H2 Notes - Tutorial - Kinematics

Dunman High School (Senior High Physics)
Topic 2 Kinematics
Guiding Questions:
 How can the motion of objects be described, represented, quantified and predicted?
 How would an object falling freely in a gravitational field move?
Content
• Rectilinear motion
• Non-linear motion
Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) show an understanding of and use the terms distance, displacement, speed, velocity
and acceleration
(b) use graphical methods to represent distance, displacement, speed, velocity and
acceleration
(c) identify and use the physical quantities from the gradients of displacement-time graphs
and areas under and gradients of velocity-time graphs, including cases of non-uniform
acceleration
(d) derive, from the definitions of velocity and acceleration, equations which represent
uniformly accelerated motion in a straight line
(e) solve problems using equations which represent uniformly accelerated motion in a
straight line, including the motion of bodies falling in a uniform gravitational field
without air resistance
(f) describe qualitatively the motion of bodies falling in a uniform gravitational field with air
resistance
(g) describe and explain motion due to a uniform velocity in one direction and a uniform
acceleration in a perpendicular direction
Physics Tip!
To understand Physics, you must be able to understand it
(i) Qualitatively – Define, Explain, State, Describe, Discuss, Suggest…

(ii) Quantitatively – Calculate, Measure, Determine, Show, Estimate, Suggest…
(iii) Graphically – Sketch, Determine, Estimate, Deduce…
(iv) Pictorially – Sketch (applied to diagrams)
In plain English, you must be able to explain Physics in words, equations & numbers, graphs
and diagrams.
Kinematics is a branch of Newtonian (or classical) mechanics concerned with describing the
motion of objects without considering factors that cause the motions.
In this topic, we will concentrate on two types of motion:
 Motion along a straight line (Rectilinear motion)

 Motion on a plane (Non-linear motion)
2.1 Rectilinear Motion
(a) show an understanding of and use the terms distance, displacement, speed, velocity
and acceleration
2.1.1 Distance and Displacement
Distance, d The actual path travelled by an object.
Distance is a scalar quantity.
Displacement, s Distance from a fixed point in a specified direction. It is straight line /

minimum distance between two points.
Displacement is a vector quantity.
Fig. 1
B
Considering Fig. 1 above,
the distance travelled by the particle to move from A to B is the actual length of the irregular
path (in bold). The length of the straight line that joins A to B is the magnitude of the
displacement of the particle from A while the arrow provides its direction.
2
Displacement of an object
= (displacement of final position from a fixed reference point) – (displacement of initial
position from the same reference point)
x = xf - xi
Graphically: initial position

x = xf - xi
xi
final position
reference
point xf
Example 1
Two teams had to travel from Kallang to Marina Bay during an Amazing Race. Team A took
the MRT directly from Kallang to Marina Bay, while team B took a bus that bypassed City
Hall first.
Marina Bay
Team A
Bus
10 km
6 km MRT
7 km
Kallang
Team B
City Hall
What is the distance travelled and the magnitude of the displacement for both teams?
Solution
Team A Distance = 10 km Team A Displacement = 10 km

Team B Distance = 13 km Team B Displacement = 10 km
3
Example 2
Mr Tan travels 10 km east to Town A before turning back and travelling 18 km west to Town
B. Determine the total distance travelled by Mr Tan to (i) town A, dA (ii) town B, dB, (iii) the
displacements, sA and sB when Mr Tan is at town A and B respectively.
Solution
8 km 10 km
Town B Origin Town A
To differentiate between the east (right) and west (left) directions, take the direction towards
the east to be positive:
(i) Total distance travelled to town A from origin, dA = 10 km

(ii) Total distance travelled to town B from origin , dB = 10 + 18 = 28 km
(iii) The displacement of Mr Tan at town A from origin, sA = +10 km

The displacement of Mr Tan at town B from origin, sB = 8 km
2.1.2 Speed and Velocity

Speed is the distance travelled per unit time.
Average speed Average speed is the ratio of the total distance travelled to the time
interval during which a particle travels over that distance.
Speed is a scalar quantity.
Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement. It acts in the direction of change of
displacement.
Average velocity Average velocity is the ratio of the total change in displacement to
the time interval during which the displacement occurs.
Velocity is a vector quantity.
In Mathematics, for a quantity such as velocity v, the average velocity can be

represented as <v>.
4
Example 3
Using information from Example 2, and given that Mr Tan took 10 minutes to drive to Town A
and another 20 minutes to Town B, what is his average speed and velocity for the entire
journey?
Solution
Total Distance Total Displacement

Average speed  Average velocity 
Time Taken Time Taken
28000 8000
 
30  60 30  60
 15.55  16 ms-1  4.444  4.4 ms -1
= 16 m s-1 = – 4.4 m s-1
2.1.3 Instantaneous Speed and Velocity
Instantaneous speed of a particle is equal to the magnitude of its instantaneous velocity.
Instantaneous velocity is defined as the limit of the average velocity as the time interval t
becomes infinitesimally short.
Mathematically,
s ds
Instantaneous velocity, v = lim or v =
t 0 t dt
Note: The mathematical equations you see here are standard forms used in derivative
calculus. The mathematical expression lim f ( x) simply means the value of
x 0
function f ( x) when x approaches zero. The expression s refers to a change in

s
the quantity s. Hence instantaneous velocity, v can be expressed as v = lim .
t 0 t
i.e. the ratio of a very small change in displacement (s) to a small change in time
ds
(t). Or simply v = .
dt
5
2.1.4 Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. It acts in the direction of the change of velocity.
An object is said to be accelerating if its velocity is changing, either in magnitude or direction.
Average Acceleration, <a> It is the ratio of the total change of velocity to the time
v
interval over which this change occurs. <a > =
t
It acts in the direction of the change of velocity.
Instantaneous Acceleration, a Defined as the limit of average acceleration as the time

v
interval t goes to zero, that is, a  lim .
t 0 t
Acceleration is a vector quantity.
Points to Ponder
 A car moving in the eastward direction with a speed of 50 km h-1 makes a gentle turn
towards the northward direction while maintaining its speed. Is the car accelerating?
Why?
Since the direction of the car is changing, its velocity is changing as well. Hence the car
must be accelerating.
 If a car is travelling to the right, can its acceleration be to the left? Explain.
Yes. One example is when a car is braking.
 Which car(s) in the diagram below is/are increasing in speed? Explain.
In diagrams (a) and (d). In both cases, the acceleration and velocity vectors are in the
same direction.
In general, when v and a are in the same direction, the object is moving faster.
When v and a are in the opposite direction, the object is slowing down.
6
(b) use graphical methods to represent distance, displacement, speed, velocity and
acceleration
(c) identify and use the physical quantities from the gradients of displacement-time graphs
and areas under and gradients of velocity-time graphs, including cases of non-uniform
acceleration
2.2 Graphical Methods for Linear Motion
2.2.1 Finding velocity from Displacement-Time Graphs

