling and flooring. • For
installation blowing equipment is required. • For this 3 inch diameter hose pipe is use. •
Cellulose spread in cavity made by studs in walls

Cellulose Insulation Material.

Cellulose insulation is perhaps one of the most eco-friendly forms of insulation. Cellulose is
made from recycled cardboard, paper, and other similar materials and comes in loose form.
Cellulose has an R-value between R-3.1 and R-3.7. Some recent studies on cellulose have
shown that it might be an excellent product for use in minimizing fire damage. Because of the
compactness of the material, cellulose contains next to no oxygen within it. Without oxygen
within the material, this helps to minimize the amount of damage that a fire can cause.

So not only is cellulose perhaps one of the most eco-friendly forms of insulation, but it is also
one of the most fire resistant forms of insulation. However, there are certain downsides to this
material as well, such as the allergies that some people may have to newspaper dust. Also,
finding individuals skilled in using this type of insulation is relatively hard compared to, say,
fiberglass. Still, cellulose is a cheap and effective means of insulating.

3. Polyurethane Foam
4. POLYURETHANEFORM • It is most excellent form of insulation. • Nowadays, it is used
non-chlorofluorocarbon gas for use as a blowing agent. • This helps to decrease the
amount of damage to the ozone layer. • The material contains low conductivity gas in its
sells. • Polyurethane insulation is available as a liquid sprayed form and rigid foam board.
5. 16. APPLICATION OF POLYURETHANE FOAM • It is directly fixed on surfaces like brick
blocks, concrete, etc. • It is also use in unfinished masonry. • Cut the polyurethane foam
in the require size. • Then cover the back of foam with “foam construction adhesive”. •
Press the adhesive side of the sheet against masonry surface, seal the joints between
the sheets with expanding foam.
 Polyurethane Insulation.

While not the most abundant of insulations, polyurethane foams are an excellent form of
insulation. Nowadays, polyurethane foams use non-chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) gas for use as
a blowing agent. This helps to decrease the amount of damage to the ozone layer. They are
relatively light, weighing approximately two pounds per cubic foot (2 lb/ft^3). They have an
R-value of approximately R-6.3 per inch of thickness. There are also low density foams that
can be sprayed into areas that have no insulation. These types of polyurethane insulation tend
to have approximately R-3.6 rating per inch of thickness. Another advantage of this type of
insulation is that it is fire resistant.

6. Polystyrene
7. 14. POLYSTYRENE • It is also known as Styrofoam. • It is water proof thermoplastic
foam which is excellent sound and temperature insulation material. • It comes in 2 types:
Expanded and Extruded. • This two types are differing in performance and cost. • It is
insulation has a unequally smooth surface which no other type of insulation possesses. •
Usually the foam is created or cut into blocks , ideal foam wall insulation

8. POLYURETHANEFORM • It is most excellent form of insulation. • Nowadays, it is used

non-chlorofluorocarbon gas for use as a blowing agent. • This helps to decrease the
amount of damage to the ozone layer. • The material contains low conductivity gas in its
sells. • Polyurethane insulation is available as a liquid sprayed form and rigid foam board.
9. 16. APPLICATION OF POLYURETHANE FOAM • It is directly fixed on surfaces like brick
blocks, concrete, etc. • It is also use in unfinished masonry. • Cut the polyurethane foam
in the require size. • Then cover the back of foam with “foam construction adhesive”. •
Press the adhesive side of the sheet against masonry surface, seal the joints between
the sheets with expanding foam.
 Polystyrene (Styrofoam).

Polystyrene is a waterproof thermoplastic foam which is an excellent sound and temperature

insulation material. It comes in two types, expanded (EPS) and extruded (XEPS) also known
as Styrofoam. The two types differ in performance ratings and cost. The more costly XEPS
has a R-value of R-5.5 while EPS is R-4. Polystyrene insulation has a uniquely smooth
surface which no other type of insulation possesses.

Typically the foam is created or cut into blocks, ideal for wall insulation. The foam is
flammable and needs to be coated in a fireproofing chemical called
Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD). HBCD has been brought under fire recently for health
and environmental risks associated with its use.

Other Common Insulation Materials

Although the items listed above are the most common insulation materials, they are not the
only ones used. Recently, materials like aerogel (used by NASA for the construction of heat
resistant tiles, capable of withstanding heat up to approximately 2000 degrees Fahrenheit
with little or no heat transfer), have become affordable and available.  One in particular
is Pyrogel XT. Pyrogel is one of the most efficient industrial insulations in the world. Its
required thicknesses are 50% – 80% less than other insulation materials. Although a little
more expensive than some of the other insulation materials, Pyrogel is being used more and
more for specific applications.

 Aluminum Foils
 Types of Heat Insulators Asbestos It is one of the best heat insulating material for big and small
applications alike. Insulating sheets made from asbestos mixing some clay in the presence of a suitable
binder are used for insulating boilers and also for bulk head lining in ships. Cork ' It is light weight external
tissue or bark of the oak tree, It has been found to be good heat insulator and is used much for the same
purpose
  1. Loose fill 2. Blankets 3. Batts 4. Structural insulation board 5. Slab or block insulation 6.
Reflective insulation 7. Sprayed-on 8. Foamed-in place 9. Corrugated insulations 6. Insulating
Materials .
 1. Loose Fill Usually it is bulky and can be divided into two main types; Fibrous Granular Fibrous
type is made from mineral wool, rock, glass or slag wool, or vegetable fiber – usually wood fiber.
Granular insulations are made from expanded minerals such as perlite and vermicullite or from
ground vegetable matter such as granulated cork. 2. Blanket Insulation Blanket insulation is
made from fibrous material, such as mineral wool, wood fiber, cotton fiber, or animal hair,
manufactured in the form of a mat. Mats are made in various thickness and cut in a variety of
widths, sometimes with a paper cover. 6. Insulating Materials

  3. Batts They are similar in basic manufacture to blankets, but they are restricted as to
length, usually being 1.2 m or less. Some are paper covered, some are made without a
cover and fit between framing members by friction (see Figure 6.1). 6. Insulating
Materials 9 total 49


Insulating Materials
What is Insulating Material/Electrical Insulating
Material?
The Electrical Insulating Material/insulating materials are the materials that
inhibit heat transmission, electric current, or noise. All the insulating
materials have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance and as
such resistivity is reduced with an increase in temperature. The function of
the insulator is very important without which no electrical machine can
work, the majority of the breakdown in the field of electrical engineering is
due to the failure of insulation. The importance of the insulating materials is
ever-increasing in day by day as there is an innumerable number of types
of insulators available in the market. The selection of the right type of
insulating matter is very important because the life of the equipment
depends on the type of material used.

What is Glass Insulator?

At high temperature, the glass insulators are designed or manufactured by
mixing the different types of materials, including quartz and lime powder,
and then cools in the mold. The main disadvantage of the glass insulator is,
compared to the other type of insulators the contaminations are observed
easily by the glass insulator and on the surface of the glass insulator, the
moisture can be distilled easily.

Properties
The properties of the glass insulator are
 Dielectric Strength: The approximate value of dielectric strength is 140
kV/cm.
 Compressive Strength: The approximate value of compressive strength is
10,000 Kg/cm².
 Tensile Strength: The approximate value of tensile strength is 35,000
Kg/cm².
Advantages
The advantages of the glass insulator are

 Compare to porcelain the dielectric strength is very high in a glass

insulator
 High resistivity
 The tensile strength is higher than porcelain
 It is cheaper than porcelain insulator
 Less cost
What is Polymer Insulator?
The polymer or polymeric insulator is also known as a composite insulator.
It is a light-weight insulating material and has high mechanical strength.
The disadvantage of the polymer insulator is if there is any unwanted gap
between weather shed and core their moisture may enter.

Properties
The polymeric or polymer insulator has excellent properties they are
hydrophobicity, lightweight, and anti-weather ability.

Advantages
The advantages of the polymer insulator are

 Compare to porcelain and glass insulator the polymer insulator is very

lightweight
 Installation cost is low
 Tensile strength is higher than porcelain
 Better performance
What is a Porcelain Insulator?
The porcelain insulator is an aluminum silicate insulating material. In the
present day, this material is used for the overhead insulator. The week in
tension and poor shock resistance is the disadvantages of a porcelain
insulator. The porcelain can also be called as ceramic. The applications of
this insulator are distribution and transmission lines, isolators, transformer
bushings, fuse units, plugs, and sockets

Properties
The properties of the porcelain insulator are

 Dielectric Strength: The approximate value of dielectric strength is 60

kV/cm.
 Compressive Strength: The approximate value of compressive strength is
70,000 Kg/cm². 
 Tensile Strength: The approximate value of tensile strength is 500
Kg/cm².
Advantages
The advantages of the porcelain insulator are

 Compared to glass insulator the mechanical strength of porcelain

insulator is very high
 Leakage current is low
 It is less affected by temperature
 Long life
 Easy to maintain
 Highly Flexible
 Highly reliable
Properties of  Insulating Material
All the insulators when used should not only behave as an insulator over a
wide range of electric voltage but must strong mechanically. They shouldn’t
be affected by heat, atmosphere, chemical effects and should be free from
deformation due to aging. Therefore before selecting an insulating material,
it is quite essential to know the various properties and their effects on
insulation. The various properties of insulating materials are electrical
properties, visual properties, mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties.

Electrical Properties
 The electrical properties of insulating materials are divided into two types
they are insulating resistance and dielectric strength. The insulating
resistance is again classified into two types they are volume resistance and
surface resistance. The factors affecting insulating resistance are
temperature, aging, applied voltage and moisture and the factors affecting
dielectric strength are temperature and humidity.
Visual Properties
The visual properties of insulating material are appearance, color, and its
crystallinity.

Mechanical Properties
Some of the mechanical properties which are to be taken care of while
selecting the insulating material are tension & compression, resistance to
abrasion, tear, shear & impact, viscosity, porosity, solubility, moisture
absorption, and machinability and mouldability.

Thermal Properties
The thermal properties of insulating material are melting point, flash,
volatility, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, and heat resistance.

Chemical Properties
The various chemical properties of insulating material are resistance to
external chemical effects, effects on other materials, chemical changes in
the material, hygroscopicity, and aging.

Classification of  Insulating Material

The classification of insulating material is based on the thermal
classification, physical classification, structural, chemical classification, and
the process of manufacture.

Thermal Classification
Thermally the insulators are classified into seven types or seven classes
they are class-Y, class-A, class-E, class-B, class-F, class-H, and class-C.

Class-Y
The class-Y limitation temperature is 900 C and the materials come under
class-Y are cotton, paper, silk, and similar organic materials.

Class-A
The class-A limitation temperature is 1050 C and the materials come under
class-A are impregnated paper, silk, polyamide, cotton, and resins.
Class-E
The class-E limitation temperature is 1200 C and the materials come under
class-E are enameled wire insulation on the base of powdered plastics,
polyvinyl epoxy resins, etc.

Class-B
The class-B limitation temperature is 1300 C and the materials come under
class-B are inorganic materials impregnated with varnish.

Class-F
The class-F limitation temperature is 1550 C and the materials come under
class-F are mica, polyester epoxide varnished in the high heat resistance.

Class-H
The class-H limitation temperature is 1800 C and the materials come under
class-H are composite materials on mica, glass, fiber, etc.

Class-C
The class-C limitation temperature is >1800 C and the materials come
under class-C are glass, mica, quartz, ceramics, Teflon, etc

The sound insulation property of building materials is the ability in the reduction of sound
across a partition. For a good conventional office building construction, the sound
insulation is experienced good when it is in the range of 45dB. This value can be explained
as follows. If the room creates a sound of 65dB, then the receiver sitting in the adjacent
room receives the sound at 20dB. This value is barely audible. Now if the level increase to
75dB, which is a raised voice, then the sound levels at the adjacent room will be 30 dB,
which is clearly audible. We must keep in mind that sound insulation gives the property of
how much sound is lost and not the sound regained within the room. The unwanted and
unexpected sound is always considered to be a noise and that really is a question of the
acoustic property of the building.

Acoustic Properties of Building Materials

In many cases help from an acoustic designer is required after the building construction is
complete and is occupied to high level of sound. The discomfort faced by the occupant residing
or using it, have to go for redesigning the building for noise insulation. So, it is always necessary
to have a pre-planning, mainly for the building constructions that are prone to noise disturbances.
Now being aware of the acoustic properties of building materials to some extent would help us to
have a right choice on the what material to be selected when acoustics is a concerned factor.
Some of them are explained below:

Acoustic Properties of Masonry, Concrete or Stone Materials

Mass and rigidity property are the two factors that make a material to be highly noise resistant.
The concrete wall is highly efficient than masonry. Masonry material made floor or wall do
perform appreciably. Massive materials like stone, concrete can stop high sound waves that are
less resistant to less massive materials. Concrete slabs do perform good in the sound insulation
activity.

Acoustic Properties of Wood and Related Products

These are less dense than masonry. They have a smaller performance in sound isolation. MDF
woods are more massive that are added to certain interior walls to increase the massiveness. The
most common material plywood, which is used in multilayer in interiors, to make it sound proof.
Mainly wood is used in rooms where perfect sounding is required. It can reflect sound which can
be considered as an important property for sound treatment. It resonates easily which promotes
absorption of sound, some of which pass through the material and some reflects. Therefore, these
are used in making of instruments.

Acoustic Properties of Steel

Based on performance and structure, steel is one of the best material for sound insulation.
Because of high cost, it has less application. It is highly dense and massive in nature. Steel carries
the sound through vibration within the material. This sound transfer is called as the structure-
borne vibration. The normal case is airborne vibration which is not appreciable.

Acoustic Properties of Glass & Transparent Materials

The glass is massive in nature. There is a new development of absorptive glass-like materials that
have the property to absorb more sound waves instead of reflecting. The material is made from
Plexiglas or transparent foil thinner in nature with tiny holes. Their application comes in sound
studios.

Acoustic Insulating Materials

Foam, fiberglass, rock wool etc. can be considered as the insulating materials we are familiar.
The fiberglass material gains higher sound absorption property. These materials absorb sound by
reducing the velocity of particles that carry the sound waves in the air. Under low velocity, the
pressure is high. Now wood materials absorb more sound at high pressure. Sound waves gain
higher pressure at room boundaries. So, care must be taken in the arrangement of boundaries or
walls. For multiple boundaries like dihedral or trihedral walls, the sound waves are at higher
pressures.

Acoustic Properties of Rubber and Plastic

The known materials are vinyl, neoprene etc. These materials are used to make low cost
economical acoustical devices. But their use is almost considered limited. They can be used
as mechanical isolators for floating glass, by preventing vibrations of the diaphragm to be
transmitted to the walls.
 Basically, an insulating material or insulator contains a very small amount of free electrons
(charge carriers) and, hence, could not carry electrical current. But, a perfect insulator does
not exist, because even insulators contain a small number of charge carriers which may
carry leakage current (negligibly small). In addition, all insulators become conductive when
sufficiently large voltage is applied. This phenomenon is called as insulation
breakdown and the corresponding voltage is called as breakdown voltage.
An insulating material must have high resistivity and high dielectric strength.
Additional desirable properties of insulating material depend on the type of applications.
Insulating material used for manufacturing insulated cables/wires must be flexible such as
rubber or PVC. On the other hand, insulator used to support overhead power lines must be
mechanically strong, such as porcelain or glass insulators.

Important Properties Of Insulating Materials

Resistivity (specific resistance) is the property of a material that quantifies how strongly
the material opposes to flow of electric current. Resistivity of a good insulator is very
high.
 Dielectric strength of a material is the ability to withstand electric stresses without
breaking down. Dielectric strength is usually quoted in kilovolts per millimeter (kV/mm).
 Relative permittivity (or dielectric constant) is the ratio of the electric flux density
produced in the material to that produced in vacuum.
 Electrical dissipation factor (dielectric loss) is the ratio of the power lost in the material
to the total power transmitted through it. It is given by the tangent of the loss angle and,
hence, also known as tan delta
 Some of the commonly used electrical insulating materials are paper, mica, teflon,
rubber, plastic, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), glass, ceramic, porcelain etc.

Characteristics of a Good Insulating Material

A good insulating material must possess the following features:

 High dialectic strength

 Great insulating resistance
 Uniform viscosity: it gives uniform thermal and electrical characteristics.
 It should be uniform totally: it keeps the electric wastes as small as
possible and electric stresses uniform under great voltage difference.
 Least thermal expansion
 When exposed to arcing must be non-ignitable
 Should be resistance to liquids or oils, acids, gas fumes, and alkalies
 Should have no deteriorating influence on the material, in touch with it
 Low dissipation coefficient (loss tangent)
  High thermal strength
 Large mechanical strength
 Great thermal conductivity
 Low permittivity
 Free from gaseous insulation to control discharges (for gases and
solids)
 Should be homogeneous to handle local stress concentration
 Should be resistant to chemical and thermal deterioration

 Electrical Insulators ' Following are the requisite qualities for an electrical insulator, A very poor
electrical conductivity i.e. a very high electrical resistivity Resistance to deterioration on heating
Very low thermal expansion Non-inflammable Chemical Stability at high temperature, High
Strength, hardness and resistance abrasion, to
 Rubber
 • Rubber It is one of the very common used electrical Insulator it has following Special properties
• Very low electrical conductivity High resistance to moisture and abrasion • High flexibility • High
Resilience.
 Electrical Insulators Paper
 • Paper is also classed among very useful insulators for common Use. • Insulation paper is
specially made without addition of fillers. When impregnated with oil, its properties as an insulator
get further improved..

Electrical Insulators Synthetic Resin

 These artificial materials have occupied a place of great importance in the field of electrical
insulation. They are available both in solid and liquid form among the solid product of cellulose
ester and phenolic vinyles etc are important Bakelite is an outstanding example of this group
 Electrical Insulators Porcelain
 ' It is a burnt mixture of Clay, feldspar and Quartz It forms an important group of insulating
material which are characterized with High Stability Sufficient Hardness Imperviousness to
moisture These properties make ceramic material more suitable for high Voltage Insulation,
switch boxes, condensers and other heating elements
 Electrical Insulators Glass

It is also an insulating material having many applications among the main qualities of glass may
be mentioned chemical inertness, stability at high temperature resistance to moisture. Cotton ' In
the form of cloth, cotton finds extensive use as an insulating cover, its properties are also
improved by impregnating it with oils and coating varnishes
Plastic as building material
1. Uses of plastics in façade panels, exterior covering,
carpentry etc.
Façade Panels
1. Sandwich panels covering with PVC (polyvinyl Chloride), plasticized plates and
polyurethane foams.
2. Sandwich panels - asbestos cement covering and polyurethane foam core
3. Sandwich panel – polystyrene foam core and various coverings
4. Sandwich panel – covering with polyester laminated sheet and polyurethane foam core
5. Sandwich panel – enameled iron covering and polyurethane foam core.
6. Sandwich panel – covering with polyester laminated sheet glued to asbestos cement and
polyesterene foam core.
Exterior covering
1. Polyester coated concrete by moulding from an existing plates.
2. Sprayed polyurethane with sand and gravel agglomeration.
3. Epoxy resins and polyesters on various supporting media
4. PVC plasticized plates (spraying, coating or adhesive films)
5. Polyester epidermis available as permanent shuttering
Weather Boarding
1. Polyester
2. PVC
3. Polymethyl methacrylate
Windows
1. PVC casing on metal moulding
2. Polyester laminated sheet on wooden moulding
3. PVC – chlorinated polyethylene compound
4. Methyl polymethacrylate
5. Polyester glass fibre and phenolic foam core
6. PVC/ wood
Rolling Shutters

1. Plasticized PVC extruded sections

 2. Rigid PVC extruded sections
3. Polyamide winding gear
4. Blinds and sunscreens
5. Polyester, PVC

2. Uses of Plastics in Interior Covering, Floors, Walls,

Ceilings, Doors, Partitions Etc
Interior Covering
a) Wall Lining
1. Adhering films – vinyl coated fabrics or paper vinyl sheet doubling on fabric or paper etc.
2. Sprayed lining polyurethane
3. Laminate - Melamine and phenolic plastics – polyester
4. Wall tiles – polystyrene, PVC – tiles or mosaic
5. Coating – polyvinyl acetate
b) Floor Covering
1. Asbestos plastic slabs (asphalt tile type)
2. Vinyl asbestos slabs
3. Homogeneous semi-flexible vinyl slabs
4. Flexible, homogeneous or multi-layered vinyl slabs.
5. Homogeneous vinyl carpets (a) stuck, (b) laid
6. Vinyl carpets on felt (applied or coating)
7. Multi-layered coating with cellular structure on fabrics
8. Multilayered coating on cork structure
9. Vinyl carpets on jute cloth.
10. Thermosetting resin based covering
11. Rubber covering
12. Synthetic fibre tensile covering (polyamides, viscose etc.)
Ceilings and Counter Ceilings
1. Translucent – polyester, PVC, polyamides, polyurethanes
2. Opaque, extruded polystyrene or vinyl copolymers, impact type polystyrene
3. Lighting – PVC, polymethylmethacrylate

3. Uses of Plastics in Roof Coverings, Tightness, Domes

and Lighting elements
Roof Covering
1. Flat or corrugated sheets – polyester, PVC, polymethylmethacrylate
 2. Curved sheets – reinforced polymer
3. Domes – polyester, polymethylmethacrylate
4. Casements – polymethylmethacrylate, reinforced polyester
5. Troughs – class / polyester
6. Gutters – Rigid PVC polyester
7. vii. Downpipes – PVC
Roof Tightness
1. Polybutylene with or without glass cloth armature
2. Butyl rubber
3. Multilayered bitumen with PVC film screens and armatures
4. PVC sheets
5. Welded polyester

4. Uses of Plastics in Sanitary Equipment and Piping

Sanitary Equipment
1. Appliances
2. Sinks – polymethylmethacrylate, polyester, polyamides
3. Basins – polyester, polymethylmethacrylate – polyester / glass fibre
4. Baths – polyester, polymethylmethacrylate
5. Showers – polymethylmethacrylate, polyester
6. Pipeworks – PVC, phenolics, ABS – terpolymer
7. Fittings – PVC and ABS – terpolymer – phenolic plastics
8. Traps – polyamides
9. Water – finishings – polystyrene and copolymers, polymer and copolymers, polyethylene
Insulation
Insulation materials and application of foams

1. Polystyrene
2. PVC
3. Phenolic
4. Formaldehyde urea
5. Polyurethane

5. Other Uses of Plastics in Buildings

Some noteworthy trends in use of plastics are given below:

1. Concrete and mortar with thermosetting resin bending agents

2. Thermoplastic and thermosetting resin covering applicable to facades and concrete
epidermis
 3. New roof covering and roof tightening materials (accessory covering materials, tightness
network), easy to place and standing up well to normal to wear
4. Large foam component units and new shaping techniques
5. Developing techniques for quick shaping of plastic into large components
6. Assembling and fixing processes more suitable for plastics
7. vii. New developments in sanitary equipment and piping, applying thermoplastic and
thermosetting resins.
8. New developments in the way of shuttering and of elements in permanent shuttering
Double glazed units dgu
A double glazing unit is a combination of two panes of glass
spaced apart with a spacer bar and sealed with a primary and
secondary sealant to form a single airtight unit with an air space in
between.

By combining two sheets of glass, we can offer solutions to a range

of different problems. These can include keeping the heat in your
rooms, stopping unwanted excessive heat from the sun, keeping
noise out or making your home more secure.

The basic function is possible thanks to a transparent coating on

one surface of the glass which reflects heat back into the building,
thereby reducing heat loss through the window.

In addition, the coating also allows large amounts of free solar

energy to enter the building, thereby heating it passively. Low-E
insulating glazing can therefore be a net contributor to energy in
buildings.

Components of double glazing

The double glazed unit (DGU), which fits within a window frame, is
comprised of seven components:

 A Spacer Bar – a frame that separates the two panels of glass, creating a cavity.
The spacer bar can be aluminium or warm-edge.
 Desiccant – a silicon material used in the spacer bar to dry up moisture trapped
within the cavity
 A primary seal – the main barrier to air or moisture migration into the double
glazed unit (DGU)
 The glass – clear, solar control, Low E, self-cleaning, acoustic, toughened,
laminated or a combination
 The secondary seal – the main structural adhesive around the outside edge of the
unit, holding all the elements together
 The cavity – the void formed between the component parts
 The gas fi lling the cavity – dehydrated air, argon, krypton or xenon.

Positioning of specialist glass within a double glazing window

A double glazing window has four faces.

Face 1 – the outer pane, atmosphere side
Face 2 – the outer pane, cavity side
Face 3 – the inner pane, cavity side
Face 4 – the inner pane, room side

It is important that specialist types of glass, such as Low E or self-cleaning, be positioned on

specific faces within the double glazing window when a window replacement is made. For
example:

 Self cleaning glass must always be positioned on the outer pane, with the coating
on phase 1.
 Solar control glass should be positioned on face 2 of the double glazing window.
 Low E glass can be used on either the inner or the outer pane - but the coating
must always be on face 2 or 3 of the unit.

BENEFITS OF OUR DOUBLE GLAZING

High-performance double glazing serving energy efficiency and light transmission.

The increase in strict environmental and thermal regulations and the desire to minimise

energy expenses are leading to the more generalised use of efficient thermal insulation and
solar gain glazing. Saint-Gobain double glazing solutions perfectly achieve these aims while
retaining a neutral and pleasant aesthetic appearance.

Our double glazed windows are specifically designed to reduce heat loss from homes and
buildings and gives many other benefits:

 WINTER COMFORT

Our low-E glass achieves the best Enhanced Thermal Insulation for double glazing. It
reduces heat loss to a minimum and maintains the internal face of the glazing at a
temperature close to that of the internal ambient temperature.

As a result, even in the middle of winter, the ambient temperature remains pleasant
immediately adjacent to the window.
 SUMMER COMFORT

With our glazing solutions, large glazed areas can be installed while limiting overheating.
Thanks to the glazing's very low solar gain, Saint-Gobain double glazed windows can reduce
overheating in the home. It is especially useful for sunny south- and west-facing rooms and
large glazed areas such as bi-fold or sliding glass doors. It allows you to have a connection
with the outdoors during summer, whilst maintaining a pleasant indoor temperature.

 VISUAL COMFORT

Limiting solar gain means there is less need for additional protection such as shutters,
blinds or curtains. With Saint-Gobain double glazing, large glazed areas can be installed and
the occupants can enjoy the high light transmission that this glazing allows.

 ENERGY SAVINGS

Rising energy costs and international environmental agreements mean that low-energy
consumption buildings are now the norm. We provide an ideal response to this need as it
delivers a high level of energy efficiency. Thanks to its thermal insulation performance, our
window glass minimises heat loss.

Additionally, thanks to its transparency, it transmits a high proportion of free solar gains that
contribute significantly to the building’s heating. The beneficial combination of these two
effects results in significant energy savings and, therefore, a reduction in CO2 emissions.

 ACOUSTIC COMFORT

There is a very broad range of solutions to match the level of noise attenuation depending
on the type of exterior noise level. The more the home is exposed, the more it is useful and
important to select glazing with high acoustic insulation. Double-glazing that includes
acoustic insulation laminated glass can reduce by a factor xx the noise entering the home
through closed windows.

 SAFETY COMFORT

Choosing glazing that delays breaking an entry will increase the safety of the entire family
while effectively preventing intrusion. Numerous burglaries involve breaking a window when
entering the property. Additionally, the occupants of the house are not protected in the event
of an accidental breakage (e.g., when children are playing), which can have dramatic
consequences. By installing laminated safety glass in the windows, the occupants are better
protected.

Privacy: Enjoy the natural light, keeping privacy in the area of the building where privacy is
important (e.g. bathroom).

Enhance your well-being by choosing our high performance double glazing solutions!

HOW IS DOUBLE GLAZING MADE?

A double glazing window comprises two panes of glass, separated by a spacer bar and
seals to create a hermetically-sealed environment. The cavity width between the two panes,
air or another gas filling used and the type of spacer bar, are all key factors in the unit’s final
energy, solar and acoustic insulation properties.

The cavity is filled under vacuum conditions with either dehydrated air or an inert gas to
improve insulation and prevent condensation within the unit. Depending on the gas filling
used and the type of window, the cavity width for a double glazing window is generally
between 4 to 20 mm. 

The recommended cavity width for Low E energy saving double glazing window when filled
with dehydrated air is 16mm – and 14mm when the cavity is filled with argon gas. 
The cavity width requirements for acoustic insulation glazing depend very much on the
specific insulation requirements and need to be advised on a case by case basis.

difference between float glass and laminated glass

Float Glass
Float Glass (also called Annealed Glass) is used as a base product to produce other types of
glass such as Toughened Glass or Laminated Glass. It is manufactured by allowing the
molten glass to cool slowly in a controlled environment. Once produced, float glass is cut to
the required size, before undergoing further manufacturing processes such as tempering.
Float glass if broken, will shatter into sharp-edged shards. Thus, for safety reasons, special
care should be taken when considering using this product. Usually, this glass is suited for
smaller applications such as cabinet glass doors, basement windows, tabletops, mirrors and
more. Float glass is relatively cheap in comparison to other glass types such as Toughened
glass.
Float Or Annealed Glass
Float glass also called as flat glass is annealed glass (not tempered or heat strengthened) and is produced
by controlled cooling to prevent residual stress in the glass. Float glass is high quality like sheet glass with
good optical clarity like plate glass and can be cut, drilled, machined, edged, bent and polished
Key Properties of Float Glass:

 High degree of light transmission

 Ability to be produced in a range of colors
 Ability to be produced in a range of opacities
 Good chemical inertness
  Attacked by hydrofluoric (HF) acid

Applications
Building industry

Float glass is used for smaller windows in domestic housing, whereas larger windows are made from
toughened glasses. Glass is used for windows for both aesthetic and functional purposes, allowing
the occupants to see out and at the same time allowing light in.
Commercial Glazing
Float glass is becoming more and more popular in commercial applications. It allows structures to be
constructed and gives the impression of being outside with the benefits of being inside protected
from the elements (except the sun).
Glass is also playing an increasing role in buildings where it provides an attractive and easy to
maintain exterior surface. It should be noted that most glass used for this application is subject to a
post heat treatment toughening process before use.
In an era when a lot of attention is being shone on environmentally friendly practices in the
workplace and in domestic settings, considering the materials used in construction for large
commercial buildings is key.
In this application, several design factors are involved apart from aesthetics. Factors such as light and
heat transmittance can play a big role in glass selection as they will influence the amount of heating
and cooling that will be required inside a building according to the differences in seasons and
climates. Having better control over heating and cooling in a building can have significant effects on
the environmental and financial impact running a building can have.

Laminated Glass
Laminate Glass is made of two sheets (or more) of glass, usually Toughened Glass. The
sheets are laminated or bonded together using a plastic interlayer. Laminate glass is available
in various thicknesses, and different combinations of glass can be used to create a laminated
glass panel.
The interlayer helps keep the glass panel together as one, even when broken. As a result,
there is reduced risk of injury due to broken glass. Due to its strength and durability,
laminated glass can be used for glass floors, glass balustrades, external glass in areas with a
high risk of natural disasters such as hurricanes and security reasons.
Laminate Glass also significantly improves sound reduction when a suitable sound interlayer
is used - called Acoustic Glass (Acoustic Glass uses the same production principles as
Laminated Glass). Laminate Glass is more expensive than Toughened Glass. For more
information .
Laminated Glass
Laminated glass consists of two or more glass permanently bonded together with one or multiple layer of
polyvinylbutyral (PVB). Used most commonly when safety is paramount. When broken, the glass pieces
tend to adhere to plastic (PVB) layer. It is recommended to use toughened glass with Lamination.
Toughened laminated glass invariably has waviness. This is due to glass process limitation

Laminated Glass   

What is laminated glass?

Laminated glass is made of two pieces of regular or tempered glass sandwiched around a layer of
clear plastic film (PVB). The set of glass is treated through a process intended to expel air pockets
and then it is heated for an initial round of melting. After this, the glass is heated under pressure to
create a finished bound product. Laminated glass can be made stronger by adding layers making the
end product thicker.
The plastic layer of the film does give the glass a stretchable quality but don’t imagine the glass
stretching like a rubber band. The laminated glass has just enough give and stick in it to hold the
glass in place if it were to break.

What does laminated glass do?

When laminated glass was originally invented it was designed for use in car windshields to reduce
the number of injuries in car accidents. If the glass is dealt with a high-intensity impact, one side of
the glass can shatter without causing the other side to shatter. Even if the glass does break on either
side the pieces will stay together resulting in a spider-web pattern.
Some additional benefits of laminated glass are that it reduces transmission of high-frequency sound
(soundproofing) and it blocks 97% of ultraviolet radiation. One major benefit is that laminated
glass with minor impact damage can be repaired with a special clear adhesive resin.

Where is laminated glass used?

In addition to being found in vehicles, laminated glass is also commonly used for the windows of tall
buildings, skylights, balconies, and frameless glass railings. At Brennan, homeowners that live near
an airport or golf course often request laminated glass. 

IPS FLOORING
IPS flooring also known as Indian patent stone flooring, it is a basic type of flooring
which provides good wearing properties & asthetic appreance.

It is generally used for all types of floors and mix of concrete used for IPS flooring
specification is 1:1.5:3 (cement, sand and stone aggregates).

As per the nature of use, we take the flooring thickness of concrete is decided from 25
mm to 50 mm.

When it is laid over the concrete base (1:4:8)mix ratio it is equivalent to the thickness of
3–4 inches of Plain Concrete Cement (PCC) base.

(VDF)You can decide the thickness of the IPS flooring as per the requirement of work; in
residential floor 75 mm floor thickness is sufficient whereas industrial floor thickness
should be kept 150 mm.

IPS FLOORING: INDIAN STYLE CONCRETE FLOORING (Indian Patent Flooring)

 It is normal type of Concrete flooring and cheapest method of flooring.

  Generally it is a better substitute of Tile, granite and Marble flooring.

 IPS flooring stands for Indian patent stone flooring, it is a basic type

of flooring which provides good wearing properties. It is generally used for all types

of floors and mix of concrete used for IPS flooring specification is 1:1.5:3 (cement,

sand and stone aggregates)

Few of the important specification of IPS Flooring

IPS flooring Mix: Not less than 1:2:4 (Cement: Sand: Concrete)

IPS Flooring Thickness: Minimum 25 to 75 mm

PREPARATION WORK BEFORE IPS FLOORING

 Prepare the sub-base by watering and ramming and ensuring no loose material are left.

Level the surface and stone soling layer of 150mm to 230 mm to be provided as per the

requirement.

 It is recommended to provide adequate slope in Plain cement concrete (PCC) in a base

course as it will not be possible to maintain slope in IPS layer due to limited thickness.

 Door frames should be fixed prior to flooring work

PROCEDURE OF IPS FLOORING

 First of all make reference level on the wall transfer this marking to all location where

flooring to be done with help of water level tube.

 Ensure there is no air bubble present in water and then it is exactly matching the water

level while keeping both end together. Reference mark is to be transferred on all across

the flooring area and it should be marked permanently with the help of line marker.

 Flooring thickness level to be marked and dummy level dots provided in every 1 or 2

meter ensuring required slope of flooring.

  After proper setting of these dummy concrete dots. Concrete in specified mix should be

poured in panels to minimize shrinkage cracks. The size of panel should not exceed

more than 3 square meters for indoor and 2 square meter for outdoor flooring.

 Glass, aluminum or brass strip are fixed in cement mortar with their tops at proper level

according to slope and allowed to harden for minimum 36 hours.

 After pouring of concrete, surface to be leveled with a Straight Edge and finished with a

wooden float or trowel.

 The final toweling should be done before the concrete has become hard and sufficient

pressure is required to make firm impression on the concrete surface.

 There should not be any mark left on the finished surface and care should be taken that

no cement slurry spread on the surface.

 If glossy or smooth IPS flooring surface required then neat cement punning, 2 to 3 mm

thick is spread over the IPS concrete surface and allowed to soak into the concrete. The

surface is finished with metal trowel 3 to 4 times to give surface a glossy look.

 For curing of IPS concrete flooring surface pond or wet Hessian clothes are spread over

surface for 15 days.

 If required, Vacuum dewatered machine to be used for big work to give surface smooth

and better finish. This not only prevents concrete surface cracks but also increase the

abrasion resistance of IPS concrete surface.

 Further to avoid surface cracks, polyurethane fibers are added to concrete, in small

portion. This type of concrete is also called Ferro cement concrete.

 The casting of concrete flooring in panels to avoid shrinkage cracks and work as

expansion joint. Therefore it is advisable to use Tremix flooring especially when large

areas like platform surface, pavements and industrial flooring are to be done.

PLASTICIZERS

Plasticizers are generally colorless liquids which are relatively nonvolatile. In other words,
plasticizer is a substance that is added to the material to make it softer and more flexible.
Plasticizers are commonly added to polymers such as plastics and rubbers, to facilitate the
handling of the raw materials during fabrication.
Introduction to Plasticizers (Water Reducing Agents):
The essence of good quality concrete is the requirement of right workability. Under
different situations concrete of different degree of workability is needed. A high degree of
workability is required in situations like deep beams, thin sections with high percentage
of reinforcement, beam and column junctions, pumping of concrete, tremie concreting,
hot weather concreting etc. The conventional methods of improving workability are by
improving the gradation or increasing the quantity of fine aggregate or by increasing the
cement quantity.

In the field there are limitations and difficulties to obtain high workability under the given
set of conditions. In the field in most of the cases generally extra water is added to the
concrete unmindful of its ill effects on the properties of the concrete. The use of extra
water is very harmful and should never be used. The use of extra water will not improve
the inherent good quality such as cohesiveness and homogeneity of the mix, which
reduces the bleeding and segregation of the concrete.

The purpose and usage of plasticizer are as follows ;

 Used to convert a rigid plastic into a soft, flexible and elastic material.
 Increases the plasticity nature of the mix to decrease its viscosity.
 It imparts flexibility to resin and minimizes film cracking
 It is also used as an air entraining agent.
 It decreases the water/cement ratio and gives high strength.
 It helps in improvement of workability of the mix.

The uses are :

 Concreting in weather conditions when maintaining workability for a while is tough.

 High strength concreting.
 Reduction in cement content.
 Mass concreting (workability needs to be maintained for quite a while).
 Pumping concrete.
 Pozzolan concrete (substitution of cement with pozzolans calls for lower w/c to
compensate the reduction in strength)
 Reduction of shrinkage in concrete (shrinkage directly depends on the water content).
 Pre-stressed concrete (shrinkage is significantly undesirable)
 Corrosion resistance.
 Permeability reduction.
  Durability enhancement.
 Pile foundation construction (concrete needs to be workable and strong to be poured into
the bore)
 Underwater concreting (low w/c is desired underwater. Also, concrete is generally poured
into the sea and not cast on the land and then installed)
 Generally following materials are used as plasticizers:
 1. Ligno sulphates and their derivatives and modifications, salts of sulphonates
hydrocarbons.
 ADVERTISEMENTS:

 2. Polyglycol esters, acid of hydroxylated carboxylic acids and their derivatives

and modifications.
 3. Carbohydrates.
 Out of these materials, sodium, calcium and ammonium ligno sulphates are most
popular. The amount of plasticizers used varies from 0.1% to 0.4% by weight of
cement. At constant workability, the reduction in mixing water by the use of 0.1 to
0.4% of plasticizer is expected from 5% to 15%, which naturally increases the
strength. At the same water/cement ratio, the increase in workability may range
from 30 mm to 150 mm slump depending upon the initial slump of concrete, type
of cement, content of cement and dose of the plasticizer.
 A good plasticizer produces fluidity in concrete or mortar in a different way than
that of an air entraining agent. However some plasticizers also entrain some air
along with improving the workability. A good plasticizer should not entrain air in
concrete more than 1 to 2% as air entrainment reduces the strength of concrete.

HARDNERS :FLOOR HARDNERSA powder material which is a combination of high strength

cement,hard aggregates and chemicals used for providing an integral floor finish to provide
better abrasion and impact resistance compared to plain cured concrete.

Definition - What does Hardener mean?

