Journal of Social Sciences

Original Research Paper

The Role of Developmental Psychology to Understanding

Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute for Sociology, PO box 6980, 76128 Karlsruhe, Germany

Article history Abstract: Developmental psychology of the past generations has evidenced
Received: 28-10-2014 that the whole pre-modern humankind stood on pre-operational or concrete-
Revised: 29-10-2014 operational stages. Only the modern humankind has also developed the
Accepted: 31-12-2014 fourth stage of human development, the adolescent stage of formal
operations. Lew Vygotski was 1933 one of the first to earmark convincingly
the connection of socialisation (school education) and cognitive development
as a precondition to reach the “higher psychological processes”, as the
Russian school designated what the school of Geneva called “formal
operations”. The essay documents that developmental psychology is
necessary to reconstruct the history of magic, religion, sciences,
philosophy, law, morals, politics, economy, population, arts, customs and
mentality. It is impossible to understand human’s history on earth and
social change from Pleistocene up to modern times without developmental
psychology. Moreover, the emergence of the formal operations during the
early modern times caused the rise of modern, industrial society, including
its main parts “industrialism”, “sciences”, “Enlightenment”, “humanism”
and “democracy”. These five main phenomena of modernity manifest
higher stages of psyche and cognition, having arisen in the same region
and in the same era. Developmental psychology is able to explain their
nature and their internal coherence, while traditional social sciences have
no means available to deal with these phenomena, considering their
common origination as an accidental phenomenon or misinterpreting it.

Keywords: Developmental Psychology, History, Social Change, Modern

Introduction units of the social sciences are rather humans and world
because society is only a part of the world.
Developmental Psychology and History Philosophers can transform this relationship into a still
more abstract language saying that the human existence
Societies consist of humans on the one side and
bases on the relationship between subject and object,
surroundings, institutions and things on the other side.
inner-world and outer-world, psyche and environment
Humans, born into a given society, face a world,
(Oesterdiekhoff, 1997; 2012a).
composed of specific landscapes with specific natural
Against this background, we can discriminate two
resources, cultivated areas such as soils used for forests, forms of social sciences or humanities. The materialistic
agriculture and cattle breeding, a material world position focuses only on environments and material
consisting of houses, factories, streets, transport systems circumstances, ignoring their subjective constitution and
and other things and a social world such as families, neglecting any historical changes of psyche, reason and
social classes and political groups. Therefore, social consciousness. Shortly, the materialistic approaches treat
sciences (history, economics, sociology, etc.) treat only “objective phenomena” and overlook “subjective
humans and environment, persons and surroundings, phenomena”, assuming, humans would only adopt
humans and world as well. The differentiation between environmental changes as oxen follow the ploughs they
humans and society is then not the basic distinction but draw. The largest part of the contemporary social
is only an incomplete formula. The most fundamental sciences belongs to this materialistic group, willingly or

© 2014 The Georg W. Oesterdiekhoff. This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY)
3.0 license.
Georg W. Oesterdiekhoff / Journal of Social Sciences 2014, 10 (4): 185.195
DOI: 10.3844/jssp.2014.185.195