We can represent the displacement of any object from a reference point using a
displacement-time graph. The displacement-time graph expresses how the displacement of
ds
a particle or body changes with time. Since v = , the instantaneous velocity can be found
dt
from the gradient (slope) of the displacement-time graph.
The illustration below distinguishes between finding average velocity and finding the
instantaneous velocity from a displacement-time graph.
s/m s/m
Q Q
s
P P
t
0 t/s 0 t/s
Fig 2(a) Fig 2(b)
s
The ratio in Fig 2(a) gives the magnitude of the average velocity for the time interval Δt.
t
The instantaneous velocity at Q is found by finding the gradient of the tangent (slope) at
point Q as shown in Fig 2(b).
7
Example 4
(a) Sketch the velocity-time graph for the displacement-time graph given. Note that the
velocity-time graph expresses how the instantaneous velocity of a particle or body
changes with time.
s/m s/m s/m
0
t/s 0 t/s 0 t/s
v / m s-1 v / m s-1 v / m s-1
0
t /s 0 t/s 0 t/s
(b) Determine the following information from a displacement-time graph shown below. You
may assume that the graph from t = 0 s to t = 2 s is a straight line.
s/m
Displacement
-20 m
at t = 5 s
20
Average velocity
0 m s-1
from t = 0 s to t = 10 s
Instantaneous speed
10 m s-1
at t = 1 s 2 5 10
0 t/s
Instantaneous velocity
-10 m s-1
at t = 1 s
20
Point to Ponder
Is it possible to find the total distance travelled from the displacement-time graph? Why?
8
2.2.2 Finding displacement from Velocity-Time Graphs
We can also represent the motion of an object using a velocity-time graph.
ds
Since v =
dt
t2
 s   v dt
t1
The displacement can be calculated by finding the area under the velocity-time graph.
v / m s-1
v / m s-1
Fig. 3
0 t1 t2 0
t/s t1 t2 t/s
The shaded area in Fig. 3 represents the displacement of the object from time t1 to t2.
Can you now sketch the displacement-time graph given the velocity-time graph?
(Consider the graphs which you have sketched earlier in Example 4).
Example 5
Determine the following information from a velocity-time graph shown below.
v / m s-1
Displacement
at t = 10 s -32 m
20
Average Velocity
Area Area
from t = 0 s to t = 10 s -3.2 m s-1 20 m 18 m
Instantaneous Velocity
at t = 10 seconds 20 m s-1
0 2 5 8 10 t/s
Average Acceleration Area
from t = 0 s to t = 5 s -8.0 m s-2 70 m
Instantaneous
20
Acceleration at t = 5 s 0 m s-2
9
2.2.3 Finding Acceleration from Velocity-Time Graphs
dv
Since a  , the acceleration at any instant can be found from the gradient (slope) of the
dt
velocity-time graph.
Example 6
Sketch the acceleration-time graph for the velocity-time graph given.
v / m s-1 v / m s-1 v / m s-1 v / m s-1
0
t/s 0 t/s 0 t/s0 t/s
-2
a/ms
a / m s-2 a / m s-2 a / m s-2
t/s
0 t/s
0
t/s 0 t/s 0
2.3 Equations of Motion
(d) derive, from the definitions of velocity and acceleration, equations which represent
uniformly accelerated motion in a straight line
It would be very tedious if we had to plot a velocity-time graph or displacement-time graph

each time we need to solve a kinematics problem. Thankfully, we can solve kinematics
questions with equations of motions derived from the graphs above.
However, these equations of motions apply only to uniformly accelerated motions in a

straight line.
10
2.3.1 Derivation of Equations of Motion
Consider a particle moving with uniform (constant) acceleration, a, in a straight line.
u : initial velocity v : final velocity

a : acceleration t : time taken
s : displacement along a straight line
dv
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity hence a  (or the gradient of the velocity-
dt
time graph in this case)
Hence,
v u
a velocity / m s-1
t
or
v  u  at -------- (Eqn 1)
v
Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement u

ds t
hence v  or time / s
dt
(or the area under the velocity-time graph)
Example of uniformly
Since displacement is the area under the graph, we get
accelerated motion
(u  v)
s t
2
(u  u  at )
Substituting v  u  at , s  t
2
1
Simplifying, we get s  ut  at 2 -------- (Eqn 2)
2
Example 7
Show that the 3rd equation of motion is v  u  2as by substituting equation 1 found earlier
2 2
into equation 2.
Solution
v u
From eqn 1, t  ,
a
Substitute it into Equation 2 above, we get
 v u  1  v u 
2
s  u   a 
 a  2  a 
vu  u 2 1  v 2  2uv  u 2 
s   
a 2 a 
s
2a
v  u2 
1 2
 v 2  u 2  2as proven
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2.3.2 Sign Conventions
For all rectilinear motion, we can indicate the directions using either the positive or negative
sign. For example, if we take the direction towards our right as positive, then the direction
towards our left will be negative.
Whatever direction that we define as positive would not affect our final solution, but it is
important to state and keep track of your directions correctly.
Example 8
Junjie threw a ball vertically upwards with a velocity of 15.0 m s-1. Find the time taken to
reach maximum height. Take g = 9.81 m s-2.
Solution
Taking upwards as positive Let downwards be All directions be positive
u = 15.0 m s-1 positive u = 15.0 m s-1
v = 0.0 m s-1 u =  15.0 m s-1 v = 0.0 m
a = 9.81 m s-2 v = 0.0 m s-1 a = 9.81 m s-2
using v  u  at , a = 9.81 m s-2 using v  u  at ,
v u using v  u  at , v u
t v u t
a t a
0  15 a 0  15
 0  (15) 
9.81  9.81
 1.53 s 9.81  1.53 s
 1.53 s
WRONG!
As can be seen, it does not matter if you choose the upward direction or the downward
direction as positive initially. So long as you stick with the convention chosen throughout
your problem, you would arrive at the same result.
12
Example 9
Superman wanted to leap from the ground to the top of the Taipei 101
building, 500 m above the ground.
(a) What is the minimum initial velocity required for him to reach the top of
the building?
(b) What is his initial velocity if he reached the top of the building in 1.0 s?
Solution
(a) For minimum initial velocity, the maximum height of his jump will be just equal to that of
the building. When he reaches the top of the building, his velocity will be 0 m s-1.
Taking upwards as positive,
u = ?, v = 0 m s-1, a = 9.81 m s-2, s = 500 m, t = ?