A hardener is a component of certain types of mixtures. In some mixtures a hardener
is used simply to increase the resilience of the mixture once it sets. In other mixtures
a hardener is used as a curing component. A hardener can be either a reactant or a
catalyst in the chemical reaction that occurs during the mixing process.
A hardener may also be known as an accelerator

Corrosionpedia explains Hardener
Hardeners are almost always necessary to make an epoxy resin useful for its
intended purpose. Without a hardener, epoxies do not achieve anywhere near the
impressive mechanical and chemical properties that they would with the hardener.
The correct type of hardener must be selected to ensure the epoxy mixture will meet
the requirements of the application. Research should always be done on both the
resin and the hardener to make sure the final epoxy mixture will perform
satisfactorily. Common examples of epoxy hardeners are anhydride-based, amine-
based, polyamide, aliphatic and cycloaliphatic.
Hardeners are used to cure epoxy resins. However, simply adding a hardener to an
epoxy resin may not cause the epoxy mixture to cure quickly enough. If this is the
case a different hardener may be required. Also, hardeners with certain additives
can be used. These hardener additives serve as catalysts that speed up the curing
process.

MELAMINE

 Melamine used as parts of paints & varnishes • also used as fertilizer • It used as flame
retardant material • used as sound absorbing material.

Varnish
Varnish is a solution of resin in either oil, turpentine or alcohol. It dries after applying,
leaving a hard, transparent and glossy film of resin over the varnished surface.

Varnish is applied (1) to the painted surface to increase its brilliance and to protect it
from the atmospheric action and (2) to the unpainted wooden surface with a view to
brighten the ornamental appearance of the grains of wood.

Composition of Varnishes:
The ingredients of varnish are:

1. Resins
2. Solvents
3. Driers
(i) Resins
Commonly used resins are copal mastic, amber gum and lac. Quantity of varnish
depends much upon the quality of resin used. Copal is considered to be the best,
toughest, hardest and is very durable for external work.

(ii) Solvents
These must suit the resins used. Boiled linseed oil us used to dissolve copal or amber,
turpentine oil for common resin or mastic, methylated spirit for lac. Wood naphtha,
because of its offensive smell is not suited for superior works and is used only for
cheap varnish.

(iii) Driers
These should be added only in small quantities as an excessive injures varnish and
impairs its durability. Litharge or lead acetate are the commonly used driers in varnish
added to accelerate drying process.

THE QUALITIES OF GOOD VARNISH

1. It should be dry quickly
2. On drying it should form a hard, tough and durable film.
3. It should have good weathering properties, resist abrasion and wear well.
4. It should be able to retain its colour and shine.
5. It should be uniform and pleasant looking on drying.

Different kinds of Varnishes:

Based on the different solvents used, varnishes are classified under the following
categories:

Oil Varnish
These are made by dissolving hard resins like amber or copal in oil. They are slow to
dry but are hardest and most durable of all varnishes. There are suited for being used
on exposed surfaces requiring polishing or frequent cleaning and for superior works.

Turpentine Varnish
These are made from soft resins like mastic, common resin is dissolved in turpentine
oil.

Spirit Varnish
Varnishes in which spirit is used as a solvent as known as spirited varnish or French
Polish. Shellac is dissolved in spirit and the product is applied in a thin layer. This
varnish gives a transparent finish thus showing the grains of the timber. These
however, do not weather well and as such are used for polishing wood work not
exposed to weather.
 Water Varnish
They consists of lac dissolved in hot water with borax, ammonia, potash or soda just
enough to dissolve the lac. Varnish so made withstands washing. It is used for
painting wall paper and for delicate work.

VARNISHING
Clean and dry surface of wood work is given a cost of thin and clear hot solution of
glue to which a little brown earth and ochre is added if the wood is of oily nature and
the varnish does not dry on it. It is rubbed down smooth and is second coat of thin
clean glue with necessary quantity of burnt sienna is applied. It is rubbed with fine
sand paper and a coat of varnish is then applied to the surface. Second coat of varnish
should be applied when the firs one has dries and rubbed down smooth with sand
paper.

WROUGHT IRON

Uses of Wrought Iron:

1. It is used for pipe making due to its superior corrosion and fatigue resistance and
better welding and threading qualities.
ADVERTISEMENTS:

2. It is used for making bars for stay bolts, engine bolts and rivets etc. because
properties demanded in these applications are corrosion and fatigue resistance.
3. For making plates.
4. For making special chains and crane hooks due to its good weldability and high
impact strength.
5. It is also used extensively for general forging applications.
 wrought iron is used for the decoration of items like table base, curtain rods, candle holder, etc.
 used for making bolts, nuts, rivets, etc.
 chains are made with wrought iron.
 fences and gates are good applications of wrought iron.
 it is used for making pipes.
 crane hooks can be made of this metal.
 it used for making handrails
 carpenter tools are made of this material.
 forging find great interest in this metal. finally,
 wrought iron is used in making railway couplings.
 Chemical Composition of Wrought Iron

Element Content

Iron (Fe)
99.00% – 99.80%

Carbon (C) 0.05% – 0.20%

Silicon, (Si)
0.02% – 0.12%

Sulphur, (S) 0.02% – 0.18%

Phosphorus (P)
0.05% – 0.20%

Manganese, (Mn) 0.01% – 0.10%

Properties of wrought iron

Wrought iron is an iron obtained from smelting pig iron with a very low carbon of not less than 0.08. It
is tough, malleable, ductile, corrosion-resistant, and can be easily welded. The term wrought means
the ability to be hammered, rolled, or otherwise worked while hot enough to expel molten slag. It is
fatigue resistant because of its toughness and it contains less carbon than cast iron which makes it
softer and more ductile.

Wrought iron is highly refined with a small amount of slag forged out into fiber. It contains 99% of iron,
making it easily undergo forging, bending, and drawing process. The followings stated below are the
properties of wrought iron:

 excellent weldability
 ductility
 did not affect heat treatment. that is, cannot be hardened by heating and quenching.
 malleability
 high tensile strength
 high compressive strength
 can be forged easily, and finally,
 cannot take sudden loads.
 Wrought Iron Is A form of Iron With A Very Low Carbon Content (0.25%) In Contrast To
Cast iron (2.1% to 4%). "Grain" Resembling Wood, Is Visible When It Is Bent To The
Point Of Failure. Wrought Iron Is Tough, Malleable, Ductile And Easily Welded. Purest
form of iron in which the total impurities do not exceed 0.5%. Wrought iron is much more
expensive to produce than cast. Most wrought iron work are joined by riveting. MAJOR
EXAMPLE ARE- 1. Iron pillar at Delhi, India, containing 98% wrought iron. 2. The Eiffel
tower
 29. PROPERTIES •It can be used to form temporary magnets but cannot be magnetised
permanently. •It fuses with difficulty. • high elasticity and tensile strength •Unaffected by
saline water. • If pulled apart, the fracture shows a fibrous break. • Capable of bearing 24
tons per square inch ultimate tensile strain, & 20 tons of compression and shearing. .
 30. In fencing In main entrance gates In railings As balusters USES • Used for rivets,
chains, ornamental iron work, railway couplings, bridges, water and steam pipes. •
Roofing sheets, corrugated sheets. • It is manufactured for bolts and nuts, horse shoe
bars, handrails, straps for timer roof trusses, boiler tubes, roofing sheets, etc.

Float glass
 Float glass is sheet glass made by floating molten glass on a bed of molten tin. This
method gives the glass uniform thickness and a very flat surface. Float glass is more
commonly known as window glass. Because it is inexpensive and sometimes free, it
is often used in the glass fusing process. The molten glass spreads onto the surface of
the metal and produces a high quality, consistent level sheet of glass that is later heat
polished. The glass has no wave or distortion and is now the standard method for
glass production; over 90% of the world production of flat glass is float glass.

The phrase “to float” means “to be buoyant”. And this is basically the principle on which
the float glass manufacturing process is based. In the float glass process, molten glass is fed
onto a float bath of molten tin. This tin bath is 4-8 meters wide and up to 60 meters long. To
prevent the tin surface from oxidizing with the atmospheric oxygen, the tin bath is placed
under a protective gas atmosphere. This atmosphere must be carefully controlled since its
composition is instrumental for the properties of the contact surface between the glass and the
tin which, in turn, influence the thickness of the glass sheet.
The glass floats like an endless ribbon on the tin. At the entrance where the glass first makes
contact with the tin surface, the temperature of the liquid metal is about 600oC. Tin is the
only metal that remains in a liquid state at 600oC.
Immediately after the exit from the float chamber, special rollers take up the glass and feed it
into the annealing lehr from which it exits at about 200oC. After cooling to room temperature
on an open roller track, it is cut, packed, and stored either for shipment or for further
processing into products such as safety glass, reflective glass, self-cleaning
glass, mirrors or double glazed or multi-glazed units.
Float glass can be made in thickness between 1.5 to 20mm. There are two techniques to
accomplish this. To produce thin float glass, rollers control the width and speed of the glass
ribbon. For thick float glass, the glass floats against graphite barriers, so that the ribbon flows
out thicker. Thus the desired widths and thicknesses can be achieved.
While each glass plant is different from the other, the float glass production process can be
divided into five universal steps:

1. Batching of raw materials:

The main components, namely, soda lime glass, silica sand (73%), calcium oxide (9%), soda
(13%) and magnesium (4%), are weighed and mixed into batches to which recycled glass
(cullet) is added. The use of ‘cullet’ reduces the consumption of natural gas. The materials
are tested and stored for later mixing under computerised control.

1.Batching of raw materials:

The main components, comprising silica sand, calcium oxide, soda & magnesium
are weighed and mixed into batches to which recycled glass (cullet) is added. The
use of ‘cullet’ reduces the consumption of energy. The materials are tested and
stored for mixing later under computerized control.
The superior clarity offered by Saint-Gobain Clear Glass, is a result of purity in raw
materials, precision in composition and strict adherence to high quality standards in
the manufacturing process. The company has a dedicated sand beneficiation plant
in Tada where silica sand (to be used in manufacturing) is purified, and excess iron
content is removed from the material.

2. Melting of raw materials in the furnace:

The batched raw materials pass from a mixing silo to a five-chambered furnace where they
become molten at a temperature of approximately 1500°C.
The batched raw materials pass from a mixing silo to a five-chambered furnace where they
become molten. Temperatures in the furnace reach upto 1600°C

3. Drawing the molten glass onto the tin bath:

The molten glass is “floated” onto a bath of molten tin at a temperature of about 1000°C. It
forms a ribbon with a working width of 3210mm which is normally between 3 and 25mm
thick. The glass which is highly viscous and the tin which is very fluid do not mix and the
contact surface between these two materials is perfectly flat.

3.Drawing the molten glass onto the tin bath:

The molten glass is then "floated" onto a bath of molten tin at a temperature of about
1000°C. It forms a “ribbon” which is normally between 5 and 6 mm. By suitably
drawing the glass through a complex process involving top roll machines, ribbon
thickness in the range of 1.9mm to 19mm can be achieved. The glass, which is
highly viscous, and the tin, which is very fluid, do not mix and the contact surface
between these two materials is perfectly flat, giving the term “flat” glass to the final
product

4. Cooling of the molten glass in the annealing lehr:

On leaving the bath of molten tin, the glass – now at a temperature of 600°C – has cooled
down sufficiently to pass to an annealing chamber called a lehr. The glass is now hard
enough to pass over rollers and is annealed, which modifies the internal stresses enabling it to
be cut and worked in a predictable way and ensuring flatness of the glass. As both surfaces
are fire finished, they need no grinding or polishing.

4. Cooling of the molten glass in the annealing lehr:

On leaving the bath of molten tin, the glass - now at a temperature of 600°C - has
cooled down sufficiently to pass to an annealing chamber called a lehr. The glass is
now hard enough to pass over rollers and is annealed, which modifies the internal
stresses, enabling it to be cut and worked in a predictable way and ensuring flatness
of the glass. As both surfaces are fire finished, they need no grinding or polishing

5. Quality checks, automatic cutting, and storage:

After cooling, the glass undergoes rigorous quality checks and is washed. It is then cut into
sheets of sizes of up to 6000mm x 3210mm which are in turn stacked, stored and ready for
transport.

5. Quality checks, automatic cutting, and storage:

After cooling, the glass undergoes rigorous quality checks. It is then cut into sheets
of sizes varying upto a maximum of 6000mm x 3660 mm which are, in turn,
automatically stacked, stored and ready for transpor

Applications

1. Float glass is used for glazing wherever full transparency is required in buildings.

2. It is used as a base material for safety glass, reflective glass and self-cleaning glass,
among others.

It can be used in precision mechanics, especially where extreme surface flatness is required.
E.g., for visual displays.
 MIXING,LAYING,COMPACTING OF CONCRETE

Compaction of Concrete
 
Once the concrete has been placed, it is ready to be compacted. The purpose of compaction
is to get rid of the air voids that are trapped in loose concrete.
Compaction, especially around steel bars and the corners of the work work should be carried
out using vibrators. Good compaction is necessary for getting strong concrete.

Why is compaction of concrete necessary?

It is important to compact the concrete fully because:
 Air voids reduce the strength of the concrete. For every 1% of entrapped air, the strength
falls by somewhere between 5 and 7%. This means that concrete containing a mere 5% air
voids due to incomplete compaction can lose as much as one third of its strength.
 Air voids increase concrete’s permeability. That in turn reduces its durability. If the
concrete is not dense and impermeable, it will not be watertight. It will be less able to
withstand aggressive iquids and its exposed surfaces will weather badly.
 Moisture and air are more likely to penetrate to the reinforcement causing it to rust.
 Air voids impair contact between the mix and reinforcement (and, indeed, any other
embedded metals). The required bond will not be achieved and the reinforced member
will not be as strong as it should be.
 Air voids produce blemishes on struck surfaces. For instance, blowholes and
honeycombing might occur.
Summing up, fully compacted concrete is dense, strong and durable; badly
compacted concrete will be porous, weak and prone to rapid deterioration. Sooner or
later it will have to be repaired or replaced. It pays, therefore, to do the job properly
in the first place. Stiff mixes contain far more air than workable ones. That is one of
the reasons why a low-slump concrete requires more compactive effort than one with
a higher slump – the compaction needs to continue for a longer time, or more
equipment has to be used.
Even air-entrained concrete needs to be compacted to get rid of entrapped air voids.
The difference between air voids and entrained air bubbles should be noted at this
stage. The air bubbles that are entrained are relatively small and spherical in shape,
increase the workability of the mix, reduce bleeding, and increase frost resistance.
Entrapped air on the other hand tends to be irregular in shape and is detrimental to
the strength of the mix. It is to remove this air that the concrete must be properly
compacted. There is little danger that compaction will remove the minute air bubbles
that have been deliberately entrained, since they are so stable.

Methods of Compaction of concrete

Vibration:
To compact concrete you apply energy to it so that the mix becomes more fluid. Air
trapped in it can then rise to the top and escape. As a result, the concrete becomes
consolidated, and you are left with a good dense material that will, after proper
curing, develop its full strength and durability.
Vibration is the next and quickest method of supplying the energy. Manual
techniques such as rodding are only suitable for smaller projects. Various types of
vibrator are available for use on site.

Poker Vibrators
The poker, or immersion, vibrator is the most popular of the appliances used for
compacting concrete. This is because it works directly in the concrete and can be
moved around easily.
MIXING
1.2 SELECTION OF MIX PROPORTIONS In designing the SCC mix, it is most useful
to consider the relative proportions of the key components by volume rather than by
mass [9]. The following key proportions for the mixes listed below [15], [9], [13] and
[7]: 1. Air content (by volume) 2. Coarse aggregate content (by volume) 3. Paste
content (by volume) 4. Binder (cementitious) content (by weight) 5. Replacement of
mineral admixture by percentage binder weight 6. Water/ binder ratio (by weight) 7.
Volume of fine aggregate/ volume of mortar 8. SP dosage by percentage cementitious
(binder) weight 9. VMA dosage by percentage cementitious (binder) weight
2. PLACING OF CONCRETE  After mixing of concrete it should be placed within 30min of
adding of water.  It should be quickly transported to the place of lying by means of iron
pans manually, in wheel barrows, by pumping or by cranes.  In placing, concrete should
be laid in thin layers. Each layer being thoroughly consolidated, before the next one is
laid.
3. 36. PLACING OF CONCRETE  Concrete should not be dropped from a height as it
would cause segregation of aggregates.  In case concrete has more of water or it has
been laid in thick layers then on compaction water and fine particles of cement comes at
the top forming a layer of weak substance known as laintance

Hand mixing  In this type , the mixing is done by manual labors.  This method is
adopted for small construction works .  Requirement of cement is more than machine
mixing (10%).  Normally the mixing time is about 3 minutes.

 Machine mixing  Types of machine mixing 1. Manual mixer 2. Electrical mixer 3. Fuel
mixer
 1. Mixing• All concrete Should be mixed thoroughly until it is uniform in appearance with all
ingredients evenly distributed.• Mixing can done by• 1.Hands(using hand shovels)•
2.Stationary Mixers• 3.Ready mix concrete• 4.Mobile batcher (Continuous mixer)……..
2. 4. Mixing By Hands• Mixing ingredients of concrete by hands using ordinary tools like,
hand shovels etc.This type of mixing is done for Less output of concrete. Mixing by
hands• Laborious• Disturb the Properties of Concrete• Wastage of time hence not
economical
3. 5. Mixing By Hands
4. 6. 2.Stationary Mixers• Concrete is sometime mixed at jobsite in a stationary mixer
having a size of 9 cubic meter or 12 cubic yard.• These mixers may be of Tilting as well
as of non tilting drums.• Many specifications require a minimum mixing time of one
minute plus 15 seconds for every cubic meter (yard)
5. 7. 2.Stationary Mixers

TEXT BOOK PHOTO STAT

APPLICATION OF DISTEMBER TO NEW AND OLD PLASTERED

SURFACES .

Step-1. Surface Preparation

(a) New Surface Preparation:
 If you want to paint a newly plastered surface, allow it to cure
completely. As per the manufacturer recommendation, allow it cure for
28 days for new masonry. Preferably allow moisture to dry completely
for 3 to 6 months period depending upon local climate or where there is
high humidity.
 Remove the loose particles, dust, dirt, grease, wax, mortar dropping, etc.
using wire brush or putty knife.
 Then wipe off the whole surface using a dry cloth.
(b) Old Surface Preparation:
 If the distemper is to be applied on the existing painted surface, first
remove the loose particles, dust, dirt, grease, wax, mortar droppings,
growth of fungus, algae, dampness, etc. with the help of a putty knife or
wire brush.
 Rub the old surface thoroughly with sandpaper. Wash the entire surface
and allow it to dry fully.
 Fill the holes and cracks (upto 3 mm) with the putty and allow it for
hardening.
 Sand the wall with the sandpaper to get a smooth surface and wipe off
the dust with dry cloth.
 Step-2. Application of Wall Putty
 Apply one coat of primer before the application of wall putty and allow it
to dry overnight. Some putty manufacturers recommend the application
of primer coat before putty and some do not. Follow the manufacturer’s
instructions as it might be governed by the quality and specifications
of wall putty.
 Apply the first coat of wall putty in a vertical “bottom to top” manner by
using a putty blade/spatula/ trowel or any finishing tool.
 Allow it to dry for minimum 6 to 8 hours.
 After drying of the first coat of wall putty, gently rub the surface
with sand paper to remove the loose particle and uneven surfaces
 After finishing the first coat, start applying the second coat of wall
putty.
 Leave the surface dry completely for 8 to 12 hours. After complete
drying of second coat, rub the surface very gently to remove
unevenness using sand paper.
 The minimum thickness of the coats should be limited to
maximum 1.5 mm. If it is thicker, it may peel off or will crack later
on.
 Drying time may vary according to the temperature variation,
humidity and thickness.
Step-3. Application of Primer Coat
 Once the putty is applied on the wall, the primer coat is applied to ensure
a good bond between distemper paint and the surface and create a
better finish. Primer coat provides the foundation for the paint job and
increases the coverage of the paint.
 Apply first coat of primer with brush or roller and leave it dry. After
the drying of the first coat of primer, apply the second coat and
leave it for 8 to 12 hours to dry.
Step-4. Application of Distemper Paint
 Dilute the paint as per the dilution ratio as recommended by the
manufacturer.
 After the application of primer coat, apply the first coat of distemper
paint with the help of a brush or a roller and leave it to dry for minimum
of 12 to 16 hours. After the drying of the first coat of distemper paint,
apply the second coat and allow it to dry overnight.
 Sound proofing materials

Types of Soundproofing Materials

These are the most used soundproofing materials; each category has
different best use scenarios. Each of these acoustic materials falls into one
of these categories: Sound Absorbing, Sound Insulation, Sound
Dampening, and Decoupling.

 Acoustic Foam – This material, commonly called Studio Foam, has a

distinctive wedge or pyramid shape that is highly effective at
absorbing sound. They attach to walls as panels, hang from ceilings
as baffles, or sit in corners as bass traps.
 Sound Insulation – Sound insulation are batts made of mineral
wool, rock wool, and fiberglass, designed to fit in between the studs
of walls. The batts fit snugly between studs to take up airspace that
can transmit sound.
 Acoustic Panels/Boards – These are decorative versions of sound
insulation and sound absorbing foam. They can come in many
appealing colors, patterns, and fabrics to serve a dual purpose in the
home and workplace.
 Acoustic Fabrics – Acoustical fabrics are thicker and heavier than
other fabrics and used in theater curtains, blackout curtains, and
studio blankets.
 Acoustic Coatings – Materials like Mass Loaded Vinyl (MLV) is a
dense rubber like material, used in many different situations such as
car soundproofing, machinery, appliances, and as an underlayment.
The mass of the material acts as a sound barrier.
 Floor Underlayment – Soundproofing a hardwood or tile
floor requires the decoupling of the flooring surface and the
subfloor to reduce the noise transmission. Cork rolls, felt, and
polymers are commonly used as underlayment materials.
 Architectural Soundproofing – This group includes anything used
in the structure of a building, such as soundproof windows,
 soundproof walls, doors, and decoupling products used to install
them.

1. Acoustic Foam (Auralex Studiofoam Wedges)

Amazon

Best Use: For improving the sound in small to medium rooms, like
recording studios, control boardrooms, and even small home theaters.

 NRC: 0.8
 Size: 12”x12”x2”
 Colors: Charcoal, Burgundy
Auralex is a well know acoustic foam brand that has dozens of foam
shapes and sizes that are perfect for musicians, recording artists,
podcasters, and home theater lovers. Studiofoam is their most popular
product, and the 2” wedges are the best sellers. They also make the killer
LENRD bass traps for your corners.

Studiofoam Wedges have an NRC rating of 0.8 and the anechoic wedge
can significantly cut down reverberation, slap, and flutter. The 2” panels
are Class-A fire-rated per ASTM E-84.

Use 3M Command strips, hook and loop strips, or spray adhesive to

mount the foam to your room’s walls and ceiling. If you ever plan on
moving them, it’s highly recommended to use the removable type of
adhesive strips to make removal easier.

2. Sound Absorbing Foam (Pro Studio Acoustics Tiles)

Amazon
Best Use: Use as an alternative to the Auralex panels. They offer multiple
attractive colors to break up with the charcoal that looks great in any
room.

 NRC: 0.65
 Size: 12”x12”x2”
 Colors: Charcoal with Blue, Red, Teal, and Purple
Pro Studio wedges are made in the USA from a high-quality acoustic foam.
The wedges can be installed on walls where noise reflection is a problem,
or as ceiling tiles to cut down echo and reverberation. Pro Studio foam is
no comparison to the cheap “egg crate” variety foam.

Most people use the Pro Studio Acoustic foam panels for absorbing sound
in both home and professional use. The bright colors liven up theater
rooms, gaming rooms, voice booths, and studios while absorbing sound
and killing echoes.
3. Acoustic Panels (ATS Acoustics)

Amazon

Best Use: Acoustic panels are best for rooms where the appearance of
wedge and pyramid foam is undesirable. The wood framed panels look
more like a decoration or large picture frame than a sound absorbing
panel.

 NRC: 1.0
 Size: 24”x48”x2”
 Colors: Beige, Black, Burgundy, Ivory
For rooms where foam just won’t cut it visually, acoustic panels are there
to fill the void. ATS panels are constructed with Roxul ABF mineral wool
and a solid wood frame. They finish off the panel with an all jute fabric
cover to make it a great looking piece.
All that’s left is to hang them on the wall with the included hardware.  It’s
important to note the ATS Acoustic panels are sold as single panels, but
you can always buy multiple panels at one time to save on shipping costs.

4. Acoustic Curtains (Utopia Thermal Blackout Curtains)

Amazon

Best Use: Blackout curtains are good for reducing the noise coming in or
getting out from windows and doors. Use them in a bedroom, home
theater, nursery, or wherever a little quiet is needed.

A typical acoustic curtain uses quality, heavyweight, plush fabrics

combined soundproofing materials like mass loaded vinyl to dampen
sound and reduce echo. While these curtains are usually special-order
products, the best alternative for home is to buy quality, heavyweight
blackout curtains
For the home, acoustic curtains are meant to improve the sound in a
room, as opposed to blocking sound from leaving or entering. Our favorite
acoustic curtains are the Utopia Bedding Blackout Curtains. For more info,
check out our guide to acoustic curtains for home theaters.

Further Reading: Industrial noise can be controlled with the installation

of sound curtains. These curtains are made of quilted fiberglass or
Rockwool layers, sandwiched over mass loaded vinyl. These curtains are
stiffer than most and hung on frames making them mobile and easy to
surround a particularly noisy piece of equipment or area.

5. Moving Blankets (Sure Max Heavy Duty)

Amazon

Best Use: Good, thick moving blankets can be used for some sound
absorption when budgets are tight.
Moving blankets have long been used for purposes other than moving
furniture. The thick plush fabric of a blanket like the Sure Max Heavy Duty
blankets can be used to absorb sound. You can hang them on the walls,
over windows and doors, and even enclose a sound booth for recording.

The Sure Max blankets are made from plush cotton batting and polyester
backing and weigh over 5 pounds each. They don’t have grommets for
easy hanging, but the materials are pretty good for some cheap sound
absorbing setups.

6. Door Sealing Gasket & Sweep Kit

Amazon

Best Use: Foam gaskets are a great cheap material for filling in space on
door frames where noise loves to leak in and out of rooms.
Gaps between the door jam and door are prime paths for unwanted noise
to travel. Compressible foam gasket material helps seal up the gap and
absorb some of the sounds. The door sweep portion is to seal up the floor
section of the door, especially on hard floors.

It’s just one piece of the puzzle when it comes to soundproofing doors,
however. A cheap hollow door is still going to transmit sound even with a
gasket and door sweep, so problem areas may need acoustic curtains or
blankets added to be effective.

Soundproofing Insulation
Soundproofing insulation is used in buildings and homes to reduce the
amount of sound transmitted to other parts of the building. Mineral wool
and fiberglass are the most common materials. It’s a relatively easy and
cost-effective way to improve the soundproofing of a room.

7. Mineral Wool (Roxul Rockboard)

Amazon

Uses: Rockboard is a rigid, fire-resistant mineral wool insulation used for

both acoustic and thermal insulation best used in residential and
commercial buildings.

 NRC: 0.8-1.1 depending on the thickness

 Sizes: 24” x 48” x 2”-4” thick
 Density: 8 lb/ft^3
Rockwool Rockboard is an awesome insulation board product ideally
suited for improving the acoustic insulation of homes and buildings.
Mineral wool is a natural material, and you can even earn LEED points for
its installation. It’s rigid, easy to cut to shape, and is moisture and fire
resistant up to 2150°F.

Another use of Rockwool is to make your own acoustic panels and bass

traps. All you have to do is build a wood frame, fit the Rockwool boards,
and cover it with a nice fabric.

Rockwool Safe’N’Sound is a great alternative to Rockboard is a high-

performance soundproofing insulation material, ideal for soundproofing
walls and ceilings. It’s soft and flexible, making it easy to tightly stuff the
batts into standard stud wall cavities. Unlike other types of soundproofing
insulation, Safe’N’Sound is not available online.
8. Soundproof Fiberglass (Owens Corning 703)

Amazon

Uses: Owens Corning 703 fiberglass boards are commonly used for
making acoustic panels for home studios, commercial buildings, churches,
and theaters.

 NRC: 1.0 beginning at 300kHz

 Sizes: 24” x 48” x 2” thick
 Density: 3 lb/ft^3
703 fiberglass boards are great for taming high-frequency noise in home
theaters, recording rooms, and any other place the acoustics need to be
improved. 705 boards work better at the low frequencies needed for a
bass trap.

Build your own wood frames and space them around the room, and
above offending noise sources. If you have to cut the boards, remember
to handle this product with care, as fiberglass is an irritant and you should
use the proper personal protective equipment.

Sound Dampening Materials

The mass and density of these materials dissipate sound and reduces the
amplitude and energy of the noise. Sound damping materials come in the
form of mats, rolls, sprays, and paints and help kill vibrations, rattles, and
overall dissipation of noise.

9. Mass Loaded Vinyl (Dynamat Xtreme)

Amazon

Uses: Rolls of MLV like Dynamat Xtreme and Noico can be used to noise-
proof cars, machinery, and appliances. Their flexible nature and adhesive
backing make it easy to cover almost any surface.

 Reduces road noise

 Kills vibration and rattles
 Enhances high-end stereo performance
Dynamat Xtreme is the gold standard when it comes to automotive
soundproofing. They are sold in bulk packs of sheets as well as a variety of
kits specific to doors, trunks, and speaker boxes.
Dynamat should be installed directly onto the metal body of the vehicle
and is completely hidden once the car trim is put back together. The
aluminum backing layer also reflects heat, keeping your car cool.

Noico Sound Deadening Mats are a great cheap Dynamat alternative.

It’s .080” thick with an embossed aluminum liner. The embossing acts as a
visual indicator of whether the sheet has been installed properly when
rolled flat there won’t be wrinkles.

10. Floor Underlayment (Roberts Super Felt)

Amazon

Uses: Use quality underlayment to reduce sound transmission of

hardwood and engineered floors.

 Size: 360 sq feet

  Thickness: 4 mm
 STC Rating: 66
 IIC Rating: 67
Roberts Super Felt underlayment is an excellent choice for noise-proofing
a floor, especially with laminates, hardwoods, and engineered wood. The
felt is made from recycled fibers, compressed and heat treated to form a
rich sound absorbing material.

The roll of material has adhesive strips on one side, you simply lay it down
over the subfloor with a 1-3/4” overlap. There is a built-in vapor barrier, so
no need to worry about moisture or smells absorbing into the felt.

Roberts Super Felt is a great product to enhance the feel and sound
reduction qualities of your new floor installation. It’s tough, goes down
easy, and is simply a great soundproofing product.
11. Sound Deadening Spray (DEI Boom Mat)

Amazon

Uses: Spot treatment in cars and trucks, fill in gaps between mats, and
apply over noisy machinery.

 Coverage: 20 sq ft
This sound deadening spray is the liquid spray version of mass loaded
vinyl sheets, and DEI Boom Mat is one of the best. One container covers
up to 20 square feet and is perfect for covering those difficult to access
areas of doors, trunks, and compartments. Spray those areas the mats
can’t reach for the ultimate car soundproofing performance.
12. Sound Deadening Paint (Acousticoat Paint)

Amazon

Soundproof paint has been called “a myth”, but let’s look at this group of
soundproofing materials and you can decide. Soundproofing paints on the
market can be rolled on, or sprayed on. Paints can only be applied in thin
layers, so spraying will allow a thicker coat and is the recommended
method of application.

Since we know that soundproofing relies on mass to block and absorb

sound, you can expect that soundproof paint will not be the magic bullet
to your noise problem. But, the paint manufacturers have claimed you will
realize a 3-7 STC point increase from using their product.

Sound Decoupling Products

To soundproof a room or any other structure, you need to decouple the
materials that transmit the sound, such as the walls, ceiling, floors,
and doors.

13. Noiseproofing Compound (Green Glue)

Amazon

Green Glue products are all the rage in soundproofing materials today.

Green Glue Compound and Green Glue Sealant come packaged in the
familiar caulking style dispensing tubes, making it extremely easy to apply
in your project.

Green Glue Noiseproofing Compound is used as a sound dampening

material in the construction of soundproof walls. When applied between
layers of drywall, it can dissipate the sound vibrations that pass-through
walls and the floor.
Green Glue Sealant is used to seal holes, seams, and gaps in walls,
ceilings, and open spaces like around electrical boxes, fixtures, and screw
holes. These open spaces can be the weak link in your soundproofing
project. A sealant will fill in those spaces and reduce noise leakage.

14. Resilient Channel

Amazon

Resilient Channels are specially designed sheet metal rails that are
mounted across the studs of walls and ceiling joists. They lay over the
soundproofing insulation, and the drywall is attached not to the studs, but
directly to the resilient channels. Studies have shown that the typical
experience is a gain of up to 5 STC levels when properly installed into a
ceiling or wall.

This arrangement may look strange, but in practice, it acts as a sound

shock absorber of sorts. Rather than the sound being transferred through
the standard rigid wall assembly, it is absorbed and redirected by the
resilient channels.
15. Soundproof Drywall

Soundproof drywall is like sheetrock on steroids. It combines multiple

layers of gypsum board, and layers of material like steel, to increase its
mass and density and thereby blocking sound. This increase in mass and
density can greatly improve STC ratings when soundproofing a room,
or soundproofing walls. While soundproof drywall is more expensive, it
may be worth the investment when you consider a potential performance
upgrade

16. Soundproof Windows

These specially designed windows are constructed of several thick panes

of glass, usually with a layer of air or inert gas trapped in between to
prevent sound waves from leaking indoors.

Soundproof windows are most often installed right over the top of the
existing window, using spring-loaded frames on tracks. If you live in a big
city, the reduction of outside sounds transmitted into your living or
working area can be dramatic and could easily justify their cost.

FRENCH POLISH AND MELAMINE

French polishing is a wood finishing technique that results in a very high gloss surface, with
a deep colour and chatoyancy. French polishing consists of applying many thin coats of
shellac dissolved in denatured alcohol using a rubbing pad lubricated with one of a variety of
oils.

French Polishing
French polish is the application of a solution of shellac dissolved in alcohol. This
provides a fast-drying finish which forms a hard film on the timber, although it is not
resistant to heat, water or solvents and any of these will cause damage over time, it
does provide better protection than just a wax finish.

French polish is a traditional finish for timber with a long history of use usually
associated with a high gloss finish. Most modern varnish finishes provide a superior
finish which won’t be damaged by heat, water etc, but french polish does represents
a tradition finish which no other finish can match.
French polish is available in several colours:

 White polish. Bleached shellac is used to make this white polish, before application it
is cream coloured. This opaque, milky appearance is the result of the natural waxes
that are found in shellac. If a number of coats of this white polish are applied, the final
finish will appear slightly greyish in colour. The main use of this white French polish is
as a sealer to bare timber prior to the application of a wax polish finish.
 Transparent polish. This is, in effect, white polish with the natural waxes removed,
the resulting french polish has a pale amber colour. This is used where the colour of
the timber needs to be retained without an appreciable change; transparent French
polish is therefore excellent for mixed species work.
 Garnet polish. This is the darkest of the French polishes being a rich chestnut brown
colour. Although this is ideal for applying to dark timber (e.g. mahogany, rose-wood
and walnut etc), it is not suitable where the original colour of timber needs to be
preserved.
 Button polish. This is another dark French polish although not as dark as Garnet
polish. The colour is more honey gold hue than garnet’s chestnut brown. Like the
garnet polish, it tends to cover the colour of the original timber but does give an
alternative colour finish.

Application of French Polish

French polishing does require some skill although the basics can be picked up fairly
quickly – the bigger skills, which takes more practice to acquire, is French polishing
small surfaces (i.e. thin table legs rather than the table top).

This article does not cover all the aspects of french polishing, but hopefully gives
enough basic information for a novice to start. The skills of french polishing do
require practice, patience and attention to detail.

French polish should always be applied in a clean, dust free, warm, and dry
environment – this should ensure that the polish can be applied cleanly and will dry
quickly and without blemishes. Excess moisture in the environment can lead to a
‘bloom’ appearing in the finish as moisture is absorbed by the polish and becomes
trapped.

There are four main stages to french polishing: staining, grain filling, bodying, and
spiriting.

Staining

If required, the timber should be stained first using a solvent stain and allowed to
fully dry.

Grain filling

When a mirror polish finish is required, the grain of the timber must first be filled to
reduce its absorption rate. The simplest method to fill the grain is to use a shellac-
based ‘sanding sealers’. A sanding sealer contains a very fine powder which will fill
up the grain.
Follow the instructions of the sanding sealer – usually the solution needs to be well
stirred before use, so that the fine powder is in solution. The sealer is brushed onto
the surface of the timber and into the grain, it is important to avoid a heavy build-up
of the sealer on the surface as this will just involve additional work later to remove it.
After the sealer has been allowed to dry out, the surface of the timber is then very
lightly sanded with a very fine sandpaper to remove any filler about the surface.

Run the tips of your fingers over the surface of the timber to check the smoothness –
if you can still feel the grain, apply another coat of sanding sealer and rub down
again.

Two applications of sanding sealer should be enough to fill the grain in most types of
timber, but if necessary additional layers can be applied and lightly sanded off.

Bodying

Bodying is the process of building up layers of French polish to give a high gloss on
a surface which has been sealed by grain filling.

Thin layers of French polish are applied to the timber

Thin layers of French polish are applied to the timber using, what is known as, a
‘rubber’ which is just a simple, ‘homemade’, pad.

A rubber is just a pad of wadding within a piece of cloth. The qualities

of the cloth greatly influence the finish of the polish which can be achieved; for best
results, the cloth must be a very fine weave and thin enough to allow a free flow of
polish through it – a piece of cotton curtain lining, sheet or handkerchief are ideal.

The wadding is placed in the centre of a square of cloth, then the corners pulled up
around the wadding into a pear shape. The shape of the rubber is also important as
this will affect its behaviour when applying the French polish – there needs to be a
point at the front which will allow the rubber to get into awkward corners etc.

For large areas the technique normally requires repeated application of layers
applied in three stages:

1. small figures of 8,
2. large figures of eight,
and
3. straight strokes.
Each stage follows on from the previous without allowing the polish to dry out on the
timber; it is only after the straight stokes that the polish is allowed to dry enough for
the next layer of polish to be applied in its three stages.

For narrow areas the technique normally requires repeated application of layers
applied in two stages:

1. circular
followed by
2. straight strokes.

Again each stage follows on from the previous without allowing the polish to dry out
on the timber; it is only after the straight stokes that the polish is allowed to dry
enough for the next layer of polish to be applied in its two stages.

MELAMINE

Two of the most popular transparent/natural wood finishes are melamine and PU(Polyurethane).
Melamine and PU are both synthetic hydrocarbon polymers which form a film over the wood surface
that is coated, thus laminating it. The purpose of lamination is to preserve the wood by not allowing
the moisture of the wood to escape, preventing it from damage from the elements and protecting it
from wear and tear from use. Both finishes enhance the aesthetics of the wood by allowing light to
refract inside the transparent layer formed by them. Both the finishes have a similar application
procedure by spray. So, what is the difference between the two?

The main difference is in the life of the coatings and its resistance to the elements.

Melamine was a great improvement over wood polish as a transparent wood finish when it
was introduced in the Indian market in the late 80s and the 90s and is popular to date due to its
economy. But melamine has its limitations. The film formed by melamine is only moderately resistant
to water. It deteriorates when exposed to sunlight. The film easily yellows and looses lustre. The film
begins to crack at the wood joints over time.

With the advent of polyurethane (PU) in the late 90s, most of the shortcomings of melamine were
covered. PU forms a tougher film than melamine. It is more scratch resistant. It is flexible and does
not crack with the movement of the wood joints. It is UV resistant and can be used on woods that are
used in exteriors, such as entrance doors and windows. It does not yellow easily and gives a high
lustre. The lustre is also retained longer due to its UV resistance.

PU gives clear advantages over melamine as the application procedure remains the same for both
and there is no new skill required to apply PU. Thus the work involved takes the same time and effort
on part of the applicator.