not, intentionally or not. More or less the whole space, understanding reality, magical and mystical
economy and history and the largest part of sociology ideas, emotions and action patterns, etc.
and ethnology adhere to the materialistic position Jean Piaget, the most impressive and influential
(Oesterdiekhoff, 2013a; 2012a). developmental psychologist so far, saw child psychology
However, since the era of Enlightenment up to as a laboratory to reconstruct the history of psyche and
present day influential authors have been emphasizing personality, reason and consciousness, culture, sciences
tremendous changes of psyche, reason and and philosophy. He described parallels between children
consciousness having taken place during the long history and ancient philosophy or primitive peoples more or less
of mankind. There are more or less as many theoretical in all his books. His studies cover the complete world
frameworks of interpreting these changes, as authors understanding and reasoning of humans, including logic,
have existed, who have tried to describe the alleged physics, social affairs and morals. He and his
transformations. I assign the numerous approaches to collaborators described that all humans go through
two groups at first glance. The first one maintains a different stages in their way to become adult and mature.
historical transformation from primitive, elementary, The sensory-motor stage of the suckling is followed by
irrational and archaic forms of reason or psyche to the pre-operational stage of the pre-school child from the
civilized, abstract and rational modes of reason or second year onwards. The third stage of the concrete
psyche, having taken place in the early modern times in operations originates during the sixth year of age,
Europe. The second one stipulates more radically a manifesting until the tenth year of age. The fourth stage
historical transformation from a childlike psyche to an of formal operations unfolds stepwise during the whole
adult psyche, that is, a parallel between ontogenesis and course of the second decade of life (Piaget, 1969; 1976;
history. The second position does not refute then the first 1975a; 1975b; Mogdil and Mogdil, 1976).
position but includes and encompasses it. It helps to Piaget himself found out that “savages” or “primitive”
understand the nature both of primitiveness and peoples usually do not establish the stage of concrete
civilization, irrationality and rationality, concrete and operations. He repeatedly defined the stage of concrete
abstract forms of reason. Additionally, it interprets the operations as typically for the Ionian philosophers. He
transformation from primitive to civilized forms as a identified the breakthrough of the adolescent stage of
transformation from childlike to adult psychological stages. formal operations as key to understand the emergence of
Of course, many authors are not easy to classify because sciences in the 17th century. This consideration implies
they occupy contradictious or intermediary positions. the contention that the formal operations, nowadays
To the first group belong many authors such as Max characterizing the adolescent’s (and adult’s) reasoning,
Weber, Émile Durkheim, Bruno Snell, Mircea Eliade, may have originated during the early modern times. In his
Alexandr Lurija, Lew Vygotski, Wilhelm Wundt, Lucien book about morals he compared children’s ideas with
Lévy-Bruhl, Arnold Gehlen, Jean Gebser and those of the ancient punishment law (objective and
uncountable other authors from 1800 up to now. To the collective responsibility) or of the ancient understanding
second group belong scholars such as Karl Lamprecht, of the law as an unchangeable part of nature. In his books
Jean Piaget, Pierre Janet, Édouard Claparède, Heinz about children’s physics he outlined the similarities
Werner, G. Stanley Hall, James Mark Baldwin, Raoul regarding the understanding of causality, chance,
Allier, Joseph Murphy, Henri Wallon, Charles Blondel, movements, space, geometry and nature. In his influential
Christopher Hallpike, Charles Radding, Auguste Comte, book on the worldview of children Piaget described
Norbert Elias and many others. To the intermediary similar ideas about magic, animism and religion children
group may belong scholars such as James Frazer, and primitives share (Piaget, 1932; 1959; 1969; 1976;
Edward Tylor, Herbert Spencer, Ludwig Feuerbach, 1975a; Piaget and Garcia, 1989).
Ernst Cassirer, Alfred Vierkandt, William Stern, The Piagetian Cross-Cultural Psychology (PCCP)
Sigmund Freud and others (Oesterdiekhoff, 2012a; was the next step in deepening the insights regarding the
2013a; 1997; 2000; 2011; 2012c; Jahoda, 2000). parallels between ontogenesis and history. It started in
To my knowledge, the first author in the history of the Thirties, reached its peak probably between 1960 and
sciences being successful in delivering an 1990 and continues up to now. Basing on this research
encompassing description of the childlike nature of industry, we can overlook the human development in
“primitive” or pre-modern man was Heinz Werner. His almost all kinds of social settings and cultures around the
book Comparative Psychology of Mental Development, globe. The surveys demonstrated that all children go
written as a German edition already in 1926, as through the sensory-motor and pre-operational stages no
American edition well-known and worldwide available matter in which culture they are born. Humans, raised in
from 1948 onwards, described the parallels between pre-modern, archaic, illiterate, or traditional social
children and pre-modern humans with regard to all milieus, have difficulties in developing already the stage
relevant aspects of psyche and personality such as of concrete operations. Only humans living in
causal and logical categories, experience of time and modernized and industrialized cultures develop the stage

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of formal operations. This result is valid with regard to stage of formal operations apart from very few exceptions. I
all logical, physical, social and moral issues, that is, to demonstrated that the social change and the social evolution
the whole range of world understanding. This implies from the stone ages until the modern era is explainable in
that humans of pre-modern societies reach terms of developmental psychology. I reconstructed the
anthropological stages of children only, whereas modern history of law, arts, literature, philosophy, sciences, religion,
humans alone attain anthropological or psycho- magic, morals, customs, politics and economics in terms of
neurological stages of adolescents. Primitives differ from developmental psychology. The evolution of formal
children by their knowledge and life experience but operations in the early modern times accounts to the
share their basic structures of psyche and cognition. emergence of sciences, industrial society, era of
Correspondingly, civilized, modern adults share the Enlightenment, humanism and democracy. These five
basic structures with modern adolescents, surmounting evolutions took place in the same region and in the same
only their knowledge and experience (Dasen, 1977; time, namely in the Western culture after 1700. The rise of
Dasen and Berry, 1974; Eckensberger et al., 1979; Flynn, anthropological or psychoneurological stages is the
2007; Mogdil and Mogdil, 1976; Hallpike, 1980; Piaget, common root of these five basic traits that constitute the
1976; Poortinga, 1977; Oesterdiekhoff, 1997; 2009a; modern, industrial society. I see in these findings the most
2011; 2012b; 2012d; 2013b). Hundreds of researchers radical breakthrough within the social sciences since the
have formulated the same conclusion as Ross (1974) did: days of the classical authors of ethnology, sociology,
“It would seem that throughout history many societies psychology, history and other disciplines.
have never manifested combinatorial and prepositional The intention of this essay is to demonstrate shortly
logic or the other characteristics of formal thinking.” but concisely the parallels of ontogenesis and history
The Russian socio-historical school is usually not referring the understanding of (1) world and nature, (2)
assigned to PCCP. However, both traditions share law and morals, (3) politics and democracy and (4)
common test procedures, empirical results and social change and the rise of modern society.
interpretations. Lurija and co-workers did not write that
children and primitives (from Usbekistan in 1932) The Evolution of Understanding of Nature
manifest the same structures of reason, but they and Reality
delivered actually willingly or not clear evidence to this
fact (Lurija, 1982; Lurija and Vygotski, 1992). I From Animism to Mechanics
demonstrated that the Russian school clearly evidenced
the parallels between children and primitives especially Developmental psychology of the past 100 years
with regard to logic and reason (Oesterdiekhoff, 2012a; described that all children understand initially nature and
2013a). I emphasize therefore the assignment of the reality, movements and bodies as being animated and alive.
Russian school to the tradition that researched the They regard stones and toys, lakes and rivers, trees and
parallel between ontogenesis and history. flowers, houses and cars as living beings, as having a soul
The field workers of the PCCP had no idea that their and a biological life. They see even stones and rocks as
empirical results evidenced the earlier findings of animated, staying still only for a while, but being able to
Werner, Piaget and others regarding the childlike nature move whenever they want. The whole cosmos is a world of
of primitive man and the psychogenetic evolution of living beings who obey holy rules to play their part in
modern man. I dare to contend that they did not know at maintaining the order. Children believe that animals have a
all how to interpret the empirical data. The first humanlike mind and could understand what children are
researcher who fully recognized the relevance of the speaking and doing. These early trends of animism and
PCCP was the ethnologist Hallpike (1980). His book anthropomorphism disappear radically with the start of the
was the first great contribution regarding the parallel of second decade of life. Children after their tenth year of life
ontogenesis and history since the work of Heinz develop the empirical-causal categories of reason and the
Werner, that is, since 53 years. Some other authors mechanical worldview when the stage of formal operations
worked more or less in similar directions such as comes into being. Then they distinguish life and matter,
Habermas (1976; Radding, 1985; Ziégler, 1968; mind and things, biological and physical realities, instincts
Gablik, 1976; Schöfthaler and Goldschmidt, 1984). and consciousness (Piaget, 1959; 1969; 1975a; Werner,
From 1987 onwards I have written eleven books and 1948; Lurija and Vygotski, 1992).
numerous essays regarding the relationship of The ethnology of the past 300 years and related
developmental psychology and history. I delivered an disciplines have described at length that all pre-modern
encompassing summary of PCCP and applied these cultures think in the same animistic terms. The
findings to the reconstruction of the history of humankind primitives do not regard rocks and rivers, forests and
and to the rebuilding of the theoretical foundations of stars only as animated and alive, but moreover also as
humanities and social sciences. I evidenced that the whole persons and as gods. They adore them and deliver
pre-modern humankind did not develop the adolescent sacrifices to feed them. They regard plants and animals