Using v  u  2as
2 2
02  u 2  2(9.81)(500)
u 2  9810
1
uu = 99.0 m s-1
99.0 ms (to 3 sf)
(b) Taking upwards as positive,
u = ?, v = ?, t = 1.0 s, s = 500 m, a = -9.81 m s-2

1 2
Using s  ut  at , we get
2
500  u  0.5(9.81)
u u =505
505msm1 s-1
= 510 m s-1 (to 2 sf)
13
Example 10
Lois Lane was held captive by Lex Luthor in an airplane travelling at a constant velocity of
100 m s-1. The plane passed superman, who was initially stationary. Superman then chased
after the plane with an acceleration of 30 m s-2 until he reached the top speed of 180 m s-1.
How far would superman have flown when he caught up with Lois Lane?
Solution 1 – Graphical Method

v / m s-1
For superman to catch up with the plane, the area under
both graphs must equal. 180
100  t = 0.5  6.0  180 + 180  (t - 6.0) Superman
80t = 540
t = 6.75 s 100
Therefore total distance travelled by superman is Lex Luthor

100  6.75 = 675 m t
0 6.0 t t/s
Solution 2 – Equations of Motion
Note that acceleration is 30 m s-2 for 1st 6.0 seconds and zero subsequently. Kinematics
equations only applies for constant acceleration motion. Therefore care must be taken to
solve this problem in 2 segments:
For the first 6.0 seconds,

Considering the airplane, total displacement of airplane is 100 × 6.0 = 600 m
Considering Superman, given u = 0 m s-1, a = 30 m s-2, v = 180 m s-1, s = ?
Using v  u  2as ,
2 2
1802  0  2(30) s
 s  540 m
After the first 6.0 seconds, Superman flies 80 m s-1 faster than the airplane and is 60 m away.
Therefore, time taken for Superman to catch up the plane from that point onwards is simply
t  60 / 80  0.75s
Hence total displacement from starting point is 6.75  100 = 675 m.
14
(e) solve problems using equations which represent uniformly accelerated motion in a
straight line, including the motion of bodies falling in a uniform gravitational field
without air resistance
* Steps to solve kinematics problems using the Equations of Motion:
1. Define the positive direction.

2. Write down all data given with the correct sign.
3. Write down all the 3 equations of motions. Identify unknowns in each equation.
4. Find the connection between the unknown and the data given.
5. Decide which equation(s) to use, and in what order.
6. Start solving.
Example 11
The figure shows a simple device for measuring your reaction time. A
friend holds the strip vertically, with thumb and forefinger at the dot on
the top. You then position your thumb and forefinger at the other dot
on the bottom, being careful not to touch the strip. Your friend releases
the strip and you try to pinch it as soon as possible after you see it
begin to fall. The mark at the place where you pinch the strip gives
your reaction time.
(i) How far from the bottom dot should you place the 50 ms? [1.23 cm]
Taking downwards as +ve,

u = 0 m s-1, t = 50 ms, a = +g = +9.81 m s-2, s = ?
Choose an appropriate equation of motion

1 2
Use s = ut + at
2
s = 0 + ½(9.81)(0.050)2
= +0.0123 m
(ii) Explain clearly how many times higher should the marks for 100,
150, 200 and 250 ms be? [4, 9, 16 and 25 times]
Since s = ½gt2
therefore s is directly proportional to the square of time t,
hence the marks for 100, 150, 200, and 250 ms are at distances
that are 22, 32, 42, and 52 greater than the 50 ms mark.
15
Example 12
A boy throws a ball vertically upwards and catches it 3.0 s later at the same location.
Neglecting air resistance,
(a) (i) find the speed with which the ball leaves his hand,
Taking upwards as +ve

v = - u, t = 3.0 s, a = - 9.81 m s-2
Using v = u + at
– u = u + (–9.81)(3)
u = 14.7 m s-1
Hence speed = 14.7 m s-1.
(ii) find the maximum height to which it rises.
At maximum height, the ball will be instantaneously at rest.
Taking upwards as +ve

u = + 14.7 m s-1, v = 0 m s-1, t = 1.5 s, a = - 9.81 m s-2
Using s = ut + ½at2
s = 14.7(1.5) - ½(9.81)(1.5)2
= 11.0 m
Hence, maximum height is 11.0 m.
16
(b) Sketch from 0 to 3 seconds,
(i) an acceleration-time graph,
(ii) a velocity-time graph, and
(iii) a displacement-time graph.
Indicate clearly on your graphs, the values of the times at which

(1) the ball leaves his hand,
(2) it comes to its maximum height,
(3) it reaches his hand again.
Acceleration / m s-2
0 t/s
1.5 3.0
-9.81
Velocity / m s-1
14.7
0 t/s
1.5 3.0
-14.7
Displacement / m
11.0
0 t/s
1.5 3.0
(1) (2) (3)