Consider wood finishing as a one time investment as reworking of wood finishes takes up lot of
resources, skill, time and money. Go for the best coating for your expensive teak or other exotic
woods as it will not only preserve the wood but also enhance its aesthetics.
Some things to note when applying Melamine or PU
Melamine or melamatt polish as it is popularly known among the painting contractors is usually
sprayed over French/hand polished surfaces, which is not the intended procedure of application.

A study of melamine shows that for all intents and purposes, as in PU, was not originally developed
as a wood coating. It is a product of innovation and adaptation that these products are used as wood
coatings. The adaptation requires a specific application procedure for the product to perform as a
wood coating. These application procedures are grossly ignored by applicators and contractors.

A damaged French Polished door

Applicators apply generous coats of French polish and NC Based Sanding sealers as a preparation
for the final coating by melamine or PU. They do this as their skill set for colour matching of wood is
based on French polish techniques.

The melamine and PU films often fail as the solvents in the French polish and NC sealers are not
compatible with solvents used in PU and melamine coatings. Also, the solvents in the French polish
applied under transparent coatings are exposed to light and begin to evaporate and cause blisters in
the polymer film formed over it.

It is thus highly recommended that application of French polish be avoided when any such coatings
are applied. Wood coated by French polish has its own charm and should not be over coated by
polymer coatings.

There are much simpler and compatible colour matching techniques for melamine and PU using wood
stains, which we shall discuss in another post.

How to apply Melamine polish?

 Sanding is a must to smoothen the rough surfaces. 
  Apply one coat of sealer to increase the adhesion of melamine. It takes about 12
hours to dry.
 Sanding with water paper is done to remove excess sealer and give a smooth
base.
 Spray the first coat of melamine after being mixed with solvent and hardener. 
 Resanding with smooth water paper after drying.
 Spray the final coat of melamine
Thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers 
are types of plastic that undergo different production processes and yield a variety
of properties depending on the constituent materials and production method. The
terms thermoplastic and thermoset stand for how a material is or can be processed
under a changed temperature [1].
The main physical difference is how they respond to high temperatures. When
heated to their melting point, thermoplastics soften into a liquid form. Therefore,
the curing process is reversible, which means that they can be remoulded and
recycled. On the other hand, thermoset polymers form a crosslinked structure
during the curing process, preventing them from being melted and remoulded.

As an analogy, think of thermosets like concrete, once they have set, they can

never go back to the liquid form (irreversible process). While thermoplastics are
like water, it can transition between ice and water with the application or
removal of heat (reversible process).
Here, you will learn about:

 What thermoplastics and thermosets are

 What crosslinking is and how it differentiates thermoplastics from thermosets
 Properties of thermoplastics and thermosets
 Processing of thermoplastics and thermosets
 Materials and relevant technological applications
What are thermoplastics?
A thermoplastic is a resin that is solid at room temperature but becomes
plastic and soft upon heating, flowing due to crystal melting or by virtue of
crossing the glass transition temperature (Tg). Upon processing, usually via injection-
moulding or blow-moulding-like processes, thermoplastics take the shape of the
mould within which they are poured as melt, and cool to solidify into the desired
shape. The significant aspect of thermoplastics is their reversibility, the ability to
undergo reheating, melt again, and change shape. This allows for additional
processing of the same material, even after being prepared as a solid. Processes
such as extrusion, thermoforming, and injection moulding rely on such resin
behaviour. Some common thermoplastic materials include polyethylene
(PE), polycarbonate (PC), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
However, like any other material, thermoplastics have their limitations. If subjected
to extremely high temperatures, the material may unwantedly soften, deform, and
lose some of its physical properties [2].

What are thermosets?

A thermosetting resin, or thermosetting polymer, is generally a liquid material
at room temperature which hardens irreversibly upon heating or chemical
addition. When it is placed in a mould and heated, the thermoset solidifies into the
specified shape, but this solidification process includes the formation of certain
bonds, called crosslinks, that hold the molecules in place and change the basic
nature of the material, preventing it from melting. As a result, a thermoset, as
opposed to a thermoplastic, cannot return to its initial phase, rendering the process
irreversible. Thermosets, upon heating, become set, fixed in a specific form. During
overheating, thermosets tend to degrade without entering a fluid phase. Processes
such as compression moulding, resin transfer moulding, pultrusion, hand lay-up,
and filament winding depend on thermosetting polymer behaviour.  Some common
thermosets include epoxy, polyimide, and phenolic, many of which are significant in
composites [2].
What is crosslinking (curing)?
Thermosets and thermoplastics differ in various ways in terms of their behaviour,
but all those diverging properties result from an underlying, fundamental difference
in their chemical structure. This underlying difference can be noticed in how
thermoset resins, throughout the length of their polymer chain, have particular
spots that can be chemically activated to be part in chemical bonding reactions with
neighbouring polymer molecules. Since all thermosets carry such chemically
reactive spots, it is often the case that all kinds of thermosets have the tendency to
connect to one another. Such a process of forming chemical links across different
thermosetting molecules is called crosslinking (or curing). Upon curing, formed
crosslinks not only confine the polymer molecules from moving, but also the atoms
inside those molecules are impeded to a greater degree than intermolecular
attractions.
Another way of observing the behavioural difference between thermosets and
thermoplastics is via their molecular weight. As we compare both polymer types,
thermosets stand out in how their molecular weight drastically increases upon
curing. Thermoplastics are known to have higher molecular weight values
than uncured  thermosets. However, when crosslinking occurs between two
thermosets, a polymer network is formed of molecular weight almost double the
weight when the two were separate. As the number of linked molecules increase,
the molecular weight continues to rise, exceeding that of thermoplastics. This
drastic increase in molecular weight causes major changes in material properties,
such as an increased melting point. With a continuous increase in molecular weight
due to crosslinking, the melting point can rise and reach a point that exceeds the
decomposition point. In that case, a thermoset polymer would have a very high
molecular weight that it would decompose before it can melt, which defines why
thermoset processing is irreversible [2].
Properties of thermoplastics vs thermosets
Thermoplastics generally provide high-strength, flexibility and are resistant to
shrinkage, depending on the type of resin (the polymer in melted liquid form). They
are versatile materials that can be used for anything from plastic carrier bags to
high-stress bearings and precision mechanical parts.

Thermosets generally yield higher chemical and heat resistance, as well as a

stronger structure that does not deform easily.

Here is a list showing the difference between thermoplastics and thermosets in

terms of features and properties. Notice the effect of crosslinking as an underlying
factor in diverging those materials from one another.

Table 1: Thermoplastics vs thermosets [3]

Feature/
Thermoplastics Thermosets
Property

Network polymers: high level o

Molecular Linear polymer: weak molecular
crosslinking with strong
structure bonds in a straight-chain formation
chemical molecular bonds

Melting point lower than the Melting point higher than the
Melting point degradation temperature degradation temperature

Flexible and elastic. High resistance to Inelastic and brittle. Strong and
Mechanical impact (10x more than thermosets). rigid. Strength comes from
Strength comes from crystallinity crosslinking.

Addition polymerisation: Polycondensation

Polymerisation repolymerised during manufacture polymerisation: polymerised
(before processing) during processing

Comprised of hard crystalline and Comprised of thermosetting

Microstructure elastic amorphous regions in its solid resin and reinforcing fibre in it
state solid state

Size is expressed by crosslink

Size Size is expressed by molecular weight
density
 Recyclable and reusable by the
Recyclability Non-recyclable
application of heat and/or pressure

Chemical Highly chemical resistant Heat and chemical resistant

resistance

Crack repair Cracks can be repaired easily Difficult to repair cracks

Process thermal Melting thermoplastics is Crosslinking thermosets is

aspect endothermic exothermic

Service Lower continuous use temperature

Higher CUT than thermoplastic
temperature (CUT) than thermosets

Do not dissolve in organic

Solubility Can dissolve in organic solvents
solvents

Processing of thermoplastics vs thermosets

Thermoplastic processing
Thermoplastics can be processed in a variety of methods including extrusion
moulding, injection moulding, thermoforming and vacuum forming.

Granular material is fed into the mould, usually in the form of spherical granules of
approximately 3 mm diameter. These granules are then heated to melting point,
which requires very high temperatures.

As thermoplastics are highly efficient thermal insulators, cooling during the curing
process takes longer than other plastics. Therefore, rapid cooling is undertaken to
achieve a high output rate, usually by spraying with cold water or plunging into
water baths. To cool thermoplastic plastic films, cold air is blown onto the surface.
The plastic shrinks upon cooling, varying between a shrinkage rate of 0.6% to 4%
depending on the material. The rate of cooling and shrinkage has a distinct effect on
the crystallisation of the material and internal structure, which is why the shrinkage
rate is always specified for thermoplastics.

Thermosetting polymer processing

Thermosetting resins are processed in their liquid form under heat. The curing
process involves adding curing agents, inhibitors, hardeners or plasticisers to the
resin and reinforcement or fillers, depending on the required outcome.

The most commonly used thermosetting resins include:

 Epoxy
 Polyester
 Phenolic
 Silicone
 Polyurethane
 Polyamide
Thermosetting polymer composites processing
Thermosetting polymer composites are made using a laminating process, which
binds together resins such as epoxy, silicone, melamine, etc. with reinforcement
base materials such as glass, linen and graphite.

Prior to curing, the reinforcement substrate is dipped into the resin binder in its
liquified form. Once bound, the sheets of material are passed through an oven to
partially cure them. Several sheets are then piled to the required thickness, heated
and pressed together to form a laminate. Alternatively, the sheets may be wrapped
together and heated to create rods.

Thermoplastic and thermosetting materials and their

applications
Types of thermoplastics and their applications

Thermoplastic Properties and applications

Tough and relatively hard material

used for power tool casings, curtain
Polyamide (nylon) rails, bearings, gear components and
clothes

Stiff, durable and hard plastic that

Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA, polishes to a sheen, used for signage,
acrylic) aircraft fuselage, windows, bathroom
sinks and bathtubs

Tough and durable material that is

commonly used for pipes, flooring,
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) cabinets, toys and general household
and industrial fittings

Light, yet hard material that scratches

Polypropylene
fairly easily, with excellent chemical
 resistance, used for medical and
laboratory equipment, string, rope
and kitchen utensils

Light, stiff, hard, brittle, waterproof

Polystyrene (PS) material used mainly for rigid
packaging

Very strong and flexible material used

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE, for non-stick cooking utensils,
Teflon) machine components, gears and
gaskets

Tough, relatively soft, chemical

Low-density Polythene (LDPE) resistant material used for packaging,
toys, plastic bags and film wrap

Stiff, hard, chemical resistant material

High-density Polythene (HDPE) used for plastic bottles and casing for
household goods

Types of thermosetting polymers and their applications

Thermoset Properties and applications

Hard material that is brittle without extra

Epoxy resin reinforcement. Used for adhesives and bonding
of materials

Hard, stiff and strong, with decent chemical

Melamine formaldehyde  and water resistance, used for work surface
laminates, tableware and electrical insulation

Hard, stiff and brittle when unlaminated. Used

Polyester resin for encapsulation, bonding and casting

Hard, stiff, strong and brittle used primarily in

Urea formaldehyde electrical devices due to its good electrical
insulation properties
 Hard, strong and durable material used in
Polyurethane paint, insulating foam, shoes, car parts,
adhesives and sealants

Strong, heat and electrical-resistant material

Phenol formaldehyde resin used in electrical items, sockets and plugs, car
(PF) parts, cookware and precision-made industrial
parts

3. Types of Plastics:
They are two types of Plastics.

1. Thermoplastics
2. Thermoset Plastics or Thermosetting Plastics
3.1. Thermoplastics:
By heating the polymer, if it turns soft, then it is called as Thermoplastic material. At room temperature,
they are available in the form as Solids.
A thermoplastic is a plastic material that becomes moldable above a specific temperature and solidifies
upon cooling. In this article, I will be explaining the top 10 properties of thermoplastic materials in a
detailed manner.
3.1.1.  Top 10 Properties of Thermoplastic Material:
1. By heating the polymer, it turns as soft material.
2. It is available in the form of solids at Room temperature.
3. It is a recyclable process.
4.  Thermoplastic material in the form of solid is converted into Thermoplastic material in the form
of liquid which is done by the action of heating and the Vice-versa also takes place in another
direction.
5. Loses Strength: By heating the thermoplastic material it loses its strength.
6. Gains strength: By the action of cooling, the thermoplastic material gains strength.
1. Shape change: During cooling only, the thermoplastic material changes its shape.
2. Temperature: The servicing temperature of thermoplastic material is 150°C.
3. Structure: The thermoplastic material exhibits Linear structure i.e. -CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-
4. The thermoplastic material is hazardous to the environment which is less when compared to the
thermoset and rubber.
3.1.2.  Thermoplastic Examples: 
 Polyethylene
 Poly Vinyl Chloride(PVC)
 Teflon
3.2.  Thermosetting Plastics or Thermoset Plastics:
 By heating the polymer, if it turns hard, then it is called as Thermosetting plastic material. At room
temperature, they are available in the form as liquids. Thermosetting plastics or Thermoset plastic are
synthetic materials that strengthen during being heated but cannot be successfully remolded or reheated
after their initial heat-forming called as Thermoset material.
3.2.1  Properties of a Thermosetting Plastic material:
1. By heating the polymer, it turns as hard material.
2. It is available in the form of liquid at Room temperature.
3. It is a Non-Recyclable process.
4. Thermoset in the form of liquid is converted into Thermoset material in the form of solid which is
done by the action of heating and its Vice-versa is not possible.
5. Gains strength: By the action of heating, the thermoset plastic material gains strength.
6. No change in the strength of the thermosetting plastic is done by the action of cooling.
7. Shape change: During heating only, the thermoset material changes its shape.
8. Temperature: The servicing temperature of a thermoset plastic material is 300°C.
9. Structure: It exhibits a Cyclic structure.
10. It is hazardous to the environment which is more when compared to the thermoplastic and less
than the rubber.

Types of Plastics-Properties of Thermosetting

Plastics,Thermoplastics & Glass Cutting
1. Plastics:
Plastics are also called as Polymers. They are made up of carbon, hydrogen and sometimes oxygen,
chlorine, nitrogen, fluorine, sulfur, phosphorus or silicon. Majority of the times, polymers are made up
of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen only.
 It is a low-density polymer and thereby it possesses lightweight.
 It is Anti-Corrosive in nature.
 It has low strength.
 These chains are called polymers and that is why many plastics begin with “poly,” such as polypropylene,
polyethylene, and polystyrene.
2.  Properties of Plastics (11) or Polymers: Properties of plastics or polymers play a vital role in the field
of Mechanical Engineering. When you want to apply any type of load on a particular member, you need to
know its material properties, density, etc. For that, in this article, I am exploring the necessary properties of
polymers in a detailed manner.
Properties of Plastics or Polymers:
The Properties of Polymers or plastics which are essential to know for any mechanical engineer are as
follows:

1. Bond: It possesses a Covalent bond.

2. Strength: The strength of the polymer is low when compared with Metals.
3. Binding Energy: The formation of C, H&O atoms forms a polymer. The distance between the
atoms is more when compared with metals and thereby the Binding energy is low.
4. Ductility: It possesses good ductility also.
5. Conductivity: The polymers possess bad electrical conductivity because of the absence of free
electrons.
6. Thermal Conductivity: The polymers possess bad thermal conductivity.
7. Density: The polymers possess low density which means that the weight of the polymer is less and
this is one of the advantages of polymers.
8. Corrosiveness: The polymers are Anti-Corrosive to the environment.
9. Servicing Temperature: The servicing temperature of the polymer is 300̊ C.
10. Hazardous: It is hazardous and is not environmental friendly.
11. Recyclability: The polymers are recyclable in nature.
These are the 11 properties of polymers or plastics which are discussed in a detailed manner. Hope you had
got an idea of what plastic is? Now, let’s discuss the Classification or Types of Plastics.
3. Types of Plastics:
They are two types of Plastics.

1. Thermoplastics
2. Thermoset Plastics or Thermosetting Plastics
3.1. Thermoplastics:
By heating the polymer, if it turns soft, then it is called as Thermoplastic material. At room temperature,
they are available in the form as Solids.
A thermoplastic is a plastic material that becomes moldable above a specific temperature and solidifies
upon cooling. In this article, I will be explaining the top 10 properties of thermoplastic materials in a
detailed manner.
3.1.1.  Top 10 Properties of Thermoplastic Material:
1. By heating the polymer, it turns as soft material.
2. It is available in the form of solids at Room temperature.
3. It is a recyclable process.
4.  Thermoplastic material in the form of solid is converted into Thermoplastic material in the form
of liquid which is done by the action of heating and the Vice-versa also takes place in another
direction.
5. Loses Strength: By heating the thermoplastic material it loses its strength.
6. Gains strength: By the action of cooling, the thermoplastic material gains strength.
7. Shape change: During cooling only, the thermoplastic material changes its shape.
8. Temperature: The servicing temperature of thermoplastic material is 150°C.
 9. Structure: The thermoplastic material exhibits Linear structure i.e. -CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-
10. The thermoplastic material is hazardous to the environment which is less when compared to the
thermoset and rubber.
3.1.2.  Thermoplastic Examples: 
 Polyethylene
 Poly Vinyl Chloride(PVC)
 Teflon

3.2.  Thermosetting Plastics or Thermoset Plastics:

By heating the polymer, if it turns hard, then it is called as Thermosetting plastic material. At room
temperature, they are available in the form as liquids. Thermosetting plastics or Thermoset plastic are
synthetic materials that strengthen during being heated but cannot be successfully remolded or reheated
after their initial heat-forming called as Thermoset material.
3.2.1  Properties of a Thermosetting Plastic material:
1. By heating the polymer, it turns as hard material.
2. It is available in the form of liquid at Room temperature.
3. It is a Non-Recyclable process.
4. Thermoset in the form of liquid is converted into Thermoset material in the form of solid which is
done by the action of heating and its Vice-versa is not possible.
5. Gains strength: By the action of heating, the thermoset plastic material gains strength.
6. No change in the strength of the thermosetting plastic is done by the action of cooling.
7. Shape change: During heating only, the thermoset material changes its shape.
8. Temperature: The servicing temperature of a thermoset plastic material is 300°C.
9. Structure: It exhibits a Cyclic structure.
10. It is hazardous to the environment which is more when compared to the thermoplastic and less
than the rubber.
3.2.2  Thermosetting Plastic Examples:
 Epoxy Resin
 Phenolic(Bakelite)
 Vinyl Ester Resin
 Cyanate Ester
 Poly Ester

Examples of Thermosetting Plastic

Thermosetting plastics are widely used in various industries due to their
high thermal stability and chemical resistance properties. We can mold
them into any shape, and once they set, they do not lose their stability even
in extreme temperature conditions. Many manufacturers have switched to
thermosets as they are cost-effective and are a great replacement for some
metal components. Here are some examples of thermosetting plastics.
1. Vulcanized Rubber
Vulcanized rubber is a type of thermoset plastic as once it is molded, it
retains its shape and can’t be recycled again. The untreated rubber is
converted into the vulcanized rubber through a process called
vulcanization. In this process, the natural rubber is treated with Sulphur
and various activators like Zinc fatty acid esters at the temperature of 140-
160°C. Vulcanized rubber is more hardened than natural rubber. It is used
in the manufacturing of various goods as it has both electrical and thermal
insulation properties. Moreover, it has good abrasion properties and is
inexpensive. It is used in manufacturing tires of vehicles because it has high
tensile strength, hence it reduces the chances of tire punctures. Other uses
of vulcanized rubber include seat belts, toys, conveyor belts, rubber hoses,
and shoe hoses.

2. Bakelite
Bakelite was the first thermoset plastic that was synthesized from synthetic
components. The chemical name of Bakelite is ‘Polyoxybenzyl Methylene
Glycol Anhydride,’ and its chemical formula is ( {C}_{6}C6{H}_{6}H6
O.C{H}_{2}H2O)n. Commercially, it is also known as phenol-
formaldehyde resin as it is synthesized by the condensation process
between phenol and formaldehyde, under high pressure with HCl as a
catalyst. However, other catalysts like ammonia and zinc chloride are also
used sometimes, as per the requirement of the reaction. The product
obtained from this reaction is further heated slowly till a hard substance
called Bakelite is obtained. Bakelite is easily moldable in its liquifiable state,
hence it is used in the manufacturing of various products. To increase the
strength of the bakelite, various fillers like gypsum, mica, asbestos are also
used. Bakelite has a wide application in the electrical industries for making
switches, boards, sockets, and wire insulation because of its electrical
insulation properties. The unique property of Bakelite is that it can be
produced in different colors that is why it is widely used in the
manufacturing of colorful bangles, bracelets, and artificial jewelry. The
application of Bakelite is also found in various kitchenware products.

3. Duroplast
Duroplast is a composite thermoset material that is similar to Bakelite
except for the fact that it is reinforced with cotton or wool fibers. One of the
most significant properties of Duroplast is that it is lightweight and strong.
Due to this property, Duroplast is used in making car bodies, which reduces
the cost of using steel for making various car parts. It is also used in the
manufacturing of toilet seats. However, it has a major disadvantage, which
is its difficulty to decompose. If we burn them, they release highly toxic
fumes that are harmful to the environment.

4. Urea-Formaldehyde Resins
Urea-Formaldehyde is also known as Amino plastic or carbamide-
methanol. As the name itself suggests, they are synthesized by the reaction
between the Urea and Formaldehyde in the presence of water, and at a PH
value higher than 7. These Thermosets are highly cross-linked and have a
semi-crystalline structure. They become rigid very rapidly if the
temperature is elevated. They have wide applications in wood product
industries and are used as an adhesive for particleboard. Their other
applications include laminating decorative items, coating, air filtration, and
fiberglass mats.

5. Melamine-Formaldehyde Resins
They are synthesized by reacting Melamine with Formaldehyde under low
alkaline conditions. Like urea-formaldehyde resins, it is also widely used in
wood industries. Melamine polished boards have better heat and chemical
resistance properties than natural boards. Melamine-Formaldehydes are
fully compatible with Urea-Formaldehyde resins and are often reacted with
each other for reducing the emission of formaldehyde from particleboards,
and this blend of resins is called melamine-urea-formaldehyde. Melamine
resins are fire-retardant that is why they are used as additives in the
manufacturing of papers, paints, plastics, and flame-resistant textiles.
Many other products that are manufactured using these resins are
particleboards, laminates, kitchenware, and floor tiles.

6. Epoxy Resins
Epoxies are reactive thermosetting resins and are also known as
polyepoxides. Epoxy resins contain at least one epoxide group. The most
commonly used epoxies are ‘Diglycidyl Ether of Bisphenol A’ (DGEBA) and
‘Diglycidyl Ether of Bisphenol F’ (DGEBF). However, DGEBF is somewhat
on the expensive side. Epoxy resins are widely used in aerospace industries
because of their heat and corrosion-resistant properties. These resins also
find use in structural adhesives, metal coatings, and encapsulations of
electrical components.
7. Polyimides
Polyimide resins are produced by the condensations reaction of aromatic
primary diamines with aromatic tetracarboxylic dianhydrides. Because of
the presence of aromatic rings in them, they have excellent thermal and
chemical properties, and they can withstand high temperatures. They are
widely used in the production of sockets, bushings, and bearings as they
exhibit high mechanical strength and are water-resistant. They are also a
great replacement for high-performance materials like metals and
ceramics. However, their one shortcoming is that they are quite expensive.

8. Silicon Resins
Silicon resins have many applications due to their strong 3D network
structure. They have the general formula RnSiXmOy, where R is usually
Methyl or Phenyl, and X is the functional group (H, OH, Cl) or Alkoxy
group (OR). These resins form very hard, heat and water resistance films,
and show outstanding dielectric properties. They also provide very good UV
rays resistance films. Silicon resins are available in different consistencies
from a range of highly viscous liquids to solids. They find their applications
in paints, coatings, sealants, silicone fluids, and electrical industries due to
their reliability and durability. Silicon resin is widely used in art and craft
for making various silicon items. They are also used in the healthcare sector
because of their biocompatible nature.

9. Cyanate Esters
Cyanate esters consist of -O-C=N group attached to a phenyl ring. They
show low water absorption, low dielectric loss, and high-temperature
stability than Epoxies. Cyanate esters are usually found in brittle form,
which is why they are often blended with epoxy resins or other
thermosetting resins to get better-toughened products of enhanced
properties. They are mainly used in aerospace industries due to their high
structural and mechanical properties. Moreover, they are also used for
electronic chip adhesives and encapsulation of various electronic
equipment.

10. Polyurethane
Polyurethanes are produced by the reaction between the organic
diisocyanate and a diol compound. They can also be produced in the
foamed structure if water is used in their manufacturing process. This
foamed structure is used in the manufacturing of cushions, carpets,
armrests, and mattresses. Polyurethane has a rigid foam structure, and they
are used as insulation for various buildings. Their elastomeric structure
finds applications in making car bumpers, steering wheels, windshields,
gaskets, door panels, and other automotive and electrical components.
However, their main disadvantage is that they are prone to microbial
attacks and often get yellow underexposure to UV light.

11. Furan Resins

Furan structure consists of a five-membered aromatic ring having four
carbon (C) atoms and one Oxygen (O) atom. Furan resins have thermoset
oligomers (Oligomers are the polymers whose molecules have similar
repeating units), these oligomers are cross-linked together when heated in
the presence of a catalyst. These resins are highly volatile, having boiling
points near to room temperature, and they are soluble in some organic
solvents like ether, acetone, and alcohol. Furan resin is widely used in
cement and binders to make them chemical resistant. Their other uses
include wood adhesives, coatings, and explosive binders. The main
disadvantage of furan is that it is highly toxic to human beings.

12. Vinyl Ester Resins

Vinyl ester resins are prepared by the process of esterification of epoxy
resin with vinyl acids; the vinyl acid group is responsible for the cross-
linkage in them. It is ideal for the vacuum infusion process as it has low
viscosity, hence it is easy to pour. Vinyl ester resins are often called the
hybrid of Epoxy resins and polyester because their properties or other
characteristics lie between them. It is widely used in the marine industry
because of its high water-resistant and corrosion-resistant properties. They
are widely used for corrosive-resistant coatings in tanks and pipes. They
also find their application in chemical plants and petrochemical industries
because of their high heat resistance level.

13. Polyester Resins

Unsaturated Polyester resins are formed by the reaction of difunctional
organic acids (phthalic, maleic, fumaric) with polyhydric alcohol (Ethylene
glycol, propylene glycol, halogenated glycol) in the presence of a catalyst.
They are resistant to water and various chemicals and can withstand very
high temperatures. They are used in boat building industries for making
various parts of yachts and workboats because of their high strength and
durability. Nowadays they are also used for flat roofing because they
provide seamless and easy to maintain flat roofs. These resins also find
application in making various electrical components, pipes, tanks, and
ducts because they are lightweight, easy to handle, and have a longer shelf
life.

What are thermoplastics?

Thermoplastic is known for its flexible, pliable properties. This is due to the molecular structure
of the material. Thermoplastics consist of a long series of molecules, also called polymers. In
their solid form, these chains of molecules lie against each other. However, when the polymers
are heated, they become agitated and slide past each other, making the material pliable or even
fluid. A thermoplastic can therefore be easily bent or moulded into any desired shape. This
makes the material highly suitable for injection moulding, although most thermoplastic materials
are also available in sheet or semi-finished products. Moreover, because thermoplastic can be
reheated for short periods several times, it can be easily recycled and is therefore a type
of sustainable plastic. Thermoplastics can be subdivided into clear groups. This is also known
as the ‘thermoplastic pyramid’ and is shown in figure 1. The triangle shows three layers, from
bottom to top: standard plastics, technical plastics, and high-performance plastics.

Thermoplastic application possibilities 

Plastic PET bottles, packaging film and PVC tubes are well-known examples of thermoplastics.
But many thermoplastics can also be used for industrial applications. POM is a frequently used
material for mechanical applications. It is very good in the average range of properties, which
makes it highly versatile. However, nowadays PEEK plastic (polyether ether ketone) is
increasingly used for many high-performance applications. PEEK plastics adhere to higher
requirements than standard or technical plastics and can be machined very accurately, resulting
in beautiful, high-quality parts with smooth surfaces. The technical properties of this type of
thermoplastic include:
•    Very strong and durable material
•    Extremely good tensile and flexible strength with varying loads
•    Low friction coefficient
•    Good dimensional stability at high temperatures of up to 300°C
•    Excellent chemical resistance
•    Excellent hydraulic resistance
•    Resistant to energy-rich radiation
•    Self-extinguishing, according to UL94
•    Low smoke and gas emissions
•    Sterilisable
•    Density of 1.32 g/cm³

As a result, this material is frequently used in the semiconductor, medical and pharmaceutical
industries.

RELATED
Uses of PVC Plastic

Updated April 25, 2018

By Dinshaw Dadachanji

Thermoplastics are polymers that become liquid when heated and return to the
solid state when cooled. This cycle of melting and freezing can be repeated, so that
the plastic can be reshaped by heating it. There are many types of thermoplastics,
some of which are presented below. They are useful for a variety of applications,
including consumer goods, machine parts, medical equipment and packaging and
storage materials.

Acrylic
Acrylic, a polymer called poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), is also known by trade
names such as Lucite, Perspex and Plexiglas. It serves as a sturdy substitute for
glass for such items as aquariums, motorcycle helmet visors, aircraft windows,
viewing ports of submersibles, and lenses of exterior lights of automobiles. It is
extensively used to make signs, including lettering and logos. In medicine, it is
used in bone cement and to replace eye lenses. Acrylic paint consists of PMMA
particles suspended in water.

Nylon
Nylon, belonging to a class of polymers called polyamides, has served as a
substitute for silk in products such as parachutes, flak vests and women's
stockings. Nylon fibers are useful in making fabrics, rope, carpets and strings for
musical instruments. In bulk form, nylon is used for mechanical parts, including
machine screws, gear wheels and power tool casings. In addition, nylon is used in
the manufacture of heat-resistant composite materials.

Polyethylene
Polyethylene (or polyethene, polythene, PE) is a family of materials categorized
according to their density and molecular structure. For example, ultra-high
molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) is tough and resistant to chemicals, and
it is used to manufacture moving machine parts, bearings, gears, artificial joints
and some bulletproof vests. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) is used to make
milk jugs, margarine tubs and water pipes. Medium-density polyethylene (MDPE) is
used for packaging film, sacks and gas pipes and fittings. Low-density polyethylene
(LDPE) is soft and flexible and is used in the manufacture of squeeze bottles,
sacks and sheets.

Polypropylene
Polypropylene (PP) is useful for such diverse products as reusable plastic
containers, diapers, sanitary pads, ropes, carpets, plastic moldings, piping
 systems, car batteries, insulation for electrical cables and filters for gases and
liquids. In medicine, it is used to repair hernias and to make heat-resistant medical
equipment. Polypropylene sheets are used for stationery folders and packaging
and storage boxes.

Polystyrene
Polystyrene is manufactured in various forms that have differing applications.
Extruded polystyrene (PS) is used in the manufacture of disposable cutlery, CD
and DVD cases, plastic models of cars and boats, and smoke detector housings.
Expanded polystyrene foam (EPS) is used in making insulation and packaging
materials, such as the "peanuts" and molded foam used to cushion fragile
products. Extruded polystyrene foam (XPS), known by the trade name Styrofoam,
is used to make architectural models and drinking cups for heated beverages.
Polystyrene copolymers are used in the manufacture of toys and product casings.

Polyvinyl chloride
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a tough, lightweight material that is resistant to acids
and bases. Much of it is used by the construction industry, such as for vinyl siding,
drainpipes, gutters and roofing sheets. It is also converted to flexible forms with the
addition of plasticizers, thereby making it useful for items such as:

 hoses
 tubing
 electrical insulation
 coats
 jackets
 upholstery

Flexible PVC is also used in inflatable products, such as water beds and pool toys.

Teflon
Teflon is the brand name given by DuPont Corp. for a polymer called
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), which belongs to a class of thermoplastics known
as fluoropolymers. It is famous as a coating for non-stick cookware. Being
chemically inert, it is used in making containers and pipes that come in contact with
reactive chemicals. It is also used as a lubricant to reduce wear from friction
between sliding parts, such as gears, bearings and bushings.
 

 LOW E GLASS

 Low-E Glass
 Low-E or Low-Emissivity glass is a type of high-performance glass that blocks out
harmful UV and infrared rays of the sun. It only allows visible light to pass through.
 It offers thermal insulation as a result of its low emissivity that decreases the
absorption and transmittance of solar radiation. Because of this, low-E glass reduces
the amount of heat ingress from the outside.
 At the same time, it traps the internal heat from escaping outside, making it ideal for
the winter season. AIS Ecosense Essence is a perfect example of low-E glass.
A Basic Guide To Low e Windows
1. 1. A Basic Guide to Low-E Windows
2. 2. A Basic Guide to Low-E Windows What Is a Low-E Window? PART 1 Low-E is a big
buzzword in window replacement, but what exactly does it mean and how can it benefit
you and your home?
3. 3. A Basic Guide to Low-E Windows What Is a Low-E Window? EMISSIVITY DEFINED
Emissivity refers to a material’s ability to emit energy in the form of thermal radiation. In
the context of windows, “low-emissivity” or “low-E” means that the window glazing
radiates or emits only a small fraction of the incident thermal radiation that strikes its
surface. ultraviolet light infrared light visible light THE LINK BETWEEN LOW-E &
ENERGY EFFICIENCY Depending on where the low-E coating is applied, a window can
be configured to either: a. minimize the amount of solar heat coming into a home or b.
maximize heat retention. Take the case of the double-pane window shown below. In a
cooling-dominated (hot) climate, the low-E coating should be on the inward-facing
surface of the outer pane (Surface B).This allows the window to reflect most of the
unwanted heat from sunlight, reducing the overall heat gain.
4. 4. A Basic Guide to Low-E Windows What Is a Low-E Window? In a heating-dominated
(cold) climate, the goal is to reflect or reradiate as much heat back into the home, so the
low-E coating should be on the outward-facing surface of the inner pane (Surface C).
Outside Inside Because of its ability to minimize heat gain in hot climates and heat loss in
cold climates, a low-E window can make any home more energy efficient. The frame and
other components will also have a hand in determining overall energy efficiency, but
because glazing takes up the biggest surface area in a window, its impact is the greatest.
5. 5. A Basic Guide to Low-E Windows What Is a Low-E Window? HOW DO LOW-E
WINDOWS COMPARE TO STANDARD WINDOWS? The emittance of standard clear
 glass is 0.84. This means that it absorbs 84% of the incident thermal energy and reflects
only 16%. Low-E glass, on the other hand, can have an emittance as low as 0.04—4% of
the incident heat energy absorbed, 96% reflected. heat reflected heat absorbed 84%
96% 4% 16% STANDARD CLEAR GLASS LOW-E GLASS Note that emittance isn’t
explicitly included on the label that shows a window’s energy performance ratings.
However, it is taken into consideration when computing U-factor, which is a measure of
the window’s resistance to heat transfer. For optimum energy efficiency, choose a
window with a low U-factor.
6. 6. A Basic Guide to Low-E Windows What Is a Low-E Window? BEYOND LOW-E Other
energy performance ratings to consider: Low-E window glazing is a step up from
standard clear glass in more ways than one. Stick around for Part Two of this ebook to
learn more about the benefits low-E windows can offer you and your home. Solar Heat
Gain Coefficient (SHGC) – fraction of solar heat transmitted through a window Visible
Transmittance (VT) – fraction of visible light transmitted through a window Air Leakage
(AL) – cubic feet of air passing through a square foot of window area Condensation
Resistance (CR) – a measure of a window’s resistance to condensation formation
7. 7. A Basic Guide to Low-E Windows Fringe Benefits of Low-E Windows PART 2 A low-E
window has a lot more to offer than a window with ordinary glass. While energy efficiency
is its strongest suit, its benefits go well beyond that.
8. 8. A Basic Guide to Low-E Windows Fringe Benefits of Low-E Windows IMPROVED
DAYLIGHTING One of the best things about low-E windows is that they eliminate worries
about excessive solar heat gain or winter heat loss but do not hinder visible light
transmission.This means that whatever type of climate you live in, you’ll be able to allow
as much natural light as you want into your home without the corresponding spike in your
energy bill. Low-E windows’ daylighting benefits also mean further energy savings
because you won’t have to switch on artificial lighting to brighten up your indoor spaces
during daytime. BETTER UV PROTECTION You may have noticed that drapes, carpets,
artwork and furniture that get plenty of sun exposure have a tendency to fade faster than
those in the shade. This is a manifestation of damage caused primarily by ultraviolet (UV)
light. Low-E glazing can help put a stop to this by blocking out most of the UV light hitting
your windows. Where ordinary window glass only blocks about 25% of the sun’s UV rays,
low-E glass can block up to 74%.
9. 9. A Basic Guide to Low-E Windows Fringe Benefits of Low-E Windows REDUCED
CONDENSATION During winter, beads of moisture form when warm, moist indoor air
comes into contact with a cold surface such as window glass. Because low-E glazing
doesn’t give up as much heat to the outside, the temperature difference isn’t as great,
allowing it to minimize—if not eliminate—condensation problems during the heating
season. BETTER COMFORT Your exact heating and/or cooling needs will vary
according to the time of the year and where you live. Because low-E windows control
how much heat goes in or out of your home, indoor temperature is much easier to
stabilize. A stable indoor environment means that you can stay comfortable no matter
what the weather outside is like. If you’re already sold on low-E windows and the many
benefits they offer, stick around for Part Three of this ebook to learn how you can get the
most out of your window investment.
10. 10. A Basic Guide to Low-E Windows Maximizing Low-E Windows PART 3 Like most
major home upgrades, having low-E windowsinstalledisarealinvestment.Maximize the
return on your home improvement dollar by taking the following tips into consideration:
11. 11. A Basic Guide to Low-E Windows Maximizing Low-E Windows TIP #1 Work with a
reputable and experienced window contractor. A big part of ensuring your ability to reap
all the benefits of low-E windows is having them installed properly. Never cut corners
when it comes to workmanship. Keep in mind that even the best window products may
fail to perform as advertised if left in the hands of a careless contractor. TIP #2 Know the
ideal window ratings for your location. ENERGY STAR rates fenestration products
according to their energy efficiency in specific climate zones. It pays to realize that there
is no one-size-fits-all approach when it comes to “window shopping”. For instance, many
homes in hot climates will benefit from low-SHGC windows, but a higher SHGC may be
desirable in colder climates where solar heat gain can offset winter heating costs.
 ENERGY STAR’sWindows, Doors, and Skylights Climate Zone Finder can help you pick
window products best suited for wherever you live. TIP #3 Know your window styles.
Low-E technology can be applied to any window style, so don’t let worries about
aesthetics hinder you from having more energy-efficient windows installed. It’s fairly easy
to find a low-E window in a style that complements your home’s architecture, so you can
enjoy the best of form and function at the same time.
12. 12. A Basic Guide to Low-E Windows Maximizing Low-E Windows TIP #4 Consider
adding window treatments. Low-E windows work great on their own when installed
properly, but you can improve their performance even further by adding window
treatments. Window treatments are mostly used to block out sunlight and add a measure
of privacy, but they can also have a hand in upgrading the look of your interior spaces.
TIP #5 Learn basic window care. You can help extend your windows’ service life and
maintain their beauty with regular care. Ask your contractor for tips on window cleaning
and general TLC. Schedule routine inspections and maintenance so that your contractor
will be able to catch problems while they’re small and easier to deal with. Good luck on
your next window replacement project!

PARQUET FLOORING
13. • Parquetry is a geometric mosaic of wood pieces used for decorative effect. • The two
main uses of parquetry are as veneer patterns on furniture and block patterns for flooring.
Parquet patterns are entirely geometrical and angular— squares, triangles, lozenges.
The most popular parquet flooring pattern is herringbone. • The use of curved and natural
shapes constitutes marquetry rather than parquetry.
14. 3. PARQUET FLOORING • Timber contrasting in color and grain, such as oak, walnut,
cherry, lime, pine, maple, etc. are sometime employed; and in the more expensive kinds,
and in the more expensive kinds the richly colored mahogany, teak and sometimes other
tropical hardwoods are also used. While not technically a wood, bamboo is also a
popular material for modern floors. • Parquet floors were formerly usually adhered with
hot bitumen. Today modern cold adhesives are usually used.

