PSY001 NOTES

Introduction to Psychology

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

What is Psychology?

Description:

 scientific study of mind and behavior

 The word “psychology” comes from the Greek words “psyche,” (life) and “logos,”
(explanation)
 Psychologists are actively involved in studying and understanding mental processes,
brain functions, and behavior.
 It encompasses the biological influences, social pressures, and environmental
factors that affect how people think, act, and feel.
- Psychology is a popular major for students, a popular topic in the public media,
and a part of our everyday lives. Television shows such as Dr. Phil feature
psychologists who provide personal advice to those with personal or family
difficulties. Crime dramas such as CSI, Lie to Me, and others feature the work of
forensic psychologists who use psychological principles to help solve crimes.
And many people have direct knowledge about psychology because they have
visited psychologists, for instance, school counselors, family therapists, and
religious, marriage, or bereavement counselors.

Where do psychologists work?

 research laboratories, hospitals, and other field settings where they study the
behavior of humans and animals
 schools and businesses
- Psychology Department at the University of Maryland study such diverse topics
as anxiety in children, the interpretation of dreams, the effects of caffeine on
thinking, how birds recognize each other, how praying mantises hear, how
people from different cultures react differently in negotiation, and the factors
that lead people to engage in terrorism.
 - Other psychologists study such topics as alcohol and drug addiction, memory,
emotion, hypnosis, love, what makes people aggressive or helpful, and the
psychologies of politics, prejudice, culture, and religion.

What are the methods used?

 They use a variety of methods, including observation, questionnaires, interviews,

and laboratory studies, to help them understand behavior.

1.1 Psychology as a Science

Scientific Methods

Despite the differences in their interests, areas of study, and approaches, all psychologists
have one thing in common: They rely on scientific methods.

Research Psychologists

- use scientific methods to create new knowledge about the causes of behavior
Psychologist-Practitioners

- such as clinical, counseling, industrial-organizational, and school psychologists, use

existing research to enhance the everyday life of others. The science of psychology is
important for both researchers and practitioners.

ADDITIONAL

In a sense all humans are scientists. We all have an interest in asking and answering
questions about our world. We want to know why things happen, when and if they are
likely to happen again, and how to reproduce or change them. Such knowledge enables us
to predict our own behavior and that of others. We may even collect data (i.e., any
information collected through formal observation or measurement ) to aid us in this
undertaking. It has been argued that people are “everyday scientists” who conduct
research projects to answer questions about behavior (Nisbett & Ross, 1980).

EX. When we perform poorly on an important test, we try to understand what caused our
failure to remember or understand the material and what might help us do better the next
time. When our good friends Monisha and Charlie break up, despite the fact that they
appeared to have a relationship made in heaven, we try to determine what happened.
When we contemplate the rise of terrorist acts around the world, we try to investigate the
causes of this problem by looking at the terrorists themselves, the situation around them,
and others’ responses to them.
Do you believe that all humans are scientists?

➢ Problem of Intuition

ADDITIONAL: The results of these “everyday” research projects can teach us many
principles of human behavior. We learn through experience that if we give someone bad
news, he or she may blame us even though the news was not our fault. We learn that people
may become depressed after they fail at an important task. We see that aggressive
behavior occurs frequently in our society, and we develop theories to explain why this is so.

- is a popular topic in psychology these days, and generally refers to a brain process
that gives people the ability to make decisions without the use of analytical
reasoning, 
o The problem, however, with the way people collect and interpret data in
their everyday lives is that are not always particularly thorough.
- Often, when one explanation for an event seems “right,” we adopt that explanation
as the truth even when other explanations are possible and potentially more
accurate.
o For example, eyewitnesses to violent crimes are often extremely confident in
their identifications of the perpetrators of these crimes. But research finds
that eyewitnesses are no less confident in their identifications when they are
incorrect than when they are correct. In summary, accepting explanations for
events without testing them thoroughly may lead us to think that we know
the causes of things when we really do not.
- Once we learn about the outcome of a given event (e.g., when we read about the
results of a research project), we frequently believe that we would have been able
to predict the outcome ahead of time.
o The problem is that just reading a description of research findings leads us
to think of the many cases we know that support the findings, and thus
makes them seem believable. The tendency to think that we could have
predicted something that has already occurred that we probably would not
have been able to predict is called
o Hindsight bias is a psychological phenomenon that allows people to convince
themselves after an event that they accurately predicted it before it
happened.

➢ Why Psychologists Rely on Empirical Methods

All scientists, whether they are physicists, chemists, biologists, sociologists, or

psychologists, use empirical methods to study the topics that interest them.
 - Empirical Method- processes of collecting and organizing data and drawing
conclusions about those data
o The empirical methods used by scientists provide a basis for collecting,
analyzing, and interpreting data within a common framework in which
information can be shared.
- Scientific Method- set of assumptions, rules, and procedures that scientists use to
conduct empirical research.

Although scientific research is an important method of studying human behavior, not all
questions can be answered using scientific approaches. Statements that cannot be
objectively measured or objectively determined to be true or false are not within the
domain of scientific inquiry. Scientists therefore draw a distinction between personal
values and scientific facts.

