Social Science Theories and Their Implications to Education

Three Social Theories

1) Structural-functional theory

Herbert Spencer, the proponent of structural-functional views society as "a system of

interconnected parts each with a unique function. The parts have to work together for stability
and balance of society." Society is compared to the human body with different but interrelated
parts performing different functions. Just as the human body has many parts, society has
different but interrelated components such as the family, the state, the school, the Church, mass
media, economics. These must coordinate and collaborate for society to function well. If one part
of the human body does not function well, the whole body is affected. In the same way, when
one component of society does not do its part, society will not function well. The overall health
of the organism (society) depends upon the health of each structure.

This is exactly the message of the song, Dem Bone. The bones are interconnected. Each has a
unique function.

For instance, there is peace, stability, equilibrium and harmony in society if families do their
part in bringing forth children, nurturing and socializing them; if education or schools effectively
transmit knowledge, skills and values; if politics governs citizens well; if economics takes care of
food production, distribution of goods and services and if religion strengthens the moral fiber of
the members of society. Failure of one social institution to do its part means disruption of
stability in society. For example, the rise of single parent and dual earner families means families
have less time or sometimes no more time left for the supervision of children in their homework
which may result to an increase of non-performing students in school.

In a high-tech world, educational institution must teach adults the new skills to relate to the
tech-savvy young and the world and to be more effective in the workplace. With more women in
the workplace, policies against sexual harassment and discrimination were formulated. The
Cybercrime Act of 2012 came about to address legal issues concerning online interactions and
the internet in the Philippines.

The functionalist theory of education focuses on how education serves the need of society
through the development of skills encouraging social cohesion. The role of schools is to prepare

students for participation in the institutions of society. Education is concerned with transmission
of core values for social control. Education is concerned with socializing people by bringing
together

people from different backgrounds. The functionalist theory is focused on social stability and
solidarity. Functionalists see education as a beneficial contribution to an ordered society.
Functionalism does not encourage people to take an active role in changing their social
environment, even when such change may benefit them. Instead, functionalism sees active social
change as undesirable because the various parts of society will compensate naturally for any
problems that may arise. For example, schools can compensate for the lack of time and the lack
of parental advice from home.

Purposes of Schooling according to Functionalists

The purposes of schooling according to the functionalist theory are:

1) Intellectual purposes - acquisition of cognitive skills, inquiry skills

2) Political purposes - educate future citizens; promote patriotism; promote assimilation of

immigrants; ensure order, public civility and conformity to laws

3) Economic purposes - prepare students for later work roles; select and train the labor force
needed by society

4) Social purposes - promote a sense of social and moral responsibility; serve as a site for the
solution or resolution of social problems; supplement the efforts of other institutions of

socialization such as the family and the church

An examination of the present curricula in basic and in tertiary education shows that these 4
functions are given attention to.

2. Conflict Theory

According to this theory, there are always two opposing sides in a conflict situation. People take
sides between maintaining the status quo and introducing change then arrive at an agreement.
Conflict theory welcomes conflict for that is the way to the establishment of a new society.
Conflict theorists find potential conflict between any groups where inequality exists: racial,
gender, religious, political, economic, and so on. Conflict theorists note that unequal groups
usually have conflicting values and agendas, causing them to compete against one another. This
constant competition between groups forms the basis for the ever-changing nature of society.

The factory workers want change - better working conditions, higher salaries. The factory
owners naturally are opposed to such. The resolution of the conflict, however, leads to a
compromise, a change in the way the factory is managed where both workers and owners are
happy.

How Proponents of Conflict Theory Regard Education

According to the conflict theory, education is not truly a social benefit or opportunity as seen by
the functionalists. Rather, education is a powerful means of maintaining power structures and
creating a docile work force for capitalism. The purpose of education is to maintain social
inequality and to preserve the power of those who dominate society and teach those in the
working class to accept their position as a lower-class worker of society. Conflict theorists call this
the "hidden curriculum". The "hidden" curriculum socializes young people into obedience and
conformity for them to be developed as docile workers.

Functionalists disagree strongly. They assert that if schools teach adherence to policies,
obedience to rules, respect for persons including authorities, punctuality and honesty, civil right it
is because they are the very principles dear to a democratic way of life. It is not because they
want to make the workers remain docile, unquestioning and subservient forever while those in
power remain in power.