ADVANTAGES
Beauty and appeal
Because parquet is made of wood, it gives a feeling of warmth to the area where you
install it. The geometric and angular pattern options have made it a choice in some
of the grandest palaces throughout time. Because you can customize the patterns
and materials, parquet flooring can give your home a classic or modern look. Not
only can you choose from all kinds of patterns and materials, but you can also stain
the wood different colors. Wood flooring has always been a reference when we think
of comfort and luxury, which is why it’s no surprise that parquet flooring is used in
homes and hotels throughout the world.

Unique
If you are looking for something truly unique, parquet flooring is a good option to
consider. Each tile truly is unique, as materials are combined and then cut before
instillation. You are able to customize the patterns, materials, grains, and coloring of
parquet flooring making no two rooms alike.
Non-allergic
Unlike carpets and rugs, which can harbor dust, dirt and allergens, parquet flooring
provides no place for these unwelcome guests. This is an excellent choice for
families with young children, who are at risk of developing allergies, and for people
with allergies.

Stable
Parquet flooring is more stable than traditional wood flooring. This is because it is
comprised of three layers of wood cut at 90 degree angles to reduce movement of
the wood. The top layer of parquet flooring is the wear layer. This layer is carefully
selected to ensure the most endurance over time. The layers beneath the wear layer
absorb impact guaranteeing higher stability.

Cost
Because the lower layers of parquet flooring are not visible, they can be made with
more cost-efficient materials than the top layer. This helps reduce the overall cost of
the flooring solution.

DISADVANTAGES
Requires Maintenance
No matter how well you care for your flooring, it is important that the tiles be
resealed, sanded and polished. This is to ensure that the flooring remains beautiful
and looking new, as well as to boost their lifespan.

Moisture Damage
Because parquet flooring is made of wood, it is susceptible to moisture and
humidity. That said, it is important that you manage the humidity in your home and
keep parquet floors dry.

Susceptible to Scratches
Like with other wood, parquet flooring is susceptible to scratches made by small,
sharp objects hitting the floor. When that does happen, it can be challenging to
restore the original look. For this reason, it’s not advised to wear high heels on
parquet flooring, and to use doormats or rugs at entry points.
Parquet flooring can be a great solution for your home depending on the look you are
going for. Contact us today to discover more about parquet flooring and installation.

What Is Parquet Flooring?

MARCH 21, 2014

If you want to find out more about parquet flooring you are probably

considering replacing your current floor with something more eye-
catching, vibrant and original. Yes, that will be the perfect choice
but let me introduce this beautiful type of hardwood flooring.

Origin Of Parquet Flooring

Parquet originates, like many other great things and ideas from XVII
century France. Most popular among the richest Frenchmen and
Royal family marble slabs were very difficult to maintain and
constant washing lead to the rotting of the wooden joints under the
marble floors. In 1684 new type of parquet was used in Royal
château in Versaille, but nowadays that name is associated with
flooring panels (blocks).

Construction and Manufacture

Most common species used in manufacture of parquet floors are:

oak, walnut, maple, cherry but sometimes mahogany and other
exotic hardwoods can be used in production of more expensive
parquets.

Apart from the wood species used in making the parquet you
should also  decide whether you want solid or engineered parquet
flooring. First one is made of solid pieces of timber, the latter one
from the layers of wood with the hardwood veneer at the top.
Whether you choose solid or engineered there is no difference in
the final look of fitted parquet flooring.

Parquet flooring is different than ordinary wood flooring where

wooden planks, usually wider that 10cm and longer that 1m are
used. Parquet uses smaller pieces of wood arranged in more
attractive and decorative geometric and regular shapes and
patterns such as most popular herringbone but also chevron,
chequerboard or basket wave.

    

 
   

Installation Of Parquet Flooring

When it comes to installation of the parquet flooring ESB

recommend using professional fitters but for those highly skilled
DIY men or those who believe in their own dexterity we have couple
of useful do’s and don’ts:

– don’t use nails, instead use high quality parquet flexible adhesive
(remember that all purpose adhesive won’t be strong enough),

– on concrete slab it is the best to include a layer of polyethylene

film

– cut wood pieces using handsaw or circular saw and try to avoid
the injury by clamping them to the work table.

Mainteance

And the last: all of us (and our wives) like it the most –
maintenance.
Like other hardwood flooring types, parquet floors are low
maintenance products. You should vacuum surface lightly 2-3
times a week as ongoing maintenance or just simply use the broom
whichever is more convenient. Moping the parquet floor at least
once a week is also highly recommended – mop will pick up all the
dirt that you vacuum (or broom) left behind. Our website features
dedicated FAQ section where you can read more about maintaining
lacquered and oiled floors.

CHINA MOSAIC WAER PROOFING

. Flooring which has a mixture of stones and glass chips with an attractive finish and multicolour
flooring called as a China mosaic flooring. As shown in the figure. China mosaic is also available
in tiles most of the people are used for the terrace as a waterproofing material. But nowadays it is
not used because of its short lifespan and becomes useless within three to four years because of
losing the bond between binding materials and stones or glass chips.

In the second question to ask about the advantages,

1. It looks very decorate you and many times blow away as a person minds.
2. It contains a glass chip which gives you a premium look at a very reasonable rate.
3. It consists of stones which are cut to perfection and I installed within glass tiles or mixed
with cement.

Advantages :

4. It can’t be easy break

5. Higher strength and durability
6. Waterproofing Building Construction Material used in a floor and roof
7. Low permeability property.
8. Highly fire resistive preperty

POLYURETHANE COATING AND VARNISH DIFFERENCE

Polyurethane is a water- or oil-based plastic resin used for coating

wood or as a wood finish. Varnish is an older type of finish made
from resins, oils, and solvents, but very often, the term "varnish" is
misused as a generic name for all types of wood finishing.
This comparison talks about polyurethane only in the context of
wood-finishing and coating, not in the context of manufacturing high-
resilience foam products as it is usually understood.

What is Polyurethane?
Polyurethane finishes are essentially liquid plastic coatings that harden. They
can be water or oil-based. Water-based polyurethane is popular among
DIYers due to its relatively easy and forgiving application process. Oil-based
polyurethane offers slightly more protection for the wood, but is more toxic
and takes much longer to dry.

What is Varnish?
Varnish is a natural wood finish that has been around for a long time. It’s
made from a combination of resins, oils, and solvents. It contains a higher
amounts of solids, and tends to give wood a tinted color when applied. All
wood finishes are sometimes generically referred to as varnish,

Durability
Polyurethane finishes are very hard and durable, and because they cure into
a solid layer of plastic, they give treated wood more protection against
scratches and abrasions.Oil-based products are even stronger and more
durable. However, polyurethane once it dries into a hard plastic film, is more
susceptible to splitting, cracking, delamination if subjected to heat or sudden
shocks, making it a sub-optimal choice for intricately curving furniture or the
flexing deck boards of a boat.
Varnish is more flexible (unless applied incorrectly), which helps reduce
cracking and splitting if there is movement of the treated surface. Varnish
lasts relatively longer in areas of sun exposure as the higher amounts of
solids make it naturally resistant to UV rays. UV rays, if allowed to penetrate
to the wood, will age and fade the exposed surface.

Toxicity
Oil-based polyurethane is fairly toxic, and requires precautions against
inhaling fumes or allowing skin exposure. Water-based polyurethanes have a
low toxicity level.
The toxicity of varnish is very low as compared to oil-based polyurethane.

Advantages
Polyurethane is more durable and protect against scratches.Water-based
polyurethanes dry very quickly and have a low toxicity level, making these
products ideal for DIYers who don’t want to deal with safety equipment or be
left vulnerable to bad weather if working outside. Polyurethanes can be
applied in a variety of ways to suit the purpose, from brushing and spraying,
to being applied by hand-rubbing, which is a popular method on furniture.
One of the primary advantages of varnish other than its flexibility is its natural
resistance to UV rays, making it last longer in areas of sun exposure. Some
people prefer the rich color tone that dark varnish can give to wood.

Disadvantages
Oil-based polyurethane is fairly toxic and susceptible to cracking with shock
or movement. Although UV protection is now being added to some
polyurethanes, its still considered less effective against sun damage than
varnish.
Varnish is less forgiving in the application process, and if not done correctly,
will be prone to peeling, cracking, bubbling, or not even fully drying. Once any
of these problems happen with the varnish, the wood will be more exposed to
the harm of water damage. Varnish is thinner than polyurethane, and
requires the the application of more layers, and these layers take a long time
to dry, leaving the project vulnerable to the elements.

Best Uses
Polyurethane is more commonly used around many household projects,
including on wood floors, smooth furniture like desks and bookshelves, and
even on outdoor decks now that UV protection has improved. Water-based
 polyurethane is usually the better choice for amateurs which to tackle
projects on their own.
True varnish made from oil and resin (and not containing any plastics) is still
popular in demanding niches, and remains popular with boaters and furniture
makers due to it’s durability in sun and water, and it’s flexibility. It is also more
suitable for use on softwoods like pine, that are likely to flex under tough
conditions.

Summary of Polyurethane
Vs.  Varnish
 Polyurethane is available as oil-based or water-based, or even
water-based oil-modified
 Varnish is an old wood finish comprised of oils, resins and
solvents
 Polyurethane is generally more durable but prone to damage if
exposed to UV damage or water
 Varnish is less durable but lasts long when exposed to UV rays
and water
 Varnish is applied by brush and with several layers because it is
thinner
 Polyurethane is applied by wiping it, brush or spray and with
few layers because it is thicker
 Oil-based polyurethane is more toxic than water-based and
varnish
 Polyurethane requires good ventilation when applied
 Polyurethane is more expensive than varnish
 Varnish is more applied on softwoods while polyurethane is
more applied on hardwoods.

What is polyurethane?
Polyurethane is an oil- or water-based wood finish that is
mainly a plastic resin that hardens when applied on the surface.
There also water-based oil-modified polyurethane that stands
in between oil-based and water-based. Compared with the
water-based one, the water-based oil-modified polyurethane
offers a robust protection, and durable surface. Oil-based
polyurethane is more durable and offers good protection on
woods even though it is more toxic. Polyurethane might appear
milky in its container but it is clear when applied. It is thick and
as thus requires a few layers unlike varnish which requires
several layers because it is thin. Polyurethane, particularly the
oil-based one, is more scratch and abrasion resistant on
hardwood. It is, however, applied predominantly on indoor
projects due to its weak protection against UV damage. Modern
oil-based polyurethane products have improved UV damage but
still lacking behind vanish in that UV protection.

The choice of which polyurethane to use may depend on

personal preference. Water-based polyurethane is best suited
for indoor wood products such as desks, book shelves, and
wood floors that need a final finish. It is less toxic and cleans
easily with just water and soap, so it could be a better option for
anyone allergic to the toxicity of oil-based polyurethane.
However, the water-based polyurethane is more prone to cracks
if exposed to heat or the sun. As such, it is not advisable to
apply on any outdoor furniture exposed to the sun.

Oil-based polyurethane is heat-tolerant so it may survive

exposure to sunlight but not for a prolonged time. It is,
however, toxic and dries slowly yet expensive.
Polyurethane is best applied with a brush, spray, and
foam-roller or by wiping it using hands. It matters not
whether it is water-based or oil-based. If applying
polyurethane on an existing oil-coat, sand the existing
coat so that the new coats can stick firmly onto it.
Because of its extent of toxicity, you need sufficient
ventilation when applying oil-based polyurethane.
Avoid inhaling it or any contact with the skin. If you
have existing breathing problems, inhaling oil-based
polyurethane could aggravate the conditions. Always
use a respiratory musk when applying it. Water-based
polyurethane is thinner than oil-based.

What is varnish?
Varnish is often a mixture of resin, solvent and oil. It is a
natural wood finish best applied on outdoor wood furniture
because of its resistance to UV and water damage. There is a
high-content of solids in varnish which makes it a weather-
resistant coating. When applied, it leaves a glossy and thin
texture usually with a slight yellow color more like oil-based
polyurethane.

Varnish is best suited for outdoor decks, garden seats and any
other wood furniture decorating the backyard. It is less toxic
compared to oil-based polyurethane. Also, it is more flexible,
meaning, unlike polyurethane, it is not susceptible to breaking
if the furniture is more from one place to the other. It is applied
mostly on softwoods.

When applying varnish, use brush to apply numerous layers

because it is thin. The downside of varnish is that each layer
works on its own, meaning they do not stick firmly unless the
previous layer is sanded or scrapped with steel wool to leave a
rough surface. If applied incorrectly, varnish can be susceptible
to damages such as peeling or cracking. Avoid shaking the tin to
prevent bubbles when applying.

POLYURETHANE
VARNISH

COMPOSITION Made of solvents, oils, and resins  Oil or water-based formula 

DURABILITY Less durable  Durable but prone to sun damage 

USES  Indoor and outdoor applications  Indoor applications 

SAFETY Non-toxic but flammable  Water-based is safer than oil-based po

DRYING TIME  Slow-drying, takes about six Water-based polyurethane dries quick
hours  based 

APPLICATION Thin, requires several layers  Thick, requires fewer layers 

COST  Cheap Expensive

INITIAL AND FINAL SETTING TIME OF CEMENT

The initial setting time of cement is the time when the cement paste begins to harden while
the final setting time is the time when the cement paste is sufficiently hardened.

Importance of Initial and final setting time test of cement

1. The setting should not be confused with tighter, which refers to the gain in mechanical strength after a
certain degree of resistance to penetration of a particular attachment.
2. The scheduled time is the time required to harden the cement paste to a defined consistency.
3. Indirectly related to the initial chemical reaction of cement with water to form aluminum-silicate
compounds.
4. The initial setting time is the time when the paste begins to lose its plasticity.
5. The initial setting time test is important for the transport, placing, and compaction of cement concrete.
6. An initial setting time period is required to delay the hydration or hardening process.
7. The final setting time is the time when the paste loses its plasticity completely.
8. This is the time taken for cement paste or cement concrete to harden sufficiently and to obtain the
shape of the mold in which it is poured.
9. Determining the final setting time period allows the scaffolding or form to be safely removed.
10. The primary chemical reaction of cement with water is almost complete during this period.
11. It is necessary that the cement is neither set too fast nor too slowly. In the first case there may be
insufficient time to transport and place the concrete before it becomes too rigid. In the second case, too,
the duration of work is slowed for a long period, it may also postpone the actual use of the structure
due to insufficient strength at the desired age
Testing Method of Initial and final setting time of cement

Test Standard : IS 4031-Part 5: 1988

Test Apparatus
1. Weighing Balance of accuracy 0.01gm
2. Vicat’s apparatus with needle and annular attachment
3. Stopwatch
4. Graduated glass measuring jar
5. Gauging towels
Test procedure
1. Maintained the laboratory at the temperature and relative humidity of 27±2oC and 65±5%.
2. Take the representative cement sample to be tested and test sample shall be prepared by adding 300
gms of cement in evaporation dish.
3. Mix the water of 0.85 time that is required to form a cement paste of standard consistency by the
weight of cement.
4. Start the stopwatch exactly when water has been added to dry cement. Care should be taken that the
mixing time should not be less than 3 minutes or more than 5 minutes from the time of water adding
dry cement.
Initial setting time
1. Place the mould of the Vicat’s apparatus on a non-porous plate and fill the mould with the paste.
2. After filling smoothen the surface of the paste, making it level with the top of the mould. Shake the
mould slightly to expel the entrapped air.
3. Place it below needle of Vicat’s apparatus and lower the needle gently to touch the surface of the test
block.
4. Quickly release the needle, allow it to sink into the paste and record the penetration of needle from the
bottom of mould.
5. If this is not between 5+/- 0.5 mm, allow it to remain there without any disturbances or vibrations and
check the penetration into the cement paste at frequent intervals of time.
6. Initial setting time is the time taken for the needle to have a penetration of 5=/- 0.5mm from the bottom
of mould from the time of water added to the dry cement.
Final Setting time
1. To assess the final setting time do not stop the stopwatch. Remove the needle and attach the needle
with the annular attachment to the Vicat’s apparatus.
2. Lower the needle with annular attachment gently to touch the surface of the test block. Observe the
impression made by the needle with annular attachment.
3. If the impression made is only by needle, the cement said to be final set, if not allow it to remain there
without any disturbances or vibrations and check the impression made on the cement paste at frequent
intervals of time.
4. The final setting time is the elapsed time between the time the water is added to the dry cement when
the needle makes an impression on the surface of the test block and the coil attachment fails to do so.
5. Both the Initial and final setting time of cement shall be reported to the nearest 5 minutes.

PLASTICIZERS
Introduction to Plasticizers (Water Reducing Agents):
The essence of good quality concrete is the requirement of right workability. Under
different situations concrete of different degree of workability is needed. A high degree of
workability is required in situations like deep beams, thin sections with high percentage
of reinforcement, beam and column junctions, pumping of concrete, tremie concreting,
hot weather concreting etc. The conventional methods of improving workability are by
improving the gradation or increasing the quantity of fine aggregate or by increasing the
cement quantity.

In the field there are limitations and difficulties to obtain high workability under the given
set of conditions. In the field in most of the cases generally extra water is added to the
concrete unmindful of its ill effects on the properties of the concrete. The use of extra
water is very harmful and should never be used. The use of extra water will not improve
the inherent good quality such as cohesiveness and homogeneity of the mix, which
reduces the bleeding and segregation of the concrete.

These are used for the following proposes:

1. To achieve a higher strength by decreasing the water/cement ratio at the same
workability as that of an admixture free mix.

2. To achieve the same workability by decreasing the cement and to reduce the heat of
hydration in the mass concrete.

3. To increase the workability to provide ease in placing concrete in inaccessible

locations.

1. Ligno sulphates and their derivatives and modifications, salts of sulphonates

hydrocarbons.

2. Polyglycol esters, acid of hydroxylated carboxylic acids and their derivatives and

modifications

3. Carbohydrates

Plasticizers are the admixtures used to mix in cement to improve their qualities and make them
suitable for construction.
It’s effects on concrete:
1)Reduce the water/cement ratio without any effect on workability.
2)It increase setting time. It allows transit mixers to transport concrete too long distances.
3)To avoid cracks and shrinkage in concrete, plasticizer and superplasticizer are used.

Plasticizers or high range water reducers, or simply water reducers, as the name suggests, serve
the basic purpose of reducing the water requirement of concrete. Thus, the purpose is to improve
workability without compensation or even an increase of strength. The concrete strength is
inversely proportional to the w/c (water-cement ratio). But a certain amount of water has to be
provided to ensure the complete hydration of cement and proper workability of concrete. What
plasticizers do, us that they reduce this certain required amount. Hence, strength increases. On the
contrary, if you don’t reduce water, with the addition of plasticizers, you get bonus workability!

The uses are :

 Concreting in weather conditions when maintaining workability for a while is tough.

 High strength concreting.
 Reduction in cement content.
 Mass concreting (workability needs to be maintained for quite a while).
 Pumping concrete.
 Pozzolan concrete (substitution of cement with pozzolans calls for lower w/c to
compensate the reduction in strength)
 Reduction of shrinkage in concrete (shrinkage directly depends on the water content).
 Pre-stressed concrete (shrinkage is significantly undesirable)
 Corrosion resistance.
 Permeability reduction.
 Durability enhancement.
 Pile foundation construction (concrete needs to be workable and strong to be poured into
the bore)
 Underwater concreting (low w/c is desired underwater. Also, concrete is generally poured
into the sea and not cast on the land and then installed)

PAINTS AND ITS COMPOSITION

01. Whitewash or Limewash
Whitewash is a low-cost paint that can be made by adding water to the
mixture of slaked lime or powdered chalk. Generally, we use it for
whitening walls and ceilings which can easily resist the lime and water.

To make the wall colourful and stable, a colouring pigment and vehicle
or binder like Fevicol are added in the required proportion.

If you want a white coloured wall, apply two coats of lime paint. But if
you want colourful walls, it is better to apply three coats of lime paint on
the wall.  Apply the first coat of lime paint (lime + water + Fevicol) on the
 wall and later apply two coats of lime paint containing the colouring
pigment and vehicle or binder.

If you plan to do whitewash yourself (DIY whitewash), you need to be

careful when mixing the lime with water. When these two ingredients are
mixed, heat is generated during the initial 5 to 10 minutes. This is
because the chemical reaction produces slaked lime while releasing
heat, enough to burn your skin.

Uses of Lime Paint or Whitewash:

It can be used both indoors and outdoors. It sinks in the surface unlike
other paints, so it is best applied to porous surfaces, such as plaster,
stone, and brick. It can be used on internal brick walls, concrete walls, or
the internal wall surfaces that can resist lime and water.
Ingredients of Limewash or Whitewash:
 Base – Fat lime (Class C) or Magnesium/dolomitic lime (Class D) or
Siliceous dolomitic lime (Class F) or Powdered chalk.
 Colouring Pigment – You can add pigments that are separately available
in the market.
 Inert Filler or Extender Pigments – Not Needed
 Vehicle or Binder or Resin – Adhesive like Fevicol.
 Solvent or Thinner – Water
 Additive – Driers

02. Distemper Paint

Distemper paints are water-based paints. They are also known as
cement paint as they can be applied directly on walls with plaster finish
without using the primer. Distemper paints are a cheaper option, and
they last for more than 4 years. The major constituents of distemper are
chalk, lime, water, and some colouring pigments if necessary. Distemper
paints are available in powder and paste form. Distemper paints can be
classified as a better version of whitewash.

Uses of Distemper Paints:

Distemper paints can be used for both interior and exterior walls of your
home.
 Ingredients of Distemper Paint:
 Base – Chalk or Lime
 Colouring Pigment – Finely-powdered particles of mineral colour
 Inert Filler or Extender – Colour particles that are larger than secondary
fine particle
 Vehicle or Binder or Resin – Alkyd resins, or acrylic resin, or epoxy

03. Cement-Based Paint

Cement-based paints are water-based paints wherein the cement acts
as the base. Cement is the main constituent in this type of paint and it is
responsible for the hardness and durability of the painted surface.
Cement paints do not require oil or any other organic matter.

04. Oil Paint

Paint manufacturers use a base like white lead or red lead, zinc oxide,
iron oxide, titanium white, aluminium powder, and lithophone among
others to make the oil paint. Oil paints are basically a slow-drying variety
of paint that consists of particles of pigment suspended in drying oil.
The paint forms a tough, coloured film on exposure to air. It consists of
large pigment particles as inert filler or extender. Paint manufacturers
use drying oil or oil varnish as the vehicle or binder. The most common
types of drying oil or oil varnish are linseed oil, tung oil, poppy oil, and nut
oil. Oil paints contain solvent or mineral spirit as a thinner.
Oil paints are thicker and harder. They are glossy, smooth, and more
durable and stain-resistant in comparison to other types of wall paints.

Nowadays, due to the availability of advanced types of house paints in

the market, oil paints are rarely used. Yet, some homeowners prefer oil
paints for coating the metal and wooden surfaces.

Instead of oil paint, painting with enamel paint can be the best and

economical option. Enamel paint is an oil-based paint that contains lead
in a permissible proportion; hence it is safe and environment-friendly.
Also, enamel paint covers more surface area than oil paint.
Home-renovation experts prefer adding solvents like turpentine (mineral
spirit) to achieve good workability with this type of paint. However, one
needs to beware of the solvents used as they are proven to adversely
affect the health and environment.
 Also Read: Emulsion Paint vs Oil Based Paint: Make a Right Choice

Uses of Oil Paint:

There are several uses of oil paints. They can be used to paint anything
from painting interior walls to hard metal surfaces like MS railing, MS
door and window, and wooden furniture.

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Ingredients of Oil Paint:

 Base – Zinc oxide, and/or titanium white, or iron oxide, or red lead
 Colouring Pigment – Finely-powdered particles of earthy pigments or
synthetic organic pigments or metallic powder which imparts colour to
the paint
 Inert Filler or Extender – Mineral colour particles that are larger than the
secondary pigment.
 Vehicle or Binder or Resin – Linseed oil, tung, or poppy
 Solvent or Thinner – Mineral spirit
 Additive – Driers

05. Enamel Paint

Enamel paints are oil-based paints that have an excellent glossy finish.
They consist of white lead, zinc white, resinous matter, and petroleum
spirit. Enamel paints provide excellent coverage and colour retention.
They are hard and render the wall a glossy and opaque finish. Enamel
paints dry slowly or quickly depending on the thinner used. They are
characterised by their durability and stain-resistance.

Uses of Enamel Paint:

It is excellent for concrete wall surfaces, doors, windows, staircases,
kitchens, bathrooms, basements, porches, patios, and home appliances
that are placed outdoors or subject to scratches or variations in
temperature. Enamel paint is perfect for environmental factors dealing
with volatile temperatures, waterproofing, and rot proofing.
 Ingredients of Enamel Paint:
 Base – White lead, or red lead, or zinc oxide, or iron oxide, or titanium
white, or aluminium powder, or lithophone
 Colouring Pigment – Finely-powdered particles of minerals pigments
 Inert Filler or Extender – Colour particles that are larger than secondary
pigment
 Vehicle or Binder or Resin – Linseed oil, or alkyd resins, or acrylic resin,
or epoxy
 Solvent or Thinner – White spirit, or varnish
 Additive – Drying pigments containing lead, copper and cobalt, leaded
oil, manganese, and zirconium
Also Read: Enamel Paint: All You wanted to Know!

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06. Emulsion Paint

As described by the ‘Abbas Kazaure Adamu, Muhammed Kabir Yakubu,
and Olufemi Kassim Sunmonu’ in the International Conference on
Biological, Chemical and Environmental Sciences (BCES-2014), the first
step for making paint involves mixing the base or pigment with resin,
solvents, and additives to form a paste.
Emulsions are defined as a mixture of two liquids that don’t blend well.
Two non-blending liquids can form different types of emulsions.

For example, oil and water can form two type of emulsions, namely oil-in-
water emulsion and water-in-oil emulsion.

 Oil-in-water – where the oil is in the dispersed phase, and water is the
dispersion medium
 Water-in-oil – where water is the dispersed phase and oil is the external
phase.
Usually, in emulsion paints, water is available at around 50-60% by
volume, rest are the oily portions and the solids in the form of pigments.
But it is to be remembered that the pigments have a higher density than
water; hence, water in terms of the ratio by weight is lesser. Water is a
 medium where the binder, pigment, and additives are dispersed in
molecular form.

 Also Read: Pros and Cons of Emulsion Paint

                   Emulsion Paint: All you need to Know
Binders are polymers forming a continuous film on the surface. Binders
like alkyd resins, acrylic resin, and epoxy are used in emulsion paints.

Uses of Emulsion Paint:

Emulsion paint is used for internal as well as for external surface coating
of a building structure. They dry quickly and can be used for external and
internal surfaces. In fact, after cement-based paints, they are one of the
most preferred types of exterior paints today.
Ingredients of Emulsion Paint:
 Base – Titanium oxide, or zinc oxide, or iron oxide
Note: The choice of base in paint fully depends upon the colour of the
paint. i.e. Paint makers use titanium white to manufacture the white
coloured emulsion paint

 Colouring Pigment – Calcium carbonate powder

 Inert Filler or Extender – Calcium carbonate powder, or Calcined kaolin
clay
 Vehicle or Binder or Resin – Alkyd resins, or acrylic resin, or epoxy
 Solvent or Thinner – Water or white spirit
 Additive – Calgon as dispersing agent
Know more about the Basic Component of Emulsion Paint

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07. Textured Paint

Textured paints consist of coarse grains (such as gypsum or sand),
metal, ribbon, lace, and leather. A water-thinned binder is used for
creating a rough effect on a wall. In recent times, textured paint has
become one of the most popular trends in the home decor segment as it
renders an attractive appeal to the wall. Such paint simulates two
senses: sight and touch.

Uses of Textured Paint:

As it gives an artistic look to a wall, you can use textured paint as an
alternative for wallpaper. Also, it is a great solution to hide uneven and
imperfect wall surfaces.
Ingredients of Textured Paint:
 Base – Gypsum and sand
 Colouring Pigment – Finely-powdered mineral particles
 Inert Filler or Extender – Colour particles that are larger than a fine
particle
 Vehicle or Binder or Resin – Alkyd resins, or acrylic resin, or epoxy
 Solvent or Thinner – Water
 Additive – Alkali resistance pigment
Note: By changing the proportion of ingredients, the properties of
textured paint can be modified based on the intended use of that
particular paint.
Also Read: Textured Paint: All You Need to Know

08. Metallic Paint

 A paint which consists flecks of aluminium, copper, bronze, stainless
steel, or other metals gets a metallic appearance. Such a type of wall
paint is called metallic paint.

Uses of Metallic Paint:

Metallic paints are more feasible for painting metallic surfaces like
vehicles, light fixtures, and hardware.
Ingredients of Metallic Paint:
 Base – Mica
 Colouring Pigment – Finely-powdered aluminium, or copper, or bronze,
or stainless steel, or other metals
 Inert Filler or Extender – Not Added
 Vehicle or Binder or Resin – Acrylic resin
 Solvent or Thinner – Water
 Additive – Driers

09. Aluminium Paint

Aluminium paint is a coating material which is made by a mixture of oil
varnish and aluminium pigment in the form of thin flakes which overlap
in the paint film. It reflects the sun’s radiation well and retains the heat in
hot-air or hot-water pipes or tanks. The resin helps the paint flow and
gives it strength and durability. On the other hand, the aluminium flakes
give the paint a shiny metallic finish. This type of paint generally has a
silvery finish. Several manufacturers only produce one shade of
aluminium-based paint.

Uses of Aluminium Paint:

Aluminium paint can be used on a variety of materials, including metals,
wood, and masonry among others. Besides, aluminium paint is used for
painting gas tanks, hot water pipes, marine piers, oil storage tanks, and
radiators.
Composition of Aluminium Paint:
 Base – Titanium dioxide
 Colouring Pigment – Fine powdered of mineral particles
 Inert Filler or Extender – Not Added
 Vehicle or Binder or Resin – Oil varnish
 Solvent or Thinner – Mineral spirit
 Additive – Driers
Also Read: Aluminium Paint: All that You Wanted to Know

10. Zinc-Rich Paint

Zinc-rich paint is made from a suitably high amount of zinc dust or zinc
powder with organic or inorganic binders. Zinc painting is also referred
to as ‘cold galvanizing’.

Uses of Zinc-rich Paint:

Zinc-rich paint is more suitable to apply a top coat on steel or other
metallic surfaces to evade the continuous risk of corrosion from a harsh
environment.
Ingredients of Zink-Rich Paint:
 Base – Zinc oxide
 Colouring Pigment – 65-95% metallic zinc powder
 Inert Filler or Extender – Not Added
 Vehicle or Binder or Resin – Organic binders like alkyd silicates or
acrylic resins or inorganic binders like ethyl silicate
 Solvent or Thinner – Mineral Spirits
 Additive – Driers

11. Lead Paint

The term applies to any paint, paste, stopping, filling, or other paint
material containing more than 5 percent lead as lead oxide (PbO) in its
pigment.

Uses of Lead Paint:

Nowadays, lead paint has become unpopular as it causes many health
hazards. Still, some people use lead paint for painting the wooden
surfaces at home. Lead pigments are highly opaque; hence, even a
relatively small amount of the compound can cover a large area.
 White lead is completely insoluble in water, making the paint highly
durable and water-resistant with a washable finish.
Ingredients of Lead Paint:
 Base – Chrome yellow lead, or Red lead, or White lead
 Colouring Pigment – Finely-powdered of mineral particles
 Inert Filler or Extender – Limestone
 Vehicle or Binder or Resin – Vinyl acrylic, or Polyvinyl acrylic, or Styrene
acrylic
 Solvent or Thinner – Water or white spirit
 Additive – Driers (lead naphthenate and lead octanoate), Corrosion
resistance agents (lead tetroxide)

12. Rubber Paint

Rubber paint is an emulsion paint having chlorinated rubber as its binder
or non-volatile vehicle. They withstand water and other tough conditions.
Rubber paint is also a kind of latex paint.

Uses of Rubber Paint:

Rubber paint is used to paint boats and swimming pools as it is a long-
lasting alternative that will not wear out over time. Rubber paint can also
be applied to wood, metal, concrete, fibreglass, and plastic surfaces.
Ingredients of Rubber Paint:
 Base – Titanium dioxide
 Colouring Pigment – Finely-powdered mineral particles
 Inert Filler or Extender – Not Added
 Vehicle or Binder or Resin – Chlorinated rubber
 Solvent or Thinner – Water
 Additive – Not Added

13. Latex Paint

The word “latex” originally refers to the use of rubber in the paint, as the
resin or solid. Latex is a white milky liquid extracted from trees like
rubber. Latex paint is based on pigment and synthetic resin produced by
emulsion polymerization. In this type of house paint, the principal
constituent is the binder.
 Uses of Latex Paint:
Latex paint can be used on the surfaces of walls and trim, concrete, and
wood.
Ingredients of Latex Paint:
 Base – Titanium dioxide
 Colouring Pigment – White Finely-powdered Particles of minerals
 Inert Filler or Extender – Limestone
 Vehicle or Binder or Resin – Vinyl acrylic, or Polyvinyl acrylic, or Styrene
acrylic.
 Solvent or Thinner – Water
 Additive – Not Added
To know more about latex paint, read here: Latex Paint: All You Need To
Know

14. Silicone Paint

Silicone paint is a special type of coating in which alkyd resins are
modified by adding silicone. It has excellent durability, toughness, good
resistance to cracking and abrasions caused by severe temperature
changes. Silicones are effective at very low concentrations; hence, they
are widely used to get the most out of both product properties and
processes.

Uses of Silicone Paint:

Silicone paint is mostly used as maintenance paint for steel and
concrete, coating for exterior decorative items, and for brass and
aluminium. It is highly resistant to heat; hence, it is used in chimneys and
ovens. It repels water on masonry surfaces such as stone and brick. It is
also a preferred choice to prevent corrosion in industrial structure
exposed to a harsh corrosive environment. Certain silicone paints are
transparent, and hence they are recommended for cladding like exposed
concrete, brick walls, and stone cladding.
Ingredients of Silicone Paint:
 Base – Silicone
 Colouring Pigment – Fine powder of Colour Minerals
Note: Clear Silicone paint has no colouring pigment
 Inert Filler or Extender – Not Added
 Vehicle or Binder or Resin – Alkyd resins
 Solvent or Thinner – Mineral spirits
 Additive – Drier

15. Anti-Corrosive Paint

Anti-corrosive paint is a composition of corrosion-resistant pigments
such as zinc chromate, lead chromate, or red lead. It protects the metal
components against degradation due to moisture, salt spray, oxidation,
or exposure to a variety of environmental and industrial chemicals.

Uses of Anti-Corrosive Paint:

The name itself suggests that this type of paint is used to prevent a
surface from corroding. It is used to paint iron or steel products which
may rust on exposure to moisture or chemicals.
Ingredients of Anti-Corrosive Paint:
 Base – zinc chromate, or lead chromate, or zinc oxide, or zinc dust, or
zinc chromate, or red lead
 Colouring Pigment – Not Added
 Inert Filler or Extender – Not Added
 Vehicle or Binder or Resin – Linseed oil
 Solvent or Thinner – Mineral turpentine
 Additive – Drier
Also Read: Anti Corrosive Paint: All You Need to know

16. Fungicidal Paint

Once applied, this paint discourages the growth of fungi. This paint
penetrates deep into concrete plaster to kill fungi and arrest its growth.
Generally, this paint is mixed with other paint to achieve the anti-fungal
property. It helps to protect and cease the surfaces from the attack of
mould.

The fungicidal properties are normally conferred by the addition of

special additives. Although certain pigments such as zinc oxide,
commonly used in paints may themselves contribute to the fungicidal
properties of the paint.
 Use of Fungicidal Paint:
Fungicidal paints are the best types of exterior paints.  They can be used
as an additive when painting the exterior and interior walls of a house.
Ingredients of Fungicidal Paint:
 Base – Titanium oxide, zinc oxide, and iron oxide
 Colouring Pigment – Fine powder of Mineral
 Inert Filler or Extender – Colour particles greater than secondary
pigment
 Vehicle or Binder or Resin – Alkyd resins, acrylic resin, and epoxy
 Solvent or Thinner – Water or white spirit
 Additive – Fungicidal like a mixture of arylmethanol and halogen
akylacylamino methanol

17. Epoxy Paint

Epoxy paints are made from epoxy resin, i.e. they form binders. Epoxy
resins are thermosetting synthetic resins containing the epoxide groups.
They are formed by cross-linking reactions of epoxide groups and
available with modified properties or in the pure form.

According to the Paint and Coating Standard, Canada, the choice of

epoxy paint is based on the fact that modified epoxies tend to be less
abrasion-resistant and less resistant to solvents and chemicals than the
pure epoxies. Epoxy paints are popular because they provide a quick-
drying, are tough, and form a protective coating on metals and other
materials.

Uses of Epoxy Paint:

We can use epoxy paint primarily as a floor covering which forms a hard
and shiny surface upon application. They are highly feasible for a
commercial building, industrial floors, particularly the pharmaceutical
industry, operation theatres, and garages due to its strength and
resistance to damage and chemicals. They are preferred when a
jointless flooring or bacteria-free flooring is the priority.
Ingredients of Epoxy Paint:
 Base – Epoxy Resin [Bisphenol A (Bis A) or Bisphenol F (Bis F)]
 Colouring Pigment – Fine powdered particles of minerals
 Inert Filler or Extender – Not Added
 Vehicle or Binder or Resin – Epoxy curing agent (polyamine epoxy)
 Solvent or Thinner – Epoxy thinner (a mix of solvents and alcohols)
 Additive – Additives are added that reduce the brittleness (Plasticisers)

18. Luminous Paint

A few types of wall paints that glow in the dark as they contain a source
of radiant energy that emits light for a certain length of time after
exposure to an energy source. Such paints are called luminous paints.

Types of luminous paint are listed below

(a) Fluorescent Paint
Fluorescent paints are made by adding fluorescent pigments with a
good amount of resin. The pigments are capable of absorbing energy
from the blue or ultraviolet end of the spectrum and re-emitting it in the
form of light in the visible wavelengths.

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(b) Phosphorescent Paint

Phosphorescent paint contains pigments (phosphorus) which absorb
energy at one wavelength and emit it over a period, in the form of light at
a longer wavelength in the visible spectrum. It differs from a fluorescent
paint as it continues to glow even after the stimulant is removed.
(c) Radioactive (Self-Luminous Paint)
It is a phosphorescent type of paint, containing a portion of radioactive
compounds. The phosphorous is permanently activated by absorbing
energy from the bombardment by the radioactive rays and emits light in
the visible spectrum.
Uses of Luminous Paint:
Luminous paints are a popular type of exterior paints, used for painting
signboards, dials, and warnings. These allow signs to be read in the dark,
especially at night. Usually, you see such signs and signboards on the
roads and highways which not only help to manage the road traffic but
 can avoid accidents. They are also used on signboards of basement
parking and other public buildings.
Ingredients of Luminous Paint:
 Base – Calcium sulphide or zinc sulphides (metal chloride and inorganic
sulphides – an alkaline earth aluminium borate and a matrix made of
metal activator)
 Colouring Pigment – Finely-powdered luminescent substance
(fluorescent pigments or phosphorescent material or a combination of a
phosphorescent and a fluorescent material or radioactive compound)
 Inert Filler or Extender – Not Added
 Vehicle or Binder or Resin – Alkyd, Amino, Phenolic, Polyurethane,
Epoxy, Silicone, Acrylic
 Solvent or Thinner – Turpentine, white spirit, or varnish.
 Additive – Driers
Also Read: Illuminance vs. Luminance: Know Differences!

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19. Bituminous Paint

Bituminous paints are made of asphalt bitumen or coal tar which is
dissolved in mineral spirit or naphtha. Bituminous paints are black in
colour, but suitable colouring pigments can be added for the desired
colour.