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as beings being able to think like humans. They see them modernizing societies the same way as it does nowadays
as magicians and as gods, expect from them help and in the minds of teenagers in the advanced societies
support. Damaging plants and animals become however (Hallpike, 1980; Evans-Pritchard, 1937, Lévy-Bruhl,
victims of blood revenge or judicial trials. Even the 1931; Oesterdiekhoff, 2007; 2009a; 2011; 2012a; 2013a).
European Middle Ages still know trials against all kinds
of animals, executed in the same way as trials against From Religion to Agnosticism and Atheism
human delinquents. The rise of the mechanical Developmental psychology found out that all
philosophy and the natural sciences during the 17th children tend to religious beliefs due to their psycho-
century in Europe formed the first period in history to neurological stage and related tendencies. Magic and
annihilate animism and anthropomorphism and to animism constitute some of the core elements of every
establish the stage of formal operations in the minds of religion. Gods rule the cosmos by magical powers; this
the scientific circles. These milieus built the nucleus idea expresses the kernel of every religion. Children
from where the rise of formal operations started to adore initially their parents (and adults generally) as
conquer the whole humankind, a process that has not gods, believed to be able to master household,
finished by now (Piaget, 1975b; Piaget and Garcia, 1989; neighbourhood and world by magic. After their sixth
Habermas, 1976; Oesterdiekhoff, 2007; 2009a; 2009b; year, modern children run through their first sceptical
2013a; 2011; Lévy-Bruhl, 1927). crisis, discovering increasingly shortcomings of their
parents and other adults. They transfer now their
From Magic to Rationality religious feelings to the official gods of their culture.
Developmental psychology describes that magic is an Adolescents in modern cultures experience their second
inevitable part of the child’s psyche. Children from all sceptical crisis in their 13th year of life and later. They
cultures cannot avoid regarding nature in magical terms. doubt then into the reliability of the established religions,
Not specific traits of the child’s psyche account to magic their doctrines and legends and their religiousness dilutes
but all phenomena that constitute the child’s psyche or disappears completely, usually not before their 16th
originate also the magical forms of thinking, for example year of life. Additionally, children believe initially in
egocentrism, weak understanding of reality, lack of fairy tales especially between their fourth and eighth
categories such as causality, chance and probability, years of life. Their growing reasoning abilities weaken
later on their interest into myths and legends as they
wishful thinking and wild fantasy, etc. Magic and child’s
surmount magical and animistic beliefs (Bovet, 1951;
psyche are two sides of the same medal. Children
Piaget, 1959; Werner, 1948).
understand the whole cosmos as made and ruled by
Feuerbach (1985) was in 1841 the first to develop a
magic and they ascribe magical powers to all kinds of
comprehensive theory of religion that recognizes the
objects and beings. Children after their seventh year of
childlike nature of religion. According to Feuerbach, the
life start to reduce magical beliefs; after their tenth year
childlike nature of the pre-modern humankind is the
of life they abolish them nearly completely. The formal
cause to the entire phenomenon of religion, whereas the
operations replace magical beliefs by the establishment
mature mind of modern man might increasingly tend to
of the empirical-causal reasoning and the mechanical
agnosticism and atheism. My theory of religion shares
worldview (Piaget, 1959; 1969; 1975a; Werner, 1948).
this prime idea of Feuerbach but bases on the insights
Ethnography and related disciplines have
won by the developmental psychology in the past 100
documented the central role of magical beliefs and years. Only when humans stay on anthropological stages
practices across all pre-modern cultures around the globe of children they can fancy myths that describe the
since the earliest times of mankind by the end of the pre- existence, personality, biography and actions of gods.
modern era. All pre-modern peoples see the world made The rise of formal operations destroys however the
and ruled by magic and ascribe magical powers to all possibility to believe in myths and dilutes or destroys
kinds of objects and beings. Humans, gods, ghosts and therefore personal relationships with gods. All tribal
objects are believed to steer cosmos and incidents by societies and agrarian civilizations know next to the
magic. Magic accounts to all forms of deaths and Olympic gods and godfather ancestor gods, without any
sicknesses, misfortune and happiness, weather and known exception. The pre-modern humankind adores
seasons, epidemics and catastrophes. It is impossible to their dead fathers, mothers, grandparents, uncles and aunts
understand pre-modern cultures without the as gods, omniscient, almighty and being able to rule the
consideration of the magic’s role in their daily activities. lives of their descendants. Only when humans do not pass
The rise of formal operations, mechanical philosophy, Bovet’s first sceptical crisis but remain largely on the pre-
physical sciences and the era of Enlightenment in Europe operational stage they are able to adore their living or dead
ended the dominance of magic in peoples’ thinking. The older generation. The additional belief in Olympic gods
stage of formal operations replaced magic by rationality and godfather cannot be much psychologically distant
in the minds of people during the first generations of the from that family religion described.