_ _ _
17
2.4 Motion under Gravity (Free Fall)
In kinematics, we often deal with motion that is under the influence of gravity. If a ball is
dropped from rest, the displacement, velocity and acceleration are in the same direction
(downwards). Hence we can apply kinematics equations to derive information of the motion
required.
2.4.1 Air resistance is negligible

For this case, the only force acting on the ball is gravity. After time t, the velocity of the ball
released from rest would be given by:
v = u + at
= gt (since u = 0)
Thus the displacement and velocity change with time as shown in the graphs below.
s/m
v / m s-1
t/s 0 t/s
0
(f) describe qualitatively the motion of bodies falling in a uniform gravitational field with air
resistance
2.4.2 Motion due to Air resistance

In practice, if the air resistance is taken into consideration, the velocity of the falling object
will not increase with time indefinitely. In general, the air resistance opposing motion tends to
increase approximately with the square of the speed at high velocities and increase
proportionately with speed at low velocities.
Hence, the larger the velocity, the larger the retarding force (air resistance). The actual
acceleration is the net acceleration due to free fall and air-resistance.
18
Air Resistance
Taking downward as positive FR
Net force  ma  mg  FR
FR velocity
a  g 
m
Weight
mg
Example 13
Sketch the v-t and a-t graphs of a body falling from a great height when air resistance is not
negligible.
Solution
a / m s-2
v / m s-1
9.81
0 t/s t/s
0
Note:
In general, g is not a constant. It decreases with height above the Earth’s surface. However,
for height << Earth’s radius (e.g. few hundred metres), g varies negligibly with height and
can be taken as a constant (9.81 m s-2).
“Released” or “dropped” implies that initial velocity u is equal to 0 m s-1

“Thrown or “fired” implies that initial velocity u is not equal to 0 m s-1
19
Example 14
A ball is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity vo. Sketch its velocity-time graph
showing the time until the ball reaches the thrower’s hand, in the case when
(a) air resistance is neglected, labelled A.
(b) air resistance is considered, labelled B.
Explain qualitatively the shapes of both graphs.
v / m s1
vo
t’
t/s
tu td
t’’
–vd B
–vo A
The slope of the graph without any air resistance is a straight line with a constant negative
slope because
the acceleration due to gravity is constant and is directed downwards.
When the ball is on its upward journey, the slope of graph B is steeper than that for graph A
because
the retarding effect of air resistance acting in the same direction as the ball's weight is such
that the net deceleration of the ball due to the weight of the ball and air resistance is greater
than that due to gravity alone.
When the ball is on its downward journey, the slope of graph B is gentler than that for graph
A because
the retarding effect of air resistance is such that the net acceleration of the ball downwards
due to the weight of the ball and the opposing effect of air resistance is less than that due to
gravity alone.
When the ball is at the maximum height, the slope of graph B is equal to that for graph A
because
at the maximum height, the ball is instantaneously at rest, hence air resistance is zero, and
the acceleration of the ball is due to gravity alone.
20
For the upward journey, the area under graph B is less than for graph A because
some energy is used to overcome air resistance, and so the gain in gravitational potential
energy at maximum height reached is less than its initial kinetic energy. Hence the maximum
height reached is less than the case for that without air resistance.
When the ball is on its upward journey, the time taken to reach maximum height is less for
graph B (t’’) than for graph A (t’) because
with air resistance, the ball experiences a greater retarding force and hence deceleration on
its upward journey, and so is decelerated to rest in a shorter time.
Considering graph B alone, the time tu taken for the ball to reach the top when going up is
less than the time td for the ball to reach the thrower’s hand when coming down because
on the upward journey, there is a greater deceleration as both the air resistance and gravity
help to decelerate the ball, whereas on the downward journey, there is lesser acceleration as
the air resistance opposes the downward acceleration of the ball due to gravity.
Consider graph B alone. The velocity with which the ball leaves the thrower’s hand is vo. The
velocity of the ball just before it reaches the thrower’s hand is –vd. The magnitude of vd is
lesser than that for vo because
some energy is used to overcome air resistance, and so the kinetic energy (Ek = ½mv2) of
the ball that returns to the thrower's hand is lesser than before.
Example 15
A body is thrown vertically upwards. Which of the following provides the correct explanation
when the times of flight for the upward motion tu and the downward motion td (to return to the
same level) are compared if air resistance is not ignored?
A td > tu, because the body moves faster on its downward flight as the downward
acceleration is larger.
B td > tu, because at a given speed the net acceleration when the body is moving
downwards is smaller than the net deceleration when it is moving upwards.
C td < tu, because at a given speed the net acceleration when the body is moving
downwards is greater than the net deceleration when it is moving upwards.
D td = tu, because the net acceleration when the body is moving downwards is equal
to the net deceleration when it is moving upwards.
21
2.5 Non-linear Motion
(g) describe and explain motion due to a uniform velocity in one direction and a uniform
acceleration in a perpendicular direction.
So far, we had only considered objects along straight-line paths.

Now, let us look at objects moving in a plane, that is, two-dimensional motion.
Projectile motion deals with the motion of a particle or body when it undergoes motion in
which there is a uniform velocity in one direction and a uniform acceleration in a
perpendicular direction.
Examples in which projectile motion can occur include the following:
a. A body moving in a perpendicular direction to uniform gravitational field.

b. A charged particle moving in a perpendicular direction to uniform electric field.
When an object is projected into the air at an angle  with respect to the ground with speed u,
the body will move in a parabolic path. An example of projectile motion is an Olympic athlete
throwing a javelin.
Though the motion is two-dimensional, it can be analyzed by considering the straight line
motion in the horizontal direction and vertical direction independently.
Note the length of the vectors representing the horizontal and vertical components
of the velocity at each stage of the motion. The length of the horizontal component is
constant.
22
Horizontal motion
The body is moving with a constant velocity. There is no resultant force in the horizontal
direction and therefore the horizontal acceleration is zero.
Horizontal Acceleration ax = 0
Horizontal Velocity vx = ux + axt = ux
Horizontal Displacement sx = uxt + ½axt2 = uxt
Vertical motion
The body moves under the influence of gravity with a constant acceleration (g) hence the
vertical velocity changes with time.
Taking downwards (gravity) as positive,
Vertical Acceleration ay = g
Vertical Velocity vy = uy + gt
Vertical Displacement sy = uyt + ½gt2
Time independent Eqn vy2 = uy2 + 2gsy
Velocity of projectile at any time is given by the vector sum of vx and vy at that time.
In magnitude, v = v x  v y
2 2
vy
In direction,  = tan-1
vx
Notes: In kinematics and subsequent Physics topics, we would have to resolve vectors in
the perpendicular directions to solve problems. Hence it is important to revise your
vectors.
2.5.1 Maximum Height