Uses of Bituminous Paint:

Bituminous paint is ideal for use in areas where an effective waterproof,
weatherproof, chemical and corrosion-resistant protective layer is
required. Bituminous paints are alkali-resistant; hence, it is feasible to
use them for underwater structures, weather protecting steelwork,
waterproofing, wood, concrete, and potable water tanks. It is excellent
for any type of exterior metalwork and ironwork such as fire escapes.
shafts, and ladders.
Ingredients of Bituminous Paint:
 Base – Asphalt or mineral pitches or vegetable bitumen
 Colouring Pigment – Not Added
 Inert Filler or Extender – Not Added
 Vehicle or Binder or Resin – Alkyd resins, acrylic resin, and epoxy
 Solvent or Thinner – Turpentine, white spirit, and varnish
 Additive – Not Added
Also Read: Bituminous Paint: All You Need to know

20. Anti-Condensation Paint 

These are a type of paint designed to reduce the formation of
condensation of moisture under intermittently dry and humid conditions.
It is a thick, matte paint used on interior walls, which significantly
reduces condensation. It frequently contains cork or some other heat-
insulating materials as a filler. Condensation of moisture leads to mould
and can damage your walls. This type of house paint inhibits fungal and
mould growth.

Uses of Anti-condensation Paint:

Anti-condensation paint can be used on the walls that are constantly
under the threat of moisture.
Ingredients of Anti-condensation Paint:
 Base – Titanium dioxide and oxides of aluminium, iron, and silicon
 Colouring Pigment– White finely-powdered particles of minerals
 Inert Filler or Extender – Diatomaceous earth
 Vehicle or Binder or Resin – High-performance unsaturated polyester
resins (Monopropylene glycol)
 Solvent or Thinner – Not Added
 Additive – 1,2-BENZISOTHIAZOL-3(2H)-ONE

Uses of Cement-Based Paints:

Cement paints can be applied on the exterior as well as interior walls. It
is essentially painted on the exterior wall surface for preventing water
penetration and reducing the dirt collection. It is suitable for coating
concrete as well as decorating indoor and outdoor walls.
Composition of Cement-Based Paints:
 Base – Portland Cement, White cement, Lime, chalk, Calcite, and
Titanium Dioxide
 Note: Percentage of base or principle pigments are changed based on
the intended use of that particular paint
 Colouring Pigment – Fine particles of mineral colour
 Inert Filler or Extender – Not Added
 Vehicle or Binder or Resin – Alkyd resins, or acrylic resin, or epoxy
 Solvent or Thinner – Water
 Additive – Alkali Resistance Pigment, Calcium Chloride as a solidifying
agent, Calcium / Aluminium stearate


Applications: FLOAT GLASS

 Float glass is the most commonly used in glass windows. It is
sometimes also called window glass.
 Clear float glasses are highly popular in the construction of architectural
exteriors and interiors of the building.
 It has wide application in residential structures. Float glass is used
in doors, windows, tabletops, stairs, bottles, glass partitions, furniture
articles, etc.
 Float glass is also used in commercial structures in the form of
facades and glazing to provide better aesthetics.
 It can be processed to produce various glasses such as laminated
glass, toughened glass, insulated glass units, mirrors, etc.
 High-performance glass such low e glass can be made from float
glass by coating it with metal oxides.
 It is used in automobiles, electronic machines, medical
equipments, optical instruments, etc.

 RUBBER FLOORING

Advantages of rubber flooring

By choosing to go with rubber flooring, you’re giving yourself a surface that’s vast in features and
benefits, but more importantly it will last. From the abundance of styles that cater to more intricate
interior design selections to the sheer endurance and resilience that originally made it famous, here
are the prominent perks of rubber flooring:

Durability
The reason many turn to rubber flooring for their home is its overall durability. A strong flooring
selection that can stand the tests of time and traffic, you can count on its resistance for any slipping or
impact that could occur. Along with being tough, its soft and cushiony surface provides a comfortable
environment for you to exercise or for your kids to play.
 “To put it bluntly, there’s simply no room that rubber flooring wouldn’t pair well with.”

Versatility
While many people in the past often chose to only use rubber flooring in rooms like home-gyms or
children play areas, the style has developed into a more sleek, universal option for modern
homeowners. Much of this has to do with the incredible amount of choices available when it comes to
picking out colors, patterns and designs for rubber flooring. Whether you’re trying to emulate a more
sophisticated gray, marble-inspired pattern for your new kitchen or a more vibrant, speckled design
that accentuates your man cave, the many rubber flooring options available can help you create the
ambiance you’re after.

Right room for you

To put it bluntly, there’s simply no room that rubber flooring wouldn’t pair well with. It’s compatible with
rooms catered toward children or elderly members of the family, due to its extreme shock absorbency
and resilience. It can withstand tremendous amounts of impact and traffic, so it works well with
workout rooms or frequented hallways. Rubber flooring is also very resistance to water, so areas that
withstand plenty of liquid spillage such as laundry rooms, kitchens or bathrooms are compatible with
this style of surface. Overall, what makes rubber flooring a quality addition to your home is its
universal features and advantages, allowing for a simpler decision whenever you’re contemplating
your next floor installation project.

 Exercise rooms benefit from having flooring that absorbs noise and can stand up to
jumping and an occasional dropped weight.
 In the kitchen, rubber flooring shrugs off most spills and drops. Plus, if you’re a
homeowner chef who tends to spend long hours whipping up something special,
rubber kitchen flooring helps fight fatigue and tired leg muscles. However, rubber
flooring is susceptible to staining from grease and fat, and any oily spills should be
wiped up immediately and cleaned with warm water and a mild detergent.
 Bathrooms are good candidates for water-resistant sheet rubber flooring. Sheet
flooring has few seams where water might penetrate to the subfloor below — a pro
installer will chemically weld together the seams of sheet rubber flooring. For
bathrooms, be sure to choose rubber flooring with a slip-resistant surface texture.
 Bedrooms with rubber flooring are soft underfoot and won’t get cold like ceramic
tile. Rubber flooring helps muffle the sound of footfalls in upper-level bedrooms.
 Below-grade basements tend to be cool and damp, but those conditions don’t affect
rubber flooring. You can put rubber flooring directly on concrete slabs, too. If
moisture is a concern in your basement, avoid glue-down applications for you rubber
flooring—over time, excess moisture can cause adhesives to deteriorate.
 Garages are good candidates for rubber floors, especially if you have a workshop and
want fatigue-fighting comfort underfoot. Rubber flooring stands up to heavy
equipment, vehicles, and foot traffic.
Rubber flooring is easy to clean with mild soap and water. To keep flooring in top
condition, it should be polished with a water-soluble wax every couple years.
Rubberized flooring comes in many forms, and it can be made from a variety of materials –
from synthetics - such as recycled tires, to natural tree rubber. It is an extremely durable and
slip resistant flooring option that can withstand a lot of weight, high traffic, and even abuse.

Rubberized floors are popular choices for residential and commercial settings, including -
home gyms, playgrounds, horse stalls, basements, fitness centers, and so much more. They
are known for their anti-fatigue qualities, noise absorption abilities, and insulation properties. It
is resistant to stains, and it is hard to break or damage. With so many size, thickness, surface,
and color options, rubberized floors are extremely versatile. The yare also pliable and provides
for a somewhat springy cushion, providing for safety and comfort.

Rubber is naturally water resistant, making it an excellent flooring option – especially in areas
where moisture is frequently present.

Areas like garage floors and basements, where flooding often occurs, are excellent candidates
for this pliable flooring. Many people appreciate the ease of application of rubber floors,
because many options require no underlayment or adhesive.

Rubberized flooring is also very easy to clean and maintain. Most options can be swept,
vacuumed, or wet mopped as needed. Some types of rubber flooring may also be sprayed
down with a hose and hung to dry.

The use of rubber is ideal for many situations, of which we will explore a few.

Gym/Fitness Center Flooring

There are a number of rubber gym floor options – from rolled rubber to 3x4 foot mats to puzzle
mats – and more. Gyms are home to sweat and moisture, so it’s imperative that a flooring
option that prevents the growth of mold, mildew and bacteria. Flooring must also provide
comfort and safety for the athlete, floor protection from exercise equipment, sports equipment,
and weights, a noise buffer from intense movement and dropping of weights, and insulation to
help maintain heating and cooling of the gym. Rubberized flooring provides all of that and
more.

Playground Surfaces

Many safety playground surfaces are made from rubber that comes in many different colors
and thicknesses as well as impact absorbing engineering designs. Rubberized tiles or paver-
type surfacing provides for a safe, dependable, and durable option that does not require raking
like loose fill options do. It fits beautifully under swings, playsets, slides, and more, and
provides a comfortable, skid-free play area. The smooth surface also provides ADA
accessibility, allowing for all children to safely enjoy a playground.

Horse Stall Mats

Rubber horse stall mats are made from recycling rubber tires and turning them into a versatile,
economical and pliable mat. They are often used for horse stalls, horse trailer flooring, stable
flooring, run in flooring, and more. Vulcanized rubber mats are non-porous, which prevents the
growth of fungus and bacteria. Horse mats are low maintenance, easy to clean, and extremely
durable. They provide a clean, safe, and protective environment for a horse. Stall mats make
cleaning the bedding much easier, and they keep a freshly-bathed horse show-ready, instead
of dirty and dusty from sand or clay. These mats also cut down on dust and maintenance
when they are placed over dirt aisles.

Roof Options

Rubber roof deck tiles are another versatile rubberized flooring that provides for a clean,
outdoor entertainment area – either rooftop, patio, deck, or more! These deck tiles come in
many thicknesses and provide for safety, comfort, and durability. Many flat roofs double as
outdoor living spaces, that when covered with rubber flooring, are beautiful and multi-purpose.

Basement & Garage Flooring

Basement and garage environments are often home to water, mold, stains, humidity, mildew,
and more. Because rubber is water resistant and pliable, it is an excellent flooring option for
these areas of a home. Rolled rubber mats, rubber tiles and other rubberized flooring options
are ideal, as most do not require underlayment or adhesive and will accommodate imperfect
existing floors. This is important to consider, as moisture present in basements and garages
may also lead to adhesive failure. Finally, rubber is much more economical than many other
flooring options. It is also important to note, high moisture areas need flooring that either
allows for air flow beneath the flooring surface or allows the flooring to be easily removed for
drying purposes.

Anti-Fatigue Mats

Many commercial businesses require their employees to stand on their feet for long hours – a
requirement that also comes with a certain level of liability. Anti-fatigue mats come in many
colors, designs, and thicknesses, and provide for a comfortable and safe surface on which
employees may stand. They typically have safety borders to prevent tripping when moving
over the mats, and they are a cost-effective way for an employee to provide a better work
environment.

While by definition, rubberized flooring is either made from or coated with rubber, many
consider any pliable or flexible flooring to be rubberized. If that's what you're looking for, but
you want something lighter weight than rubber, you may want to check into Greatmats foam or
plastic flooring options. These offer excellent cushion for installation over hard surfaces.

Advantages of Rubber Flooring

Available in a huge array of patterns -- from speckled and interlocking to an
inexpensive imitation of marble -- and in myriad colors, rubber affords homeowners
great design flexibility. Designs may even be tailored to their application, such as the
incorporation of bold lines to define pathways in a hospital.

Some other advantages of rubber over other types of flooring are as follows: 

 Glue may not be required. Unlike most other flooring options, rubber
tiles (depending on installation requirements) often require only
carpet tape or no adhesive at all. This makes installation easier and
protects indoor air quality from the odor and toxic compounds
released by the glue required for installing other types of flooring
products.
 Rubber flooring beats many other types of flooring in terms of
longevity.  When properly maintained, it can last the entire lifetime of
a building. A urethane can be applied on top of the rubber to increase
its durability and adds a glossy finish to the end product.
 Easy on the joints and comfortable to stand on for long periods of
time, the inherent elasticity of rubber floors protects dropped
breakables, unlike ceramic tiles and other alternatives. This quality
also protects the floor against items that are dropped on it, while
wooden, ceramic and linoleum floors are more easily chipped and
scratched. Gym floors are generally made of rubber, which can
protect users as well as absorb the impact from dropped dumbbells
and other athletic equipment.
 Environmentally speaking, rubber flooring is low-impact. According
to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. generates
approximately 290 million scrap auto tires per year, which accounts
for 2% of all solid waste. Millions of scrap tires are buried or burned,
filling the air and water with benzene, styrene, phenols, butadiene,
and other toxic chemicals. Re-forming them into new tires is limited
by product quality constraints, but they can easily be reused for
rubber flooring, mitigating one of the largest and most problematic
sources of waste. Rubber flooring can also be removed many years
later and reinstalled in new buildings, thus eliminating the need to
expend energy and deplete resources to manufacture new flooring
material. Natural rubber is taken from trees, which are harvested
responsibly and are a renewable resource.
 It is acoustically insulating. Rubber provides much better sound
dampening than vinyl, tile, and other hard surfaces. It can even be
installed beneath wooden floors to eliminate creaking.
 It is anti-static, so it won’t create static shocks during dry winters.
 Probably its greatest asset is that it's naturally slip-resistant. Rubber
has a high coefficient of friction in wet and dry conditions relative to
flooring alternatives, which makes it a good material around pools
and other slippery areas. A surface textured in knobs will further
increase slip resistance. To further illustrate this quality, consider the
Olympics, where billions of eager eyes watch gymnasts leap and land
 on the sweat-laden floor. A slip under these circumstances could be
disastrous, which is why Olympic floors are made of rubber.  

Disadvantages of Rubber Flooring

InterNACHI inspectors, homeowners and commercial site managers should be aware
of the following disadvantages and hazards associated with rubber flooring:

 flammability. All rubber is flammable, although various grades of

fire-retardant rubber flooring are available, but the more flame-
resistant materials are more expensive;
 lack of versatility. Carpet and wood floors may better suit traditional
home décor, such as living room and bedroom applications;
 oxidation. Interactions with light, heat or certain metals will cause
rubber to oxidize and become brittle;
 chalking. Exposure to inorganic fillers will deteriorate rubber flooring
and cause it to become dull;
 softening and staining. This can be caused by interactions with oil,
fatty acids, petroleum-based products, copper and solvents;
 loosening and lifting of seams. Rubber tiles are prone to moisture
damage at the seams, which may allow additional moisture to
penetrate into the subfloor. Rubber sheets protect better against
moisture due to
their lack of seams;
 odor. Rubber floors
made from recycled
tires have a
characteristic smell
that, while
harmless, is found
by some users to be
unpleasant. The
smell will lessen
over time but will
never go away
completely.
Problematic odors
are especially prevalent in rubber floors manufactured outside the
U.S. under low-quality standards, and they're glued together with
strong-smelling urethane adhesives rather than the using the
process of vulcanization. Some manufacturers recommend their
recycled rubber floors not be installed in enclosed, unventilated
spaces. Homeowners and commercial site owners can choose virgin
rubber made from rubber trees, which is more expensive but lacks
the odor associated with other rubber products; and
  off-gassing of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). While the Internet
is flush with claims that the off-gassing from rubber flooring is
limited to the harmless aforementioned odor, we at InterNACHI
reviewed the only controlled study that attempted to measure the
VOCs released by recycled rubber in floors. The 2010 study
performed by California’s Public Health Institute titled Tire-Derived
Rubber (TDR) Flooring Chemical Emissions Study  presented the
following findings:
 TDR and new rubber (NR) flooring products still emit a
myriad of VOC chemicals, and their release is not uniform
among the different products. A minority of products released
excessive amounts of chemicals;  and
 Xylene, butylated hydroxytoluene, ethylbenzene, toluene,
formaldehyde and acetaldehyde were found in a range of
products. Benzene and carbon disulfide were above the health
threshold in one or two samples… Some of the identified
chemicals do not yet have health-based standards, making
their health impacts difficult to assess.  

 FIRE RESISTANT COATINGS

Fire Protective Coatings for Load Bearing Structures

With Sika® Unitherm® and Sika® Pyroplast® fire protective coatings, quality and cost-
optimised solutions can be realised depending on the required fire-resistance class, the
subsequent building codes and the local conditions. Whether steel structures, timber
construction elements or concrete – our product portfolio offers reliable building protection
according to national and international standards and is used in many important buildings and
complexes around the world.

Through continuous, market-focused development work, the Sika fire protective products are
classified and usable in accordance with the latest European requirements, directives and EN
standards.

Function and Chemistry of Fire Protective Coatings

Although steel constructions do not burn, very high temperatures can cause them to lose their
load-bearing capacity and thus their static stability within a few minutes. The functional
principle of fire protective coatings is based on a specific, very complex chemical product
composition.

Due to the thermal energy of the fire, the bonding agent begins to soften at the surface and is
then swelling by the gases produced by an integral foaming agent to form a foam. The
originally millimetre-thin coating converts into a centimetrethick, micro-porous insulating
foam that insulates the substrate against heat.
 Combination of Protection and Aesthetics

Circular or rectangular hollow sections are most frequently chosen for their visual
appearance.

Sika® fire protective coatings allow the unrestricted protection of such components without
impairing their visual appearance. In addition, a broad range of decorative finishes will also
enhance the appearance of the structure purposefully as a supplementary design element.


ACP SHEETS …AL COMPOSITE PANELS

1. NTRODUCTION Aluminium Composite Panel (ACP) is a general term for panels
constructed from two sheets of aluminium bonded to a core. Also known as Sandwich
panel, it is a structure made of three layers: ▪ Low density core inserted in between two
relatively thin skin layers. ▪ This sandwich setup allows to achieve excellent mechanical
performance at minimal weight. ▪ The very high rigidity of a sandwich panel is achieved
thanks to interaction of its components under flexural load applied to the panel. ▪ Core
takes the shear loads and creates a distance between the skins which take the in-plane
stresses, one skin in tension, the other in compression.
2. 4. CLASSIFICATION
3. 5. PROPERTIES OF ACP ▪ Aesthetically pleasing: Other means of making a structure
cannot deliver the result as Aluminum Composite Panel does. ▪ Good Insulation Material:
Thermal and acoustical ▪ Dead weight of the Composite material is very low. ▪ Is resistant
to heat up to a temperature as high as of 113 degree Celsius after which it starts
deforming in the first place and then fails. ▪ Aluminum can be painted in any kind of color,
and ACPs are produced in a wide range of metallic and non-metallic colors as well as
patterns that imitate other materials, such aswood or marble.
4. 6. Adding true beauty to a structure An economical option Easily and quickly processed
Long lasting durability Excellent weather resistance Outstanding thermal comfort
Improved sound dampening Least maintenance required ADVANTAGES
5. 7. INSTALLATION OF ACP ▪ Aluminium composite panel are installed on aluminium by
rivet or screw Or Cutting. Panel can be cut by suitable kinds of saws and lathes.
6. 8. SALIENT FEATURES OF ACP • Very light reducing the dead weight of the building
and frame loading. • Resistant to extremes of weather exposure and temperature. •
Excellent UV characteristics retaining colour after long exposure. • High impact
resistance • 100% maintenance free • Good sound insulation. • World renowned 3M tape
is used for fixing the ACP to the aluminium frame. • Anti-Fungal protection • Lightweight,
reducing frame loading and installation costs • Capable of being shaped and formed
without loss of surface integrity • High strength and rigidity - outstanding deflection and
bending strength
7. 9. • Short time for Mounting : as result cuts down construction time • Good Sound
insulation - reduces unwanted vibrational noise • Ease of installation - can be bent, cut,
drilled, punched & stamped • Resistant to extremes of weather exposure and
temperature • Excellent UV characteristics retaining colour after long exposure • Smooth
paint finish and locquering - 3 layer PVdF 70% Kynar - 500 • Superior flatness - ideal of
creating smooth, monolithic surfaces • High impact resistance • Pollution, acid, alkali, and
self-spray resistant finish • Very low coefficient of expansion • Minimal maintenance •
Wide range of choice available.
8. 10. MARKET SURVEY PANEL DIMENSIONS Standard sizes - 1220mm x 3660mm
1220mm x 3050mm 1220mm x 2440mm PANEL OPTIONS LENGTH upon request
WIDTH up to1550m (on order) PANEL 1mm to 4mm THICKNESS Special thickness &
sizes are also available on request. The Cost of panels vary from Rs. 40 to 125 per sq.
feet (depending upon the thickness of panels) ACP COLOURS Standard colours are
 available & different textures are available on request (approx. - 100 colours). Standard
colours
9. 11. Aluminium can be painted in any kind of colour, and ACPs are produced in a wide
range of metallic and non- metallic colours as well as patterns that imitate other
materials, such as wood or marble. ACPs are frequently used for external cladding or
facades of buildings, insulation & signage
Acp panel
1. 1. • Aluminium composite panel (ACP) also aluminium composite material, (ACM) is a
type of flat panel that consists of two thin aluminium sheets bonded to a non-aluminium
core. ACPs are frequently used for external cladding or facades of buildings, insulation,
and signage. Aluminium Composite panel cladding is done with the help of 2" x 1" plain
rectangular tube, Adhesive tape, ACP Sheet, weathering sealant and top quality
hardware.
2. 2. • Aluminium Composite Panels (ACP) are mainly light- weight composite material
consisting of two pre-finished aluminium cover sheets heat-bonded (laminated) to a core
made of polyethylene plastic material, available in 3mm, 4mm, and 6mm thicknesses
after finishing and can be curved and bent to form corners. These panels are used widely
as exterior covering of commercial buildings and corporate houses. While adding to
aesthetic beauty of the structure, they are also resistant to acid, alkali salt spray, pollution
and provide good thermal as well as sound insulation. These Panels are widely used due
easy maintenance in almost any kind of climate through normal wash with water and mild
detergent that ensures long lasting performance.
3. 3. • Very light reducing the dead weight of the building and frame loading. • Resistant to
extremes of weather exposure and temperature. • Excellent UV characteristics retaining
colour after long exposure. • High impact resistance • 100% maintenance free • Good
sound insulation. • World renowned 3M tape is used for fixing the ACP to the aluminium
frame. • Anti-Fungal protection • Lightweight, reducing frame loading and installation
costs • Capable of being shaped and formed without loss of surface integrity • High
strength and rigidity - outstanding deflection and bending strength
4. 4. • Short time for Mounting : as result cuts down construction time. • Good Sound
insulation - reduces unwanted vibrational noise. Ease of installation - can be bent, cut,
drilled, punched & stamped • Resistant to extremes of weather exposure and
temperature . • Excellent UV characteristics retaining colour after long exposure. •
Superior flatness - ideal of creating smooth, monolithic surfaces High impact resistance .
• Pollution, acid, alkali, and self-spray resistant finish. • Very low coefficient of expansion.
5. 5. • Aluminium can be painted in any kind of colour, and ACPs are produced in a wide
range of metallic and non- metallic colours as well as patterns that imitate other
materials, such as wood or marble. ACPs are frequently used for external cladding or
facades of buildings, insulation & signage • ACP is mainly used for external and internal
architectural cladding or partitions, false ceilings, Sign trays, Individual logos, Column
cladding, Counter cladding, Grilles and screens, Machine parts and covers, Display
panels, etc.
6. 6. • Aluminium cladding allows you to come up with contemporary styles that not only
protect your building from the elements of nature but also gives it a great appearance. •
This cladding material can also be used to complement the traditional looks of your
building. Further, it can also be installed easily over materials like brick, concrete or
stucco. If you are planning to enhance or modify the appearance of the interiors or
exteriors of your building, think of aluminium as it offers great value for your money.
7. 7. • Adding true beauty to a structure. • An economical option. • Easily and quickly
processed Long lasting durability. • Excellent weather resistance. • Outstanding thermal
comfort. • Improved sound dampening. • Least maintenance required. • ACP has been
used as a light-weight but very sturdy material in construction, particularly for transient
structures like trade show booths and similar temporary elements.
8. 8. • Aluminium cladding is preferred by many designers and architects as it provides cost
effective cladding solutions without compromising on the overall quality. Aluminium, when
used for the interiors or the exteriors of a building, can create an amazing visual impact.
Aluminium panels can be used for walls, railings, frames, etc. Since aluminium is light
 weight and flexible, you can fabricate it into any shape you want and use it on any kind of
surface VERSATILE MATERIAL • Aluminium composite is a very versatile cladding
material that enables you to come up with different styles that not only protect your
building but also improve its appearance. Further, aluminium composite cladding is easy
to install and can work on any kind of concrete, brick or stucco surfaces.
9. 9. INSTALLATION OF ACP Aluminium Composite panel are installed on aluminium by
rivet or screw or cutting. Panel can be cut by suitable kinds of saws and lathes.
10. 10. PANEL OPTIONS • Special thickness & sizes are also available on request. • The
Cost of panels vary from Rs. 40 to 125 per sq. feet (depending upon the thickness of
panels) Standard sizes – 1220mm x 3660mm 1220mm x 3050mm 1220mm x 2440mm
LENGTH UPTO REQUEST WIDTH (ON ORDER) UPTO 1550M PANEL THICKNESS
1MM TO 4MM
11. 11. • Alex Panels are manufacturer and suppliers of Plastic Aluminium Composite Panels
Partition Sheets, Aluminium Composite Panels used in Exterior and Interior ACP
Applications . We have Plastic Aluminium Composite Panels, Metal Composite
Panels ,Corrosion Resistant Aluminium Composite Panels ,Anti Fungal Aluminium
Composite Panels, Optimum Aluminium Composite Panels ,Solid Aluminium Panels
used in ACP Fabrication , Cladding and Glazing. PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS Alex
Panels is a Aluminium Composite Panel (ACP), consisting of two layers of aluminium
skins sandwiching a thermoplastic core in a continuous lamination process. Alex Panels
uses the world renowned 'Kynar 500' resins for its exterior grades ensuring long colour
life and no fungal attacks. Long life colour retention is by Kynar 500/PVdF resins in
exterior grade panels. The surface coating contains 70% PVdF resins. Alex Panels
places industry's strictest tolerances during production, ensuring durable composite
panels that stand the test of time.
12. 12. • Since the very inception, Alex Panels has imbibed the very best that the dynamic
ACP market has to offer. Looking ahead, we seek to be responsive and adaptable to
professionals and end users alike. Alex Panels is determined to earn respect and
confidence by making aesthetically appealing but rugged, reliable and high performing
ACPs.Alex Panels is a versatile decorative material designed to challenge your
imagination. It can be used in a myriad ways, particularly for wall cladding in both exterior
and interior applications to stunning effects. Spaces and products that, among others,
have found ready acceptance of Alex Panels include... • Airports • Multiplexes • Shopping
Malls • Exhibition Stands • Petrol Pumps • Column Covers and Beams Wraps • Building
School Buildings Commercial Buildings Offices Hotels Hospitals Balcony and Canopy
Claddings
Types Of PVC Flooring
Following are the types of PVC Vinyl flooring,

1. Sheet PVC Vinyl Flooring

2. PVC Vinyl Composition Tile
1.   Sheet PVC Vinyl Flooring

Sheet
Vinyl Flooring
Sheet PVC Vinyl Flooring usually comes in large, continuous,
flexible sheets. Varying from vinyl floor tiles, vinyl sheet flooring is
well impermeable to water, coming in hard tiles and vinyl planks,
along with interlocking strips.

Vinyl flooring is used extensively as it is water-impermeable, quite

durable, flexible to accommodate and insulating, easy to install,
available with a variety of looks, and inexpensive.

Custom-print vinyl sheet flooring may cost more than an order of

magnitude if commercially ordered.
Structure Of Sheet PVC Vinyl Flooring

Structure Of Sheet Vinyl Flooring

 The three basic categories of vinyl sheet flooring are
homogeneous, inlay, and layered composite.
 Vinyl flooring varies in the manufacturing process and
polyvinyl chloride content. Composite manufacturing begins
with a fibrous backing sheet.
 Vinyl and plasticizer are used for coating the sheet. After that
sheet is printed and possibly embossed (print layer).
 Further re-coating is done with one or more protective wear
layers, whose top can be polyurethane to avoid waxing.
Functions Of Sheet PVC Vinyl Flooring

 As it does not allow water to pass through, sheet flooring is

suitable for kitchens and bathrooms. Some types can be used
in wet rooms.
 As its closed-cell foam backing can be reversed, the flexibility
profile of a sprung performance floor can be given which is
suitable for sports or dance floor.
 This can create a permanent or portable dance floor that can
be placed on problematic surfaces such as concrete.
2. PVC Vinyl Composition Tile

Vinyl Composite Tile

PVC Vinyl composition tile (VCT) is a finished flooring material
that is mainly used in commercial and institutional applications.

Modern vinyl floor tiles and sheet flooring sold since the early 1980s
and versions of products made of colored polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
chips manufactured in solid sheets of varying thickness (1/8 “) The
most common are heat and pressure.)

Such 12 “x 12” squares or 12 “x 24” are cut into rectangular

shapes. The installation involves floor tiles or sheet flooring applied
to a smooth, flat sub-floor using a specially formulated vinyl
adhesive or tile mastic that remains durable.

In commercial applications some tiles are usually waxed and

buffered using special materials and equipment.

Modern vinyl floor tile is often chosen for high-traffic areas because
of its low cost, durability, and ease of maintenance.
Vinyl tiles have high resilience to friction and impact damage and
can be refined repeatedly with chemical strippers and mechanical
buffing equipment.

Once the proper installation is carried out, tiles are easily removable
if damaged and replaceable. These tiles are available in various
colors and designs to ensure an aesthetic view.

Some manufacturers have made vinyl tiles that closely resemble

wood, stone, terrazzo and concrete and hundreds of different
patterns.

A. Luxury PVC Vinyl Tile

L
uxury Vinyl Tile
Luxury PVC Vinyl Tile (LVT) is an industry term for vinyl, not a
standard that mimics the appearance of natural materials with an
added layer to realistically improve wear and performance.

The extra layer of protection is usually a heavy film covered with a

UV-curated urethane that makes it scratch, stain and scratch
resistant.
Sometimes the term “luxury vinyl tile” is reserved for products that
mimic stone and ceramic ducts that mimic wood.

B. PVC Tiles

PVC
Tiles
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Tiles are a commonly used floor finish
made of polyvinyl chloride. Due to the small size of the tiles,
typically 150 mm, 225 mm and 305 mm, any damage can soon be
repaired by replacing individual tiles (as long as some spares are
placed).

The tiles are made of a combination of PVC and fiber, forming a thin
and fairly rigid tile. PVC tiles suffer from some issues.

The gloss used on self-adhesive tiles sometimes gives way, allowing

the edges to be lifted and the foot broken by traffic.

The surface wears off, difficulty cleaning on time, then the loss of a
colored pattern layer.

Finally, a very smooth sub-floor is required for laying them,

otherwise they are gradually cut by foot pressure above and shallow
edges below.
The main advantages of PVC tiles are low cost, ease of replacing
individual tiles, and the fact that tiles can only be kept with brief
periods.

In fact, on otherwise busy days a dyer with a ten-minute slot will

have enough time to get a slowly laid floor, and thus avoid
commercial installation costs.

Read More: 5 Types of Resilient Flooring & Its Types With

Benefits

Advantages Of PVC Flooring

Following are the Vinyl Flooring advantages,

Easy to install: vinyl flooring is really easy to install because it is

simply affixed to the floor. It can be fixed on concrete, wood, or any
other base floor with the help of rubber-based adhesives and is also
available in peel and stick types.

Versatile: Be it size, shape, pattern, or print, vinyl is extremely

versatile and can be personalized according to the design of your
choice.

Cost-effective: As vinyl is versatile in the range of available patterns

and designs, it is much cheaper than other flooring types which are
especially advantageous if you want it to mimic expensive flooring
materials.

Low maintenance: vinyl flooring is easy to maintain and regular

extensive and moist mopping is essential to keep all vinyl floors
clean and in good condition.

Durable: Vinyl, once polished or laminated with liquid emulsion, is

well protected and resistant to wear due to normal traffic or any
chemicals such as mild acids, alkalis, soaps, detergents, etc.
Moisture resistance: vinyl flooring has a non-porous surface
making it completely waterproof. For this reason, it can be used
anywhere in the house.

Comfort: Its soft and flexible nature makes it a good working floor

to stand on and move about. It also provides sufficient friction which
makes it accident-free.

Disadvantages Of PVC Flooring

Following are the PVC Vinyl Flooring Disadvantages,

 Environmental Impact: Vinyl is made from petroleum which

is a non-renewable source, and is not considered
environmentally friendly due to the chemicals and pollutants
produced in its manufacture.
 Wears over time: While the floor is very protected due to
laminate, signs of overtime wear begin to appear as folds in
corners, faded colors due to exposure to sunlight and
scratches, etc. Unlike wood, vinyl flooring cannot occur. A new
finish was applied.
 Difficulty in repair: If the vinyl is durable, if it is damaged
then it is difficult to fix as the entire sheet will have to be
replaced. A vinyl tile or plank can be removed and a new one
installed, but a sheet will have to be patched or replaced.
 DRY CLADING ON EXTERNAL WALL
 The exterior cladding of any building may participate in many ways to support the
building to withstand external/ atmospheric impacts, says Singla – for example:

To protect against weather – heat (direct sun or indirect), cold, wind, rains, pollution, etc.

1. To provide thermal insulation to the exterior facade and maintaining internal heat load
condition.
2. To provide an acoustic barrier against busy urban conditions outside the building.

Earlier, wall cladding was considered as a part of visual art, but today it has gone beyond the
looks to become a necessity, says Jasmine Handa, General Manager Construction, Tattva
Mittal. Over the years, choices, as well as the functions of cladding, have enhanced, now for wall
cladding, there are many options like laminate, plastic, metal, vinyl, wood, and there are cladding
manufacturers available across India.

FIRE DOOR

Features of fire doors

Here are some of the key features to look out for in terms of both domestic and commercial
use:
  Fire doors are made up of various components. The door itself is usually made from a
solid timber frame, but they can sometimes be covered again in fire-resistant glass. This
glass should be able to withstand exposure to the heat condition in a fire test for at least
60 minutes before it reaches a temperature high enough to soften it.
 Around the edges of the door will be the intumescent seal, which is designed to expand
when temperatures reach beyond 200°C to seal the gaps between the door and frame.
 For a private premises, it is advised to install fire doors where the risk is most imminent,
for example the kitchen, or rooms which house lots of electrical devices. If your property
is a new build, it should have been subject to regulations ensuring certain doors are fire
doors – check this with the developer. As it currently stands, fire doors are only legally
required in Houses in Multiple Occupation (HMOs).
 For commercial or non-domestic properties, liability lies with whoever is deemed the
‘responsible person’ for that property or the employer. For example, the owner of the
property, or the person in control of the property for trade reasons would be responsible.
 Thorough risk assessments must be carried out and it is advisable to get professional
help with all fire-safety-related regulations. There is more to passive fire protection and
fire safety than just fire doors; escape routes, lighting, warning systems and equipment
checks are also required.
 When you’re choosing a door it’s important to know what the different specifications
mean. The FD code shows how many minutes of fire a door can withstand, for example
an FD30 has been tested to withstand 30 minutes. The most common two codes are
generally considered to be FD30 and FD60. The test procedures manufacturers use are
specified in BS 476-22:1987 or BS EN 1634-1:2014.
 Many deaths during fires are not from direct contact with the flames, but the
consumption of smoke. With this in mind, keep an eye out for a doorset with cold smoke
seals. These should be within the intumescent seal. Exceptions may apply where the
leakage of the smoke is essential for detecting a fire .

IMPORTANCE OFGLASS
10 ADVANTAGES OF USING GLASS AS A BUILDING MATERIAL
1. Unlike any other material, glass can transmit, absorb or refract light.As a result, it can be
both translucent and transparent. Such characteristics add extraordinary beauty to your
building.
2. Glass can transmit 80% of daylight in all directions.It can do so without any weathering,
clouding or yellowing.
3. It is weather resistant.Glass can withstand effects of rain, wind and the sun without losing
its integrity and appearance.
4. Glass is also rust resistant. Unlike any other, it won’t degrade by chemical and the
surrounding environmental effects.
5. It has a smooth and glossy surface. As a result, glass is dust-proof and thus easy to clean.
6. It is economic. Consider the fact that glass saves energy by allowing in natural light even
when you close your windows and doors. It also saves you on the electricity bill cost.
7. You are much safer from electric hazards. The glass is a very excellent insulator. It is thus
impossible for it to conduct electric current.
8. Variety of colors. When you combine the glass in insulated or laminated units, it changes
in color and appearance.
9. Glass can be pressed, blown and drawn to any shape. Consequently, it is used in buildings,
shop fronts, windows and doors. After lamination with plywood or a metal sheet, you can
also use it for furniture.
10. It is especially excellent for showrooms and showcases. Glass provides the means to
showcase a product..

PLASTEROF PARIS

Gypsum plaster (Plaster of Paris)

Gypsum building plasters are used extensively abroad for general building operations and the
manufacture of pre-formed gypsum building products like tiles, blocks, plaster board etc, which
have the specific advantage of lightness and high fire resistance. 
Now as there is boom in the real estate in India, the builders and contractors wants time saving
in construction, therefore they choose gypsum plaster due to its superior finish and time saving
aspect. Now a days, the construction sector has observe a number of new tendency, technology
advancements and improvement across application, all meant at making construction faster and
delivering higher performance.  Gypsum surface plaster is one type that has drawn the attention
on the construction sector and is getting higher popularity these days.
              Gypsum is a chalk like material light in weight. It is crystalline combination of calcium
sulphate and water. It is available as natural gypsum, which is mined all over the world, and as
synthetic by product of major industries such as fossil-fuelled power stations. Gypsum products
such as molding, design piece around fan and corner design pieces and many more have been
used for past time in the construction field and are the material of choice because of gypsum’s
unique properties. Gypsum plaster has very good insulation properties both thermal and
acoustic. Gypsum plaster has properties like fire protection, moisture resistance, impact
resistance and vapor control.
               In general case after the construction of wall either with bricks or with blocks, the wall
internal surface is finished with cement sand plaster and white washed or painted as the case
may be but this surface remain rough. For getting smooth surface Plaster of Paris i.e. POP is
applied on the plaster surface before painting or distempering the wall. In this way two stage
process involves which takes lot of time and labor, this form of internal finishing being slowly
replaced by a direct single coat application of gypsum plaster. Therefore gypsum plaster is in fact
a replacement of two different processes i.e. cement sand plastering & POP pruning.

Properties of Plaster of Paris

 It is fine hygroscopic white powder

 Its melting point is 1630C
 Its density is 2.63 g/cm3
 It sets quickly on mixing with water giving out heat
 Expands slightly on setting
 

Uses of Plaster of Paris

 Because of its property of slight expansion on setting, it is used for filling

cracks and holes in plaster
 It is also used for filling cracks and knots in wooden surface before painting
polishing
 Plaster of Paris is used in making surgical bandages where movable parts of
the body are to be held rigidly in place
 It is used in chalk
 As plaster of Paris has high melting point, it is used for plastering the walls of
wooden houses, such as a protection against fire
 It is used for making models and statues

Advantages of Plaster of Paris:

1. It is light in weight and more durable.

2. It has low thermal conductivity.
3. It is very good fire resistant and hence a very good heat insulating material.
4. It does not shrink while setting. Therefore, it does not develop cracks on heating or
setting.
 5. It forms a thick surface to resist normal knocks after drying.
6. It mixes up easily with water and is easy to spread and level.
7. It has good adhesion on fibrous materials.
8. It gives a firm surface on which the colours can settle.
9. It has no appreciable chemical action on paint and does not cause alkali attack.
10. Plaster of Paris gives a decorative interior finish. Its gypsum content provides it a lot of
shine and smoothness.
11. It can easily be moulded into any shape.

Disadvantages of Plaster of Paris:

1. Gypsum plaster is not suitable for exterior finish as it is slightly soluble in water.
2. It is more expensive than cement or cement lime plaster.
3. It cannot be used in moist situations.
4. Skilled labour is required for precise application and thus labour cost for applying
plaster of Paris is high.