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Children have simply not the intellectual capacity to The Evolution of Law and Morals
understand the possibility of the total annihilation of the
personality after death. Moreover, they have the ability From Ordeals to Trials
to create imaginary worlds such as heaven and hell, as All children believe that incidents and natural
the primitives do. Only modern adolescents are able to phenomena react to the moral behaviour of humans. This
think about the total loss of personality after the physical so-called belief in the “immanent justice” tends to see
death. Correspondingly, ethnography documented that every misfortune as caused by moral misconduct and
primitives have no idea of the inevitability of the every form of luck as resulting from moral conformity.
physical death. They have actually not the intellectual The objects and occurrences are animated and ruled by
capacity to understand the end of consciousness and the gods as well and monitor, punish or reward always
personal life after death. Many historians of religion all humans on earth. The child’s psyche and adherence to
maintain that the whole pre-modern humankind has the immanent justice are two sides of the same medal.
believed in a life after death. The idea of the total loss of Animism, magic, theology, lack of categories such as
personality after death came into being as late as the era causality, chance and probability, etc. constitute this
of Enlightenment. Whereas 90% of the population in belief. In Piaget (1932) on the immanent justice, 86% of
current developing countries believe in the immortality the six-years-old, 73% of the seven-years-old, 54% of
of the soul, only about 50% of Europeans and Japanese the nine-and-ten-years-old and 34% of the eleven-and
share this belief; the other half denies it. Agnosticism twelve-years-old children supported these assumptions.
and atheism were born in the era of Enlightenment, too, Only the rise of formal operations eliminates finally this
having now conquered roughly the same percentages in odd link of nature and morals.
the most advanced countries (Oesterdiekhoff, 2015; PCCP found out that primitive peoples adhere to the
2007; 2011; 2013a; 2012a; 2013b). immanent justice lifelong, too. Moreover, this childlike
From Myths to Sciences reasoning bases the ordeals and oracles, spread right
across all pre-modern societies around the globe. The
The mental nutrition for children composed myths primitives used ordeals and oracles to decide over
and legends. They are keen on them by their eight years judicial questions of all kinds, but also for many
of life in modern societies. The children’s reasoning decisions regarding the planning of everyday activities.
abilities are still too weak to understand scientific The decisions of fire and water, poison and other objects
approaches (Piaget, 1975a; Werner, 1948). Numerous were regarded as true decisions about guilt and
ethnographers document the same phenomenon among innocence. The peoples did not believe in the testimony
primitive peoples. The primitives explain the world and of eyewitnesses and empirical proofs but rather in the
justify their daily activities by myths and legends holy decisions of the elements appealed in the judicial
(Lurija, 1982; Lurija and Vygotski, 1992; Lévy-Bruhl, ordeals. Tribal societies and agrarian civilizations around
1935). Scientific reasoning replaces the role of myths the globe used these ordeals roughly to the same rate.
and therefore, it removes religious expositions and The era of Enlightenment was the first in history that
justifications. The emergence of sciences took place two abolished these practices completely, of course, due to
times in history. The first rise was bound to the the rise of formal operations (Evans-Pritchard, 1937;
Hellenistic times (essentially 300-100 B.C.), the second Lévy-Bruhl, 1931; Hallpike, 1980; Oesterdiekhoff, 1997;
rise took place in Europe during the 17th and 18th 2009a; 2011; 2013b; 2013a).
centuries. The pre-scientific disciplines based on
theology, magic, animism and other features of the From Objective to Subjective Responsibility
childlike reasoning. The transition from alchemy to
chemistry, astrology to astronomy, magical medicine to Children have cognitive difficulties to discriminate
scientific medicine, theology to physics, etc., originated intentions from consequences or motives from outcomes.
during these two centuries. The rise of sciences in the They tend to conclude from bad consequences to bad
early modern times has therefore only one cause, the intentions or overlook the latter ones because they focus
breakthrough of the formal operations in the intellectual on the crucial things, that is, on the influential
elite of this age. Piaget himself did a lot to describe the consequences. The weak reasoning abilities hinder the
scientific revolution as a breakthrough of the formal children from the simultaneous recognition of several
operations. He clearly emphasized similarities between factors constituting occurrences. Piaget (1932) called this
pre-modern philosophy and sciences on the one side and phenomenon “objective responsibility”. According to his
the lower stages of cognition on the other side. Piaget own survey, modern children tend to forms of “subjective
and many of his followers have seen the breakthrough of responsibility” after their tenth year of life due to the rise
the formal operations as cause to the rise of sciences 350 of formal operations. Of course, the assignment to the two
years ago (Piaget, 1969; 1975a; Piaget and Garcia, 1989; forms depends highly on the complexity of the specific
Oesterdiekhoff, 2012a; 2013a). action or occurrence that is just under scrutiny.