Research can sometimes provide facts that can help people develop their values

VALUES (subjective)

 personal statements
 cannot be considered to be either true or false, science cannot prove or disprove
them

Example:

It is important to quit smoking

FACTS

 objective statements
 when old facts are discarded, they are replaced with new facts based on newer and
more correct data

Example:

Smoking increases the incidence of cancer and heart disease

Although scientists use research to help establish facts, the distinction between values and
facts is not always clear-cut. Sometimes statements that scientists consider to be factual
later, on the basis of further research, turn out to be partially or even entirely incorrect.
Although scientific procedures do not necessarily guarantee that the answers to questions
will be objective and unbiased.
Levels of Explanation in Psychology

Topic: DEPRESSION

➢ Lower levels of explanation – (biological) tied to biological (life and living) influences,
such as genes, neurons, neurotransmitters, and hormones

- Studying and helping depression can be accomplished at low levels of explanation

by investigating how chemicals in the brain influence the experience of depression.
This approach has allowed psychologists to develop and prescribe drugs which may
decrease depression in many individuals

➢ Middle levels of explanation – (Interpersonal) refer to the abilities and characteristics of

individual people

- At the middle levels of explanation, psychological therapy is directed at helping

individuals cope with negative life experiences that may cause depression.

➢ Highest levels of explanation – (cultural and social) relate to social groups,

organizations, and cultures

- And at the highest level, psychologists study differences in the prevalence of

depression between men and women and across cultures. The occurrence of
psychological disorders, including depression, is substantially higher for women
than for men, and it is also higher in Western cultures, such as in the United States,
Canada, and Europe, than in Eastern cultures, such as in India, China, and Japan.
These sex and cultural differences provide insight into the factors that cause
depression.

The study of depression in psychology helps remind us that no one level of explanation can
explain everything. All levels of explanation, from biological to personal to cultural, are
essential for a better understanding of human behavior.

Challenges of Studying Psychology

Understanding and attempting to alleviate the costs of psychological disorders such as

depression is not easy, because psychological experiences are extremely complex.

➢ Major Goal of Psychology - to predict behavior by understanding its causes

- Making predictions is difficult in part because people vary and respond differently
in different situations.
➢ Individual differences - variations among people on physical or psychological
dimensions

- For instance, although many people experience at least some symptoms of

depression at some times in their lives, the experience varies dramatically among
people. Some people experience major negative events, such as severe physical
injuries or the loss of significant others, without experiencing much depression,
whereas other people experience severe depression for no apparent reason.

Because of the many individual difference variables that influence behavior, we cannot
always predict who will become aggressive or who will perform best in graduate school or
on the job.

➢ CONS of Predictions:

- predictions made by psychologists (and most other scientists) are only

probabilistic. They cannot make very accurate predictions about exactly how any
one person will perform.
- almost all behavior is multiply determined, or produced by many factors. You
should always be skeptical about people who attempt to explain important
human behaviors, such as violence, child abuse, poverty, anxiety, or depression,
in terms of a single cause.
- multiple causes are not independent of one another. They are associated such
that when one cause is present other causes tend to be present as well. This
overlap makes it difficult to pinpoint which cause or causes are operating.
o For instance, some people may be depressed because of biological
imbalances in neurotransmitters in their brain. The resulting depression
may lead them to act more negatively toward other people around them,
which then leads those other people to respond more negatively to them,
which then increases their depression. As a result, the biological
determinants of depression become intertwined with the social
responses of other people, making it difficult to disentangle the effects of
each cause.

➢ Another difficulty in studying psychology is that much Human behavior is caused by

factors that are outside our conscious awareness, making it impossible for us, as
individuals, to really understand them.

- The role of unconscious processes was emphasized in the theorizing of the

Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud (1856–1939), who argued that many
psychological disorders were caused by memories that we have repressed and
thus remain outside our consciousness. Unconscious processes will be an
 important part of our study of psychology, and we will see that current research
has supported many of Freud’s ideas about the importance of the unconscious
in guiding behavior.

1.2 The Evolution of Psychology: History, Approaches, and Questions

School of psychology Description Important

(school of thought) contributors

Structuralism Uses the method of introspection to identify the Wilhelm Wundt,

basic elements or “structures” of psychological Edward B. Titchener
experience

Functionalism Attempts to understand why animals and William James

humans have developed the particular
psychological aspects that they currently
possess

Psychodynamic Focuses on the role of our unconscious thoughts, Sigmund Freud, Carl
feelings, and memories and our early childhood Jung, Alfred Adler,
experiences in determining behavior Erik Erickson

Behaviorism Based on the premise that it is not possible to John B. Watson, B. F.

objectively study the mind, and therefore that Skinner
psychologists should limit their attention to the
study of behavior itself

Cognitive The study of mental processes, including Hermann

perception, thinking, memory, and judgments Ebbinghaus, Sir
Frederic Bartlett,
Jean Piaget

Social-cultural The study of how the social situations and the Fritz Heider, Leon
cultures in which people find themselves Festinger, Stanley
influence thinking and behavior Schachter
Table 1.2 The Most Important Approaches (Schools) of Psychology

Figure 1.5 Timeline Showing Some of the Most Important Psychologist

Cont. of Figure 1.5 Timeline Showing Some of the Most Important Psychologist

PROBLEM

Most important questions that psychologists address have remained constant

Nature versus Nurture

- Most scientists now agree that both genes and environment play crucial roles in
most human behaviors
- Biological factors and environmental factors
- Nature, refers to all of the genes and hereditary factors that influence who we
are—from our physical appearance to our personality characteristics.
- The proportion of the observed differences on characteristics among people
(e.g., in terms of their height, intelligence, or optimism) that is due to genetics is
known as the HERITABILITY
- Nurture refers to all the environmental variables that impact who we are,
including our early childhood experiences, how we were raised, our social
relationships, and our surrounding culture.

Free will versus Determinism

- Free will is the ability to make a choice when other options are present. Nothing
is predetermined. Instead, we create our own destiny and  have the power to
make any decision at any given time. 
- Able to do what we want
- Determinism is the idea that we have no  control over our actions. Instead,
internal and  external factors determine the choices that we make. Our behavior
is completely predictable. We have no sense of personal responsibility, because
all of our actions are dictated by other things. 
- Belief-Desire-Temperament= Action
You believe  that a backpack would be a worthy investment and that it is
superior to another type of bag. You desire  a backpack for yourself after
carrying around a ripped bag and seeing everyone at work with nice
backpacks. At the time you decide to buy, your temperament  is pleasant and
you’re in the mood to do some shopping. 