Advantages of Plaster of Paris:

1. It is light in weight and more durable.

2. It has low thermal conductivity.
3. It is very good fire resistant and hence a very good heat insulating material.
4. It does not shrink while setting. Therefore, it does not develop cracks on heating or
setting.
5. It forms a thick surface to resist normal knocks after drying.
6. It mixes up easily with water and is easy to spread and level.
7. It has good adhesion on fibrous materials.
8. It gives a firm surface on which the colours can settle.
9. It has no appreciable chemical action on paint and does not cause alkali attack.
10. Plaster of Paris gives a decorative interior finish. Its gypsum content provides it a lot of
shine and smoothness.
11. It can easily be moulded into any shape.

Disadvantages of Plaster of Paris:

1. Gypsum plaster is not suitable for exterior finish as it is slightly soluble in water.
2. It is more expensive than cement or cement lime plaster.
3. It cannot be used in moist situations.
4. Skilled labour is required for precise application and thus labour cost for applying
plaster of Paris is high.
REPAINTING ON OLD IRON WORK AND STEEL WORK
1. Clean the surface. To properly prepare new metal surfaces, use mineral spirits to
remove grease and apply a rust-inhibitive primer before painting. For painted
surfaces that are in sound condition, remove dust with a clean, dry cloth, de-gloss
the surface with light sanding, and wipe with mineral spirits to ensure good
adhesion. To remove persistent dirt, wash surfaces with a mild detergent solution or
with a commercial product recommended for cleaning painted surfaces.
 
2. Remove loose and peeling paint. If the old paint is in poor condition, you can
remove it by hand wire brushing, sanding, or scraping. Since these methods are
labor intensive and usually fail to deliver the results expected, many professionals
opt for power tool cleaning, which can help remove paint

 quickly and easily. However, one

drawback of using power tools is that they can polish metal surfaces, potentially
causing paint-adhesion problems.
 
3. Remove rust. When preparing metal for paint, checking for rust is important to
make sure that the paint will adhere properly to the surface. To restore lightly rusted
metal surfaces to their original state, use a brush to clean off loose rust, sand the
area, and apply a high-quality rust-inhibitive primer (e.g. Rust-Oleum Rust Reformer).
Also known as rust converters, rust-inhibitive primers can be used to cover rusted
spots and turn them into non-rusting, paintable surfaces.  
 
4. Repair small holes and dents. To repair holes and dents, sand the area until you
reach bare metal and wipe with a degreaser mixed with mineral spirits. For small
holes and dents, inject an appropriate epoxy-based composite directly into the hole
and/or dent. For larger holes, apply epoxy filler to the edge of the hole, cut a piece of
fiberglass mesh approximately one inch larger than the hole, and press it into the
filler. Then, cover the mesh with epoxy, working your way from the edge toward the
center of the hole. 
 
5. Prime the surface. Priming is a very important step in preparing metal for paint,
especially if the surface will be exposed to moisture. To select the right primer, the
type of metal to be coated along with the desired appearance, performance
requirements, and environmental conditions should be considered. To begin with,
 water-based (latex) primers shouldn’t be used on metal surfaces, as moisture can
seep through and cause paint to fail within weeks or months. Professionals
recommend two types of metal primers: the rust converters mentioned above and
galvanized metal primers. While a rust converter is ideal for preventing rust from
recurring and making a rusted surface easier to paint, a galvanized primer is
appropriate for metals (e.g. aluminum) that prevent paint from adhering to the
surface. You can also find iron oxide and zinc chromate primers, which can be used
on most metal surfaces, including interior and exterior iron and steel.

Stripping The Surface

Work in a ventilated area. 

Working around paint and rust particles can be harmful, so choose a well ventilated area
where you can put a drop sheet down underneath your metal project.[1] Wear gloves and a
dust mask while you work.

 Keep a damp cloth nearby to wipe away paint, dust and rust particles periodically while you
work. This is much safer for you than waiting until the end to deal with them.
 If there is any chance the paint you are stripping may contain lead, the dust mask is an
absolute must for your own safety.
Remove the old paint from the surface. Use a wire brush to strip the paint from the metal,
remembering to wipe dust and paint particles away with a damp cloth as you work.[2] If you
prefer, you can use sandpaper to remove the paint.

 A combination approach is best – stripping large surfaces will go much faster with a wire
brush, and then use the sandpaper to get in the nooks and crannies. [3]
 A cordless drill with a wire brush attachment is also an option, and a good one if you are
stripping away paint from a large surface area. Remember to wear protective ear muffs when
operating drills.[4]
Clean the surface of the metal. Wipe away all paint dust with a damp cloth and discard the
cloth. Scrape off any hunks of remaining paint. Use a fresh cloth to give your metal a
thorough rub down, cleaning off all loose paint, dirt, grease and grime from the surface.

 Even if the surface looks fairly clean, don't skip this step. You want the surface of the metal to
be virtually spotless, or as close as you can get to it.
 Failure to clean your metal properly will result in a lousy paint job. The paint won't stick to
the metal properly and will peel off easily.
 Oils on the surface of new galvanized metal, which may or may not be visible to the naked
eye, can hinder your paint job if they aren't removed. Use a simple detergent solution to
wipe down new galvanized metal.[5]
Sand down the metal until it is as smooth as possible. [6] This will ensure that

you get the longest life out of your paint job. After sanding, wipe down your metal

one final time with a damp cloth to remove any lingering debris.

Priming The Surface

Apply a zinc-chromate primer first if the metal is rusted. You will want to do this before
you put on the regular primer, but only if you are working with rusted metal. If your metal isn't
rusted, start with the usual oil-based primer that is described below. Before application,
scrape off any loose rust and wipe it down to remove any flakes or residue. Once the rust is
removed, coat the metal with zinc-chromate primer before using a full-bodied primer.

 You will need to prime your surface with the full-bodied primer immediately after you use
one of these products, so don't apply them until you are ready to prime.
 Zinc-chromate is a corrosive resistant substance. You spray it on first because you want it to
be closest to the surface of the metal, to protect it from rust. After applying this substance,
you should immediately apply the regular "full-bodied" primer so that the zinc-chromate
remains as the first layer. It also acts as an adhesive for the full-bodied primer. [7]
Choose an oil-based primer. Make sure your primer and your paint are compatible
with one another. You will be using acrylic paint (which works best on metal), so you
want to choose an oil-based primer that is compatible with acrylic paint. Look for
primer products that are made specifically for metal, as well, since these will best
adhere to the surface.
 Most primers come in a spray can for ease of use, but if you prefer to use a brush to
apply it, metal primer also comes in a bucket or can for that purpose.
 Primer prepares your surface so that the paint will adhere well, but it also helps to
smooth out any color and texture that you weren't able to remove from it
Apply one coat of primer. Spray the primer evenly onto the surface of the metal until it is
completely covered. If working outside, do not use spray primer on a windy day. It is
recommended that you shake the can of primer for about 2 minutes before you start using it.
[9]

Apply a second coat of primer. Because metal is extremely prone to the effects of

oxidization, a double coat of primer is the best course of action. Not only will this help
the paint stick to the surface, but it will also make the metal less vulnerable to the
effects of time and exposure to the elements.
Allow the primer to dry thoroughly. Drying times vary from product to product, so check
the information on your particular can for details. The acrylic paint will go on better and last
longer if you apply it on primer that has dried completely.
 Part 3
Applying PainT

1
Apply one coat of acrylic paint with a brush or paint sprayer. Spray paint is also an
option, but this type of paint won't last as long on metal. Apply the paint evenly to the
surface of the metal.
 If you're using a brush, don't overload the bristles with paint, since this can be messy
and create an overly thick first coa

 2
 Allow the first coat to dry completely. Check your specific product for
details about drying times. If you don't allow the first coat to dry
completely, the painted finish won't last as long. Luckily, most acrylic
paints dry quickly, so you can get the entire job done in one day if you
time it right

3
Apply a second coat of acrylic paint to the surface. Make sure to apply the paint as
evenly as possible. A second coat will ensure that the finished project looks the best
upon completion. It will also provide additional protection and last longer on the
metal.
 It is possible to do the first coat with one color of paint, allow it to dry thoroughly,
and then paint a second coat with another color. This method is perfect for lettering
or applying a logo to an object.
 Acrylic paint is water-resistant, which means multiple layers can be applied to
achieve different effects.
 When applying multiple layers, you must let the paint of each layer dry completely
before applying the next one

 4
 Allow the final coat of paint to dry for 36-48 hours before using your metal
object. If possible, paint it in a place where you can leave it once you're
done, without having to move it. This will prevent accidental damage to
the finished surface

Painting Steel and Iron Work

1. All rust scales, dirt, supplier’s delivery marks, oil, grease, etc., shall be removed by rubbing by sand
paper before painting.
2. Special care shall be taken for cleaning of corners.
3. All structural steel work shall be painted with red lead before erection except the surfaces which will
be in contact with concrete.
4. Where corrosive effect is likelihood from sea atmosphere, a coat of raw linseed oil shall be applied
on the surface immediately after cleaning and before the 1 st coat of red lead is applied.
5. Two to three coats of approved ready-manufactured paint or ready-mixed paint shall be applied at
right angles to each other after erection of the structural member.
6. Each coat should be allowed to dry up perfectly before the succeeding coat is laid over it.
7. Painting shall be carried out during dry weather.

STONE FLOORING

USES OF NATURAL STONE

The use of natural stone not only has an appearance of elegance and
sophistication with its natural beauty; it is timeless. It doesn’t become outdated
or go out of fashion, which is an added benefit, as you do not have to redesign
your home every few years to keep up with the latest trends.

Natural stone tile flooring is often used to create a sense of space, by seamlessly
using natural stone floor tiles throughout an interior area and exterior of your
home, they can ‘open up’ an area thanks to their light, airy feel.

There are many natural stone floor materials, from marble tiles, limestone,
granite tiles, to travertine tiles, to choose from, so you can select from a wide
variety and find something to suit your preferred style and match the interior of
your home.

Marble tiles can create a classic, luxurious look, while slate tiles give a room a
more rustic look. Highly polished limestone tiles create a contemporary feel, and
some travertine floor tiles manage to combine elegance with a rustic style, so it
all depends on your preference. No matter what your aesthetic is, there will be a
natural floor tile to suit you.

ADVANTAGES OF NATURAL STONE TILES

There are many practical advantages of using natural stone tiles throughout
your home, here are ten of the benefits:

Easy to maintain

A natural stone floor provides a hard-wearing, easy to clean and maintain,

durable floor covering. They are straightforward to care for and won’t need
replacing any time soon. It can withstand heavy footfall and usage for many
years to come, so it’s the perfect material for floors for families with children.
It adds value to your property

Natural stone flooring is timeless and not effected by fashion trends, so you can
guarantee that it will add some value to your property should you wish to sell
down the line.

Natural beauty

There is no denying that natural stone tiles are beautiful. They have been used
for a long time, and they seamlessly add elegance to a property as they radiate a
stylish and classy look.

Adds warmth

Not in terms of heat, but natural stone tiles can add a warm feeling to a room
with their rich, natural colours and soft textures. So even in rooms with little
natural light, natural stone tiles can help add a touch of warmth to the space
that really brightens up a room.

Unique pieces

Every tile of stone floor is unique and never identical. Each stone tile has distinct
veining, colouring, and natural characteristics, creating a timeless floor covering
that you won’t find anywhere else. Your property will always look unique and
special in its own way.

Keep your home cool

Natural stone tiles can help keep the climate cooler in your home, becoming a
preferred choice for properties in warmer countries or properties that are
exposed to extensive sunlight in the summer months.

Hygienic floor surface

Natural stone tiles do not store dust, pet hairs, or skin particles, providing an
ideal floor to keep clean.

Great for underfloor heating

If you’re considering underfloor heating in your home, natural floor tiles are
great for this application as they are great heat conductors. Not only will your
floor be stylish, but it will also be practical too.
Sturdy and durable

Natural stone tiles are a sturdy and durable material for flooring. They won’t be
susceptible to breaking or staining, giving you one less thing to worry about.

Easily cleaned

A simple wipe down with a cloth or mop is all that is needed to remove any
spills, no scrubbing or special cleaning products required — another reason why
natural stone tiles are the perfect addition to homes with children.

1. Marble

As the king of natural-stone flooring, marble is the best choice for homeowners who

want to make a classic and elegant statement. Marble tends to be an expensive flooring

material, but the look of polished marble floors, particularly creamy varieties such as

Carrara, is certainly worth the investment. Homeowners who install marble floors must

be prepared to maintain them, just like any other type of natural stone. Fortunately, the

availability of a stone-safe cleaner such as Granite Gold Stone & Tile Floor Cleaner ®

makes this an easy task.

2. Granite

This type of stone is often used for kitchen and bathroom countertops, but it is highly

recommended as a flooring material in living spaces where heavy foot traffic is

expected. Granite is heavier and more durable than marble. It is also less porous, which

means it is not as prone to staining. Whereas the most attractive marble colors tend to

be lighter, granite looks better with darker tones, especially those that feature red and

green veining.

3. Sandstone

Builders in ancient Rome used sandstone mostly for decorative interior wall

applications. When they used it as a flooring material, it was usually for ceremonial
spaces that did not get a lot of foot traffic. Sandstone is a delicate stone that requires

even more care and maintenance than marble. As for its look, sandstone is perfect for

homes featuring Southwestern and Spanish Colonial styles of architecture.

4. Flagstone

In the past, flagstone was mostly used for outdoor flooring applications such as

swimming pools, sunrooms, and garden paths. Now that the rustic look has become

popular in terms of interior decoration, more homeowners choose flagstone for

kitchens, bedrooms, living rooms, and dens. One of the aesthetic advantages of

flagstone is that it is often available in uneven tiles, which means it can be arranged in

mosaic styles to make eye-catching floor surfaces. Flagstone looks better with a honed

and unpolished look. It is easy to maintain and is generally affordable.

5. Limestone

The builders of the Egyptian pyramids used limestone to cover their magnificent

structures. However, sealant technology would not be available until thousands of years

later, which resulted in heavy damage and erosion. Limestone is very durable but also

very porous, which means homeowners must be prepared to frequently clean and seal

their floor tiles. Some lighter variations of limestone look very similar to marble.

If you’d like to learn more about how to clean granite and natural-stone floors , reach out

to Granite Gold® today. All of our stone care products are safe to use on granite,

marble, limestone, and all other types of natural stone. Give us a call today at 1-800-475-

STONE to speak to one of our knowledgeable representatives.

Lenny Sciarrino (aka Lenny S) and Lenny Pellegrino (aka Lenny P) grew up in

the family business  and are co-founders of Granite Gold®.

1. This is good choose of flooring for natural appearance and an almost indefinite life they
are very heavy and should be laid on solid concrete sub floors they are resistant to wear
 and tear, water , indentation and to most of the cleaning chemicals The various types of
stones used are : Marble Slate Quartzite Sandstone , limestone and granite
2. 7. MARBLE This is the best know of all the stone floorings and is available in wide range
of colors and textures .Marble is primarily crystallized limestone. It may have a
banded(serpentine ) pattern or may be mottled. Marble is durable, but lighter colors
yellow with age .Honed marble recommended for commercial floors. It gives a satin finish
with little or no gloss. Sandblasted marble or abrasive finished marble has a matte effect
and is suitable for exterior use. Travertine marble is cheaper and is characterized by
small cavities on the surface , which offer greater slip resistance; but at the same time ,
these allow dust to settle .Marble stains easily on coming in contact with ferrous metals
and oils
3. 8. SLATE This is a hard.imprevious stone that may be given a polished ,swanr riven
surface . Riven slate is split along its natural layers, so that the natural undulation give it
a rippled surface that is less slippery when wet than a smooth surface would be the
natural colours of slate are grey and blue grey
4. 9. Quartzite This is a crystalline rock with matte finish. Embedded quartz grains give it a
slight sparkle, Its colours range from silver grey to olive, yellow and gold. Quartzite
floorings are very hard wearing,non-slip,and suitable for both interiors and exteriors .The
thickness of Quartzite stone depends upon the rock formation.
5. 10. Sandstone, limestone and Granite Sandstone is a sedimentary rock composed of
compressed sand. Limestone is composed mainly of calcium carbonate. Granite is a
granular crystalline rock of quartz, feldspar and mica all these stones make good flooring
materials. Colours include various shades of grey beige, green and brown.
EMULSION

Emulsion
Emulsion is water-based paint, with vinyl or acrylic resins added to make the finish hardwearing. This
results in varying degrees of sheen – generally, the shinier the finish, the tougher the paint. Use for
interior walls and ceilings.
Matt: Gives a matt, non-shiny finish. Does not usually wear as well as the glossier emulsions,
although the latest formulations are far tougher.
Satin: Gives a subtle, soft-sheen finish and is more hardwearing than vinyl matt.
Silk: Gives a high-sheen finish and is the hardest wearing of all the emulsion paints. Good in
humid areas.
1. Emulsion Interior Exterior
2. 15. Interior Emulsions:- 1. Vinyl matt emulsion gives a matt, non-shiny finish that is good
for not showing small imperfections on the wall or ceiling. (The shinier finishes reflect
back more light and highlight any imperfections. 2. Vinyl satin emulsion gives a subtle
soft-sheen finish and is a more durable surface than vinyl matt. It is suitable for areas that
might need to be occasionally lightly washed or sponged. 3. Vinyl silk emulsion gives a
high sheen finish and is the most durable of all the emulsion paints. It is good for rooms
that are subject to a lot of moisture i.e. condensation.
3. 19. Exterior Emulsions:- 1. It is a smooth water-based, modified acrylic, exterior wall
finish with silicon additives. 2. These are the Paints that are used in Exterior Potion of a
building that is exposed to direct sunlight, air and water. 3. They have additional qualities
to with stand the weather condition comes with keeps on changing as per the seasons. 4.
These types of paints are oftenly used in painting Building from Exterior as well as used
in interior portion of stairs.
Bitumen emulsion are used extensively in bituminous road construction. Other than this
they are used for maintenance and repair work. Emulsions can be used in wet weather
even if it is raining. ... Slow setting type of emulsion are used with fine aggregates as the
surface area is large and requires time for uniform mixing
MIXING,LAYING,AND CASTING OF RCCSLABS

Casting concrete slab is considerably crucial task in building construction and requires great
planning and accuracy, in addition to proper execution sequence. This article presents proper
procedure on how to prepare and cast reinforced concrete slab.

Materials and Machinery for Slab Casting

 Batching plant
 Transit mixer
 Concrete pump
 Vibrators
 Slump tray
 Slump cone and other associated tools
 Rubber hammer
 Chute and CI Pipes
 power float machine
 shovel

Slab Pre-concreting Checks

There are many checks that need to be performed prior to concreting of reinforced concrete slab:

Checking Slab Formwork

 Check whether the formwork is fixed properly or not for example sleeves and supports.
 Damaged materials employed for formwork or shutter should not be utilized.
 All formwork surfaces in contact with concrete need to be treated with shuttering oil and
dampen with water sometime prior to concrete placement.
 check the level of the projected top surface of the slab and place level strips if necessary
to mark the exact level.
Checking Slab Reinforcement
 Check and approve that reinforcements are fixed as per the approved drawings.
 Examine reinforcement spacing (including vertical and horizontal spacing) and cover.
 Ensure that adequate support for reinforcements are provided to prevent any movement
during concreting process.
 Loose ties along the splices of reinforcement bars must be tightened again.
Free end of binding wires shall be bended inward.
Other pre-concreting checks
 Ensure that workers use safety tools and equipment for example safety helmet, safety
shoes, goggles, gloves, and vest.
 Safety devices and safety warnings should be provided from site entrance to the casting
area.
 Check whether adequate lighting is provided in case of night concreting.

Slab Concreting Work Procedure

1. Providing Construction Joint
The construction joint shall be pre-decided and fixed prior to start of the concreting. It is
planned to have two construction joints for main building as decided. In case of major
break down of the Batching plant, the additional Construction joint may be left. The
location of the construction joint shall be at the one-third span. Construction joint shall be
straight and have profile of ‘L’shape so that successive layer of concrete shall be perfectly
bonded with previous laid layer. Preparation of construction joint shall include
roughening, removing all laitance adhering to the joint and application of thick slurry
before start of the new concrete.
2. Production of Concrete
Stock of material shall be sufficient to start the concrete. It shall be ensured by stores/purchase
dept that concreting is not stopped on account of materials. All plant and machinery are checked
and made in working conditions.

3. Concrete Pouring
 Proper walkways/platforms shall be arranged so that the supports of the pipeline and
manpower are not directly stand on reinforcement.
 Sufficient carpenters along with supervisor shall inspect the behavior of supports below
the slab during the casting.
 Extra Props shall be stocked below slab to provide additional supports in case of any
failure of supports.
 Before discharging concrete from the mixer, concrete shall be inspected and acceptance
shall be conducted like slump tests.
 Required number of concrete specimens shall be taken for compressive strength test and
other tests.
 It is recommended to discharge the concrete within 90 minutes from the batching plant
loading time.
 Compact the concrete properly by using mechanical vibrators, extra vibrator shall be
available in case of any shortage or mechanical problems.
4. Finishing Concrete Surface 
 Use the power float for the smooth finish surface purpose.
  The casted area or member shall be protected by placing barricade to prevent plants and
machineries damaged the concrete.

Concrete pour card shall be filled by Quality Engineer and to be submitted to the
Engineer including concrete delivery notes, this task will be done whenever required.
5. Curing Concrete
The curing shall be started immediately after thumb set of the concrete laid. Hessian
clothe /Plastic shall be covered over the set concrete to reduce moisture evaporation from
the concrete during hardening and thus to minimize shrinkage crazy cracks. These cracks
are inheriting property of the concrete specially appears during casting of flat surfaces.
Final curing shall be done by ponding and stacking water for minimum period of 7 days.
Materials and Machinery utilized:
1. Vibrators
2. Transit Mixture
3. Chute and CI Pipes
4. Batching Point
Scope of the Work:
1. Marking the slab
2. Positioning the reinforcement
3. Form work for the slab
4. Positioning the concrete

Work Procedure
The casting of RCC slab comprises of following three steps:

1. Reinforcement
It has to be prepared according to the BBS arranged as per the approved drawing. The R/F shifting
and binding has to be commenced right after shuttering is undertaken. R/F binding should persist as
formwork.

2. Concreting
a) Construction Joint
The construction joint might be pre chosen and settled before begining of the cementing/concreting. It
is wanted to have two construction joints for principle building as chose. If there should be an
occurrence of massive breakdown of the Batching plant, the extra Construction joint might be cleared
out. The area of the construction joint should be at the 33% traverse. Construction joint should be
straight and have profile of ‘L’shape so that progressive layer of the concrete might be impeccably
reinforced with previous laid layer.

Arrangement of construction joint might incorporate roughening, expelling all laitance holding fast to
the joint and utilization of thick slurry before begin of the new concrete.
b) Production and Placement of concrete
The stock of the materials has to be adequate to commence on the concrete. It has to be properly
ensured by stores/purchase department that concreting is not halted on the account of necessary
materials.

All plant, machineries and equipments are pre-checked and are put in working conditions.

Concrete of grade M-25 has to be created originating from out batching plant and straight pumped to
the site of concrete positioning via the long pipeline. The pouring sequence should commence
onwards from the grid A towards the direction of construction joint. Because the grade of concrete for
column is M-40 and adjoining concrete is M-25, adequate offset adjacent to the column should be
casted with M-40.The offset dimensions has to be given by PMC.

Proper walkways/platforms has to be created and organized so that the supports and upholding of the
pipeline and manpower so not straightaway put pressure on and stand on the reinforcement.

Many carpenters as well as the supervisor has to thoroughly supervise and inspect the behavior and
properties of the supports below the slab at the time of casting. Extra Props also have to be stacked
down below the slab to give further supports in the cases of any failure or breakdown of supports.

3. Curing
The curing has to be commenced straight away after thumb set of the concrete laid down.  Hessian
clothe /Plastic has to be thoroughly covered over the set concrete to diminish the humidity and
moisture evaporation from the concrete at the time of hardening and hence to reduce reduction of
cracks. These cracks are the inheriting quality of the concrete which specifically shows through at the
time of casting of the flat surfaces.

 CONCRETE REQUIREMENTS

Calculate out the volume of your slab by multiplying the slab’s length x width x depth. This will
give you a quantity in m3. Using the chart below you can then work out the materials required.

Mix Design For Slab Floors, driveways and paths:-

1 part cement : 2 parts sand : 4 parts coarse aggregate

(Use only concrete sand to avoid cracking)
Materials required for making 1m3 of concrete
  

Cement to be used should be Cockburn Cement Type GP which comes in grey or creme.

For small jobs use Cockburn General Purpose Concrete pack. Cockburn’s pre-blended range
already contains cement, sand and aggregate.

 2
SETTING OUT

Whether you are laying a floor slab, concrete driveway or a footpath, the basic procedure is the
same. The main difference lies in the thickness of the slab.

Firstly locate and lay out the areas to be concreted using stringlines. Remove the topsoil to about
100mm below the desired finishing level. Compact and level the whole area to be concreted,
allowing for a slight slope away from buildings for drainage purposes.

Placing your 100mm x 50mm timbers for the formwork side rails, drive wooden stakes firmly into
the ground at no more than 1.2m apart. The rails should then be securely nailed to the stakes. Extra
stakes need to be placed at every joint in the rails and at corners. Level the formwork carefully
using your straight edge and spirit level.

A one-piece slab should be no more than 3 metres in any direction; nor should the length exceed
twice the width. If you plan to exceed these dimensions, divide your slab into equal sections and
construct a joint between them of about 12mm. Support these joints while compacting the concrete.

 These joint timbers can be removed once the

concrete has hardened.
 3
MIXING THE CONCRETE

Concrete needs to be mixed on a clean hard surface, such as an existing concrete slab or on a piece
of board. You can also use a cement mixer if available. Firstly place your measured quantity of sand
and add the correct proportion of cement. Mix these materials thoroughly until the colour is
consistent.

Add in the coarse aggregate, mix all three ingredients thoroughly again until the colour is
consistent. Finally add your measured quantity of water, sprinkle the water slowly over the mix,
 stopping frequently to turn over the mix until the mix is consistent in colour and texture. Do not add
too much water, you do not want your mix too sloppy. Too much water means a weak concrete.
The water should weigh roughly half of that of the cement added.

A concrete mix of 1 part cement : 2 parts sand : 4 parts coarse aggregate should be used for a

concrete slab.
 4
PLACING THE CONCRETE

Concrete must be placed within half an hour of mixing. Place your concrete into your formwork;
work the concrete into awkward places and corners using a shovel or trowel. Place enough concrete
to overfill the formwork slightly. Use a straight edge to spread the excess concrete using a sawing
motion, levelling the concrete off to the formwork. Using a wooden float, compact and smooth the
surface of the concrete to achieve a consistent mortar finish, this will ensure the concrete is well
compacted.

When the bleed water has left the surface and the concrete has started to stiffen, it is time to apply

the required finish.

 5
CURING

After the finish has been applied it is recommended that the surface be kept damp for up to 7 days
after which it can be allowed to fully dry out.

 6
FINISHES

There is no limit to the finishes that can be given to concrete. A few are explained below:

Trowelled - Using a steel trowel gently work the surface back and forth to creat a smooth finish.
 Brushed - Using a hard broom you can obtain a deep texture by brushing the concrete while it is
still plastic. A softer broom can be used for a less coarse look.
Exposed Stone – Start by applying a soft brushed finish, then when the concrete has hardened
sufficiently to prevent the stone particles being dislodged, use a combination of brushing and
washing with a hose until the stones are slightly exposed and the surplus slurry is washed away.

Furnishings

Furnishings, sometimes referred to as soft furnishings or upholstery, are components that incorporate

soft material and help create a pleasant and comfortable environment, and complement
the furniture and fittings inside buildings. Furnishings can be made of fabric, chenille, velvet, silk, fur,
faux-fur, cloth, foam, rubber, and so on.

Common types of furnishings include:

 Curtains.
 Cushions.
 Bedding and mattresses.
 Wall hangings and tapestries.
 Rugs.
 Chair coverings.
 Sofas.
 Bean bags.
 Carpets.
 Doormats.
 Window Coverings.

Furnishings should be carefully selected and designed to enhance the quality of a room, often
adding colour, texture and elegance to furniture. The soft material of some furnishings can also
enhance the energy efficiency of a room by retaining heat and keeping it warm. They may also
improve the sound insulation properties as soft materials absorb sound waves more effectively than
hard surfaces which reflect sound back into the space and can result in echoes (or a
longer reverberation time).

1. The Furniture and Furnishings (Fire Safety) Regulations define requirements for the fire

resistance for domestic upholstered furniture, furnishings and
other products containing upholstery. These Regulations are enforced by Trading Standards.
FURNISHING AND PANELLING AND MATERIALS TYPES OF MOVABLE FURNITURE
SUBMITTED BY:- AAKRITI TWINKLE JHA PREETI YADAV NISHA SUBMITTED BY:-
Ar. LAKSHAY
 2. 2. FURNISHING:- Furniture, fittings and other decorative accessories such as curtains
and carpets for a house or room. The main article for this category is furnishings. This
may include some furniture type (def:The movable articles in a room or an establishment
that make it fit for living or working. This derivation means many items which have
indistinct strict categorization in the vernacular (which frequently lumpsfurniture together
colloquially as a subcategory of furnishings In sum, if it meets the test as for example
something bought towards in the phrase furnishing a new house) such as hope chests,
foot lockers, sweater boxes, then the item/article ought to be categorized here.
1. Home Furnishing Idea for the Modern Home Home Furnishing is a initial part of
dream home. Home furnishing and decorating a home cannot be seen as different
things. With the help of British designers we can decorate more nicely. The most
important thing to taking up the art of home furnishing and decorating your
surroundings. There are a lot of things which are used to give the attractive effect to
your particular room or area. 1. Bed & Bedding Furnishings:-It is not a big task to
decor your bedroom's interior tastefully. Bedding furnishing with attractive patterns,
texture and fashionable designs make this task easier and helps to give a fancy look
to your interiors.  www.gooddesignmatters.london
2. Awesome quality and fancy look bedding furnishing are manufactured in both
man made and natural fabrics which provide more strength and durability. Attractive
throws, designer bed covers, attractive cushion covers, quilt covers, pillow covers,
duvet covers, blanket covers, bed sheets and bed coverlet may change the look of
your bed room and give a classic, trendy & stylish appearance to your bed room. 2.
Kitchen Furnishings: - Kitchen furnishing plays a very important part in home
decorating. Kitchen Furnishings not only increase the gorgeous look but also are of
huge utility. These kitchen furnishings manufactured in variety of colors, patterns &
designs provide absorbing quality, durability, & dirt rejection properties. Stylish
aprons, designer kitchen towels, mittens, fancy napkins, decorative place mats, dish
clothes and pot holders enhance the beauty of kitchen furnishing. Wooden
Furniture gives luxurious look to our modern kitchen. These luxurious kitchen
furnishing are not only used in home but also used in restaurants, hotels and motels.
Cotton, silk and Lycra are some of most popular fabrics which are used to
manufacturing high quality and durable kitchen furnishing items.
www.gooddesignmatters.london
3. 3. Drawing & Dining Room Furnishings: - Drawing and Dining room is the most
important part of any house. These rooms show the taste and personality of the
home owner. Like dark colored furnishing give the feel of warm while bright, pastel
and earth tone gives the feel of elegant and soft. Silk and cotton are the most
popular Textile fabricstomanufacturing Drawing & Dining Room Furnishings.4.
Bathroom Furnishings:-Now days, bathroom are equally important as any other room.
Everybody wants to decor their bathroom as much as he can. Expensive and fancy
bathroom finishes available in various designs and patterns provide the aesthetic feel
to that place. Embroidered Towels and decorative furnishing enhance the beauty of
Bathroom. www.gooddesignmatters.london

Presentation on theme: "Furnishings."— Presentation transcript:

1  Furnishings
2  FabricsAny material that is made through bonding, crocheting, knitting or weaving is
considered fabric.Fabric is chosen for its fiber content, weave and pattern.Fabrics are made
from either natural fibers like cotton, linen, silk and wool or synthetic fibers like fiberglass,
acetate, acrylic, modacrylic, nylon, and polyester.

3  WeavesWeaving is an ancient art that uses fiber to create fabric through handlooms or
power looms. Weaves are classified into three types: Plain weaves>Plain and Basket weaves
Floating weaves>Twill and Satin weaves Pile weaves>Cut and Uncut weaves

4  PatternsPatterns are created by the weave of the fabric Artistic patterns have been
developed for many centuries in endless array of colors Stability of color, soil and fire
resistance are also important factors to be considered

5  ArtArt is a meaningful, artistic piece that compliments and shares its surroundings. It is a
desire to show or feature a picture, sculpture or other piece of artwork in a way that
highlights the object. Art should be chosen, not only for its content or sentimental value, but
also for its suitability in size, scale and location.

6  Manufactured Casework
Manufactured casework includes stock cabinets made from metal, wood or plastic
laminates and countertops, sinks and any fixtures or accessories mounted to the
countertop.

7  Specialty CaseworkSpecialty casework is used in educational facilities as file cabinets,

overhead storage, lab counters and under- counter storage, supply cabinets and trophy
cases to name but a few.There are many manufacturers of casework specializing in cabinets
made from metal, wood or plastic laminates.Many of these manufacturers specialize in
making casework for industry or specialized facilities.

8  Specialty AreasChild Care Museums Airports Health Care Ecclesiastical Arenas or

Stadiums Animal CareResidential Waste Management Distribution Warehouses Storage
Facilities Processing Plants Commercial Laboratory

9  CountertopsCountertops are workspaces that are mounted to the top of base cabinetry,
to walls or freestanding with a support system. They are made from natural and synthetic
materials to resist chemicals, heat and cold.

10  Office AccessoriesFor instance, clocks need to be where they can easily be seen but fit
into the style and design of the space. Desk accessories, lighting, trash receptacles, floor
easels, projection screens, multi-media carts and coat racks are all necessary office
accessories. Office accessories or similar public places are not the home-style accessories
that may come to mind but are necessary objects that are highly functional.

11  Furnishing Accessories
The list of furnishing accessories in residential and commercial applications is nearly
endless Accessories are a unique addition to the home. When choosing them, consider their
contribution to the space. Think of them in terms of mood, texture, color, size and shape
before placement. The most pleasing accessories are those that act like an extension of the
space and enhance the décor.

12  Rugs and MatsEntrance floor coverings include mats, grills, gratings, grids and tile. The
grills, gratings and grids are made from metal, rubber or synthetic materials. Tiles are
usually slate, quarry or a synthetic material like vinyl. Rugs, mats and runners are made
from the same materials and the same process as carpeting Rugs, mats and runners are
economical, long wearing and can easily be moved for cleaning

13  Window TreatmentsWindow treatments include curtains, draperies and their hardware

and accessories. It also includes blinds, interior shutters and shades. Since there are many
types and styles of windows that operate in different ways, there is no one-fits-all solution
when it comes to window treatments.

14  BlindsVenetian blinds are traditionally wood slats supported by tapes and maneuvered
by cords. Woven blinds are made with thin strips rolled from the bottom with cords allowing
some light to penetrate. The thin strips are usually colored or the thick strips of cloth that
are woven into the blinds are colored.

15  BlindsWoven blinds are made with thin strips rolled from the bottom with cords
allowing some light to penetrate. The thin strips are usually colored or the thick strips of
cloth that are woven into the blinds are colored.Split bamboo blinds hang vertically and
operate like draw draperies.Vertical blinds are very popular in commercial application
because of the large expanses of window to cover in curtain walls. They are also used in
residential applications to cover large windows and doors.

16  Shutters and Hinged Panels

Shutters have fixed or louvered slats or space for shirred fabric panels. Some shutters have
inserts backed with fabric. Panels are similar to shutters in that they can open and close.
Panels are usually plain and can extend from floor to ceiling, from windowsill to window top
or to any length, the occupant desires. Advantages of shutters and panels are that they
provide privacy and if louvered, allow ventilation.

17  ShadesThere are three basic types of shades: Roller shades Roman shades Austrian
shades.

18  Roller ShadesRoller shades are a strip of material that hangs from a spring-loaded rod
placed at the top of the window frame.They are made from many types of
materials.Translucent ones will allow some light to come through while opaque ones will
completely block the light.Both are durable, washable, by hand, and resistant to tearing,
water and fire.

19  Roman ShadesRoman shades are usually made from rich, heavy fabrics that are used as
the sole window treatment.They are on pulls, much like the Venetian blinds.The fabrics lay
flat when extended and pleats into horizontal layers when the shade is raised.
20  Austrian ShadesAustrian shades or “balloon” shades operate on the same principle as
the Roman shades.Vertical cords are threaded through rings that are attached to the back
of the shade at equal spacing across the width and height of the shade.When the cords are
pulled down together, the fabric lifts elegantly up into graceful scallops of beautiful fabrics.

21  Curtains and Draperies

Curtains and draperies are available in floor length, sill length and apron length unless
custom-made Formal curtains and draperies include glass curtains (sheers), draw draperies
and drapery panels. Informal curtains include shirred, ruffled and café curtains.

22  Formal CurtainsGlass curtains or sheers hang straight down from a rod behind the
formal curtains or draperies next to the glass.Draw curtains are designed for privacy and
can be opened or closed using drapery hardware.Drapery panels are narrow panels of
fabric that cannot be drawn.

23  Informal CurtainsShirred curtains hang directly on rods that are installed at both the top
and bottom of the window inside the frame. The curtains are wider than the window by two
or more times and are gathered onto both rods then shirred (aligning the curtains in a
pleasing pattern).Ruffled curtains usually have ruffled hems and some have ruffled inside
edges. They have ruffled valances and tiebacks as accessories to finish the effect.Café
curtains are straight curtains hung from rings or tabs that slide along café curtain rods. They
can be tiered to cover an entire window or hung only on the bottom half of the window with
a valance hung at the top.

24  Commercial Furnishings
Commercial furniture includes any furniture needed for privacy, storage, work surfaces,
shelving and lighting.This includes furniture needed in educational facilities, office, retail,
hospitality, recreational, medical, personal services and exhibition facilities to name but a
few.Character, comfort and scale should determine how a piece of furniture fits into any
situation. An understanding or working knowledge of materials and finishes are an asset
when choosing furniture for any facility. When choosing furniture make sure it is
comfortable, sturdy, of good quality and fits into the space and style of the facility.

25  Systems FurnitureSystems furniture are panels and components that include work
surfaces, shelves, drawer units, flipper doors, file units, task lighting, tack surfaces, pencil
drawers, file pedestals and box pedestals to name a few of the options available.The panels
are acoustically designed and most are hard- wired for electricity, coax and phone lines.They
can be arranged in many different styles, come in several heights and lengths and can be
matched to any décor.

26  Multiple SeatingMultiple seating is furniture that is required to accommodate

audiences.It includes fixed seating used in theaters, schools, auditoriums, restaurants, and
the pews and benches used in churches to name a few.Another type of multiple seating is
stadium and arena seating that includes both bench seating and individual
seating.Restaurant style booths and tables, multiple-use fixed seating and telescoping
bleachers and chair platforms, often found in school gymnasiums are included.
27  Residential Furnishings
Furniture styles, although many, usually fall into one of three main
groups:TraditionalCountryContemporary

28  TraditionalTraditional or classical styles mostly come from early European designers,

the French and English.Cabinetmakers built furniture designed to please those who
commissioned them.Traditional styles are sometimes identified by the cabinetmaker that
built the furniture or the reigning monarch of the time.

29  Country Country styles are similar to traditional but more simplified.

The furniture is considered more casual and less ornate although its function is the
same.Country styles were more often named for their geographical region such as American
Colonial, English Country, American, Italian and French Provincial.Folk styles included Shaker
and Pennsylvania Dutch.

30  ContemporaryContemporary or modern styles evolved from Scandinavian designs and

German Bauhaus designs.The Scandinavian designs reflect the bold style that emphasizes
the single sculptured lines of natural wood.The German Bauhaus style was more interested
in producing furniture that could be mass-produced.Designs evolved around modular steel
and laminated woods.

31  LightingThere are three areas of lighting that the designers should concern
themselves.HealthFunctionAesthetics

32  Health and FunctionLighting for health relieves the strain on eyesight, fights fatigue and
depression, physical discomfort and headaches.Light can be controlled by reflectors and
diffusers manipulating the glare that lighting can create and controlling the brightness so
illumination has quality as well as quantity.Consideration must be given as to what the
function of the space is and what task is going to be performed when selecting the best
lighting.

