Hazards of Harmonics and

Neutral Overloads

White Paper 26
Revision 1

by Neil Rasmussen

Contents
> Executive summary Click on a section to jump to it

Introduction 2
This document provides an overview of problems
related to harmonic currents, with a specific focus on Consequences of the 3
Information Technology equipment. The way that standards on actual systems
international regulations solved these problems is
described. Conclusion 6

Resources 7

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 Hazards of Harmonics and Neutral Overloads

Introduction Nonlinear loads cause harmonics to flow in the power lines. Harmonics are unwanted
currents that are multiples of the fundamental line frequency (50 or 60 Hz). Harmonic
currents can overload wiring and transformers, creating heat and, in extreme cases, fire. In
information technology power systems it is important to know when and how to address this
issue. Recently, the problem has been widely eliminated by international regulations.

Nonlinear loads
Many desktop personal computers present a nonlinear load to the AC supply. This is
because they have a power supply design known as a "capacitor input switch mode power
supply".

Information technology equipment including servers, routers, hubs, and storage systems
almost universally use a different power supply design known as "Power Factor Corrected".
These devices present a very linear load to the AC supply and do not generate harmonic
currents. In fact they are one of the cleanest loads on the power grid and generate less
harmonic current than many other devices such as fluorescent lighting or variable speed
motors. Ten years ago, these devices were nonlinear loads like personal computers, but
today all of these loads are subject to international regulations which require them to be
made with the "Power Factor Corrected" design.

Regulations
There is a significant interest on the part of society to reduce the amount of nonlinear loading
on AC power systems. This loading reduces the distribution capacity of the public power
system, and it can degrade the quality of the power by distorting the AC power waveform
delivered to nearby customers. It can also cause a risk of fire on a customer's premises.

In the 1980s, public utilities and international regulatory authorities including the IEC (Interna-
tional Electrotechnical Commission) took notice of the trend that an increasing percentage of
electrical power consumption was caused by electrical equipment, and that an increasing
percentage of this equipment used a "capacitor input switch mode power supply". Fluores-
cent lighting, high performance air conditioning systems, and personal computers were key
product categories driving this change. In response the IEC created in 1982 the international
standard IEC 555-2 "Harmonic injection into the AC Mains". This standard specifically limited
harmonic current injection of "non-professional" equipment. Switzerland, Japan, and other
countries adopted the IEC 555 standard soon after release.

Global suppliers of computing products first began to see a restriction on the ability to sell
computers into countries that had adopted IEC 555-2 in the mid 1980's. This situation
precipitated the development of Power Factor Corrected power supply technology.

In 1995, the IEC introduced an update of the IEC 555-2 standard, called IEC 1000-3-2. In
IEC 1000-3-2 the scope of applicability was greatly expanded over IEC 555-2 to cover all
equipment drawing up to 16 Amps per phase. The standard added additional limitations on
both the absolute and percentage values of harmonics for products with nonlinear switch
mode power supplies. Many countries outside of the US and the EC adopted this standard.
The EC adopted its own version of this standard later in 1995 as EN61000-3-2 and required
equipment manufacturers to comply with the standard under an EC directive called “The EMC
Directive". This directive gave manufacturers until 1998 to comply for existing product
designs. Later, the EC further extended this deadline to Jan 1, 2001.

The standard limits harmonic current injection as follows:

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 Hazards of Harmonics and Neutral Overloads

Maximum permissible
Harmonic harmonic current per watt
(ma/W)
3 3.4
Table 1
5 1.9
IEC limits on harmonic
current injection
7 1

9 0.5

11 0.35

Other odd harmonics up to 39 3.85/n

By 1995, almost all new computer equipment introduced for networks and communication
was in compliance with IEC 1000-3-2. Even though not all countries had adopted the
standard immediately, the standard represented a formidable trade barrier for companies that
delayed compliance. Computer OEMs were almost universally specifying IEC 1000-3-2
compliance for OEM equipment intended for system integration. This caused virtually 100%
of the IT industry to come into compliance well before the Jan 1, 2001 deadline or even the
original 1998 deadline.

The USA has proposed an amendment called "amendment 14" to the standard which would
weaken the standard and allow more harmonics. It is not clear which countries will adopt this
amendment.

Products for sale in the EC and many countries must meet the EN61000-3-2 standard. The
US has not formally adopted this standard. Information technology equipment manufac-
tured today is universally designed for worldwide application and therefore requires the CE
mark and must meet the IEC standard. Therefore, IT equipment other than small PCs
universally complies with the standard (non-compliant PCs are still sold in the USA). Over
the past 5 years, due to the natural change-out of equipment with newer models, harmonics
have practically been eliminated in the data center environment.