Accuracy versus Inaccuracy

- Human judgment is sometimes compromised by inaccuracies in our thinking

styles and by our motivations and emotions.
- Our judgment may be affected by our desires to gain material wealth and to see
ourselves positively and by emotional responses to the events that happen to us.
Conscious versus Unconscious processing

- Many of the major theories of psychology, ranging from Freudian

psychodynamic theories, argue that much of our behavior is determined by
variables that we are not aware of.

Differences versus Similarities

- Are people around the world generally the same, or are they influenced by their
backgrounds and environments in different ways?

EARLY PSYCHOLOGISTS

PLATO (nature side)

- the living got a certain kind of knowledge are inmate or inborn

ARISTOTLE (nurture side)

- Nurture refers (Aristotle side)the living of each child is born as an empty slate
(Latin: tabula rasa- is the theory that individuals are born without built-in
mental content, and therefore all knowledge comes from experience or
perception.), ang mga bata ay nalalagyan ng empty slate as they grow,
naiimpluwensyahan sya by surroundings.
- Nakukuha ang knowledge through learning and experience, hindi katulad ng kay
plato, na magaling ka agad in born

RENE DESCARTES (free will)

- He believed na nageexist ang inmate and natural abilities, one of the scientist,
nagdisect ng animals, and first person to understand na ang mga nerves
controlled our muscles. He also addresses the relationship between mind
(mental aspects of life), embody (physical aspects of life). He also believed in the
principle of dualism (that the mind is mentally different pag mechanical body)

WILHELM WUNDT (German Psychologist)

- First research psychologist along with WILLIAM JAMES

- Developed a laboratory in german

WILLIAM JAMES (American Psychologist)

- Student of WILHELM WUNDT

 - Founded a psychological laboratory, Harvard university.

1. Structuralism: Introspection and the Awareness of Subjective Experience

WILHELM WUNDT (1832-1920)

Structuralism

- school of psychology whose goal was to identify the basic elements or

“structures” of psychological experience
- Its goal was to create a “periodic table” of the “elements of sensations,” similar to
the periodic table of elements that had recently been created in chemistry.
- Structuralism is for introspection, more on nakafocus sya sa conscious thoughts
- Structuralists used the method of introspection to attempt to create a map of the
elements of consciousness.

Method of Introspection

- Introspection is the examination of one's own conscious thoughts and feelings.

- asking research participants to describe exactly what they experience as they
work on mental tasks (such as viewing colors, reading a page in a book, or
performing a math problem.)
- narinig nila ang sound pero nahihirapan silang idetermine kung ano iyon.
- Researchers studied and realized that there is a difference between the
sensation of a stimulus and the perception of that stimulus,

EDWARD BRADFORD TITCHENER (1867–1927)

➢ Best known of the structuralist and was a student of Wundt who came to the United
States in the late 1800s and founded a laboratory at Cornell University

➢ using introspection he and his students claimed to have identified more than 40,000
sensations, including those relating to vision, hearing, and taste

- An important aspect of the structuralist approach was that it was rigorous and
scientific
- Even highly trained research participants were often unable to report on their
subjective experiences. When the participants were asked to do simple math
problems, they could easily do them, but they could not easily answer how they
did them.

➢ Thus the structuralists were the first to realize the importance of unconscious
processes
 - that many important aspects of human psychology occur outside our conscious
awareness, and that psychologists cannot expect research participants to be able to
accurately report on all of their experiences.

2. Functionalism and Evolutionary Psychology

Functionalism (William James and others)

- the goal is understand why animals and humans have developed the particular
psychological aspects that they currently possess
- Functionalism is word from adaptation.
- influenced by Charles Darwin’s (1809–1882) theory of natural selection

Theory of Natural Selection

- proposed that the sinasabi po dito na ang physical characteristics of animals and
humans evolved because they were useful or functional
- The functionalists believed that Darwin’s theory applied to psychological
characteristics too. Just as some animals have developed strong muscles to allow
them to run fast, the human brain, so functionalists thought, must have adapted
to serve a particular function in human experience.

Evolutionary Psychology

- a branch of psychology that applies the Darwinian theory of natural selection to

human and animal behavior
- Evolutionary psychology accepts the functionalists’ basic assumption, namely
that many human psychological systems, including memory, emotion, and
personality, serve key adaptive functions.
- evolutionary psychologists use evolutionary theory to understand many
different behaviors including romantic attraction, stereotypes and prejudice, and
even the causes of many psychological disorders.

Fitness

- refers to the extent to which having a given characteristic helps the individual
organism survive and reproduce at a higher rate than do other members of the
species who do not have the characteristic
- Fitter organisms pass on their genes more successfully to later generations,
making the characteristics that produce fitness more likely to become part of
the organism’s nature than characteristics that do not produce fitness.
- For example, it has been argued that the emotion of jealousy has survived over
time in men because men who experience jealousy are more fit than men who
do not. According to this idea, the experience of jealously leads men to be more
 likely to protect their mates and guard against rivals, which increases their
reproductive success

the evolutionary approach is important to psychology because it provides logical

explanations for why we have many psychological characteristics.

3. Psychodynamic Psychology

Psychodynamic Psychology (Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) and his followers)

- an approach to understanding human behavior that focuses on the role of

unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories
- Freud developed his theories about behavior through extensive analysis of the
patients that he treated in his private clinical practice. Freud believed that many
of the problems that his patients experienced, including anxiety, depression, and
sexual dysfunction, were the result of the effects of painful childhood
experiences that the person could no longer remember.