33  Aesthetics There are three basic types of lighting used in buildings.

IncandescentFluorescentHalogenAll three can be used as direct or indirect lighting or
combinations of the three.Lighting is chosen for aesthetics in certain areas.Since there are
too many types of lights to list it is important to understand that lighting can also be
sparkling, dramatic or even sensual.A need for variety due to the many tasks and functions
of our buildings, results in the many forms of lighting from which to choose.

34  Interior PlantersLive and artificial plants are used extensively in commercial and
residential buildings.They assist in the process of air exchange, add humidity to the area
and are aesthetically pleasing.Keep in mind that just any plant may not create the effect or
drama that the owner wants to create and therefore make sure that the scale, texture, size
and form of the plant compliments the rest of the décor.

35  Site FurnishingsThe interior of a building is not the only place that requires
furnishings.At the residential level there are patio sets, deck furnishings, pool accessories
and garden seating to name a few.Commercial buildings may want to add park benches,
picnic tables, bike racks and trash receptacles to help their property stay clean. Others may
want shelters, message centers and pet waste systems if they are near a park or residential
area. In the parking area, owners may want to put down some speed bumps and add
planters throughout the site.Site furnishings, like interior furnishings, must be scaled to the
site and be a complimentary style that fit well into the overall plan.
Prefabrication
1. 1. PREFABRICATONPREFABRICATONPREFABRICATONPREFABRICATON KUSH
AGARWAL
2. 2. Definition :Definition : Prefabrication is the practice of assembling components of a
structurep g p in a factory or other manufacturing site, and transporting complete
assemblies or sub-assemblies to the construction site where the structure is to be
locatedstructure is to be located. Meaning :Meaning : The assembly of buildings or their
components at a location otherThe assembly of buildings or their components at a
location other than the building site. The method controls construction costs by
economizing on time, d i lwages, and materials. Prefabricated units may include doors,
stairs, window, walls, wall panels, floor panels, roof trusses, room-sized components,
andpanels, floor panels, roof trusses, room sized components, and even entire buildings.
The term is used to distinguish this process from the more l f h bconventional
construction practice of transporting the basic material to the construction site where all
assembly is carried out.
3. 3. PREFABRICATIONPREFABRICATION Prefabricated building is the completely
assembled and erected building of which is the structural parts consist oferected building,
of which is the structural parts consist of prefabricated individual units or assemblies
using ordinary or controlled materials.
4. 4. PREFABRICATION Prefabricated construction is a new technique and is desirable for
large scale housing programmes, yet this has to take a firm hold in the countrythe
country.
5. 5. AIMS OF PREFABRICATION CONSTRUCTION Prefabrication is used to effect
economy in costcost. Components manufactured under controlled conditions.conditions.
The speed of construction is increased since no curing period is necessary.
Prefabrication helps in the use of locally available materials with required h i i lik li h i
hcharacteristics like light-weight; easy workability, thermal insulation, non- combustibility
etccombustibility, etc.
6. 6. ADVANTAGES OF PREFABRICATIONADVANTAGES OF PREFABRICATION •
High quality product L b l t d i• Labor related savings • Savings in time • Overall efficiency
is greatly increased• Overall efficiency is greatly increased •
Mass production is easier and quick • Protected and controlled production
environmentProtected and controlled production environment •
Potential for lower production costs and other cost  savings •
Independence of climatic conditions • The disruption of traffic is avoided E hi h d f S f•
Ensures high degree of Safety
7. 7. CHARACTERISTICS ARETO BECHARACTERISTICS ARETO BE
CONSIDEREDCONSIDEREDCONSIDEREDCONSIDERED Easy availability; Li h i h f h
dli dLight weight for easy handling and transport, and to economies on sections and sizes
of foundations;foundations; Thermal insulation property; E k bilitEasy workability;
Durability in all weather conditions; N b ibiliNon-combustibility; Economy in cost, and
Sound insulation.
8. 8. Disadvantages :Disadvantages : Careful handling of prefabricated components such
as concrete panels or steel and glass panels is required. Attention has to be paid to the
strength and corrosion-resistance of theAttention has to be paid to the strength and
corrosion-resistance of the joining of prefabricated sections to avoid failure of the joint.
Similarly, leaks can form at joints in prefabricated components. Transportation costs may
be higher for voluminous prefabricated sections than for the materials of which they are
made, which can often be packed more compactlybe packed more compactly. Large
 prefabricated sections require heavy-duty cranes and precision measurement and
handling to place in position.g p p
9. 9. MATERIALSTO BE USED INMATERIALSTO BE USED IN PREFABRICATION
SYSTEMPREFABRICATION SYSTEMPREFABRICATION SYSTEMPREFABRICATION
SYSTEM Concrete, Steel, Treated wood, Aluminum, Cellular concrete, Light weight
concrete elements, Ceramic products, etcp
10. 10. COMPONENTS OF PREFABCOMPONENTS OF PREFAB
CONSTRUCTIONCONSTRUCTIONCONSTRUCTIONCONSTRUCTION Flooring and
Roofing Scheme Beams Columns Walls Staircase Lintels Sunshade/Chajja Projectionsjj j
11. 11. PREFABRICATION SYSTEMSPREFABRICATION SYSTEMS The system of
prefabricated construction depends on the extent of the use of prefab components, their
materials sizes and the technique adopted f h i f d i b ildifor their manufacture and use in
building.
12. 12. VARIOUS PREFABRICATION SYSTEMSVARIOUS PREFABRICATION SYSTEMS
OPEN PREFAB SYSTEM This system is based on the use of the basic structural
elements to formy whole or part of a building.The standard prefab concrete components
which can be used are:- Reinforced concrete channel units, Hollow core slabs, Hollow
blocks and battens, Precast planks and battens, Precast joists and tilesPrecast joists and
tiles, Cellular concrete slabs, Prestressed/reinforced concrete slabs,
Reinforced/prestressed concrete beams, Reinforced/prestressed concrete columns,
Precast lintels and chajjas, Reinforced concrete waffle slabs/shells, Room size
reinforced/prestressed concrete panels,Room size reinforced/prestressed concrete
panels, Reinforced/prestressed concrete walling elements, and Reinforced/prestressed
concrete trusses
13. 13. CATEGORIES OF OPEN PREFABCATEGORIES OF OPEN PREFAB
SYSTEMSSYSTEMSSYSTEMSSYSTEMS There are two categories of open prefab
systems d di h f f b i i d i hdepending on the extent of prefabrication used in the
construction as given below: Partial prefab open systemPartial prefab open system Full
prefab open system
14. 14. PARTIAL PREFAB OPENPARTIAL PREFAB OPEN
SYSTEMSYSTEMSYSTEMSYSTEM This system basically emphasizes the use of
precast roofing and flooring components and other minor elements likeand flooring
components and other minor elements like lintels, chajjas, kitchen sills in conventional
building construction.The structural system could be in the form of f k l d b llin-situ
framework or load bearing walls.
15. 15. FULL PREFAB OPEN SYSTEMFULL PREFAB OPEN SYSTEMFULL PREFAB
OPEN SYSTEMFULL PREFAB OPEN SYSTEM In this system almost all the structural
components are P f b i d Th fill ll b f b i k hPrefabricated.The filler walls may be of bricks
or any other local material.
16. 16. LARGE PANEL PREFAB SYSTEM This system is based on the use of large prefab
components. The components such as Precast concrete large panels for wallsThe
components such as Precast concrete large panels for walls, floors, roofs, balconies,
staircase, etc. The casting of the components could be at the site or off the site.
17. 17. CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURALCLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURAL
SCHEMEWITH PRECAST LARGE PANELSCHEMEWITH PRECAST LARGE
PANELSCHEMEWITH PRECAST LARGE PANELSCHEMEWITH PRECAST LARGE
PANEL Wall Systems CrossWall System - In this scheme, the cross wall are load bearing
walls whereas the facadeWalls are non load bearing this system is suitable for high
risenon-load bearing this system is suitable for high rise buildings. Longitudinal Wall
System - In this scheme the cross walls are non-load bearing whereas Longitudinal walls
are load bearing walls.This system is suitable for low rise buildings.rise buildings. A
combination of the above system with all load bearing walls can also be adopted.
18. 18. PRECAST FLOORS precast flooring units could be homogeneous or non
homogeneous.g Homogeneous floors :- could be solid slabs, cored slabs, ribbed or
waffle slabs. N h fl ld b l l d hNon-homogeneous floors :- could be multi-layered ones with
combinations of light weight Concrete or reinforced/prestressed concrete, with filler
blocks
19. 19. STAIRCASE SYSTEMS Staircase system could consist of single flights with in-built
risers and treads in the element only.The flights are normally unidirectional transferring
the loads to supporting landingg pp g g slabs or load bearing walls.
20. 20. BOXTYPE CONSTRUCTION In this system, room size units are prefabricated and
erected at site Toilets and kitchen blocks also be similarlyat site.Toilets and kitchen
blocks also be similarly prefabricated and erected at site. This system derives its stability
and stiffness from the box unit which are formed by the four adjacent walls.Walls are
jointed to make rigid connections among themselves.The box unit rests on the plinth
foundation which may be of conventionalrests on the plinth foundation which may be of
conventional type or precast type.
21. 21. JOINTSJOINTSJOINTSJOINTS The joints should be provided in the light of their
assessment with respect to the following considerations: Feasibility -The feasibility of
joint shall be determined by its loads- carrying capacity in the particular situation in which
the joints is to function.function. Practicability -Practicability of joint shall be determined
by the amount and type of Material, fabrication and erection and the time for fabrication
and erectionfabrication and erection. Serviceability - Serviceability shall be determined by
the joints/expected behavior to Repeated or possible overloading and li i h i l di iexposure
to climatic or chemical conditions. Fire-Proofing - Appearance -Appearance
22. 22. JOINTTECHNIQUES/MATERIALS NORMALLYJOINTTECHNIQUES/MATERIALS
NORMALLY EMPLOYED ARE:EMPLOYED ARE: Welding if cleats or projecting steel.
Overlapping reinforcement loops and linking steelOverlapping reinforcement, loops and
linking steel grouted by concrete. Reinforced concrete ties all round a slabReinforced
concrete ties all round a slab. Prestressing. Epoxy groutingEpoxy grouting. Bolts and
nuts connection, and A combination of the aboveA combination of the above.
23. 23. Components Fixing and Jointing :Components Fixing and Jointing : A h b i b ilt ithA
house being built with prefabricated concrete panels The steel formwork for the core wall
construction. Prefabricated wall panels being installed in public housing
24. 24. Installing and fixing the precast facades into positioninto position
25. 25. PRECASTING METHODPRECASTING METHODPRECASTING
METHODPRECASTING METHOD INDIVIDUAL MOULD METHOD U i ld hi h b il bl d f b
dUsing mould which may be easily assembled out of bottom and sides, transportable , if
necessary this may be either in timber or in steel using needle or mould vibrations and
capable of taking prestressing forcesprestressing forces. Used in – Rib Slab, beams,
Girders window panels, box type units and special elements.
26. 26. BATTERY FORM METHODBATTERY FORM METHODBATTERY FORM
METHODBATTERY FORM METHOD BATTERY FORM METHOD B f h d h i l b dj d i
hBattery form method shuttering panels may be adjusted in the form of a battery at the
required distances equal to the thickness if the concrete members. U d i I W ll ( P l Sh ll l
f dUsed in – InteriorWalls ( Panels, Shell elements, reinforced concrete, battens, rafters ,
purlines, roof and floor slabs.
27. 27. STACK METHODSTACK METHODSTACK METHODSTACK METHOD BATTERY
FORM METHOD U d i Fl d R f l b lUsed in – Floor and Roof slabs panels.
28. 28. TILTING METHODTILTING METHODTILTING METHODTILTING METHOD
BATTERY FORM METHOD U d i M ld i W llUsed in – Mould exteriorWalls.
29. 29. LONG LINE PRESTRESSING BEDLONG LINE PRESTRESSING BED
METHODMETHOD METHODMETHODMETHODMETHOD METHODMETHOD
BATTERY FORM METHOD U d i D bl ib l b li d bUsed in – Double tees, rib slabs,
purlines and beams.
30. 30. EXTRUSION METHODEXTRUSION METHOD BATTERY FORM METHOD - Long
concrete mould with constant cross section and vibration will be done automatically
justconstant cross section and vibration will be done automatically just as in concrete
roads. Used in – roof slabs, concrete walls, panels and beams.
31. 31. LimitationsLimitations of Prefabricationof Prefabrication 1. Small number of units
required may prove to be uneconomical. 2. Special connections, such as special
bearings to t it th ti l d h i t l l d ddtransmit the vertical and horizontal loads, can add cost
to the system. 3 Waterproofing at joints3. Waterproofing at joints. 4. Transportation
difficulties. 5. Need for cranes.5. Need for cranes.
 ARIFICIAL WOOD PANELS

WALL PANELS: TYPES,

SIZES, PROPERTIES
Wall panels are the best solution if your main goal is the minimum cost and effort.
They are easy to install, and the choice of colors and textures an unusually huge,
from both natural and artificial materials. Today, the wall panels have gained
considerable popularity and success among consumers, despite the fact that they
appeared relatively recently in our market. So, what are they? If you want to know
more about wall panels: types, sizes, properties, and advantages, you’ve stumbled
on the right source.

Contents:

 What types of wall panels exist:

 Rack Typesetting Panel

 Tile Patterned Panel

 Sheet Wall Panels

 The Material to Make Wall Panels

 Panels Made of Natural Wood

 Chipboard panels (Chipboard)

 Hardboard Panels (Fibreboard)

 MDF Panels

 Glass Panels

 Vinyl  Gypsum Panels (Vinyl Drywall)

 3D Panel

 PVC Panels

 Properties of plastic panels

 The Size of Plastic Panels

 The Advantages of Wall Panels

What Types of Wall Panels Exist
Rack Typesetting Panel
These are planks of 2400 – 3700 mm length and of a 125 – 300 mm width, their
thickness is 8 to 12 mm. Such type is most in demand when covering small areas. It
is a required crate of wood or metal for their installation. The panels fasten due to the
presence of groove and tenon (or there are only slots and tabs that connect the two
panels, but we’ll have a gap in such case). The panel fixes to the frame with staples
or self-tapping screws (into the groove). For the manufacture of slatted typesetting
pads often use chipboard, hardboard, PVC, and MDF.

Tile Patterned Panel

Such panels are square-shaped, size is usually 30 x 30 to 98 x 98 cm. By the way,
they are very usable to layout different figures, combining all sorts of shades and
textures. Wall bracing for panels is usually produced by means of adhesive or
capping, and they are fixed to each other using only grooves and the inserts in them.
Chipboard, MDF, PVC, and MDF can also appear as the material for the
manufacture of tile typesetting pads.

Sheet Wall Panels

greatly facilitate the job of finishing walls by virtue of large sizes – from 1 22 to 2.44
m, with a thickness of 3 to 6 mm. The surface of these panels is a multilayer
structure with the imitation of stone, wood, or tiles. Installation is performed using
glue, and seams are hidden by moldings. For the manufacture of sheet metal wall
panels producers often use impregnated with resins fiberboard.

In addition to the existing three main types of decorative wall panels, there are also
designs for the construction of interior walls and different partitions. These include
both the concrete panel and a sandwich panel for modular houses, in the form of
ready-made walls with a heater and a moisture and vapor barrier inside. Sandwich
panels are mainly applied for villas and country houses.

The Material to Make Wall Panels

Panels Made of Natural Wood

Most often made of oak, cedar, maple, or alder. It is ideal for housings, primarily due
to its environmental friendliness. When installing such panels in rooms with high
humidity (bathroom or kitchen), they should be chosen with a waxy coating panel,
repelling water and dirt.

Chipboard panels (Chipboard)

The manufacturing process is based on the method of hot pressing of chips and
sawdust. It is similar to wood, but less strong, since it is subject to temperature drops
and high level of humidity, and therefore only suitable for the finishing of dry areas.

Hardboard Panels (Fibreboard)

Hardboard panels are also produced by hot pressing, but with the use of wood and
other plant fibers. They are less prone to moisture, eco-friendly. However, they are
not recommended for rooms with a high probability of direct hit water.

MDF Panels

This comparatively new material, based on MDF boards by using dry pressing (press
the fine wood shavings) at high temperature and pressure. The wood release lignin
during heating. It serves as a connecting element. The material can withstand
sufficient load (hanging lockers and shelves), and is resistant to moisture, has heat
and sound insulation. It is hygienic, durable, in other words, it is rather qualitative.
Moreover, there are even fire-resistant MDF types.

Glass Panels

Glass panels are designed to create photographic images that require a durable
base. Therefore they have several disadvantages. But careful operation can last
quite a long time, especially since manufacturers are interested to apply modern
technology, which has a positive effect on the strength and protection of the glass
surface.
 Vinyl  Gypsum Panels (Vinyl Drywall)

This material has overgrown the well-known gypsum board today. It is mostly used
to build walls, partitions, and even ceilings. The new material is the same drywall
with the only difference that it is covered with vinyl instead of cardboard. This
obstacle differs it favorably from its predecessor. Panels are endowed with the
finished working surface with a certain pattern, and they are quite durable and
reliable.

3D Panel

It is the new design solution, facilitating the creation of your individual style. It is
made of “fashion panels” and bamboo – a material that represents a new decorative
range of sculptural textured panels, painted in different colors using acrylic paint
(glossy or matte finish). Panels can create a stunning effect and turn the interior
space into a spectacular one.

PVC Panels

The plastic wall panels are also new material made of a rigid polyvinyl chloride with a
minimum amount of plasticizer. The panels can be safely used for almost any room,
even in the shower, because they have a number of advantages: water-resistance,
fire-resistance, they are hygienic, long-life. Plastic panels are the most popular
option among their “classmates”. This is due to several advantages. Let us examine
it in more detail.

Properties of Plastic Panels

1. Environmentally friendliness. It should be noted that polyvinyl chloride is used for the
production of food packages, tubes, and medical equipment. According to the rules of SES,
finishing PVC panels are recommended for schools, sports gyms, and health facilities.

2. Fire resistance. It turns out that the ignition temperature for PVC panels is 370 C degrees,
while the panels of fiberboard and particleboard light at 250 Celsius degrees. But that’s not
all: as shown by experiments, PVC panels emit 2 times less smoke when burning than the
panels of chipboard and fiberboard. And when tested for toxicity was found that the products
of chipboard and fibreboard combustion are one and a half times more toxic than their
“classmate”. Also, do not forget that finishing panels are classified as self-extinguishing
materials.

3. Moisture resistance. Wall panels, thanks to a flat surface, are absolutely resistant to
moisture, and the absence of pores contributes to the fact that bacteria and mold can’t
 survive on the surface of the wall. That is why the material is often used in kitchens and
for bathroom wainscoting.

4. Easy installation. It’s no secret that the installation of such panels is not too difficult, it can
manage even a not very experienced master. The material does not require any preparatory
work and leveling the surface. Moreover, the damaged part of the structure can be easily
replaced.

5. Decorative abilities. Plastic panels have a wide range of colors and shapes. There are
variants with the applied pattern on the surface by means of thermal film. The material is
able to decorate any surface thanks to this it is considered to be the most popular option of
finishing.

The Size of Plastic Panels

Panel thickness can be divided into two types – a 5 mm and 8,9,10 mm. The second
subtype (size 8-10 mm) constitutes of moldings of the same size.

1. Lining panels. The length of the panel is 3 m, width – 10 cm, and 12.5 cm for a more rare
type (it has a double profile). The most popular are “European” with a wide lock and the
other option is less popular with a narrow “Polka” lock. It produced mainly in white, rarer in
color.

2. The most popular length of the plastic panels is 260, 270, and 300 cm; the width can be 15
up to 50 cm, but the most common size of 25 cm panel can be painted, lacquered, or has an
application of the thermal film. An almost invisible seam of the assembled panel is the main
difference from the lining panel.

3. PVC sheets can also be called PVC plates. The width of the sheet may vary in the 80-203
cm range, length – 150 to 405 cm. Foamed PVC sheets are the most popular, the upper
layer of the panel may be toughened and smooth.

The Advantages of Wall Panels

By using wall panels as a finishing material, it is possible to avoid such preliminary
issues as the alignment of the walls, as well as removing old plaster, wallpaper, and
paint, ie pre-finishing of the walls. In addition, the installation of wall panels does not
require special skills and master qualification. All you need to have is a stapler, nails,
sticks of wood, and, in fact, the panels themselves. In addition, the wall panels
provide excellent room and sound insulation, masking of computer, telephone, and
other electrical cables. They do not need special care. The only thing needed is to
wipe them once a month with any detergent or just a damp cloth. Damaged
components can be easily replaced if necessary. But usually, the wall panels have a
long life. They are durable, hygienic, and resistant to mechanical stress – all this will
eliminate the need for annual cosmetic repairs.
 Concrete mix design with respect to its strength

Why a good ready-mix concrete

design is necessary
A good concrete mix design creates the foundation of a sound infrastructure.

Concrete mix design involves a process of preparation in which a mix of ingredients

creates the required strength and durability for the concrete structure. Because
every ingredient in the mix consists of different properties, it’s not an easy task to
create a great concrete mix. It is imperative that all ingredients be tested to
determine their physical properties and the bearing capacity of the project location.

The ingredients to be tested: water, fine aggregate (sand), coarse aggregate,

cement, chemicals, reinforcement, and soil.

The values of the physical properties obtained after testing will be used as the basis
for all concrete mix design considerations. This will ensure the structure will be
sound and prevent failure of the mix. It is important to note that the ingredients for
the mix might vary from one project location to another, so the physical properties
must be tested for the requirements specified for each location.

Types of concrete mix

The two types of concrete mix are normal performance concrete and high-
performance concrete, and they’re characterized by their compressive strength:

Normal Performance Concrete

A normal performance concrete mix has a performance strength ranging between

20 and 40 MPa. It is the more used mix of the two. Normal performance concrete
has good workability if all of the mix ingredients are in accurate proportions. When
freshly mixed, the concrete must be plastic or semi-fluid so that it can be molded.

High-Performance Concrete

A high-performance concrete mix has a performance strength above 40 MPa. The

main purpose of using high-performance concrete is to reduce the weight, creep or
permeability issues, and to improve the durability of the structure. Like the normal
performance concrete mix, this mix must be plastic or semi-fluid when freshly
mixed so that it can be molded.

Because high-performance concrete has a high cement content, it is often sticky and
hard to be handled and placed. However, this does not cause the cement to bleed,
an issue that normal performance concrete might run into.

Factors affecting concrete mix

design
Strength and durability of the concrete mix design are dependent upon the
following factors:

Grade designation: Concrete’s strength is measured in N/mm2 when subject to

test after curing in any curing medium. The choice of concrete grade depends on its
usage.

Choice of cement: Cement choice varies depending on usage. The cement should

be tested for performance required by their usage before being tested in the design
mix.

Choice of aggregate size: Aggregates needed for each mix is dependent upon the
physical properties needed for the design. All aggregates must be quality sized
before use.

Type of water: Any water used for concrete mix design should be tested before use
to ensure it is within the range of water required for concrete. Most all consumable
water is good for concrete work, but should still be tested.

Water to cement ratio: The ratio of water to cement should be tested for

consistency, initial and final setting, soundness of the cement, workability, slump of
the concrete and compacting factor.

Workability: This is the measure of ease of mixing concrete without segregation or

bleeding. It mostly depends on the designed slump of the concrete.

Durability: This is the measure of the required strength (N/mm2) of any concrete

grade after 28 days of curing. Durability should be control tested on site.

A quality concrete mix design is crucial for successful construction. At Concrete

Supply Co., we sleep better at night knowing our end-to-end ready mix concrete
solution meets the highest quality performance in concrete, and our integrity in
doing so is unparalleled.

We offer a guide to help you find your perfect read mix. If durability and quality are
what you’re looking for in a concrete mix, take a look at our guide and we’ll be sure
to help you create the best mix for your project.  

Contact us if you’re in need of a supplier or if you have questions about our mixes.

Concrete Mix Design As Per Indian Standard

Code
Concrete Mix Design

Introduction
The process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and determining their relative
amounts with the objective of producing a concrete of the required, strength, durability,
and workability as economically as possible, is termed the concrete mix design. The
proportioning of ingredient of concrete is governed by the required performance of
concrete in 2 states, namely the plastic and the hardened states. If the plastic concrete
is not workable, it cannot be properly placed and compacted. The property of
workability, therefore, becomes of vital importance.

The compressive strength of hardened concrete which is generally considered to be an

index of its other properties, depends upon many factors, e.g. quality and quantity of
cement, water and aggregates; batching and mixing; placing, compaction and curing.
The cost of concrete is made up of the cost of materials, plant and labour. The
variations in the cost of materials arise from the fact that the cement is several times
costly than the aggregate, thus the aim is to produce as lean a mix as possible. From
technical point of view the rich mixes may lead to high shrinkage and cracking in the
structural concrete, and to evolution of high heat of hydration in mass concrete which
may cause cracking.

The actual cost of concrete is related to the cost of materials required for producing a
minimum mean strength called characteristic strength that is specified by the designer
of the structure. This depends on the quality control measures, but there is no doubt
that the quality control adds to the cost of concrete. The extent of quality control is
often an economic compromise, and depends on the size and type of job. The cost of
labour depends on the workability of mix, e.g., a concrete mix of inadequate workability
may result in a high cost of labour to obtain a degree of compaction with available
equipment.

Requirements of concrete mix design

 The requirements which form the basis of selection and proportioning of mix
ingredients are :

a ) The minimum compressive strength required from structural consideration

b) The adequate workability necessary for full compaction with the compacting
equipment available.

c) Maximum water-cement ratio and/or maximum cement content to give

adequate durability for the particular site conditions

d) Maximum cement content to avoid shrinkage cracking due to temperature

cycle in mass concrete.

Types of Mixes
1. Nominal Mixes

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In the past the specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of cement,
fine and coarse aggregates. These mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio which
ensures adequate strength are termed nominal mixes. These offer simplicity and
under normal circumstances, have a margin of strength above that specified.
However, due to the variability of mix ingredients the nominal concrete for a
given workability varies widely in strength.

2. Standard mixes

The nominal mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio (by volume) vary widely in strength
and may result in under- or over-rich mixes. For this reason, the minimum compressive
strength has been included in many specifications. These mixes are termed standard
mixes.

IS 456-2000 has designated the concrete mixes into a number of grades as M10, M15,
M20, M25, M30, M35 and M40. In this designation the letter M refers to the mix and the
number to the specified 28 day cube strength of mix in N/mm 2. The mixes of grades
M10, M15, M20 and M25 correspond approximately to the mix proportions (1:3:6),
(1:2:4), (1:1.5:3) and (1:1:2) respectively.

3. Designed Mixes

In these mixes the performance of the concrete is specified by the designer but the mix
proportions are determined by the producer of concrete, except that the minimum
cement content can be laid down. This is most rational approach to the selection of mix
proportions with specific materials in mind possessing more or less unique
characteristics. The approach results in the production of concrete with the appropriate
properties most economically. However, the designed mix does not serve as a guide
 since this does not guarantee the correct mix proportions for the prescribed
performance.

For the concrete with undemanding performance nominal or standard mixes

(prescribed in the codes by quantities of dry ingredients per cubic meter and by slump)
may be used only for very small jobs, when the 28-day strength of concrete does not
exceed 30 N/mm2. No control testing is necessary reliance being placed on the masses
of the ingredients.

Factors affecting the choice of mix proportions

The various factors affecting the mix design are:

1. Compressive strength

It is one of the most important properties of concrete and influences many other
describable properties of the hardened concrete. The mean compressive strength
required at a specific age, usually 28 days, determines the nominal water-cement ratio
of the mix. The other factor affecting the strength of concrete at a given age and cured
at a prescribed temperature is the degree of compaction. According to Abraham’s law
the strength of fully compacted concrete is inversely proportional to the water-cement
ratio.

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2. Workability

The degree of workability required depends on three factors. These are the size of the
section to be concreted, the amount of reinforcement, and the method of compaction
to be used. For the narrow and complicated section with numerous corners or
inaccessible parts, the concrete must have a high workability so that full compaction can
be achieved with a reasonable amount of effort. This also applies to the embedded
steel sections. The desired workability depends on the compacting equipment available
at the site.

3. Durability

The durability of concrete is its resistance to the aggressive environmental conditions.

High strength concrete is generally more durable than low strength concrete. In the
situations when the high strength is not necessary but the conditions of exposure are
such that high durability is vital, the durability requirement will determine the water-
cement ratio to be used.

4. Maximum nominal size of aggregate

In general, larger the maximum size of aggregate, smaller is the cement requirement for
a particular water-cement ratio, because the workability of concrete increases with
increase in maximum size of the aggregate. However, the compressive strength tends
to increase with the decrease in size of aggregate.
 IS 456:2000 and IS 1343:1980 recommend that the nominal size of the aggregate should
be as large as possible.

5. Grading and type of aggregate

The grading of aggregate influences the mix proportions for a specified workability and
water-cement ratio. Coarser the grading leaner will be mix which can be used. Very lean
mix is not desirable since it does not contain enough finer material to make the
concrete cohesive.

The type of aggregate influences strongly the aggregate-cement ratio for the desired
workability and stipulated water cement ratio. An important feature of a satisfactory
aggregate is the uniformity of the grading which can be achieved by mixing different
size fractions.

6. Quality Control

The degree of control can be estimated statistically by the variations in test results. The
variation in strength results from the variations in the properties of the mix ingredients
and lack of control of accuracy in batching, mixing, placing, curing and testing. The lower
the difference between the mean and minimum strengths of the mix lower will be the
cement-content required. The factor controlling this difference is termed as quality
control.

Mix Proportion designations

The common method of expressing the proportions of ingredients of a concrete mix is
in the terms of parts or ratios of cement, fine and coarse aggregates. For e.g., a concrete
mix of proportions 1:2:4 means that cement, fine and coarse aggregate are in the ratio
1:2:4 or the mix contains one part of cement, two parts of fine aggregate and four parts
of coarse aggregate. The proportions are either by volume or by mass. The water-
cement ratio is usually expressed in mass

Factors to be considered for mix design

 The grade designation giving the characteristic strength requirement of concrete.

 The type of cement influences the rate of development of compressive strength of

concrete.

 Maximum nominal size of aggregates to be used in concrete may be as large as possible

within the limits prescribed by IS 456:2000.

 The cement content is to be limited from shrinkage, cracking and creep.

 The workability of concrete for satisfactory placing and compaction is related to the size
and shape of section, quantity and spacing of reinforcement and technique used for
transportation, placing and compaction.
 Procedure
1. Determine the mean target strength ft from the specified characteristic compressive
strength at 28-day fck and the level of quality control.

ft = fck + 1.65 S

where S is the standard deviation obtained from the Table of approximate contents
given after the design mix.

2. Obtain the water cement ratio for the desired mean target using the emperical
relationship between compressive strength and water cement ratio so chosen is
checked against the limiting water cement ratio. The water cement ratio so chosen is
checked against the limiting water cement ratio for the requirements of durability given
in table and adopts the lower of the two values.

3. Estimate the amount of entrapped air for maximum nominal size of the aggregate from
the table.

4. Select the water content, for the required workability and maximum size of aggregates
(for aggregates in saturated surface dry condition) from table.

5. Determine the percentage of fine aggregate in total aggregate by absolute volume from
table for the concrete using crushed coarse aggregate.

6. Adjust the values of water content and percentage of sand as provided in the table for
any difference in workability, water cement ratio, grading of fine aggregate and for
rounded aggregate the values are given in table.

7. Calculate the cement content form the water-cement ratio and the final water content as
arrived after adjustment. Check the cement against the minimum cement content from
the requirements of the durability, and greater of the two values is adopted.

8. From the quantities of water and cement per unit volume of concrete and the percentage
of sand already determined in steps 6 and 7 above, calculate the content of coarse and
fine aggregates per unit volume of concrete from the following relations:

where V = absolute volume of concrete

= gross volume (1m3) minus the volume of entrapped air

Sc = specific gravity of cement

W = Mass of water per cubic metre of concrete, kg

 C = mass of cement per cubic metre of concrete, kg

p = ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate by absolute volume

fa, Ca = total masses of fine and coarse aggregates, per cubic metre of
concrete, respectively, kg, and

Sfa, Sca = specific gravities of saturated surface dry fine and coarse
aggregates, respectively

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9. Determine the concrete mix proportions for the first trial mix.

10. Prepare the concrete using the calculated proportions and cast three cubes of 150 mm
size and test them wet after 28-days moist curing and check for the strength.

11. Prepare trial mixes with suitable adjustments till the final mix proportions are arrived at.

The advantage and purpose of

Concrete Mixed designs
By

 Constro Facilitator

 -

March 13, 2020

8049

Share
Concrete mixed designs aids a foundation to achieve sound infrastructure.
Concrete mix design involves a process of preparation in which a mix of
ingredients creates the required strength and durability for the concrete
structure. Because every ingredient in the mix consists of different
properties, it’s not an easy task to create a great concrete mix. It is
imperative that all ingredients be tested to determine their physical
properties and the bearing capacity of the project location. The ingredients to
be tested: water, fine aggregate (sand), coarse aggregate, cement,
chemicals, reinforcement, and soil.

The design of concrete mix is not a simple task on account of the widely
varying properties of the constituent materials, the conditions that prevail at
the site of work, in particular the exposure condition, and the conditions that
are demanded for a particular work for which the mix is designed.

The values of the physical properties obtained after testing will be used as
the basis for all concrete mix design considerations. This will ensure the
structure will be sound and prevent failure of the mix. It is important to note
that the ingredients for the mix might vary from one project location to
another, so the physical properties must be tested for the requirements
specified for each location.

Selection of concrete mix designs

Modern concrete mix designs can be complex. The choice of a concrete mix
depends on the need of the project both in terms of strength and appearance
and in relation to local legislation and building codes.

The design begins by determining the requirements of the concrete. These

requirements take into consideration the weather conditions that the
concrete will be exposed to in service, and the required design strength. The
compressive strength of a concrete is determined by taking standard molded,
standard-cured cylinder samples.

Many factors need to be taken into account, from the cost of the various
additives and aggregates, to the trade offs between the “slump” for easy
mixing and placement and ultimate performance. A mix is then designed
using cement (Portland or other cementitious material), coarse and fine
aggregates, water and chemical admixtures. The method of mixing will also
be specified, as well as conditions that it may be used in.

This allows a user of the concrete to be confident that the structure will
perform properly. Various types of concrete have been developed for
specialist application and have become known by these names. Concrete
mixes can also be designed using software programs. Such software provides
the user an opportunity to select their preferred method of mix design and
enter the material data to arrive at proper mix designs.

Types of concrete mix designs

There are two types of concrete designs, each of them is explained below.

Regular concrete

Regular concrete is the lay term for concrete that is produced by following
the mixing instructions that are commonly published on packets of cement,
typically using sand or other common material as the aggregate, and often
mixed in improvised containers. The ingredients in any particular mix
depends on the nature of the application. Regular concrete can typically
withstand a pressure from about 10 MPa (1450 psi) to 40 MPa (5800 psi),
with lighter duty uses such as blinding concrete having a much lower MPa
rating than structural concrete. Many types of pre-mixed concrete are
available which include powdered cement mixed with an aggregate, needing
only water.

High-strength concrete

High-strength concrete has a compressive strength greater than 40 MPa

(5800 psi). In the UK, BS EN 206-1defines High strength concrete as
concrete with a compressive strength class higher than C50/60. High-
strength concrete is made by lowering the water-cement (W/C) ratio to 0.35
or lower. Often silica fume is added to prevent the formation of free calcium
hydroxide crystals in the cement matrix, which might reduce the strength at
the cement-aggregate bond. Low W/C ratios and the use of silica fume make
concrete mixes significantly less workable, which is particularly likely to be a
problem in high-strength concrete applications where dense rebar cages are
likely to be used. To compensate for the reduced workability,
superplasticizers are commonly added to high-strength mixtures. Aggregate
must be selected carefully for high-strength mixes, as weaker aggregates
may not be strong enough to resist the loads imposed on the concrete and
cause failure to start in the aggregate rather than in the matrix or at a void,
as normally occurs in regular concrete.

The best concrete mix design is the one which satisfies all the aspects for
which it was designed

Strength- The strength of 95% cube casted after 28 days of curing should

be greater than the characteristic strength for which concrete has been
designed.

Workability & placing- As working condition changes so does the

properties desired from concrete also changes, the concrete which can be
easily placed without segregation and with least compaction required.

Durability- The concrete must be durable enough to face harsh conditions of

atmosphere for which it has been designed.

These are the main properties considered while designing concrete and the
concrete designed satisfying such conditions can be called as best concrete
mix design. Mix design of concrete depends on the grade of concrete.
Moreover, the minimum grade of concrete is decided keeping in view the
strength and durability requirements. Under a particular exposure condition
grade of concrete may vary for different structural components. IS 456
specifies minimum grade of concrete for mild, moderate, severe and very
severe exposure conditions.

Factors affecting the choice of mix proportions of concrete mixed

designs

The various factors affecting the mix design are:

Compressive strength

It is one of the most important properties of concrete and influences many

other describable properties of the hardened concrete. The mean
compressive strength required at a specific age, usually 28 days, determines
the nominal water-cement ratio of the mix. The other factor affecting the
strength of concrete at a given age and cured at a prescribed temperature is
the degree of compaction.

Workability

The degree of workability required depends on three factors. These are the
size of the section to be concreted, the amount of reinforcement, and the
method of compaction to be used. For the narrow and complicated section
with numerous corners or inaccessible parts, the concrete must have a high
workability so that full compaction can be achieved with a reasonable amount
of effort. This also applies to the embedded steel sections. The desired
workability depends on the compacting equipment available at the site.

Durability

The durability of concrete is its resistance to the aggressive environmental

conditions. High strength concrete is generally more durable than low
strength concrete. In the situations when the high strength is not necessary
but the conditions of exposure are such that high durability is vital, the
durability requirement will determine the water-cement ratio to be used.

Maximum nominal size of aggregate

In general, larger the maximum size of aggregate, smaller is the cement

requirement for a particular water-cement ratio, because the workability of
concrete increases with increase in maximum size of the aggregate.
However, the compressive strength tends to increase with the decrease in
size of aggregate. IS 456:2000 and IS 1343:1980 recommend that the
nominal size of the aggregate should be as large as possible.

Grading and type of aggregate

The grading of aggregate influences the mix proportions for a specified

workability and water-cement ratio. Coarser the grading learner will be mix
which can be used. Very lean mix is not desirable since it does not contain
enough finer material to make the concrete cohesive. The type of aggregate
influences strongly the aggregate-cement ratio for the desired workability
and stipulated water cement ratio. An important feature of a satisfactory
aggregate is the uniformity of the grading which can be achieved by mixing
different size fractions.

Quality Control
The degree of control can be estimated statistically by the variations in test
results. The variation in strength results from the variations in the properties
of the mix ingredients and lack of control of accuracy in batching, mixing,
placing, curing and testing. The lower the difference between the mean and
minimum strengths of the mix lower will be the cement content required. The
factor controlling this difference is termed as quality control.

Factors to be considered for concrete mix designs

Strength and durability of the concrete mix design are dependent upon the
following factors:

Grade designation: Concrete’s strength is measured in N/mm2 when

subject to test after curing in any curing medium. The choice of concrete
grade depends on its usage.

Choice of cement: Cement choice varies depending on usage. The cement

should be tested for performance required by their usage before being tested
in the design mix.

Choice of aggregate size: Aggregates needed for each mix is dependent

upon the physical properties needed for the design. All aggregates must be
quality sized before use.

Type of water: Any water used for concrete mix design should be tested
before use to ensure it is within the range of water required for concrete.
Most all consumable water is good for concrete work, but should still be
tested.

Water to cement ratio: The ratio of water to cement should be tested for

consistency, initial and final setting, soundness of the cement, workability,
slump of the concrete and compacting factor.