Consequences of A system comprising equipment meeting the IEC 1000-3-2 standard will have the following

the standards on characteristics:

actual systems 1. The harmonic current in the neutral circuit will have the currents resulting from the
higher harmonics reduced to the point where less than 2% per unit of the current will
be due to harmonics greater than the third harmonic, the consequence being that all
harmonics other than the third can be neglected for neutral current contribution.
2. The "K" factor of the system has a theoretical maximum value of 9, but only if no loads
are above 675 W. If there are larger loads, then the theoretical maximum "K" factor is
reduced: For example, with 2 kW loads the maximum "K" factor is 3.
3. The theoretical maximum neutral current will be 1.7 of the rated phase current value, if
all circuits are loaded to max rating, no loads are above 675 W, and all loads are gen-
erating third harmonic at the compliance limit. If there are larger loads, then the theo-

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 Hazards of Harmonics and Neutral Overloads

retical maximum neutral current is reduced: For example, with 2 kW loads the theoret-
ical maximum neutral current is less than the phase current.

In a practical system, the harmonic currents will be lower than the theoretical values for the
following reasons:

1. Manufacturers must meet the regulations over wide ranges of voltage, manufacturing
tolerances, and load, the result being that actual products are well below the compli-
ance limits at typical operating conditions.
2. Some loads are connected phase-to-phase (particularly in the USA), and therefore do
not contribute to the neutral current

Tests were conducted on actual systems to determine the K-factor and neutral current
requirements. Two test systems were used. System 1 consisted of an assortment of Dell
equipment including 4 different servers, a tape library, and a Network Attached Storage
System (similar results are obtained with other brands of equipment). System 2 consisted of
all PC loads. Measurements of the harmonic currents were taken with a Fluke Power Line
Analyzer. The K-factor was computed using IEEE Std 1100-1992. The neutral current
ampacity sizing factor was computed for a 3-phase system loaded to maximum capacity.
The results are presented below in Table 2.
Table 2
Test results

System 1: Dell System 2: System 3: 50-50 mix of

networking personal networking equipment and
equipment computers personal computers

K-factor 1.2 11.4 5.2

Neutral sizing (current requirement as %

8% 102% 42%
of phase conductor)

Note the tremendous difference between PCs and networking equipment. Note that when
PCs and networking equipment are mixed, the K-factor and neutral sizing requirements are
reduced from the PC value. This data shows that it is almost impossible to construct an
Information Technology data center requiring a "K" rating of over 5, or requiring a neutral
current rating in excess of the phase current rating. In the case of a data system constructed
purely of PCs, it is possible to drive a K-factor requirement of 11 but neutral oversizing is still
unnecessary.

How harmonics overload the neutral wiring in buildings and create a

potential fire hazard.
3-phase building wiring consists of 3 hot (or phase) conductors, a ground conductor, and a
neutral conductor. Single phase loads are connected between the different hot conductors
and the neutral conductor. Therefore, the neutral conductor serves as the "common" return
for all of the single phase load currents. It is a property of three phase power systems that if
each of the three hot conductors has a nearly equivalent load, that the neutral current will be
nearly zero due to the fact that each phase current is "out of phase" with the other. In other
words, the load currents "cancel out" in the neutral wire. In North America, sometimes the
building wiring design takes advantage of the cancellation and the neutral wire is sized
smaller than the hot wires. Unfortunately, the harmonic currents created by computers cause

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 Hazards of Harmonics and Neutral Overloads

the operation of this system to change. Computers generate a substantial amount of 3rd
harmonic current. Due to the mathematical phase properties, third harmonic currents add
instead of cancel out on the neutral wire. Therefore, in a building with a large number of
Personal Computers installed, the neutral wire can carry much higher currents than it was
designed for. In fact, the harmonic current alone in the neutral wire can, in theory, be up to
1.7 times larger than the full rated current of the power wiring. This is the most critical
problem relating to harmonics and PCs. Note that the data above shows that while it is
unlikely for the neutral current to exceed the phase current, the neutral current can reach the
phase current value in a PC environment. For this reason it is essential that neutral undersiz-
ing never be used in an office environment.

This problem is not unique to PCs, since there are other loads like fluorescent lighting
ballasts that also are nonlinear. However, this problem is no longer significant in data
centers due to the regulations requiring Power Factor Corrected equipment. (Note that most
buildings do use three phase wiring, even though all of the receptacles may be single phase).