Freud’s ideas were extended by other psychologists whom he influenced,

- including Carl Jung (1875–1961), Alfred Adler (1870–1937), Karen Horney

(1855–1952), and Erik Erikson (1902–1994)

These and others who follow the psychodynamic approach believe that it is possible to help
the patient if the unconscious drives can be remembered, particularly through a deep and
thorough exploration of the person’s early sexual experiences and current sexual desires.
These explorations are revealed through talk therapy and dream analysis, in a process
called psychoanalysis.

4. Behaviorism and the Question of Free Will

Behaviorism

- school of psychology that is based on the premise that it is not possible to

objectively study the mind, and therefore that psychologists should limit their
attention to the study of behavior itself

Behaviorists believe that the human mind is a “Black Box”

- human mind into which stimuli are sent and from which responses are received
 - stimulus (anything that can cause reaction) and responses (reactions sa mga
stimuli)
- They argue that there is no point in trying to determine what happens in the box
because we can successfully predict behavior without knowing what happens
inside the mind.

John B. Watson (1878–1958)

- influenced by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)

- 8-month old Little Albert Experiment
- Watson found that systematically exposing a child to fearful stimuli in the
presence of objects that did not themselves elicit fear could lead the child to
respond with a fearful behavior to the presence of the stimulus. In the best
known of his studies, an 8-month-old boy named Little Albert was used as the
subject. Here is a summary of the findings:

The boy was placed in the middle of a room; a white laboratory rat was
placed near him and he was allowed to play with it. The child showed no fear
of the rat. In later trials, the researchers made a loud sound behind Albert’s
back by striking a steel bar with a hammer whenever the baby touched the
rat. The child cried when he heard the noise. the child was again shown the
rat. Now, however, he cried and tried to move away from the rat.
- In line with the behaviorist approach, the boy had learned to associate the white
rat with the loud noise, resulting in crying.
 - White rat and the loud noise (stimulus) and crying (response)

Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)

- Stimulus- Response (Bell-Food-Salivation)

- who had discovered that dogs would salivate at the sound of a tone that had
previously been associated with the presentation of food. Watson and the other
behaviorists began to use these ideas to explain how events that people and
other organisms experienced in their environment (stimuli) could produce
specific behaviors (responses).
- Whenever they hear the bell, na conditioned sila na pag narinig nila ang bell
parating na yung food nila, ayun yung response ng salivation ng dogs.

Burrhus Frederick (B. F.) Skinner (1904–1990)

- Most famous behaviorist and used the ideas of stimulus and response, along with
the application of rewards or reinforcements, to train pigeons and other animals
- who expanded the principles of behaviorism and also brought them to the
attention of the public at large.
- And he used the general principles of behaviorism to develop theories about
how best to teach children and how to create societies that were peaceful and
productive.
- Skinner even developed a method for studying thoughts and feelings using the
behaviorist approach

The idea that we are more likely to take ownership for our actions in some cases than in
others is also seen in our attributions for success and failure. Because we normally expect
that our behaviors will be met with success, when we are successful, we easily believe that
the success is the result of our own free will. When an action is met with failure, on the
other hand, we are less likely to perceive this outcome as the result of our free will, and we
are more likely to blame the outcome on luck or our teacher.

5. The Cognitive Approach and Cognitive Neuroscience

The analogy between the brain and the computer, although by no means perfect, provided
part of the impetus for a new school of psychology called cognitive psychology.

Cognitive psychology is a field of psychology that studies mental processes, including

perception, thinking, memory, and judgment.

- cognitive psychology began in earnest in the 1960s

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909)

 - who studied the ability of people to remember lists of words under different
conditions
- Ebbinghaus forgetting curve - theory human start losing the memory in their
knowledge over time in the matter of days and weeks. Nawawala ang memory
kapag hindi napraractice or hindi paulit ulit na na aaral.

Sir Frederic Bartlett (1886–1969)

- who studied the cognitive and social processes of remembering

- Bartlett created short stories that were in some ways logical but also contained
some very unusual and unexpected events.
- Bartlett discovered that people found it very difficult to recall the stories
exactly, even after being allowed to study them repeatedly, and he hypothesized
that the stories were difficult to remember because they did not fit the
participants’ expectations about how stories should go.
- similar yung binabasa mong story pero iba ang ending, so nahihirapan kang
alalahanin yung mga ganong bagay dahil hindi sya nagfifit sa expectations mo
base sa alam na ng isang tao

Jean Piaget (1896–1980)

- idea that our memory is influenced by what we already know was also a major
idea behind the cognitive-developmental stage model
- 4 stages, sensory motor stage, pre-operational stage, operational stage and
formal operational stage, dito malalaman ung schema, which is the mental
framework ng isang bata, assimilations and accommodation part sa kanya

Cognitive Psychologists

- Donald E. Broadbent (1926–1993), Daniel Kahneman (1934–), George Miller

(1920–), Eleanor Rosch (1938–), and Amos Tversky (1937–1996).

Cognitive psychology remains enormously influential today, and it has guided research in
such varied fields as language, problem solving, memory, intelligence, education, human
development, social psychology, and psychotherapy. The cognitive revolution has been
given even more life over the past decade as the result of recent advances in our ability to
see the brain in action using neuroimaging techniques.

- Neuroimaging is the use of various techniques to provide pictures of the structure and
function of the living brain . These images are used to diagnose brain disease and injury,
but they also allow researchers to view information processing as it occurs in the brain,
because the processing causes the involved area of the brain to increase metabolism and
show up on the scan.

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) – ito yung kung saan tinatanggal mo lahat
ng accessories pag papasok ka dito.