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Piaget himself emphasized that the objective only by their flamboyant frame, not by their
responsibility is typical to the law of pre-modern constituting elements. Therefore, the analysis of their
societies, hereby following the related researches of culture and spirits is transferable to pre-modern
Fauconnet (1920). Numerous historians of law described cultures generally. The historical documents display
the transition from the “Erfolgshaftung” to the subjective that ancient people loved to see how women were
responsibility for generations. Both ancient legislation killed by beasts or burnt as torches, how hunches of
and trials often determine persons as guilty for damages delinquents slaughtered each other, etc. The state elite
they actually did not procure. They tend to punish sat in the first rows and the middle classes behind. The
homicides even then when the accused persons acted games stood in the centre of the ancient entertainment
unintentionally. Additionally, ancient law adheres to culture. If we heard in the TV news nowadays that the
ideas and practices manifesting collective responsibility. Congress had decided to set up an arena in Washington
Persons are charged and prosecuted for outcomes other to carry out gladiator fights, execution of delinquents
persons made. Incidentally, the trials against animals and fights between men and beasts, these news would
demonstrate fully that the people had enormous be more incredible than a broadcast about the landing
difficulties to understand motives and intentions properly. of some UFO in downtown London.
As late as the era of Enlightenment the law became The primitive psyche is the single cause to the
successful to some degree in practising the principles of existence of the arena games, the psychogenetic
subjective responsibility (Piaget, 1932; Hallpike, 2004; evolution is the single cause to its abolishment. Modern
Oesterdiekhoff, 1997; 2009a; 2009b; 2011; 2013a). humans could neither sustain nor enjoy these cruelties.
This example teaches us about the size and the depth of
From Savagery to Civilization the psychological distance between ancient and modern
According to Piaget (1932), the younger children man. Both types differ not only in their cognitive
always support severe punishments, whereas only the structures but in their psyche and personality generally
older children and teenagers demand a moderate (Oesterdiekhoff, 2009c; 2000; 2011; 2013a; 2012a).
relationship between faults and punishments. Only the Of course, ancient punishment law and arena games
older ones develop an understanding for intentions are only some of the many elements that document the
and errors, while the younger ones want to see lower level of morals and civilization in pre-modern
punished every misdeed. The younger ones demand societies. A Third of the pre-modern humankind right
revenge, the older ones prefer to accomplish social across the continents since the stone ages died from
integration and reconciliation. homicide, only one per mile in the today’s most
The history of the punishment law follows exactly advanced societies. The relation amounts then 1:333
this trend. The modern punishment law composed (Oesterdiekhoff, 2013a). Additionally, I remind the
largely imprisonment and payment, the pre-modern role of cannibalism, slavery and the maltreatment of
punishment wants to damage the delinquent’s body women and children, to broaden the perspective. The
mainly. Theft, robbery, kidnapping, betrayal, rebellion, era of Enlightenment and the following times have
insult, etc. are very often punished by death penalty. revealed higher stages of civilization, humanism and
Death penalty is often executed by hanging, decapitating, morals, originating in the rise of the adolescent stage
crucifying, drowning, tearing to pieces, burning, etc. The of formal operations (Hallpike, 2004; Porter, 2001;
execution is usually preceded by brutal tortures. The Rüsen, 2013; Elias, 1982).
ideas and practices of this sadistic punishment law are
very similar or nearly identical in tribal societies and The Evolution of State, Government and
agrarian civilizations around the globe since the stone Politics
ages. The Australian aborigines, the black Africans, the
ancient Chinese, the Islamic nations and the medieval From Authoritarianism to Democracy
Europeans practise these punishments more or less the The developmental psychology of the past 100 years
same way. The era of Enlightenment and the European found out that small children prefer authoritarian forms
colonialism in overseas were the first steps in world of social relations. The adherence to a law-and-order-
history to abolish this cruel punishment law. The state is intellectually easier than the consideration of the
primitive psyche is the single cause to this sadistic complex conditions constituting liberty rights and
system; the psychogenetic maturation is the single cause democratic principles. Small children see democracy as
to its abolishment (Oesterdiekhoff, 2011; 2012a; 2013a). chaos and a strict hierarchy as precondition to order. The
The Roman arena games consist of gladiator fights, rise of the adolescent stage of formal operations is
chases of animals and execution of delinquents. Duels, necessary to arouse the principles of democracy and
chases and liquidation of criminals are to find however constitutional state (Piaget, 1932; Selman, 1980; Damon,
in every pre-modern society. The Roman games differ 1983; Adelson and Bell, 1970; Tapp and Kohlberg,