3. The symbolic interactionist theory perspective

Three tenets of symbolic interactionist theory are:

1) An individual's action depends on meaning. We act based on the meaning we give to

symbols. Symbols can be actions, objects or words. If a student understands that teacher
believes in his/her ability he/she tries his/her best prove that indeed he/she is able. If a
teacher does otherwise, a student tends to behave in accordance with teacher's poor
perception.

2) Different people may give different meanings to the same thing. When teachers are
strict, some students see it as an expression of care. Others may rebel because they perceive
teacher's behavior as limiting their moves and desires. A businessman may look at a tree
and starts estimating how much money he can get if he has the tree cut down for lumber. A
philosopher or a poet may look at it with the thought, "they also serve who only stand and
wait" like John Milton's from his poem "On his Blindness".

3) Meanings change as individuals interact with one another. A negative meaning that you
used to associate with hospital when you went to a hospital which looked more as a hotel
than the usual hospital you know is changed. After you have taught well, your first
impression of teaching as boring is changed to teaching is exciting,

Implications to Teaching

Let us continue to teach for meaning. Let us promote and create opportunities for genuine
interaction among our students, teachers, between students and teachers. Interaction does not
only mean dealing with warm bodies. Interaction includes reading, listening, viewing. Other
people's views and meanings are conveyed in what they have written, in speeches and lectures
they have delivered.

Let us use positive symbols - in the form of gestures, words, actions, and appearances - to
express our trust. belief in our students' abilities, an affirmation of their being. In fact, our belief
in our students also has positive effect in us. We And ourselves more prepared in class, more
caring, truly professional.

The symbolic interactionist perspective, also known as symbolic interactionism, directs

sociologists to consider the symbols and details of everyday life, what these symbols mean, and

how people interact with each other.

As the term implies, symbolic interactionist theory states that people interact with one another
through symbols. Language is a predominant symbol among people. According to the symbolic
interactionist perspective, people attach meanings to symbols, and then they act according to
their subjective interpretation of these symbols. Verbal conversations, in which spoken words
serve as the predominant symbols, make this subjective interpretation especially evident. The
words have a certain meaning for the "sender," and, during effective communication, they
hopefully have the same meaning for the receiver." In other terms, words are not static "things";
they require intention and interpretation. Conversation is an interaction of symbols between
individuals who constantly interpret the world around them. To ensure mutual understanding,
the sender of the symbol and the receiver of the symbol must give the same meaning to the
symbol or run the risk of misunderstanding.

Faulty communication can result from differences in the perception of the same events and
symbols. Did you experience this in your activity of giving symbols of caring? While you looked
at your symbol as something expressing your love and care, your partner may have not
understood it that way at all. This happens in real life. It is important that our symbols are
understood by others in the way they were intended to be. Sometimes it happens in the
language (which is a symbol) we speak. Often, we are misunderstood, or we misunderstand
others. So, let's keep on communicating,

Weakness of Symbolic Interaction Theory

Critics claim that symbolic interactionism neglects the macro level of social interpretation—the
"big picture." In other words, symbolic interactionists may miss the larger issues of society by
focusing too closely on the "trees" or by restricting themselves to small or individual interactions.

Symbolic interactionism traces its origins to Max Weber's assertion that individuals act
according to their interpretation of the meaning of their world. However, it was the American
philosopher George H. Mead (1863-1931) who introduced this perspective to American sociology
in the 1920s.

1. The purposes of schooling according to the functionalist theory are:

1) Intellectual purposes - acquisition of cognitive skills, inquiry skill

2) Political purposes - educate future citizens; promote patriotism; promote assimilation of

immigrants; ensure order, public civility and conformity to laws

3) Economic purposes - prepare students for later work roles; select and train the labor force
needed by society

4) Social purposes - promote a sense of social and moral responsibility; serve as a site for the
solution or resolution of social problems; supplement the efforts of other institutions of
socialization such as the family and the church.

Cite how schools at present are working on the realization of these 4 purposes as cited by the
functionalists.

THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN THE SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

Social scientists have refined theories for a better understanding of the structure of school
institutions or of the educational system itself. The table below presents the theories of
education with logical, argumentative, and valuable perceptions from research or studies on
education.