6. Social-Cultural Psychology

Social-Cultural Psychology

- study of how the social situations and the cultures in which people find
themselves influence thinking and behavior
- Social-cultural psychologists are particularly concerned with how people
perceive themselves and others, and how people influence each other’s behavior.
- For instance, social psychologists have found that we are attracted to others who
are similar to us in terms of attitudes and interests.
- that we develop our own beliefs and attitudes by comparing our opinions to
those of others, and that we frequently change our beliefs and behaviors to be
similar to those of the people we care about—a process known as conformity.

Social Norms

- the ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving that are shared by group members and
perceived by them as appropriate; includes customs, traditions, standards, and
rules; general values of the group
- Norms include customs, traditions, standards, and rules, as well as the general
values of the group.
- Many of the most important social norms are determined by the culture in which
we live, and these cultures are studied by cross-cultural psychologists(ethnicity)

Culture

- represents the common set of social norms, including religious and family values
and other moral beliefs, shared by the people who live in a geographical region
- Cultures influence every aspect of our lives, and it is not inappropriate to say
that our culture defines our lives just as much as does our evolutionary
experience

Individualism (Western cultures)

 - Norms in Western cultures are primarily oriented toward individualism, which
is about valuing the self and one’s independence from others
- Example: Children in Western cultures are taught to develop and to value a
sense of their personal self, and to see themselves in large part as separate from
the other people around them. Children in Western cultures feel special about
themselves; they enjoy getting gold stars on their projects and the best grade in
the class. Adults in Western cultures are oriented toward promoting their own
individual success, frequently in comparison to (or even at the expense of)
others.

Collectivism (Eastern cultures)

- Norms in the East Asian culture, on the other hand, are oriented toward
interdependence or collectivism.
- taught to focus on developing harmonious social relationships with others
- The predominant norms relate to group togetherness and connectedness, and
duty and responsibility to one’s family and other groups.
- Kapag ikaw ang panganay (bread winner) ikaw na ang magpapatapos sa mga iba
mong kapatid.
- Kailangan akuin lahat ang responsibility na dapat sa parents kaya di nagiging
successful ang tao.

Psychology Description Career opportunities

field

Biopsychology This field examines the physiological Most biopsychologists work in research
and bases of behavior in animals and settings—for instance, at universities, for
neuroscience humans by studying the functioning of the federal government, and in private
different brain areas and the effects of research labs.
hormones and neurotransmitters on
behavior.

Clinical and These are the largest fields of Clinical and counseling psychologists
counseling psychology. The focus is on the provide therapy to patients with the goal of
psychology assessment, diagnosis, causes, and improving their life experiences. They
treatment of mental disorders. work in hospitals, schools, social agencies,
and in private practice. Because the
demand for this career is high, entry to
 academic programs is highly competitive.

Cognitive This field uses sophisticated research Cognitive psychologists work primarily in
psychology methods, including reaction time and research settings, although some (such as
brain imaging to study memory, those who specialize in human-computer
language, and thinking of humans. interactions) consult for businesses.

Developmental These psychologists conduct research Many work in research settings, although
psychology on the cognitive, emotional, and social others work in schools and community
changes that occur across the lifespan. agencies to help improve and evaluate the
effectiveness of intervention programs such
as Head Start.

Forensic Forensic psychologists apply Forensic psychologists work in the criminal

psychology psychological principles to understand justice system. They may testify in court
the behavior of judges, attorneys, and may provide information about the
courtroom juries, and others in the reliability of eyewitness testimony and jury
criminal justice system. selection.

Health Health psychologists are concerned with Health psychologists work with medical
psychology understanding how biology, behavior, professionals in clinical settings to promote
and the social situation influence health better health, conduct research, and teach
and illness. at universities.

Industrial - Industrial-organizational psychology There are a wide variety of career

organizational applies psychology to the workplace opportunities in these fields, generally
and with the goal of improving the working in businesses. These psychologists
environmental performance and well-being of help select employees, evaluate employee
psychology employees. performance, and examine the effects of
different working conditions on behavior.
They may also work to design equipment
and environments that improve employee
performance and reduce accidents.

Personality These psychologists study people and Most work in academic settings, but the
psychology the differences among them. The goal is skills of personality psychologists are also
to develop theories that explain the in demand in business—for instance, in
 psychological processes of individuals, advertising and marketing. PhD programs
and to focus on individual differences. in personality psychology are often
connected with programs in social
psychology.

School and This field studies how people learn in School psychologists work in elementary
educational school, the effectiveness of school and secondary schools or school district
psychology programs, and the psychology of offices with students, teachers, parents,
teaching. and administrators. They may assess
children’s psychological and learning
problems and develop programs to
minimize the impact of these problems.

Social and This field examines people’s Many social psychologists work in
cross-cultural interactions with other people. Topics marketing, advertising, organizational,
psychology of study include conformity, group systems design, and other applied
behavior, leadership, attitudes, and psychology fields.
person perception.

Sports This field studies the psychological Sports psychologists work in gyms, schools,
psychology aspects of sports behavior. The goal is professional sports teams, and other areas
to understand the psychological factors where sports are practiced.
that influence performance in sports,
including the role of exercise and team
interactions.

1.3 Chapter Summary (Page 41)

CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION TO MAJOR PERSPECTIVES

Scientific areas of study are often guided by a paradigm (prevailing model) paradigm,
which is a set of theories, assumptions, and ideas that contribute to your worldview or
create the framework from which we operate every day.

Kaya nabuo ang theory isa syang response sa isang naunang pagkabuon ng figuring, it
represents generally accepted approach to the whole field during a particular era.
Group of assumptions during a particular era sya yung nagseserve as prevailing model para
makabuo ng panibagong assumptions, theories, studies.