Workability: This is the measure of ease of mixing concrete without

segregation or bleeding. It mostly depends on the designed slump of the
concrete.

Durability: This is the measure of the required strength (N/mm2) of any

concrete grade after 28 days of curing. Durability should be control tested on
site.

This method of proportioning was first published in 1944 by ACI committee

613. In 1954 the method was revised to include, among other modifications,
the use of entrained air. In 1970, the method of ACI mix design became the
responsibility of ACI committee 211. We shall now deal with the latest ACI
Committee 211.1 method.

Purpose of concrete mix-designs

Concrete mix design is economically proportioning of concrete ingredients for

better strength and durability based on construction site. While the nominal
concrete mix may have a higher amount of cement, when it is designed mix,
(Here nominal concrete mix and design concrete mix are the two types of
concrete mix design) the cement requirement may below for the same grade
of concrete for a given site. The proportions resulting from concrete mix
design are tested for their strength with the help of compressive strength
tests on concrete cubes and cylinders.
A well-designed concrete mix will ensure that the finished structure is as
strong as it can be. It also maximises the efficiency of ingredients by
reducing wastage and getting the most concrete out of the wet and dry
ingredients.

Mix design of concrete is done to produce a concrete of your choice with local
available material with you. Strength, durability and workability are the main
criteria which are to be stipulated before mix designing of any concrete.
Water to cement ratio and aggregate to cement ratio are main factors which
affects the properties of concrete. Therefore mix designing is the process to
find out the best suited proportions of water : cement : fine aggregate :
coarse aggregate : admixture for a concrete you want.

The object of mix design is to decide the proportions of materials which will
produce concrete of required properties. The mix proportions should be
selected in such a way that the resulting concrete is of desired workability
while fresh and it could be placed and compacted easily for the intended
purpose. The fresh concrete should be fluid enough to fill the formwork and
surround the reinforcement fully and the hardened concrete should develop
required strength and durability.

All ready-mix producers strive to find the perfect proportions of these

ingredients in order to optimize their concrete mixes and give their concrete
strength, durability, workability, and other desirable properties. It’s
important to optimize concrete to ensure the lowest cost while maintaining
the highest strength of your mixture. This is far from easy, as every addition
or subtraction to the concrete mix entails adjustments to the components,
making the process very complicated and inefficient.

What is Bulking of Sand? Its Calculation,

Classification.
Sand is an important construction material of natural origin, mixed with
cement and lime, millions of tons of sands are used every month for
construction as mortars, plasters, and concrete.

The term sand is used for rock particles that range in grain size

between 2 mm and 1/16 mm. In composition, they are predominantly
an oxide of silica SiO2.
Mineralogically, they consist mostly of broken grains of mineral Quartz
(SiO2) produced as a result of the breakdown of sandstones and similar
rocks.
We will discuss Classification and Bulking of Sand in detail below. So
Let’s move on:

Bulking of Sand:
Table of Contents [show]
Bulking of sand is an important volumetric change that takes place in
the sand when they are moist. Sand increase in volume, to the extent of
20-30 percent, when they contain moisture between 2-8 percent.

This is because moisture in small proportions forms thin films around

the sand grains.

Fine sands bulk greater than coarse sand. When the moisture

content is increased beyond 8-10 percent, the bulking of sand effect
almost disappears.
In fact, sand grains settled in a water tank will have the same volume as
dry sand.
The quality of sand is determined concerning its clay content,
contamination with organic impurities, and its salt encrustations.

Good quality sands should be free from all these impurities.

It is established that the volume of sand will be more when water is

present in it, even in small quantities.
In other words, two batches of sand, one dry and one moist, that may
have the same weight, will have different volumes.

The volume of moist sand will be more than that of dry sand.

This change (increase) in the volume of sands on getting moist is

termed as bulking of sand.
Full knowledge of the bulking of sand is necessary for a construction
engineer because sand is used for mortars, plasters, and concrete by
volume.

All the mix designs denote the proportion of sand is essentially in the
dry state.

As such, if this fact is ignored and sand in wet condition is added to

the cement or lime, the resulting mortar will be containing a lesser
amount of sand than the required amount.
Hence, a correction factor for the bulking of sand has to be applied
after determining the rate of bulking for the sand to be used in mortar
and concrete making.
As regards the rate of bulking of sand, it has been observed that it is
related to two factors.

(i) percentage of moisture content in the sand.

(ii) gram-Size of the sand particles.
Thus, the bulking effect is maximum when the moisture content in the
sand is between 4-6 percent. As the water content increases, this effect
goes on decreasing, becoming negligible at 15-20 percent moisture
content.

Similarly, other things being the same, the fine sands (particle size 0.25
to 0.15 mm) show a higher bulking rate as compared to the coarse
sands (particle size around 2 mm).

Bulking may be to the extent of 40 percent of the original dry volume of

sand in the fine and 15 percent in the case of coarse sands.

 
How to Calculate Bulking of Sand:
A quick method to determine bulking of sand of a given sample
containing some moisture is as follows:

Step 1.
 Take a clean glass cylinder and fill it about 3/4 with the sand sample.
Then, Note down its volume. Let’s Say; it’s Volume = V1= is 30 cm3.
Step 2.
Now carefully take the sand out and place it on a glass plate. Fill the
glass cylinder with water to 3/4 of its volume.

Step 3.
Put the sand sample back into the glass cylinder very slowly, Stirring the
water while adding sand into it. This is essential to make all the sand
grains settle fully in the cylinder.

Note down the new volume of sand sample.

Let it be V2.
(If V2 = V1, it means that the sand samples has retained to its original
volume, i.e., it has shown no bulking).
But let’s say in another case, V = 24 cm. Then the bulking of sand
sample will be;
V1-V2/V1 x 100.
Now just put the values of V1 = 30 cm3 and V2 = 24 cm3.
So, Now 30-24/30 x 100 => 6/30 x 100 => 20%.
So, this means that 20% of the bulking of sand has taken place.

BULKING OF SAND:-

Bulking in sand Occurs When dry sand interacts with the atmospheric moisture.
Presence of moisture content forms a thin layer around sand particles. This layer
generates the force which makes particles to move aside to each other. This results
in the increase of the volume of sand.

Excessive presence of moisture content in the sand makes concrete to less durable
and lose its strength. Remember, excessive presence of moisture content increase
the workability of concrete but loses its strength.

As per IS2386-3 Bulking in Sand, Presence of 4% of moisture content in sand

increases 25% of its volume.

BULKING OF SAND (Fine Aggregate):

The volume of the sand increases due to the presence of

the moisture content and is termed as bulking.Fine sand
bulks more as compared to coarse sand.Fine aggregate
bulks as much as about 40 %.Remember, fine aggregates
do not show any bulking when it is absolutely dry or
completely saturated.

CAUSE OF BULKING:

A film around each particle is formed due to the

moisture present in sand.These films of moisture exert a
force,known as surface tension on each particle.Due
to this surface tension each particle gets away from each
other.So, there is no direct contact possible among the
individual particles and this causes bulking of the
volume.

Bulking of fine aggregate depends upon two factors:

1.Particle size of aggregates. 

2.Percentage of moisture content.

Bulking increases with increasing moisture content to a

certain extent and further increase increase in moisture
content results in decrease in volume. When the fine
agregate becomes fully saturated, it shows no bulking.
The percentage of bulking is indirectly proportional to
the size of particle.

Why to determine Percentage of bulking?

Due to bulking, the fine aggregate shows completely

unrealistic volume. Therefore, it is absolutely necessary
that condiseration must be given to the effect of bulking
in proportioning the concrete  by volume. If the impact
of bulking is not taken into account, due to the collision
of volume batching, the resulting concrete is likely to be
under-sanded and harsh. This will also affect the yield of
concrete for a given cement content.

The percentage of bulking can be determined by following

this method:-
1. Take a simple container and add 2/3 part of sand in it.
2. Measure the exact height of sand using the scale and
note it down. (H1)
3. Now fill the container up to 2/3 part with water. (Same
height of Sand)
4. Now add the measured sand to the container and wait
for some time to settle down.
5. Now calculate the height of Sand in water. (H2)
As per IS2386-3 Bulking in Sand, Presence of 4% of
moisture content in sand increases 25% of its volume is
given in the table below:

   %of
Moisture                   Percentage  Bulking                 
content (by volume)

2%    15%

3%    20%

4%   25%

5%   30%
Bulking of Sand Formula:-

Lets us take an Observation:

 
 The measured height of Sand (H1)= 250mm 
and height of sand with water (H2)= 200 mm, so it
follows
It is clear that the Sample has 4% of Moisture content in
it. Due to this 25%  of the volume is increased in the
sand.(see the table above)
What Is Bulking of Sand?
 The free moisture content in the fine aggregate or sand results
in bulking of its volume. The phenomenon of increase in sand
volume due to the addition of water or increase of moisture content
is termed as Bulking of Sand.
 Bulking of Sand occurs when a film of water is created around the
sand particles due to the presence of atmospheric moisture. This
film or layer generates the force which then forces the particles to
move apart from each other and thus increases the volume of the
sand.
 Bulking of Sand depends on the size of the particles in the sand and
also on the quantity of moisture content in sand.
 The volume of sand can increase from 20 % to 40 % due to an
increase of 5 to 8 % of moisture content.
 A finer particle of sand will Increase more in volume due to bulking
of sand. Volume increase will be relatively less for a coarse particle of
 sand because of the large surface area is contributed by fine
particles for the same volume contribution.
 Bulking of Sand almost disappears when the moisture content is
increased beyond 8 to 10 % for coarse-grain sand.

Bulking of Sand Is Caused Due to

Image Credit:
www.gharpedia.com

 Free moisture present in the atmosphere forms a thin film around

each sand particle. This thin layer of moisture exerts
surface tension which pushes the neighbouring particles away from
each other.
 Therefore, due to this force no point contact is possible between the
sand particles. This caused an increase in volume or bulking of sand.
 The percentage of moisture content in the sand and the particle size
of the fine aggregate or sand will result to the extent of surface tension
and consequently how far the adjacent sand particles are away from
each other.
 The most interesting point to note is that the bulking of sand increases
with the increase in moisture content up to a certain limit and after that
the further increase in the moisture content results in the decrease in
the volume of bulking of sand and at a moisture content representing
saturation point, the sand shows no bulking.
 Importance of Determining Percentage Bulking
 Unrealistic volume is shown by fine aggregate due to bulking. When concrete
proportioning is to be performed, the sand bulking issues is a concern. If the
effect of bulking is not studied properly, the concrete designed will have an
insufficient amount of sand resulting in a harsh mix. Bulking of sand will affect the
yield of concrete for a given cement content
 The increase in moisture of sand increases the volume of sand. The reason is that
moisture causes film of water around sand particles which results in the increase
of volume of sand. For a moisture content percentage of 5 to 8 there will be an
increase in volume up to 20 to 40 percent depending upon sand. If the sand is
more fine there will be more increase in volume. This is known as bulking of sand.
 The important facts in connection with the bulking of sand are as follows:
 (1) When moisture content is increased by adding more water, the sand particles
pack near each other and the amount of bulking of sand is decreased. Thus the
dry sand and the sand completely flooded with water have practically the same
volume.
 (2) The coarse aggregate is little affected by the moisture content.
 (3) One of the reasons of adopting proportioning by weight is the bulking of sand
as proportioning by weight avoids the difficulty due to the bulking of sand.
 4) The bulking of sand should be taken into account when volumetric
proportioning of the aggregates is adopted. Otherwise, less quantity of concrete
per bag of cement will be produced, which naturally will increase the cost of
concrete. Also, there will be less quantity of line aggregate in the concrete mix
which may make the concrete difficult to place.
 AIM
 To study the behaviour of sand grains under varying percentage of moisture
content .APPARATUES. 250 ml measuring cylinder ,weighing balance
etc .PROCEDURE(i) Take 500gm (W1) of the aggregate.(ii) Keep the sample in an
oven in a tray at a temperature of 100°C-110° C for 24 ± 0.5 hours .
 iii) Cool the sand in an air tight container and weight it (W2)Water content of the
sample = (W1-W2)x 100/W1
 (iv) Take out about 250gm of sand and pour it into a pan.
 (v) Add 2% (by weight) of water and mix well.
 (vi) Pour the sand sample into a 250 ml measuring cylinder and consolidate by
shaking.
 (vii) Level the surface and read the volume in ml (Yi).
 (viii) Take out the whole quantity of sand and continue the experiment by
adding2% water more each time and note the corresponding volume of sand
(Y2,Y3…..) until the dump sand volume starts decreasing.
 ix) Beyond this point, add 4% more water each time until the sample become fully
saturated.
 (x) To the standard sample in the measuring cylinder, add about 50 ml water
oreand stir the sample well.
 (xi) Note down the surface level of inundated sand (Y ml).

What is Cast Iron?
Cast iron is obtained from the pig-iron which is re-melted with coke and limestone. Pig iron is
nothing but impure iron which is obtained from the iron ore. Cast iron has lot of engineering
properties so, that it can be used in many ways like for sanitary fittings, rail chairs, casting molds
etc.

Manufacturing of Cast Iron

Cast iron in manufactured from re-melting process as mentioned above. This process takes place
in a furnace called couple furnace. The furnace is 5 meters in height and cylindrical in shape with
1 m diameter. The raw materials pig iron, coke and lime stone are entered from the charging door
of chamber which provided at the top. Air blast is introduced into the chamber using air blast
inlet which removes the impurities present in the pig iron. Hence, pure cast iron is obtained from
the bottom out let and it is poured into molds of required shape. These molds are called as cast

iron castings.

Types of Cast Iron used as a Building Material in

Construction Works
Following are the types of cast iron used as a building material in construction and their uses:

 Grey cast iron

 Malleable cast iron
 Mottled cast iron
 Toughened cast iron
  White cast iron
 Ductile cast iron
 Chilled cast iron
Grey Cast Iron
As the name suggests, it is grey in color. It has coarse crystalline structure. Its melting point is
very low thus it has weak strength and it is only used for casting purposes.

Malleable Cast Iron

Malleability is the property which helps the materials to undergo any shape without breaking or
cracking. Hence, malleable cast iron is used for making many types of materials. It has good
corrosive resistance. Its manufacturing process involves two steps. In the first step, it is casted
and cooled as ordinary cast iron and then again it is heated to 1050 oC and soaked in water for long
period (several hours or days). Hence, carbon content is slightly reduced and graphite content is
precipitated as temper carbon. This reduce the brittleness of cast iron. So, it can be worked easily
using machines. It is used for making pipe fittings, fastenings, automobiles etc.

Mottled Cast Iron

Mottled iron is the medium stage cast iron which properties are in between grey cast iron and
white cast iron. It has Small amount of graphite in its composition. So, mottled type fractures are
developed in its micro structure.

Toughened Cast Iron

Toughened cast iron is the combination of cast iron and wrought iron. To obtain this wrought iron
scrap and cast iron melted together. The composition of wrought iron is about 0.15 to 0.25 weight
of the cast iron.

White Cast Iron

It is in silver color. Its melting point is high so, strength wise it is better but not used for delicate
casting purposes. Because of its heavy strength, it cannot be used easily.

Ductile Cast Iron

Ductile cast iron is also called as spheroidal graphite iron. Its manufacturing process is very easy
compared to other types. Its manufacturing process consists manganese treatment which helps to
increase the carbon content and opposes the formation of graphite in flaky form. It has very good
engineering properties than malleable cast iron. Ductile cast iron has very good corrosion
resistance, high strength and durability. So, usage of ductile iron dominates the other types. It is
used for making sewer pipes, water conveying pipes etc.

Chilled Cast Iron

Chilled cast iron consists two layers of which one layer has white cast iron properties and other
one has grey cast iron properties. This type of iron is used for casting process in which grey cast
iron layer is provided in inner surface and white cast iron layer is provided as outer surface.
Hence the casting molds serve longer. Machine parts are also made using chilled cast iron.

Composition of Different Types of Cast Iron

Different types of cast iron are composed of different quantities of constituents shown in table

below:

Properties of Cast Iron as a Building Material

The properties of cast iron are as follows

 Good corrosion resistance, so it can be used for water carrying pipes etc.
 Does not get attracted to magnet.
 Specific gravity is 7.5.
 Melting point is about 1250oC.
 Tensile strength is about 150 N/mm 2 and compressive strength is about 600 N/mm 2.so, it
is good in compression.
 It becomes soft when placed in salt water and it shrinks on cooling.
 It cannot be useful for forging work because of lack of plasticity.

Uses of Cast Iron in Building Construction

Cast iron can be used for making different tools, materials etc. as described below.

 Many types of sanitary fittings like manholes, sewer pipes, water pipes, cisterns are
manufactured using cast iron.
 Metal columns and column bases can be made using cast iron.
 Casting molds for making metal staircases, lamp posts, gates etc. are made using cast
iron.
 Rail chairs and carriage wheels are manufactured.
 Several types of agricultural implements can be made.
 Machinery parts can be manufactured but shock cannot be resisted by cast iron.
Why Was Cast Iron Used in Architecture?
Cast iron was used in both commercial buildings and private residences for
many reasons. First, it was an inexpensive means to reproduce ornate facades,
such as Gothic, Classical, and Italianate, which became the most popular
designs imitated. The grand architecture, symbolic of prosperity, became
affordable when mass-produced. Cast iron molds could be reused, allowing for
the development of architectural catalogs of module patterns that could be
optioned to prospective clients — catalogs of cast-iron facades were as
common as catalogs of pattern house kits. Like mass-produced automobiles,
cast-iron facades would have "parts" to easily repair broken or weathered
components, if the mold still existed.
Second, like other products mass produced, elaborate designs could be
assembled rapidly on a construction site. Better yet, entire buildings could be
constructed in one place and shipped all over the world
- prefabrication enabled portability.

Lastly, the use of cast iron was a natural extension of the Industrial
Revolution. The use of steel frames in commercial buidlings allowed a more
open floor plan design, with space to accommodate larger windows suitable
for commerce. The cast-iron facades were really like icing on a cake. That
icing, however, was also thought to be fireproof — a new type of building
construction to address the new fire regulations after devastating fires like the
Great Chicago fire of 1871.

3. MILD STEEL
Mild Steel is a kind of steel that is most frequently utilized for building
construction,  the explanation being its extraordinarily durable and strong
quality. Mild steel doesn't break when bowed inferable from its immense
versatility bringing about the reality. It can appropriately hold facing
significant disasters like quakes. With plain carbon steel at its base, a
house is seldom prone to damage or crumbling even in a critical situation.
Mild steel regularly contains an estimated 0.05%-0.25% carbon, alongside
two yield focuses.
Construction is only possible with the quality granted by steel, a
supportable and cost-effective alternative to other construction materials.
Now get the utilization of these three basic building materials that are
successfully utilized in a wide range of the development procedure.
1. Plain Carbon Steel or Mild Steel

This is the most common type of steel used in building construction, which is also
known as mild steel. It is incalculably strong and durable, and ensures a sturdy built.
Due to the strength that carbon steel provides, it is hugely useful in buildings and has
proved to be of great advantage. It does not crack when bent, it is immensely
flexible, and it is ductile and has great plasticity, along with the fact that it can endure
calamities like earthquakes without it causing cracks in the steel. This is the most
advantageous factor of carbon steel. A steel building is hardly ever prone to collapse
or destruct in any form. It can withstand any sort of calamity and is strong enough to
not crack, in turn being able to save its occupants. Other construction materials
might easily collapse or break down, but steel does not, and carbon steel is highly
strong to survive any major problems. Low carbon steel consists of 0.05%-0.25%
carbon approximately. This type of steel has two yield points. Low carbon steel is
simpler to handle because of its ability of being handled by two yield points, wherein
the first yield point is goes a little higher over the second, lower yield point. Mild steel
has a density of 7.85 g/cm. Due to its weld ability, plain-carbon steel is higher in
strength than any other. However, fire protection is very important in a steel building,
and must be given due thought to. Other than that steel construction causes no
concerning issues.

Mild Steel
Mild steel is like plain carbon steel, but it is a bit more flexible and doesn’t crack
when it is bent. This material consists of carbon and a relatively low amount of
alloying element content. This differentiates it from higher carbon and alloy steels. It
has less tensile strength than carbon and alloy steel but has a high amount of iron and
ferrite which makes it more magnetic.
Benefits
 Easily weldable.
 Can be cut, bent, and twisted easily.
 Recyclable.
Application
Mild steel is widely used as a component to produce automobiles, fencing, nails,
wires, structural steel, signs, etc.
If you are looking for steel fabricators for your steel building project and wish to
know more about the steel construction, reach out to us today. We deal with steel
fabrication and construction with a highly experienced and well-trained staff.

What is Mild Steel?

Mild steel is a type of carbon steel that contains a low level of carbon. Otherwise known as low
carbon steel, mild steel contains roughly between 0.05% and 0.25% of carbon by weight. It is not
an alloy steel, therefore it does not contain large amounts of anything other than iron and ferrite.
 

Mild Steel Properties

Here are just some of the properties of mild steel:
 Magnetic – this is due to the high amounts of ferrite and iron in mild steel bars.
 Ductile – in comparison to other types of steel, it is more ductile and therefore can be used for
a wide variety of purposes.
 Weldable – due to its low carbon content, it is more malleable and suitable for welding. The
less carbon in the steel, the more weldable and machinable it becomes. (See Baker Steel
Trading’s mobile welding services page for more information).
 Affordable – using mild steel is relatively cost-effective in comparison to some other steels.
 Very little carbon – this makes cold-forming mild steel easier, and they are easier to handle
as a whole.
All types of carbon steels are usually categorised based on the amount of carbon that they
contain. The three main categories of carbon steel have various different carbon content levels,
and therefore can be used for various different purposes.

1. Low carbon steel (up to 0.30% plain carbon) is mainly used for flat-rolled steel products such
as sheets, strips or light and rolled sections such as equal angle or unequal angle steel
beams.
2. Medium carbon steel (between 0.30%-0.60% carbon content) is favoured in the engineering
industry, being mainly used for wheels, rails, gears and vehicle components.
3. High carbon steel (0.60% to 1% carbon) is the strongest of the three carbon steels. Common
uses include compression springs and wires.

What is Mild Steel used for?

Mild steel can be used for a variety of purposes in multiple applications. Alongside the uses for
low carbon steel as previously mentioned, mild steel can be used for anything from the following:

 Machinery parts – depending on the ratio of the carbon and iron, the strength, ductility and
malleability of steel differs. Given that mild steel is very malleable, it lends itself well to steel
sheets in car body kits.
 Pipelines – mild steel tubes are popular choices for pipework due to its excellent ductility.
Pipes can be easily welded, and are flexible enough so that they don’t crack or break when
under pressure. It also helps that mild steel pipework can be insulated to assist their
performance in cold weather.
 Steel frame buildings – mild steel can often be used as a construction frame material, given
that mild steel beams have incredibly high strength, just like any structural steel beam. Mild
steel also meets seismic and wind requirements.
 Gates and fencing – these types of steel products have always required the right balance of
aesthetic appeal and structural strength. Mild steel fits both of these elements when it comes
to manufacturing steel gates and fences. It is strong and hard to break, and can be painted,
primed or galvanised to prevent corrosion and give it a decorative finish. You can find out
more about types of steel finishing. Baker Steel Trading can also design, manufacture and
install steel gates, contact us directly for more information.
 Structural steel – it’s not unusual to find mild steel used for structural steel applications.
Structural steel is available in various grades of yield strength, while mild steel yield strength
stays very consistent. Mild steel can be shaped more easily, and due to its cost-effectiveness,
it’s sometimes preferable to use mild steel over structural steel in some small-medium-level
structural applications.
 

Baker Steel Trading are CE marked structural steel fabricators who can work with a wide
variety of steels in commercial and industrial applications.

Need Steel Fabricators?

Here at Baker Steel Trading, we can fabricate and weld just about any steel to a high standard.
We don’t just work with structural steel and low carbon steel, we offer anything from
fabricating parallel flange channels to producing working structural steel fabrication drawings
using 3D modelling software. We work with structural engineers and architects all over the
country.
We offer various other services to meet your requirements, including (but not limited to):

 Steel fabrication drawings

 Mobile welding (read more about our coded welders)
 HIAB and crane hire services
 Stainless steel fabrication and welding
 Staircases
 On-site surveying and measure
 Aluminium fabrication and welding
5 CONTEMPORARY USES OF MILD STEEL
Posted on 09/02/2015

Asking what mild steel is used for is a a strange question, since it can be found just about
everywhere! This is hardly surprising for a metal that' so versatile, cost-effective and easy to
manufacture, with the end product being neither extremely brittle nor ductile thanks to a low
carbon content (up to 0.3%). With an almost limitless potential in terms of possible end-products,
we thought we'd use this entry of the Austen Knapman blog to explore some of the more
common, everyday contemporary uses of mild steel - from agriculture to the heavy machinery
industry - and why mild steel is such a good fit for them.

#1 - Steel frame buildings

Mild steel, with its unique properties not found in wood or anything else, is an inseparable partner
when it comes to building construction. Mild steel is highly favoured as a building frame material
thanks to it's incredibly high strength; in fact if you attached a bar of the stuff to your ceiling you
could hang 20,000kg from it - the equivalent of 18 Honda's or one and a half London buses
(double-deckers too). For construction use in particular, mild steel is also advantageous because
it meets strict seismic or wind requirements, cannot be damaged by insects and is impervious to
both rot and fire.

#2 - Machinery Parts

Lest we forget, steel  (in its most basic form) is a combination of iron and carbon. These
elements can be combined in a variety of ways to reach the desired ratio of strength, ductility and
hardness, which might go far to explain why this metal, particularly the malleable mild steel, is so
favoured for machine part manufacturing. Cast steel car parts, for example, are better suited to
welding because they do not suffer the same molecular changes as forged pieces when they are
reheated. They furthermore save countless hours of machining, forging and heat treatment as
they require only the most minor of final shaping once cooled.
#3 - Cookware
Whilst a lot of everyday cookware, particularly knives, is known for being more in the dominion of
stainless steel, more and more in the culinary community are coming to love the lavish qualities
of carbon steel cookware. For chefs and food scientists alike, there are many advantages in mild
steel that overcome it's ability to rust; it can hold an edge and stay sharper longer, has a higher
temperature limit and is essentially a non-stick material once seasoned. Whilst mild steel
cookware does require a bit more care and attention, it's perhaps a good exercise for those who
need to learn to respect and savour their kitchen collection of tools so that they get the highest
level of performance.

#4 - Pipelines
The exceptional ductility of our galvanised mild steel tubes has made them popular for use as
poles and pipes that can withstand the weather and other consequences of the outdoors. If you
expand this potential, it's no wonder why mild steel pipelines are the standard choice for
transporting water, natural gas and even beer! Mild steel allows these pipes to be easily welded
into place, but also lets it flex and avoid cracking and breaking under pressure. Typically in cold
climates, to ensure the cold and warmth cycling in the pipe doesn't create structural integrity
problems, it is given an insulating material wrap for continued top performance.

#5 - Visually Aesthetic Metal Gate, Fencing etc. Design

Our last modern use of mild steel is something actually quite traditional, yet it is something that
has also benefited immensely from today's equipment and welding techniques. For the sake of
beauty and character, metal gating and fencing has always required a strong balance between
strength itself and a visually appealing design, and mild steel lends itself to both. It is strong and
difficult to break (unlike cast iron), it it can be painted to produce a long-lasting, low maintenance
decorative finish and it can be galvanized to prevent corrosion. Whether by hand or by modern
machine, mild steel can be easily forged in a variety of shapes to meet even the most specific of
designs.
 TWO MATERIAL USED IN PLUMBING

 Cast Iron
1. Cast Iron Pipe:
Cast Iron pipe is widely used for city water-distribution
systems because of its high resistance to corrosion and consequent
long life.
Cast iron pipe is made from pig iron. Such pipes are normally made
from 5 cm to 120 cm in diameter.
 The usual length of a pipe section is 12 ft, but lengths up to 20 ft
can be obtained.
 Cast iron pipe is made in several thickness classes for various
pressures up to a maximum of 350 psi.
 Cast-iron pipes are usually dipped in a bituminous compound for
protection against corrosion and to improve their hydraulic
qualities; larger sizes may be provided with a lining of cement
mortar.
 A common joint for cast iron pipe is the bell and spigot. A few
strands of jute are wrapped around the spigot before it is
inserted into the bell, and then more jute is packed into the joint.
 Finally, the space between the bell and spigot is tilled with a
molten lead, which is tightly caulked into the joint after cooling.
 Patented compounds of sulfur and other materials and neat
cement mortar are also used for joints. These materials are
cheaper than lead, but the joints are usually less flexible.
 The flanged pipe is used for pumping stations, filter plants, and
other locations where it may be necessary to disjoint the pipe.
 Flanged couplings must be fitted perfectly and provided with a
gasket if they are to be watertight.
 Watch the installation video below.
 Because of the skilled labor required for lead joints, numerous
mechanical couplings are finding extensive use and have largely
replaced bell-and-spigot joints.
 These couplings are bolted together and designed to avoid the
careful fit required of ordinary hanged couplings and to permit
flexibility in pipe placement.
 One of the most common is the Dresser coupling.
  Cast iron pipes are also cheap and economical. These pipes can
be joined easily and can be cut and bored easily too.
 They are durable up-to 100 years of life but, as time passes, their
strength of carrying water decreases. They cannot bear pressure
more than 7 kg per square centimeter:
 The cast iron pipes are generally cut with chisel and hammer, but
for a better cutting cutter and hack saw can be used.
 Following methods are used to join a cast iron pipe.
 (i). Bell and Spigot Joint.
 (ii). Hanged Joint.
 (iii). Expansion Joint.

 YES BRASIL / Getty Images

Appearance: Large-diameter heavy metal pipe, dull black with a

rough, mottled surface.

Description: High-quality sanitary waste drain pipe that is heavy

and deadens the sound of flowing wastewater very well. This pipe
is strong and long-lasting but hard to cut—often requiring a
special cutting tool with sharp chain cutting wheels. Repairs are
often made using plastic PVC piping. Cast iron is rarely used in
new construction; instead many use plastic PVC or ABS
(acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) pipe.

Prevalent Use: Use for main soil stack waste lines and vent
pipes.

Cutting and Fitting: Requires heavy-duty reciprocating saw or a

special cutting tool called a cast-iron pipe cutter. Securing cast-
iron pipes and fittings together is done using special methods,
including lead and oakum in soil pipe joints, hubbed fittings or
hubless couplings using pressure bands, and other methods
usually unfamiliar to the homeowner.

Cast Iron pipes (CI pipes) These are mostly used as

pressure pipes for transmission of water, gas and sewage
and as water drainage pipes (Fig. 3.4). CI pipes have the
following advantages— (a) They are cheaper in cost. (b)
They have more resistance to rust and corrosion. (c) They
are highly durable. CI pipes are uniform in thickness.
Special care needs to be taken during carrying and
shifting, and joining of CI pipes, to prevent damage.
Precautions (i) The socket spigot ends must be dry. (ii)
Always caulk or seal the joint as soon as it
solidifie1. CAST IRON PIPES
These pipes are most commonly used in water distribution system mainly because of the
following reasons.

 They are cheaper in cost

 It has high resistance to corrosion
 It is highly durable

C.I. pipes are manufactured by following 4 methods.

1. Horizontally cast (MC ware pipes)

2. Vertical cast (pit cast in sand moulds)
3. Centrifugally cast in sand lines moulds spun type
4. Centrifugally cast in water cooled metal moulds

Now a days horizontally cast C.I. pipes are no longer used.

Centrifugally cast pipes posses fine grained dense structure and uniform thickness and therefore
they are widely used.

Special care has to be taken during transportation and making connection of these pipes, to
prevent damage.

PVC (Poly-Vinyl Chloride) PLASTIC OR

POLYTHENE OR PVC PIPES
Polyvinyl chloride, more commonly known as PVC, has become a popular
choice for plumbing pipes in recent years. This material is a
thermoplastic polymer. In other words, it is made out of a combination of
plastic and vinyl. PVC pipes are rigid and are usually white, cream or grey
in color. They are used most often for highly pressurized water, such as in
a home's main water supply line. PVC pipes work in a variety of
applications, including for transporting potable water and for draining.
 Depending on the application, you can choose a particular thickness and
configuration designed to best support that application. If the piping is
meant to transport drinking water, look for an "NSF-PW" or "NSF-61" label,
which means the material meets the standards laid out by NSF/ANSI
61: Drinking Water System Components – Health Effects.

Pros and Cons of Polyvinyl Chloride Pipes

PVC pipes have gained popularity because of some important advantages

they offer, including:

 Longevity: PVC is not subject to rust or corrosion, so unless it

experiences some sort of unexpected damage, it can last indefinitely.
Even the most durable metals used in plumbing pipes cannot live up to
the impressive lifespan of PVC.
 Ability to Handle Pressure: PVC is often used for the main supply line
that goes into your home because it is able to handle high water
pressure.
 Ease of Use: PVC is extremely light compared to metal pipes, which
makes it easy to transport and to work with. It is also easy to work with
because there is no soldering required to connect pipes. Instead, pipes
are essentially glued together.
 Low Cost: PVC is low in cost as well. Especially compared to copper, PVC
is a very inexpensive option for plumbing pipes.

While PVC has some marked advantages, it has a couple of disadvantages,

too. These include:

 Susceptibility to Warping: PVC is not equipped to transport hot water.

This is because, like most plastics, heat can cause the material to warp
and melt.
 Size: Sizing options for PVC pipes are limited, which can be an issue at
times. Even if your PVC piping is the perfect size, fittings used to connect
PVC pipes can tend to be bulky, which can be problematic in tight spaces.

These pipes are being used increasingly these days for supply of cold water in external and
internal plumbing work.

They are light in weight, non-corrosive, lower in cost and do not require any threading for
connections.

There are 3 common types of plastic pipes are available in market, as given below.

 Unplasticized PVC (UPVC) or rigid pipes for use with cold water
 Plasticized PVC pipes which are plasticized with addition of rubber. It has lower strength
and lower working temperature than UPVC pipes.
  Chlorinated PVC (CPVC) pipes which can withstand higher temperatures upto 120 0 (used to
carry hot water)

For pipes used in soil and waste water discharge systems, the thickness of the wall will be larger
than that of used for roof drainage.

Rigid PVC pipes are used for distribution of water with temperature below 45 0C.

At higher temperature, the strength of the pipes decreases. Similarly ultraviolet radiation from
sunlight as well as frequent changes in temperature reduces the life of PVC pipes.

These pipes are costlier than AC pipes but cheaper than GI pipes.

Appearance: White rigid plastic.

Description: PVC is now the de-facto standard in-home waste

line materials. It is a strong, chemical-resistant rigid pipe that is
heat resistant and easily cut and fit. It is often used to repair
sections of broken cast-iron waste pipe as well as repairs to other
drain lines.

Prevalent Use: Use for sanitary waste lines, vent pipes, and

drain traps.

Cutting and Fitting: PVC pipe is easily cut with a hacksaw or

tubing cutter. The sections are joined together mechanically,
using plastic pressure fittings for later removal, or permanently
joined using special chemical solvent.

NOTE: You may notice another plastic pipe used in your home

plumbing system—a black plastic pipe. This is ABS (Acrylonitrile
Butadiene Styrene) and has largely been replaced by PVC in new
construction and plumbing repairs, mostly because it degrades
when exposed to sunlight. If you have ABS pipe, it is cut and
fitted using the same methods as for PVC. PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) pipes
These pipes are mostly used for carrying water in the plumbing system and are light in
weight, non-corrosive, cheaper in cost and need not require any threading for joining
connections. It makes them easily acceptable in the market (Fig. 3.12)

Polyvinyl Chloride Piping (PVC) PVC Pipe

By far the most commonly used pipe in residential homes, polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
pipe is the white piping commonly used in plumbing applications. Affordable and
 versatile with a number of different fittings and sizes available, PVC is great for most
warm and cold water applications.
PVC works well for home plumbing piping needs because it does not rust or corrode
over time. This means it will not need to be replaced until it is actually damaged and
starts leaking. It is also easy to work with, as it requires no welding or metalwork, and
is an inexpensive option for your home. PVC is quite strong and durable and does not
bend under pressure, making it the piping solution of choice for high-pressure
applications.

The main drawback to PVC pipe is the fact that it cannot be used with hot water
applications. When exposed to hot water, PVC will warp. This means it cannot be
used to deliver hot water to sinks, tubs and washing machines. It also may degrade
when exposed to UV light for an extended period of time, and this includes the UV
rays from the sun, so it is best suited for indoor applications or underground pluming.

PVC comes in two sizes, called “schedules.” Schedule 40 is the typically used PVC
type. Schedule 80 has a slightly thicker wall. ANSI nominal pipe size table specifies
the outside diameters of all schedules for a given pipe size to be equal and the inside
diameter will vary according to wall thickness. Schedule 80 is slightly stronger than
Schedule 40.

Unfortunately, most PVC is not rated for use for drinking water, not due to a high risk
of toxicity, but due to the fact that it can degrade with high temperatures, UV light
exposure and extremely high pressures. Any degradation can damage the water
supply and make it unsafe for drinking water.

Typically, you will use PVC for:

 Sink drain lines

 Toilet drain lines
 Bathtub drain lines
 Vent stacks
 Main water supply line running to the home
 High-pressure applications

PVC is a plastic material that is commonly used in plumbing, and it comes in two
sizes: Schedule 40 and Schedule 80.

 Schedule 40 PVC is the most commonly used, having thinner walls and a lower
price.
 Schedule 80 PVC has thicker walls, making it more durable but also more
expensive.

The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) provides tables that standardize
the outside diameter of PVC piping. The following table summarizes the pros and
cons of PVC as a piping material.

PROS CONS
Cannot be used for hot water, since heat defo
PVC.
Resistant to rust and corrosion PVC degrades with UV light, which means i
Resistant to high water pressure cannot be exposed to sunlight.
Low cost Not safe for drinking water.
Easy installation, no welding or metalwork Not recyclable.
Versatile: multiple sizes and fittings
Strong and durable
Non-conductive

PVC is commonly used for the drain lines of sinks, toilets and bathtubs. Other
common applications include indoor plumbing, underground plumbing, vent
stacks, main water supply lines, high-pressure piping, and storm drainage systems.

HE PROCESS OF PAINING MS GRILL

4 Things to Do Before Painting Metal Surfaces

Surface preparation is key to ensuring the longevity of metal paint and other

coatings. Before painting any surface, be it metal or masonry, following a few
simple surface preparation tips such as thorough cleaning of the surface to be
painted and applying the right primer can make a huge difference in the long run.
In the absence of appropriate surface preparation, even premium or
advanced metal primers or metal enamel paints may end up losing their sheen.
Continuing on the subject, we present a simple list of five things to do before
painting metal surfaces. Take a look.

1. Clean The Metal Surface

Prior to painting, metal surfaces must be free from any dirt, grease, old paint, and
rust. Use appropriate sandpaper or any other scraping tool to remove dirt, grease,
and other deposits from the metal surface. Mineral spirits come in handy when
dealing with heavy deposits of grease. Alternatively, cleaning with a mild
detergent solution can also help wash away persistent dirt.
2. Eliminate Loose Or Peeling Paint

When applying new metal paint, any old paint that is loose or is peeling away must
be completely removed. Hand wire brushing, scraping, and sanding are a few
manual methods for removing such paint deposits. While methods such as power
tool cleaning may yield quick results, they may also end up polishing the metal
surface, leading to potential adhesion problems.

3. Get Rid Of Rust Deposits

Rust interferes with the adhesiveness of paint, making it important to get rid of it
before applying the metal paint. Light rusting can be restored with the help of
brushing, sanding, and applying an appropriate high-quality primer with rust-
inhibition properties. Applying any paint over a rusted surface will also end up
damaging and lead to the rusting of the metal paint itself.

4. Apply The Right Primer

Priming is one of the most important steps prior to the application of metal paint.
While a water-based primer is not to be applied on metal surfaces, other primer
options such as rust-inhibiting primers, galvanized primers, and iron oxide primers
are more suitable options. Applying the primer immediately after surface
preparation can help keep away flash rusting or dust accumulation.