At the maximum height, vy = 0
Using vy 2 = uy2 + 2ayy u
02 = (usin)2 – 2gH
u 2 sin 2
 maximum height reached, H =
2g
θ
2.5.2 Time to reach Maximum Height

At the maximum height, vy = 0
Using vy = uy + ayt
0 = usin – gtup
u sin
tup =
g
23
2.5.3 Total Time of Flight, T
tup = tdown
 T = 2tup
2 u sin
T=
g
2.5.4 Alternative derivation for Total Time of Flight, T
Considering the whole motion, when the projectile has reached the ground, y = 0.

Range, R
Taking the upward direction as positive, ay = – g, uy = usin
Using sy = uyt + ½ayt 2

0 = (usin)t + ½(-g)t 2
For y = 0, t(usin - ½gt) = 0

2 u sin
 t = 0 or t = =T
g
2.5.5 Range, R
The maximum horizontal distance covered by the projectile is known as the horizontal range,
R.
2 u sin
R = vxT = (ucos)
g
u 2 sin 2
R=
g
For a given speed of projection, u, the horizontal range is maximum when

sin2 = 1   = 45
u2
thus maximum range, Rmax = .
g
24
The figure below shows a projectile launched with an initial speed of 50 m s-1 at various
angle of projection. Note that the complementary values of angle of projection result in the
same value of R.
u = 50 m s-1
Problem Solving Hints for Projectile Problems in Gravitational Field

1. Resolve the initial velocity into the x and y components.
2. Solve the constant velocity horizontal motion and constant accelerated motion vertically.
Note the x and y motion share the same t.
Example 16
An object is projected at an angle to the horizontal in a gravitational field and it follows a
parabolic path, PQRST. These points are the positions of the objects after successive equal
time intervals, T being the highest point reached.
The displacements PQ, QR, RS and ST
A are equal.
B decrease at a constant rate.
C have equal horizontal components.
D increase at a constant rate.
25
Example 17
From the top of a building, we throw three identical rocks. One is thrown vertically upwards,
one horizontally sideways, and one dropped vertically downwards. The rocks thrown
vertically upwards and horizontally have the same initial speed. Which rock takes the
shortest time to reach the ground? [Ignore air resistance]
A The one thrown vertically upwards

B The one thrown horizontally sideways
C The one dropped vertically downwards
D Both the rocks thrown horizontally sideways and dropped vertically downwards
Example 18
A fighter plane was flying horizontally at 90 m s-1 at a height of 800 m when it released a
bomb.
(a) State the initial horizontal and vertical velocities of the bomb.
Since the bomb is on the plane and hence it will initially travel with the velocity of
the plane,
ux = 90 m s-1 in the direction of flight of the plane

uy = 0 m s-1
(b) Determine the time needed for the bomb to reach the ground.
Remember that for a projectile problem, we can always solve the vertical and horizontal
motions separately. They are independent.

ux = 90 m s-1, uy = 0 m s-1, ax = 0 m s-2, ay = +g = + 9.81 m s-2, sy = +800 m
Using sy = uyt + ½ayt2

800 = 0 + ½(9.81)t2
t = 12.8 s
(c) Determine the horizontal distance the bomb travelled before it reached the ground,
assuming air resistance is negligible.

ux = 90 m s-1, uy = 0 m s-1, ax = 0 m s-2, ay = +g = + 9.81 m s-2, sy = +800 m, t = 12.8 s
Using sx = uxt + ½axt2
sx = uxt + ½(0)t2
= 90(12.8)
= 1150 m
26
Example 19
A ball is thrown with an initial velocity of 15 m s-1 at an angle of 60o to the horizontal, as
shown in the diagram below.
B
(a) Explain why AB represents the velocity of the ball and not just its speed.
AB represents the velocity as the length of the arrow gives an indication of the
magnitude of the velocity and the direction provides its initial direction of projection.
(b) Calculate, for this ball, the initial values of

(i) the vertical component of the velocity,
uy = 15sin600
= 13 m s-1
(ii) the horizontal component of the velocity.

ux = 15cos600
= 7.5 m s-1
(c) Assuming that air resistance can be neglected, use your answers in (b) to determine
(i) the maximum height to which the ball rises,
Taking upwards as +ve,

uy = +13 m s-1, at maximum height: vy = 0 m s-1, ay = – 9.81 m s-2
Using v2 = u2 + 2as
0 = 132 +2(-9.81)(sy)
sy = 8.61 m
(ii) the time of flight, that is, the time interval between the ball being thrown and
returning to ground level.
Since the ball returns to ground level, sy = 0
Using sy = uyt + ½ayt2

0 = 13t + ½(–9.81)(t)2
t(13 – 4.905t) = 0
hence t = 0 or t = 2.65 s
27
(d) Use your answers to (b) to sketch the path of the ball, assuming air resistance is
negligible. Label this path N.
(e) (i) On your sketch in (d), draw the path of the ball, assuming that air resistance cannot
be neglected. Label this path A.
(ii) Suggest an explanation for any differences between the two paths N and A.
A N
In the horizontal direction, the ball experiences a net deceleration, therefore the
horizontal speed decreases resulting in a shorter range.
As the ball rises, it has to do work against air resistance. Hence mechanical
energy is lost and the maximum height is reduced. (as per Conservation of
Energy)
As the ball rises, it experiences a net deceleration greater than g because air
resistance is acting in the same direction as the gravitational force. Hence, its
vertical speed decreases to zero in a shorter time. As a result, it reaches a
maximum height sooner, explaining why the maximum height is displaced to the
left compared to path N.
Path A is asymmetrical because horizontal speed is not uniform and in the vertical
direction, the vertical acceleration experienced by the ball is not constant.
28
Summary of Kinematics
Graph v
Gradient = acceleration
Area = displacement
Equations of Motion for a body traveling in a straight line with constant acceleration.
v = u + at
Note: Need to know how to
s = ut + ½at2
derive these equations from
v2 = u2 + 2as
definitions of velocity and
s = ½(u + v)t
acceleration
Note: Usually, the direction of the initial velocity u is taken as the positive direction.
Vector (v, s or a) which has an opposite direction is given a negative sign.
Object falling in a Uniform Gravitational Field with Air Resistance
v Terminal As the object falls, its velocity increases and