- Nakakabuo ng bagong ideas, paraas and bagong theories bagong ways of

thinking, in order to resolve between

INTRODUCTION TO MAJOR PERSPECTIVES

• Wilhelm Wundt & Edward B. Titchener – focused on the “what” of human experience

- Anong klaseng sensation emotions thought perception and actions

• Functionalist, behavioural, and cognitive psychologists began to include the “how” of

human experience

- How does things like cognition, behaviour and subconscious. How does
cognition works, how does mental processes works, how could we explain
behavior doon sya naikot or nakapaloob.

• Influenced by Charles Darwin’s theories, William James and others later began to
consider the “why” of human experience

- By focusing interactions between mind and body including perceptions and

emotions as well as the influence of environment in human experience
- why, does with things like evolution, environment and culture.
- Example bakit nagkakaroon ng evolutions, Charles Darwin physical aspects
meron syang function or purpose kaya sya nagevolve or nagdevelop
- Pagdating din sa mga environment and cultures, pinapakita dito yung mga
questions nila William james and Charles Darwin. Bakit sya andyan bakit
nakakaapekto sa environment
- Mga goals nila
Figure 2.1 Long Description – Major Psychological Perspectives Timeline

2.1 BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

• Biological psychologists

• are interested in measuring biological, physiological, or genetic variables in an

attempt to relate them to psychological or behavioural variables

- Because all behaviour is controlled by the central nervous system, biological

psychologists seek to understand how the brain functions in order to understand
behaviour.

• Early structural and functional psychologists believed that the study of conscious
thoughts would be the key to understanding the mind. Kaya nabuo ang introspection.

- In terms of research focus, Wundt and Titchener explored topics such as

attention span, reaction time, vision, emotion, and time perception, all of which
are still studied today.

• Introspection / Retrospection

- Introspection: Looking in at/into one's self. Retrospection: Looking back at/into

the past
Introspection is the examination of one's own conscious thoughts and feelings.
- Experiment / Example: which involves training people to concentrate and
report on their conscious experiences as they react to stimuli. Asking the
participants, to tell them na kung ano ang nafifeel nila or ung anong
nararamdamanan nila pag nagawa ng mga kahit anong bagay.
- many scientists criticize the use of introspection for its lack of empirical
approach and objectivity.
- Critics argued that self-analysis is not feasible (practical), and that introspection
can yield different results depending on the subject. 
- Critics concerned in about the possibility of Retrospection, is memory of
sensation rather than sensation itself, so possible na akala mo intro pero retro
pala ang nangyayari sayo.
- Dahil merong cognitive biases, yung certain mental tasks ay hindi pala ayun ung
sensation yung nararamdaman nya at the moment, nagkataon lang na baka may
memory lang sya na same sa ginagawa nyang mental tasks

• Autoethnography
 - Parang Kind of method ng introspection analysis

• narrative approach to introspective analysis (Ellis, 1999), to study the

phenomenological experience of the prison world and the consequent adaptations
and transformations that it evokes

- is a research method that uses personal experience (“auto”) to describe and
interpret (“graphy”) cultural texts, experiences, beliefs, and practices (“ethno”).
- include journaling, looking at archival records - whether institutional or
personal, interviewing one's own self, and using writing to generate a self-
cultural understanding.

➢ William James’s functionalist approach

➢ less concerned with the composition of the mind than with examining the ways in
which the mind adapts to changing situations and environments

- kung paano nagaadopt ung mind ng tao when it comes sa kanyang environment
or situation.
- James's theoretical perspective on psychology came to be known as
functionalism, which sought causal (cause and effect) relationships between
internal states and external behaviors.

➢ Functionalism

➢ brain is believed to have evolved for the purpose of bettering the survival of its
carrier by acting as an information processor.

➢ In processing information the brain is considered to execute functions similar to

those executed by a computer

(ang behavior naten ay pwede pang mabago dahil magaadapt pa ito sa mga changes base sa
environment.)

Structuralism is for introspection, more on nakafocus sya sa conscious thoughts

Functionalism is word from adaptation.

Figure 2.3 Complex Adaptive System. Behaviour is influenced by information gathered
from a changing external environment

Reductionist -the simple is the source of the complex

Reductionism - which instead tries to break things down into their smallest parts. Likes to
divide explanations of behaviour into separate components
 - In other words to explain a complex phenomenon a person needs to reduce its
elements.
- Ang mental illness ay madalas reductionist, yung genetics nitong chemical
imbalances is nagiging main cause
- kailangan mareduce yung mawalak na complex ng behavior sa isang simple set
ng variables para magkaroon ng possibility na malaman yung cause and effect.

➢ Lower levels of explanation – (biological) tied to biological (life and living) influences,
such as genes, neurons, neurotransmitters, and hormones

➢ Middle levels of explanation – (Interpersonal) refer to the abilities and characteristics of

individual people

➢ Highest levels of explanation – (cultural and social) relate to social groups,

organizations, and cultures

Holist -the whole is more than the sum of the parts

Holism - is an approach to understanding the human mind and behavior that focuses on
looking at things as a whole. It is often contrasted with reductionism. Likes to look at the
picture as a whole

- social psychologist tries to understand certain group behave as they do. Because
sometimes groups react differently than individuals do.
- Batinitignan nito as a whole hindi lang sya, pati sa mga nakapaligid dito.
- Paano nagiinteract ang bawat factors at paano naiimpluwensyahan ang bawat
isa

Ang point dito is para ipakita ang ang biological psychology is also considered as
reductionist.
• Cognitive Psychologists

• rely on the functionalist insights in discussing how affect, or emotion, and

environment or events interact and result in specific perceptions

- Naka focus sa areas or sa mga studies about internal mental state and processes
of a human
- is an area that focuses on the science of how people think. This branch of
psychology explores a wide variety of mental processes, including how people
think, use language, attend to information, and perceive their environments.