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1971; Durio, 1976; Oesterdiekhoff, 2013b). Moreover, sadistic punishment law I outlined above. The same
developmental psychology is crucial for the combination of divine government and terrible civil
reconstruction of the history of political institutions, sphere is documented referring the pre-modern China,
customs and ideologies. Rosenberg et al. (1988) wrote India, medieval Europe and the Roman Empire.
that developmental psychology may deliver the main Piaget’s theory is therefore fundamental to the
theory of the political sciences: “We therefore conclude understanding of the political life of the pre-modern
that only genetic-epistemological theories currently world, as I detailed in my latest book more precisely
provide the psychological theory and cross-cultural as it is possible here (Oesterdiekhoff, 2013a).
validity (not to mention the normative support) required The historian Kern (1952) characterized the political
for a normative-psychological theory underlying a life of the medieval times with the same words Piaget
general political development.” used to describe the second stage. Both authors did not
Piaget (1932) delivered probably the first great know each other, though. Kern said medieval politics
contribution to the discovery of the cognitive- and legislation would combine a holy ideology and a
developmental origins of democracy. In his great
divine understanding of the political practice with an
analysis of the children’s marble game he discovered
actually dismal practice. Though, the political practice of
three stages of rules. The second stage consists both of
all pre-modern societies consists of corruption, violence,
the idea of the holy and unchangeable status of the rules
brutality, exploitation, lack of human rights, insecurity
and an egocentric and incompetent practice. The children
and waste of life to a horrible extent. Only the modern
aged 5-10 assume that the rules may exist for eternity,
constitutional state and the modern democracy have done
founded by god, ancestors, or elderly and not exposed to
a lot to improve social conditions, liberty rights, security
the changing will of players. However, the children this
and to guarantee welfare and peace. It is obvious that the
age have only a scanty knowledge of the rules and make
rise of the adolescent stage of formal operations, that is
many faults in applying them. The children of the third
the cognitive rise of social cognitions, empathy and
stage then, now belonging to the second decade of life,
surmount both the idea of the holy status and the bad morals, is the ultimate cause to the evolution of socio-
usage. They establish the idea and practice of the moral standards and to the improvements of the civil
democratic constitution of the rules and are keen on their sphere. The social life and the public affairs within the
proper and fair application to the same rate. modern societies base on the third stage Piaget described
PCCP found out that pre-modern peoples around the in 1932 (Oesterdiekhoff, 2009a; 2013a).
world are staying on the second stage of rule Consequently, the modern transformation to
understanding, when exposed to the related Piagetian test constitutional state, democracy and liberty rights does
procedures (Oesterdiekhoff, 2009a; 2013a). As not stem from changing class constellations but from the
surveys reveal abundantly, pre-modern peoples prefer will of the people to establish forms of freedom and
willingly authoritarian forms of political order and security. The era of Enlightenment worked out the ideas
reject democracy (Oesterdiekhoff, 2013b). Not social of democracy and constitutional state (especially Locke,
constellations and institutional powers cause therefore Montesquieu and Rousseau) because the rise of the
the universality of authoritarian forms such as adolescent stage of formal operations took place in the
monarchy, dictatorship, tyranny and aristocracy in the educated classes in the Western culture in this time, as I
pre-modern world but the will of the people itself, outlined above. The revolutions in the United States,
staying on the second stage. England and France erected democratic structures,
ending the pre-modern forms of government and
The Islamic nations of today (apart of Turkey) are
legislation in an unprecedented way. From this nucleus
more or less typical examples of the combination of the
both of psychogenetic evolution and democratic policy
divine status of the state and a simultaneous horrible
started these new forms of political life to conquer the
political practice. God or Mohammed themselves are whole world, not having yet accomplished this task by
believed to determine legislation and government, now (Oesterdiekhoff, 2009b; 2013b). Developmental
through their representatives such as kings, dictators, or psychology is therefore fundamental to the political
presidents. The civil sphere of these Islamic nations is sciences and to the reconstruction of the history of
however characterized by the maltreatment of all kinds political relations, civil life, government and
of civil rights, lack of freedom and security of people. A legislation. Whenever a whole population is staying
sufficient proof of this thesis lies in the fact that the on Piaget’s stage two, authoritarian political forms
Shari’a forms the centre of the Islam policy. The dominate, leaving no chance to democracy and liberty
political Islam believes that the execution of the Shari’a rights. Modern, formal-operational populations,
laws be eminent to erect the Islamic state, with all staying on stage three, would never accept
advantages such as peace, wealth, order and world dictatorship as they do not accept ancient laws of
dominance. The Shari’a however is nothing else than the punishment. Moreover, they may assume wrongly all