velocity the air resistance acting on the object also
increases. This opposes the downward motion
and causes the acceleration to decrease. At a
point when the weight is offset by the air
(Take downwards resistance, the net force and hence the
as positive) acceleration is zero. Thus the object moves
with a constant terminal velocity.
t
Motion of a Body Moving Vertically in a Uniform Gravitational Field with air resistance
Consider a body thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity u in a
uniform gravitational field with air resistance u
As a body rises, both air resistance and weight act downward, causing a
larger resultant force. Its initial upward deceleration is greater and it takes a W Air resistance
shorter time to reach the greatest height.
As a body falls, it accelerates downwards, and air resistance opposes its

Air resistance
weight, causing a smaller resultant force. The magnitude of the acceleration
is smaller and it takes a longer time to reach the original position.
u
29
The gradient of the graph on the upward journey is steeper than that of the downwards
journey. When its velocity is 0 m s-1, the gradient of the graph is 9.81 m s-2.
v / m s-1
u
(Take upwards as positive)
t/s
Projectile Motion
A mass is projected with speed u at an angle  in a space with no air resistance.
u

ux = ucos uy u
uy = usin
u = u x2  u y2

ux
For a projectile motion, the horizontal and vertical components of the motion are
independent of each other.
horizontal: Fx = 0, ax = 0, vx is constant,
ux = ucos vx = ux, sx = uxt
vertical: Fy = W, ay is constant (9.81 m s-2 downwards)

uy = usin
vy = uy + ayt
1
sy = uy t + ayt2
2
vy2 = uy2 + 2aysy
vy = 0 (at highest point)
30
Note: Time is the only quantity that is the same for both the horizontal and vertical motions.
vy v
vx
u  vx
usin vx 
u
vy v
 
ucos
Special cases:
Initial vertical velocity Initial horizontal velocity

u
u Vertical
uy = u, ay = 9.81m s-2 (down)
Vertical
Horizontal uy = 0
ux = 0, ax = 0, ay = 9.81 m s-2 (down)
v = u + at Horizontal
1 ux = u, ax = 0
Apply s = ut + at2 in 2 directions
2
2 2
v = u + 2as
31
Definition List
Distance The actual path travelled by an object.
Displacement Distance from a fixed point in a specified direction. It is straight line

between two points.
Average speed (Total distance travelled)/time. It is a scalar quantity.
Average velocity (Total change of displacement)/(total time taken). It is a vector

quantity.
Velocity (Change of displacement)/(time taken). It acts in the direction of

change of displacement.
Speed (Distance travelled)/(time taken).
Acceleration (Change of velocity)/(time taken). It acts in the direction of the

change of velocity.
Average (Total change of velocity)/(total time taken). It acts in the direction

acceleration of the change of velocity.
Projectile motion A motion due to a uniform velocity in one direction and a uniformly
accelerated motion in a perpendicular motion.
Acceleration of Acceleration of a body towards the surface of the Earth when the
free fall only force acting on it is its weight.
32
KINEMATICS TUTORIAL
Concept of distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration
Self-Attempt Questions
1. A stone is thrown upwards from the top of a cliff. After reaching its maximum height, it
falls past the cliff-top and into the sea.
The graph shows how the vertical velocity v of the stone varies with time t after being
thrown upwards. R and S are the magnitudes of the areas of the two triangles.
v (a) What is the height of the cliff-top above the

sea?
(b) What is the magnitude of the maximum

R
height reached by the stone as measured
t from the cliff-top?
S
(c) What is the total distance travelled by the
stone from the instant of release until it hits
the sea?
A R B S C R+S D S–R
2. The average speed of a moving object during a given interval of time is always:
A the magnitude of its average velocity over the interval.

B the distance covered during the time interval divided by the time interval.
C one-half its speed at the end of the interval.
D one-half its acceleration multiplied by the time interval.
3. Which of the following four displacement versus time graphs represents the motion of
an object moving with a constant speed?
A I B II C III D IV
33
4. A car accelerates from rest on a straight road. A short time later, the car decelerates to
a stop and then returns to its original position in a similar manner, by speeding up and
then slowing to a stop. Which of the following graphs best describes the motion?
(x represents displacement.)
IV
A I B II C III D IV
Discussion Questions
5. (a) Are the following situations possible? Use suitable real-life examples to illustrate
your answers.
(i) Can a body have zero velocity and be accelerating?

(ii) Can a body have zero acceleration but a non-zero velocity?
(iii) Can a body be moving in one direction but accelerating in the opposite
direction?
(iv) Can a body be accelerating when its velocity is constant?
(b) Using your definition of displacement, explain how it is possible for a car to travel
a certain distance and yet have zero displacement.
(c) Explain why it is technically incorrect to define speed as distance travelled per
second. Include in your answer the correct statement defining speed.
6. The graph shows the variation of displacement with time for trains A and B running on
parallel tracks. Which statement is correct?
Displacement
B
A
t Time
A At time t, both trains have the same velocity.

B Both trains speed up all the time.
C Both trains have the same velocity at some time before t.
D Somewhere on the graph, both trains have the same acceleration.
34
7. The acceleration of a ball moving in a straight line varies with time as shown in the
graph below. At which point is the magnitude of its velocity the greatest?
acceleration / m s-2 B
A
0 C time / s
8. The figure below shows a velocity-time graph for a journey lasting 65 s.
(a) Using information from the graph, obtain
(i) the acceleration in section A and E separately.