1. • Studies have shown NEUROGENESIS (the growth and development of nervous

tissue) in the hippocampus (thought to be the center of emotion, memory, and the
autonomic nervous system.)

• the growth and development of nervous tissue

• human brain is not a static mass of nervous tissue

May mga influential environmental factors that operates throughout the lifespan of
human. Negative factors like traumatic injury and drugs can lead to serious
destructions. Healthy diet, regular exercise can offer long term and positive impact
in brain and psychological development.

NEUROGENESIS – is an ability to process the brain by which yung mga new neurons
are formed in the brain

Kahit matanda na is patuloy pa rin ang growth and development ng neurons sa

brain.

❖Stem cells and adult neurogenesis

Youtube Link: https://youtu.be/o98crZWauPI

❖People Grow Brain Cells Well Into Their 80s

Youtube Link: https://youtu.be/UERaHA9dXkk

The Brain’s Four Lobes

1. Frontal lobe: also known as the motor cortex, this portion of the brain is involved in
motor skills, higher level cognition, and expressive language.
- it is considered to be our emotion control center. This play a very important role when it
come to our personality and how we act. More on nakafocus sa movement ng mga tao.
Solving problems, planning decision making and controlling our behavior.

2. Occipital lobe: also known as the visual cortex, this portion of the brain is involved in
interpreting visual stimuli and information

- they have important role in vision because they allow was to make sense of information
that comes from our eyes. Dito napeperceive yung nanggagaling sa senses ng sight. Visual
perception.

3. Parietal lobe: also known as the somatosensory cortex, this portion of the brain is
involved in the processing of other tactile sensory information such as pressure, touch, and
pain

- it allows us to make sense when we touch, example smooth rough, soft or kung ano yung
texture nito. It also allows us to move without bumping things. Skills such as math, spelling
and fine motor movements like Tying shoe laces.

4. Temporal lobe: also known as the auditory cortex, this portion of the brain is involved in
the interpretation of the sounds and language we hear

- between ng frontal lobe and occipital lobe, responsible of the interpretation of sound and
language that we hear. Others functions including our emotions and recognizing faces. May
part ng temporal lobe code ng hippocampus an Malaki yung role pagdating sa memory.
VISUAL ATTENTION

• According to biologically oriented psychological research:

• VISUAL ATTENTION diminishes with age, leaving older adults less capable of
filtering out irrelevant information

- The ability of our brain to selectively filtered the unwanted or unattended

information from reaching our limits.

sinabi sa mga participants na mag pay attention lang sila sa mga faces. Pinakita yung
overlapping picture or ung magkakapatong na mukha at places. ang kailangan lang po
nilang gawin is magfocus lang sila dapat sa mukha and i-identify nila kung ilang taon base
don sa mukha na nakita nila.

Findings:

In young adults, the brain region for processing faces was active while the brain region for
processing places was not. However, both the face and place regions were active in older
people.

This means that even at early stages of perception, older adults were less capable of
filtering out the distracting information. Moreover, on a surprise memory test 10 minutes
after the scan, older adults were more likely to recognize what face was originally paired
with what house.

- Kapag tumatanda ang tao ang nangyayari kahit yung mga irrelevant information
ay natandaan nya kahit hindi mahalaga sa memory.

- for example sa phone, then maraming kalat, kailangan mo lang hanapin yung phone which
ung relevant and yung kalat is magiging irrelevant so parang pinapakita dito napag sa mga
matatanda even yung kalat ay mapaansin nila as well as mahahanap nila yung phone. Pero
kapag normal ang visual attention is mahahanap mo agad yung phone mo without paying
attention or noticing don sa mga kalat.

2.2 Psychodynamic Psychology

Sigmund Freud

About SIGMUND FREUD

Ex. of disorder are nail biting, perfectionist (need to be balance/even number), sexual
disorder

Psychodynamic Perspective

 proposes that there are psychological forces underlying human behaviour, feelings,
and emotions
- Psychodynamics originated with Sigmund Freud, who suggested that
psychological processes are flows of psychological energy (libido) in a complex
brain.
 - A 20-year old, well-built and healthy, has a seemingly irrational fear of mice. The
fear makes him tremble at the sight of a mouse or rat. He often finds himself in
embarrassing situations because of the fear.
- EX. Obsessive hand washing could be linked to a trauma in childhood that now
causes this behavior. Nail-biting may be caused by an anxiety-inducing
childhood event.

PSYCHODYNAMIC

- focuses on the psychological roots of emotional suffering. Its hallmarks are self-
reflection and self-examination, and the use of the relationship between
therapist and patient as a window into problematic relationship patterns in the
patient's life.
- It talks about past life, the reason of disorder why the person became like that
(tinitignan as a whole reasons)

Freud’s Theory of Psychoanalysis

assumes that much of mental life is unconscious, and that past experiences, especially in
early childhood, shape how a person feels and behaves throughout life

- Freud hypothesized that an individual must successfully complete each stage to

become a psychologically healthy adult with a fully formed ego and superego.
Otherwise, individuals may become stuck or “fixated” in a particular stage,
causing emotional and behavioral problems in adulthood (McLeod, 2013).

PSYCHODYNAMIC DEFENSE MECHANISMS (HOPING MECHANISM)

Repression – experiences regarding abuse that it causes trust issues.

- occurs when trauma is too severe to be kept in conscious memory, 

- For example, a young child is bitten by a dog. They later develop a severe phobia
of dogs but have no memory of when or how this fear originated. 