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DOI: 10.3844/jssp.2014.185.195

peoples would prefer democracy, at least deep in their question is that the Pleistocene hunters had not the
minds and hearts. However, surveys in pre-modern intellectual capacity as modern humans have. If we only
peoples and developmental research teach otherwise. removed (in a theoretical consideration) the fatal effects
stemming from magic, as a part of the pre-operational
From Serfdom and Slavery to Liberty and
stage, or cannibalism, from the hunter’s psyche, he would
Egalitarianism have propagated much stronger. Consequently, the fact of
Serfdom and slavery go back to pre-history and the pre-operational stage of the Pleistocene man is the
lasted up to the beginning of modern times, up to the era main cause to his weak spread on earth and to the length
of Enlightenment and to the rise of modern society right of the Pleistocene era. Developmental psychology sheds
across the continents during the past two centuries. therefore a new light on the Pleistocene and the Neolithic
Slavery and serfdom existed among the natives of pre- eras (Oesterdiekhoff, 2013b; 2011; 2012b).
Columbian America, among the ancient Germans, in The lower psychoneurological stages account also for
Black Africa, China, India, Russia and Greek-Roman some main characteristics of the subsequent village
antiquity. The first nations to abolish slavery and societies and agrarian civilizations as I outlined
serfdom were the European nations around 1800 and elsewhere. Though, the shortage of place here forces to
later on. Not changes of economy and social structure focus on one of the main interesting research questions
forced the Royal Navy to ban the slave trade on the of the social sciences, namely the question into the
oceans but the humanistic ideas born in the era of causes of the rise of the modern, industrial society. The
Enlightenment. The same cognitive revolution that facts show that the whole pre-modern humankind stood
originated the ideas of political democracy supported the on childlike anthropological stages, whereas only the
ideas concerning liberty and freedom, banning all forms modern populations developed the adolescent stage of
of serfdom and slavery. The revolution of morals and formal operations. This phenomenon suffices alone to
humanism surmounted the barbarian social relations emphasize the role of the psychogenetic evolution to the
existing for millennia around the globe. To say it clearly, rise of modern society.
the psychogenetic evolution of formal operations is the When we think about the main characteristics of the
ultimate cause to the abolishment of primitive social modern, industrial society we have to consider causes
relations such as slavery and serfdom (Porter, 2001; and nature of “industrialism”, “sciences”,
Oesterdiekhoff, 2013a; 2009a). “Enlightenment”, “humanism” and “democracy”. All
these five main features of the modern, industrial society
Social Change and the Rise of Modern, came into being in the same culture and in the same era,
namely in the Western culture after 1700. Their co-
Industrial Society
evolution cannot be accidental but has to be rooted in the
Man spent most of his time on the planet, roughly same source. “Enlightenment”, “sciences” and
200.000 years, as hunter and gatherer, before he changed “humanism” are not material and institutional
to agriculture, cattle breeding, housing and village life. phenomena but intellectual phenomena, moreover such,
Since 1965 roughly, the research on the agrarian which manifest a cognitive evolution or progress.
transformation in the Neolithic era earmarks mainly the Therefore, it is already at first glance probable that also
increasing population growth and density as main or the two other main features, “industrialism” and
single cause to this decisive socio-economic “democracy”, had cognitive origins.
transformation. Around 10.000 B.C., the world I outlined above that Piagetian research described the
population grew to 5-10 millions (Oesterdiekhoff, 1993; rise of formal operations as the cause to the rise of
2005). The question arises why did the humankind need sciences in the early modern era. As Jacob (1997)
200.000 years to fill the continents with a number that evidenced, the new physical sciences such as chemistry
makes now only a part of Moscow? Had every stone and physics gave birth to the industrial technologies such
age-woman born and raised children only a little bit as the steam engine of Watt and Boulton. Watt was a
more successful than the humankind would have reached scientist belonging to the top elite of researchers of his
the critical mass of 10 millions shortly after the time. The steam engine, characterizing the difference
origination of the species. The necessity to change the between pre-industrial and industrial society, was
systems of production would have arisen 200.000 years beyond the technological possibilities of Asia and
earlier than it actually did. The whole chain of agrarian Greek-Roman antiquity as well. Besides, “sciences” are
and industrial transformations would have taken place only one of the many manifestations of the formal
earlier. The human species had obviously severe operations causing and carrying industrial economy
problems in mastering nature and social life. When (Oesterdiekhoff, 2011; 2013a; 2012a). The rise of the era
biologists leave some rats on a new continent spread of Enlightenment is rooted in the rise of formal
they probably more successfully. The answer to the operations, too. The enlightened scholars fought against

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DOI: 10.3844/jssp.2014.185.195