Theory Major Concepts Implication to Education

FUNCTIONALIST •Focuses on the positive • Established relationship

(Structural - functionalism, functions performed by the between schools, institutions

consensus, or equilibrium) education system such as and society which must fulfill
Talcott Parson
creating social solidarity, necessary societal functions to
 teaching skills necessary for produce stability.

work, teaching core values,

and role allocation. - Education needs to be

systematic as a whole to avoid

• Starts with the assumption being non-operational.

that education is an
institution, to facilitate the
stability of society which - School's main function is to
emphasizes
prepare students to acquire
interconnectedness by
focusing basic knowledge, skills, and

on how each part is influenced values for future employment.

by the other.

Happens through passing on - Basic functions of school for

socialization: teaching children
society's culture through
to become members of
which
society; teaching children to
a new generation of children be productive members of
society; selection and training
acquire the 'central' norms,
of individuals for positions in
values and culture of their the society and promoting
change and innovation.
society.

CONFLICT - Focuses on issues of - Society's competing groups,

contention, power, and
Karl Marx and Weber Marx the "haves" and the "have-
inequality, highlighting the
nots,"
competition for scarce
resources; focuses on culture were in a constant state of
as a social product.
tension, which could lead to

the possibility of struggle.

- It questions the
functionalists
- Quality education has a set
pertaining to the assumptions
of
that schools are ideologically
standards of what is
acceptable
 and politically neutral and that to be at its best. This gives the

school functions are based on notion that inequality in terms

the merit that each learner of what they may become and
has
could get from their work is
the capacity to efficiently also expected.

improve his or her own ability

to meet the demands and - Students are labeled to be

standards of the society. achievers and non-achievers

according to their status in

- Believe that the educational society.

system reinforces and

perpetuates social inequalities - Those who are more

privileged
that arise from differences in
to have better resources for
class, gender, race, and
ethnicity. learning and achieving more

are given what they really

- Marx contended that schools need to develop their skills

give a false set of ideas and and be competent, while

those
beliefs to students in terms of
who are not capable or less
education quality. Many
believe fortunate ones are not given

that there is equality and the right learning

opportunities
chance of having quality
that limit their abilities to
education.
what

they are only provided with.

SYMBOLIC -Focuses on how people share - Interactions between

students
INTERACTIONIST symbols and construct society
and help develop a
as a result of their everyday
 interactions, set of expectations for

student's performance both in

-Examines what teachers and academic subjects and

discipline.
students "do" in school; they

question even the most

• Asking questions in a social-
commonplace, taking for
granted psychological way on the

actions and interactions, frequent and familiar

things relationship between school
participant is what
most people do not question.
interactionists do. It is what

sociologists of education use

- Uses cultural symbols, such as an avenue for the students,
as words and non-verbal body teachers, and principals in a

language and gestures during school.

interaction. Through this

process, people develop a - Students learn through

sense of self and create a
interaction how they are
reality with others.
different from others based

on individual experiences,

social class, and status.

SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION: CONTEMPORARY THEORIES

Some of the contemporary theories in the sociology of education are summarized below.

Theory Proponents/s Concepts Implication to

Education

Cultural Pierre • It refers to cultural Delved into education's

Capital Bourdieu practices, including influences on

dress stratification
 and mannerisms, and social class, trying
language to

patterns and reconcile the

expressions, influences of

and knowledge of the social structures on the

world derived from life subjective experiences

of
experiences such as
visits individuals.

to museums, all of Used by schools to

which reproduce

provide knowledge of inequality both in the

class
interactions and in the
culture of the school. structure

of education.

Social Capital James S. • It refers to the social Used to explain the

role of
Coleman resources students
bring to their education schools in reproducing
and future involvement social
in school or
class.
community. It results in
building of networks
and

relationships students
can

use as contacts for

future

opportunities.

Code Basil Refers to organizing People learn their

principles used by place in the society by
Theory Bernstein
members of a social the language codes
group which reflects they use. The codes
and shape the come to symbolize
 assumptions we hold social identity.
about our relationship Language codes aid in
to a certain the social reproduction
of class and differences
group.
in power.

Feminist Harriet Martineau With no single feminist Led to the examination

of
Theory Jane Addams theory, feminist
theorists educational policy and
how
echoed the need to
hear" it affected girls,
women,
other voices in the
education their future
opportunities.
system, in particular,
women's

voices, and to pay

more

attention to the
situation of

women.