(ii) the distance travelled in section B and C separately.
(b) Describe qualitatively in words what happens in section E and F of the journey.
(c) Sketch a corresponding distance-time graph. Detailed calculations of the

distance travelled are not required.
[Ans: 2.0 m s-2, -7.0 m s-2, 300 m, 250 m [N97/II/1 part]]
35
9. The graph below shows the speeds of two cars A and B which are travelling in the
same direction over a period of time of 40 s. Car A, travelling at a constant speed of
40 m s-1 overtakes car B at time t = 0 s. In order to catch up with car A, car B
immediately accelerates uniformly for 20 s to reach a constant speed of 50 m s-1.
Speed / m s-1
B
50
40 A
25
0
0 20 40 Time / s
(a) How far does car A travel during the first 20 s?
(b) Calculate the acceleration of car B in the first 20 s.
(c) How far does car B travel in this time?
(d) What additional time will it take for car B to catch up with car A?
(e) How far will each car have then travelled since t = 0 s?
(f) What is the maximum distance between the cars before car B catches up with
car A?
[Ans: 800 m, 1.25 m s-2, 750 m, 5.0 s, 1000 m, 90 m [N93/II/2]]
Equations of Motions
10. A car, initially at rest, travels 20 m in 4.0 s along a straight line with constant
acceleration. The acceleration of the car is:
A 0.40 m s-2
B 1.3 m s-2
C 2.5 m s-2
D 4.9 m s-2
11. (a) A MRT train accelerates uniformly from rest for 8.0 s until its velocity reaches
20 m s. Find
(i) its initial acceleration,

(ii) its distance travelled from rest.
(b) The MRT train then travels for another 30 s at this constant velocity of 20 m s.
Calculate the additional distance travelled for this section of its journey.
36
(c) The MRT train then decelerates uniformly to come to rest in a further 10 s. Find
(i) its deceleration over this section of its journey,

(ii) the additional distance travelled for this section of its journey.
(d) For this motion, sketch
(i) a velocity-time graph,

(ii) an acceleration-time graph,
(iii) a displacement-time graph.
[Ans: 2.5 m s2, 80 m, 600 m, 2.0 m s2, 100 m]
12. In a traffic accident, a motorist claims that he applied his full brakes when he saw the
pedestrian but it was too late therefore the accident occurred. Traffic police arrested
the motorist for speeding and driving recklessly. Based on the information given below,
explain how the police arrived at the conclusion and estimate the speed of the motorist
before he saw the pedestrian.
- The speed limit for the road is 50 km h-1.

- Skid marks found on the road was about 100 m long.
- The maximum retarding force from the vehicle gives a deceleration of 5 m s-2.
- Human reaction time cannot be faster than 0.20 seconds
[Ans: 114 km h-1]
13. A tennis ball is dropped from shoulder height and bounces three times before it is
caught. On each bounce, the tennis ball rises to a lower maximum height.
(a) Taking upward motion to be positive and the ground to be the reference point,
sketch the
(i) displacement-time graph,

(ii) velocity-time graph,
(iii) acceleration-time graph of the ball.
Indicate clearly the times (t1, t2, t3) at which the ball hits the ground. Briefly
describe any other important features of the graphs.
(b) Describe how the height of release of the ball can be determined from any parts
of your graphs in (a).
37
14. The graph below shows the variation with time t of the velocity v of a ball from the
moment it is thrown with a velocity of 26 m s-1 vertically upwards.
v / m s1
30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 t/s
10
20
(a) State the time at which the ball reaches its maximum height.
(b) State the feature of a velocity-time graph that enables the acceleration to be
determined.
(c) Hence determine the initial deceleration of the ball. Explain why it can be greater
than 9.81 m s-2.
(d) State and explain the time at which the acceleration is g.
(e) Sketch an acceleration-time graph of the ball, indicating clearly the time given in
(d).
(f) Sketch on the graph above, a v-t graph if air resistance is negligible.
[Ans: 1.75 s, 23.6 m s-2 [N03/III/1 part]]
38
15. The acceleration of free fall g, is determined by timing point of P
the fall of a steel ball by using light-gates as shown in release a
the diagram. The ball passes points X at time tx, and X
point Y at time ty after release from P. light beam
h Photogate
2h
Show that g can be expressed as .
(t 2y  t x2 ) light beam
[Modified from N10/I/5] Y
ground Q
16. Cindy throws a ball vertically upwards with a velocity of 8.0 m s-1 from the edge of a
cliff.
(a) Find the maximum height of the ball.
(b) If the cliff is 100 m deep, find the time taken for the ball to hit the bottom of the
cliff.
(c) Crystal throws the ball and a rock (of the same size and mass as the ball)
vertically downwards with velocity of 8.0 m s-1. Would the rock or the ball has a
greater speed when it reaches the bottom of the cliff,
(i) if we ignore air resistance,

(ii) if air resistance cannot be ignored.
[Ans: 3.3 m, 5.4 s]
Projectile Motion
17. In the absence of air resistance, a bullet shot horizontally from a gun will
A strike the ground much later than one dropped vertically from the same point at
the same instant.
B strike the ground vertically downwards.
C strike the ground at the same time as one dropped vertically from the same point
at the same instant.
D strike the ground much sooner than one dropped from the same point at the
same instant.
39
18. The airplane shown is in level flight at an altitude of 0.50 km and a speed of 150 km h -1.
At what distance d should it release a heavy bomb to hit the target X?
Take g = 10 m s.
150 km h
A 150 m
B 295 m
C 417 m
D 2550 m
19. Which of the curves on the graph below best represents the vertical component vy
versus t for a projectile fired at an angle of 45above the horizontal?
vy P
Q
R
O t
S T
U
A OP
B QU
C QR
D ST
20. (a) A small ball rolls horizontally off the edge of a table-top that is 1.20 m high. It
strikes the floor at a point 1.52 m horizontally from the edge of the table.
(i) How long is the ball in the air?