Harmonics overload building power transformers and cause them to

wear out.
Power transformers are rated in KVA and are designed to carry currents at the power line
frequency (50 or 60 Hz). The factor that limits the power handling capacity of a transformer is
how hot it gets. The heat in a transformer is caused by the inherent resistance of the
transformer and the current carried by it. When a power transformer carries harmonic
currents, an effect known as the proximity effect (sometimes confused with the eddy current
effect) causes the effective resistance of the transformer to increase with frequency. The
result is that the transformer rating must be decreased if the transformer carries significant
harmonic currents, otherwise it will overheat and wear out due to insulation degradation.
Transformer failures are often catastrophic and emit noxious fumes or fire; they can result in
facility closure for days and a variety of health and safety consequences.

For this to be a problem, three things must happen together: 1) The transformer must be
loaded nearly to capacity (unusual); 2) The transformer must have a poor "K" factor rating
(bad proximity effect design); and 3) The load in the building must be mainly PCs. This is a
real potential problem especially in situations where a large number of PCs have been
deployed. Again, the location for concern is typically an office environment with high PC
density such as a call center. The problem is no longer of concern in the data center
environment as explained previously.

Abatement and mitigation of harmonic problems

There are a number of approaches to avoiding harmonic problems. These include:

1. Specifying equipment that does not create harmonics

2. Correcting harmonics
3. Oversizing neutral wiring
4. K-rated transformers

Specifying equipment that does not create harmonics

In the case of networking equipment, the problem is solved because of the IEC regulations.
In the case of PCs, it is more difficult since a large amount of the harmonic contribution
comes from the monitor. One approach is to use PCs and monitors with lower power draw
overall, such as the use of LCD monitors or laptop PCs. This avoids both building wiring and
transformer problems.

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 Hazards of Harmonics and Neutral Overloads

Correcting harmonics
If a UPS is used in conjunction with the equipment, then in some cases the UPS can correct
or eliminate the harmonics. Some single phase UPS like the Symmetra eliminates neutral
current entirely. If a power factor correcting UPS is used to power clusters of PCs, the
harmonics problem cannot pass upstream to the building wiring or power transformers. This
approach has the advantage that it can be retrofit to an existing building, and used with
existing loads. It also corrects both the wiring and the transformer issues. For other types of
loads, such as large industrial motor drives which are not covered by the harmonic regula-
tions, specialized products are available that can absorb harmonics near the source.

Oversizing neutral wiring

In modern facilities the neutral wring should always be specified to be the same capacity as
the power wiring (or larger). This is in contrast the electrical codes which may permit
undersizing the neutral wire. An appropriate design in the case of a large personal computer
load like a call center is to specify the neutral wiring to exceed the phase wire capacity by
about 50% (2 wire gauges in USA i.e. if the phase wiring is 8-gauge, the neutral wiring should
be 6-gauge). Particular attention should be paid to wiring in office cubicles. This protects the
building wiring, but does not help protect the transformers.

K-rated transformers
Modern office facilities with high densities of PCs should always be specified to include
transformers with a "K" rating of at least 9. These transformers have been specially designed
to withstand harmonic currents. For data centers, a "K" rating of 9 would be sufficient to
ensure harmonic carrying capability for the fraction of the data center consisting of old legacy
loads, PC loads, or lighting loads.

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 Hazards of Harmonics and Neutral Overloads

Conclusion International regulations have dramatically affected the power requirements for computing
systems. Networking equipment, once rightly accused of "power pollution" and of causing
fires due to overheated transformers and wiring, have transformed into one of the "cleanest"
loads to be found in a modern commercial or industrial establishment. Data center design
standards specifying double neutrals or transformers with K=20 ratings are driving needless
expense and should be updated.

About the author

Neil Rasmussen is a Senior VP of Innovation for Schneider Electric. He establishes the
technology direction for the world’s largest R&D budget devoted to power, cooling, and rack
infrastructure for critical networks.

Neil holds 19 patents related to high-efficiency and high-density data center power and cooling
infrastructure, and has published over 50 white papers related to power and cooling systems,
many published in more than 10 languages, most recently with a focus on the improvement of
energy efficiency. He is an internationally recognized keynote speaker on the subject of high-
efficiency data centers. Neil is currently working to advance the science of high-efficiency,
high-density, scalable data center infrastructure solutions and is a principal architect of the APC
InfraStruXure system.

Prior to founding APC in 1981, Neil received his bachelors and masters degrees from MIT in
electrical engineering, where he did his thesis on the analysis of a 200MW power supply for a
tokamak fusion reactor. From 1979 to 1981 he worked at MIT Lincoln Laboratories on flywheel
energy storage systems and solar electric power systems.

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 Hazards of Harmonics and Neutral Overloads

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