SOCIETY AND SCHOOL: ITS LINKAGE

The linkage that connects society and the schools reflects the other. It comprises the dynamics
for enhancing arts education. Arts education, aside from being a part of schools where it is
offered, is also a part of the society where it was born. Interaction with society would bring about
changes in culture, and eventually, in destiny. Schools are considered as pillars of culture. When
the younger generation receives the knowledge and understanding of what an educational
institution has accumulated, there is what we call the preservation of the level of civilization. This
refers to the process of enculturation, in which students are taught to adapt to the dominant
cultural patterns of their society.

Society has been defined as the "web of social relationships, " which is the key to understanding
human behavior and the various institutions in it. A student must be aware of the various forms
of relations in one's family, in the community one lives in, and in the society. Social relations can
be classified into primary relations, which refer to the mother, father, daughter, son, husband,
wife, sister and brother; and secondary relations, which refer to uncle, aunt, niece, and nephew.
Friends, neighbors, and other similar relations fall under one's tertiary relatives.

To understand social relations, one must delve deeper into the role and status of an individual
in society. A teacher in school, for example, performs different actions such as teaching,
evaluating, initiating group or classroom activities, and doing administrative work. The same
thing happens to an individual in a family or in other situations, which proves the multiple roles
one can play in everyday life. Therefore, society may be considered as a system that is made up of
interrelated and mutually dependent parts that join forces to preserve the system or satisfy a
purpose or an objective.

Education is considered as the foundation of a society that helps in the achievement of social
prosperity, political constancy and economic wealth. As a key element of development in any
modern society, education is the most significant indicator of a region's overall development as
well. French sociologist Emile Durkheim emphasized the role of the education system in the
preservation of society and culture. The system is very vital in complex societies where families,
as well as other primary groups, are not yet fully fitted to prepare the young for adulthood,
something that is usually expected by the larger society. School is an illumination of society
rather than of the individual.

The utmost objective of school and schooling process is to nurture the growth of social progress.

The Influence of Society to Education Process

- Sociocultural Influence. The education of any society is directly correlated to its sociocultural
factors. The education process developed from society's social structure, social norms, and values
system is the result of human society's goal to transfer surviving cultural content from one
generation to the next. In informal settings, socialization happens when a community interacts
with or educates their members about the society's norms and values. In a traditional manner,
Christian missionaries, Islamic Madrasah, Buddhist monasteries, and other religious institutions
convert individuals to their faith by infusing their religious ideals. However, the transmission is
not limited to religions; each community transfers its norms and values whenever possible.

Some of the key concepts that are transmitted to the younger generation include the authority
of elite culture, gender disparity, and other sociocultural features. French sociologist Pierre
Bourdieu viewed education as a perpetrator of the dominant class' culture. He called this
phenomenon "cultural reproduction." Similarly, Brazilian educator Paulo Freire observed that the
teaching process, method, and language can make a difference between the oppressors and the
oppressed.
- Economic Aspects. Equality of opportunity assumes that society is comprised of a hierarchy
with desirable, superior, and inferior positions. That said, equality of opportunity is a core value
of democracy; however, one may agree that it also has become increasingly difficult to obtain in
the present economic condition. There is an obvious growing gap between rich and poor.

According to Apple (2004), certain knowledge in various areas of studies such as professional
courses in engineering, medical MCA, MBA and other applied courses are higher in demand in
the Indian context. This proves that the economy of society greatly influences educational and
human development in any region. German philosopher and political theorist Karl Marx
considered the economy the basic structure for getting power and dominance in society.
Furthermore, the educational system also plays a key part in legitimizing control of the dominant
section of society.

Thus, the control economy can produce wealth, but educational power is what makes it
sustainable, offering legitimacy in society.

- Political Conditions and its Influence. The state's nature, its political parties, along with its
ideology and policy, steer the nature of education system and its policy in society. Inherent
inequality is a key weakness in democratic states, even if they practice ideas of democratic
education development. There is a failure on the part of democratic societies to offer education
to all, especially to the most deprived and marginalized sections; and this is due to the latter's
status in the society.

On the contrary, socialist states infuse their own political ideology rather than employing
secular education despite asserting for a common education system. An ideal example of this
situation is the communist regime of USSR and the Nazi socialist principle of Germany. In 1933,
under the Nazi German education system, schools were designed to influence children and get
them unquestioningly accept Nazi doctrines. Similarly, the USSR, after 1917, used education to
carry on with their communist agenda. Educational institutions then have become places of
political socialization rather than for the search of the truth.