magic, superstition and religion on the one side and Weber and É. Durkheim, J. Lubbock and H. Spencer, E.
against slavery, exploitation and tyranny on the other Tylor and some other authors. However, the new theory
side. It needs no commentary that the emergence of the earmarks the decisive phenomena much more exactly
era of Enlightenment evidences the rise of the formal than all these preceding approaches had already done.
operations in the educated classes. Moreover, while the
rise of the natural sciences documents the rise of formal Conclusion
operations in the realm of physics, the rise of the era of
My new theory, developed in the past 30 years and
Enlightenment indicates also the rise of the adolescent
named “structure-genetic sociology”, has accomplished
stage in the area of socio-moral judgments and
the life task and life work of Jean Piaget. It has finished
sentiments. This leads automatically to the consideration
the work Piaget started and aimed to do. Current
of the phenomenon “humanism”. As I displayed above,
developmental psychologists usually do not know what
the abolishment of the brutal punishment law, slavery every (!) classical developmental psychologist had
and feudalism around 1800 was rooted in the rise of the already known, namely, that developmental psychology
adolescent stage of formal operations, thus including the concerns not only children but also the primitives (the
rise of socio-moral standards, empathy and emotions. humankind). I have shown that developmental
Moreover, this rise of humanism and socio-moral psychology is the fundamental psychology to understand
standards forced the humans to establish social rules and humans and societies right across history and continents.
moral codes that ban all forms of political tyranny. Developmental psychology and Völkerpsychologie are
Humans on higher stages manifest higher stages of self- synonyms. Developmental psychology is the most
respect and respect of others, dignity, freedom and fundamental historical anthropology, historical
security. They do not want treat other persons as slaves psychology, or micro-sociology. Without developmental
and do not want to be treated themselves this way. I psychology it is impossible to understand human’s
showed above sufficiently that the emergence of formal psyche and behaviour in history and culture.
operations originated the rise of democracy. Humans on Moreover, developmental psychology is necessary
childlike stages prefer authoritarian forms, whereas to reconstruct human’s history on earth and social
humans, staying on the fourth stage, demand elaborate change and social evolution from the Neolithic era to
forms of social and political life, that is, constitutional modern times. It explains the length of the stone ages,
state and democracy, freedom and liberty rights. the peculiarities of pre-modern societies and the rise
The rise of formal operations having taken place of the modern era.
during the early modern times originated industrialism, The fact of the childlike stage of primitive humans
sciences, humanism, Enlightenment and democracy. and of the anthropological rise of modern humans for 5,
Developmental psychology is able to explain the 10, or more years is the most fundamental, fascinating
inherent link between these five phenomena and and surprising phenomenon the social sciences and the
therefore, why these five phenomena came into being at humanities have ever raised in their history. Current
the same time and in the same culture or region. The social sciences know nothing about this phenomenon
traditional sociology has no tools available to explain the although the great researchers especially of the Twenties
common features of these five phenomena and therefore, and Thirties of the past century worked in the direction
to understand these coherences. The philologist
why they emerged at the same time and in the same
Schneider (1909) prognosticated that the discovery of
place. These considerations lead to the conclusion that
the role of developmental psychology to the humanities
the rise of anthropological summits for 5, 10, or even would revolutionize them and bring them on a higher
more years and the rise of modern, industrial society are level comparable to that of the biology in consequence
two parts of the same medal. Humans staying on of Darwin’s revolution. Developmental psychology and
childlike stages live in pre-modern societies; humans evolutionary cultural anthropology originated
erecting the fourth stage of human development build up somewhat in Darwinian theoretical circles. Darwin
the modern, industrial society, thus establishing the (1998) himself demanded a evolutionary theory of
greatest transformation of society and culture since the mind, already hinting to the possibilities child
Neolithic times (Oesterdiekhoff, 2011; 2013a; 2012a). psychology could offer and assuming ancient man
My theory of the rise of modern society express a might have been more childlike than modern man. He
considerable improvement of ideas Piaget, Habermas, even contended that the Roman games would reveal
Hallpike and Ziégler had already formulated. Moreover, lower anthropological stages of cognition and morals, a
it shares basis thoughts A. Comte and N. Elias had phenomenon, I evidenced clearly above.
written down. Both classical authors had contended a Therefore, I actually regard my structure-genetic
tight relationship between psychogenesis and the rise of sociology as that theory programme that founded social
modern society. My theory also shares ideas of M. sciences and humanities on new pillars, stronger and

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DOI: 10.3844/jssp.2014.185.195

higher erecting from the swamp of mere opinions than Eckensberger, L., W.J. Lonner and Y.H. Poortinga, 1979.
the current streams of theories are expressing. The new Cross-Cultural Contributions to Psychology. 1st Edn.,
theory programme bases simultaneously on ethnology, Garland Science, ISBN-10: 9026503008, pp: 441.
sociology, psychology and history as the classical Elias, N., 1982. Power and Civility. 1st Edn., Pantheon,
theories of Comte, Durkheim, Lubbock and Spencer New York, ISBN-10: 0394527690, pp: 376.
did, as additionally at least partly the theories of Weber Evans-Pritchard, E.E., 1937. Witchcraft, Oracles and
and Elias did. An encompassing and thorough theory of Magic Among the Azande. 1st Edn., University
the development of humankind and culture has to be Press, Oxford.
built on these four disciplines; otherwise it fails Fauconnet, P., 1920. La Résponsabilité. 1st Edn.,
certainly. The sociological and ethnological theories of
Alcan, Paris.
the past 50 years did not base on these broad and
Feuerbach, L., 1985. The Essence of Christianity. 1st
necessary disciplines but on tight approaches and
Edn., Harper and Collins, New York.
misinterpreted knowledge. In this essay, I outlined the
alternative and the remedies necessary for a recovery of Flynn, J., 2007. What is Intelligence? 1st Edn.,
the social sciences and humanities from the University Press, Cambridge.
Dornröschenschlaf of the past generations. Structure- Gablik, S., 1976. Progress in Art. 1st Edn., Thames and
genetic sociology or developmental psychology is not Hudson, London.
only necessary for the recovery of the four disciplines Habermas, J., 1976. Zur Rekonstruktion des
mentioned but for all historical disciplines, for nearly Historischen Materialismus. 1st Edn., Suhrkamp
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Funding Information pp: 530.
Hallpike, C., 2004. The Evolution of Moral
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Jacob, M.C., 1997. Scientific Culture and the Making of
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