(ii) Find the speed at the instant it leaves the table.
(iii) Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of the ball’s velocity just
before striking the floor.
(iv) Hence, determine its velocity just before striking the floor.
(b) If a similar ball is dropped vertically from the same level as the tabletop, state
and explain your answer clearly, for this ball, the duration it is in the air.
[Ans: 0.495 s, 3.07 m s1, vx = 3.07 m s1, vy = 4.86 m s1, v = 5.75 m s1, 57.7o
from horizontal, no change]
40
21. An airplane, diving at an angle of 53o with the vertical, releases a bomb at an altitude
of 730 m. The bomb hits the ground 5.0 s after release. Neglecting air resistance,
(a) Determine the speed of the aircraft.
(b) How far did the bomb travel horizontally during its flight?
(c) What were the horizontal and vertical components of its velocity just before
striking the ground?
(d) Hence state the velocity of the bomb just before striking the ground.
(e) Explain the effect on your answers in (b), (c) and (d) if air resistances was not
neglected.
[Ans: 202 m s-1, 806 m, 161 m s-1, 171 m s-1, 235 m s-1 at an angle of 46.6° below the
horizontal]
22. A golf ball is struck at ground level and follows a parabolic trajectory. The speed of the
golf ball as a function of time is shown below, where t = 0 s is at the instant the ball is
struck.
(a) State the horizontal velocity of the golf ball.
(b) How far does the golf ball travel horizontally before returning to ground level?
(c) What is the initial vertical component of the golf ball's velocity?
(d) What is the maximum height above ground level attained by the ball?
[Ans: 19 m s-1, 95 m, 24.5 m s-1, 30.6 m]
41
23. (a) A motorcycle stunt-rider moving horizontally takes off from a point 1.25 m above
the ground, landing 10 m away as shown in the diagram. What was the speed at
take off?
(b) A stuntman on a motorcycle plans to ride up a ramp in order to jump over a river
50 m wide. If he intends to ride at the maximum speed of 30 m s-1, what is the
range of angles  of ramp he should use to jump over the river?
 
50 m
(c) What minimum velocity must the stuntman have in order to jump over the river?
[Ans: 20 m s-1, 22.1 m s-1 [J93/I/3 modified]]
Data Based Question
24. A table from a car driver’s handbook reads as follows:

On a dry road, a car in good condition driven by an alert driver will stop in the
distances shown in the table.
Speed / m s-1 Thinking distance* / Braking distance^ / Overall distance /

m m m
5.0 3.0 1.9 4.9
10 6.0 7.5 13.5
15 9.0 17 26
20 12 30 42
25 15 47 62
30 18 68 86
35 21 92 113
*Thinking distance is the distance travelled by the car during the driver’s reaction time.
^Braking distance is the distance in which the car stops after the brakes have been
applied.
(a) Explain why thinking distance is directly proportional to speed whereas braking
distance is not. Describe in words the relationship between braking distance and
speed.
(b) What constant value of negative acceleration has the author of the table used in
calculating the braking distances?
(c) Calculate the overall stopping distance for a car travelling at 50 m s-1.
42
(d) What would be the effects on the thinking distance and the braking distance of
each of the following conditions?
(i) The road is wet.

(ii) The driver is not fully alert.
[Ans: 6.6 m s-2, 219 m [J89/II/9]]
Challenging Question
25. Robin Hood believed that he could hit a falling object if he aimed directly at the object
and fired his arrow at the same time as the object is dropped. Prove or disprove Robin
Hood.
43

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Dunman High School (Senior High Physics)

Candidates should be able to:

To understand Physics, you must be able to understand it

(i) Qualitatively – Define, Explain, State, Describe, Discuss, Suggest…

In this topic, we will concentrate on two types of motion:

 Motion along a straight line (Rectilinear motion)

2.1 Rectilinear Motion

2.1.1 Distance and Displacement

Distance, d The actual path travelled by an object.

Distance is a scalar quantity.

Displacement, s Distance from a fixed point in a specified direction. It is straight line /

Displacement is a vector quantity.

Graphically: initial position

Team A Distance = 10 km Team A Displacement = 10 km

Town B Origin Town A

(i) Total distance travelled to town A from origin, dA = 10 km

(iii) The displacement of Mr Tan at town A from origin, sA = +10 km

2.1.2 Speed and Velocity

Speed is a scalar quantity.

Velocity is a vector quantity.

In Mathematics, for a quantity such as velocity v, the average velocity can be

Total Distance Total Displacement

2.1.3 Instantaneous Speed and Velocity

Instantaneous speed of a particle is equal to the magnitude of its instantaneous velocity.

function f ( x) when x approaches zero. The expression s refers to a change in

Instantaneous Acceleration, a Defined as the limit of average acceleration as the time

Acceleration is a vector quantity.

Yes. One example is when a car is braking.

 Which car(s) in the diagram below is/are increasing in speed? Explain.

2.2 Graphical Methods for Linear Motion

2.2.1 Finding velocity from Displacement-Time Graphs

s/m s/m s/m

v / m s-1 v / m s-1 v / m s-1

v / m s-1 v / m s-1 v / m s-1 v / m s-1

2.3 Equations of Motion

It would be very tedious if we had to plot a velocity-time graph or displacement-time graph

However, these equations of motions apply only to uniformly accelerated motions in a

u : initial velocity v : final velocity

Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement u

Taking upwards as positive,

u = ?, v = 0 m s-1, a = 9.81 m s-2, s = 500 m, t = ?

(b) Taking upwards as positive,

u = ?, v = ?, t = 1.0 s, s = 500 m, a = -9.81 m s-2

Solution 1 – Graphical Method

Therefore total distance travelled by superman is Lex Luthor

Solution 2 – Equations of Motion

For the first 6.0 seconds,

Hence total displacement from starting point is 6.75  100 = 675 m.

* Steps to solve kinematics problems using the Equations of Motion:

1. Define the positive direction.

Taking downwards as +ve,

Choose an appropriate equation of motion

Taking upwards as +ve

Hence speed = 14.7 m s-1.

(ii) find the maximum height to which it rises.

At maximum height, the ball will be instantaneously at rest.

Taking upwards as +ve

Hence, maximum height is 11.0 m.

Indicate clearly on your graphs, the values of the times at which