Denial – refusing he/she is okay

Reaction Formation – being plastic, hiding his/her true feelings, making new reaction,
(tinatago nya na galit pala sya dito sa taong to at gumagawa sya ng bagong reaction na
masaya tuwing nakikita nya ito)
Sublimation – a person is expressing his/her emotion through somewhere safe without
someone knowing it. Ex. painting, poetry, poem etc.

Projection – misattributing feelings

- projection refers to unconsciously taking unwanted emotions or traits you don't

like about yourself and attributing them to someone else.
- ex. Sinabi mo sa kanya na may nagkakagusto sa kanya pero ikaw pala yon. A
common example is a cheating spouse who suspects their partner is being
unfaithful.

Displacement – is a defense mechanism that involves an individual transferring negative

feelings from one person or thing to another. For example, a person who is angry at their
boss may “take out” their anger on a family member by shouting at them.

- ex. a teacher gets mad to her student and the student have no choice but to not
response because that teacher has a position or authority in order to someone
will never stop her from doing those. And then later on, the student let his anger
out to his brother without knowing his feeling deep inside, that’s what we call
displacement.

Regression –defense mechanism na kung saan yung tao is gusto nyang maramdam na
secure sya or safe sya or komportable sya.

- someone or something you want to rely on, like cuddle, you want to be always
safe with someone or something beside you, or maybe your comfort with that
thing. Hindi mo kayang di makita or di mahawakan just to say you want to be
safe. (ex. teddy bear gusto mo lagging katabi sa pagtulog kasi di ka makatulog
pag wala ang teddy bear mo)

Fantasy – drawing back to your imagination.

- associated with scenarios that are absolutely impossible

Compartmentalization – is defined as a defense mechanism where someone suppresses

their thoughts and emotions.

- thoughts and feelings that seem to conflict are kept separated or isolated from
each other in the mind.
- positive and negative ex. they agree to have a divorce, but infront of people
surrounds them, they make themselves happy just to say they’re alright.
Nandoon pa rin ang responsibility sa anak.
Intellectualization – you were the one who is adjusting in the situation, your feeling were
being invalidate so it can possibly resulting to repression.

- Intellectualization can be a useful way of explaining and understanding negative

events. For example, if person A is rude to person B, person B may think about
the possible reasons for person A's behavior.

Consciousness

awareness of the self in space and time. It can be defined as human awareness of both
internal and external stimuli. 

Researchers study states of human consciousness and differences in perception in order to

understand how the body works para mag produce conscious awareness. Consciousness
varies in both arousal and content, and there are 

two types of conscious experience: phenomenal, or in the moment, and access,

which recalls experiences from memory.

Three Levels of Awareness/Consciousness

Conscious Level
all those things we are aware of, including things that we know about ourselves and our
surroundings

Unconscious Level

those things that are outside of conscious awareness, including many memories, thoughts,
and urges of which we are not aware

Preconscious Level

preconscious consists of those things we could pay conscious attention to if we so desired,

and where many memories are stored for easy retrieval.

The conscious level consists of all those things we are aware of, including things that we
know about ourselves and our surroundings. The preconscious consists of those things we
could pay conscious attention to if we so desired, and where many memories are stored for
easy retrieval. Freud saw the preconscious as those thoughts that are unconscious at the
particular moment in question, but that are not repressed and are therefore available for
recall and easily capable of becoming conscious (e.g., the “tip of the tongue” effect).
The unconscious consists of those things that are outside of conscious awareness,
including many memories, thoughts, and urges of which we are not aware.  

PROVINCES OF THE MIND

 Blue line – devision of consciousness

 ID –most basic part of our personality, it is the urges aggressive, Pagiging impulsive.
ex. nastuck sa sang traffic, bibilisan takbo walang pakeelam. Baby naiyak nagstop
kasi maprovide. Gusto mo agad makuha yung gusto mo.
 Super-ego – develops last, moral judgements what is right and wrong, nakabase
more on moral values.
 Ego – reality, trying its best to meet, pinagbibigyan nya si id at super ego. Sya yung
nagbabalanse ng dalawa para masatisfy yung wants ng id at superego. Imbis na
magalit hindi na lang itutuloy. Base on what actions consquences na mangyayari.

Various School’s Perspectives of Consciousness

• Developmental Psychologists – view consciousness not as a single entity, but as a

developmental process

• Social Psychologists - view consciousness as a product of cultural influence

• Neuropsychologists - view consciousness as ingrained in neural systems and organic

brain structures

• Cognitive Psychologists - base their understanding of consciousness on computer science

- involves the study of internal mental processes—all of the things that go on

inside your brain, including perception, thinking, memory, attention, language,
problem-solving, and learning.
- providing help coping with memory disorders, making better decisions,
recovering from brain injury, treating learning disorders, and structuring
educational curricula to enhance learning.

Psychoanalysis
type of analysis that involves attempting to affect behavioural change through having
patients talk about their difficulties

PSYCHOANALYSIS (the free association)– Experiences before, trust issues, systematic

centralization (PINAPALAPIT KA SA FEAR MO). Ex. nagkakaron ng trauma dahil sa past
experience. Ayaw mangyfare ulet or nagkakaron ng trust issues sa mga tao, or may
kinakatakutan na bagay.

systematic

Carl Jung (1875-1961)

expanded on Freud’s theories, introducing the concepts of the archetype, the collective
unconscious, and individuation

Personal Unconscious- The personal unconscious embraces all repressed, forgotten, or

subliminally perceived experiences of one particular individual. Individual experiences. Eto
ung mga bagay na kaya ka nagkakatrauma or phobia dahil sa naexperience mo.

COMPLEXES: Contents of the personal unconscious. Emotional. Pag narinig may

response na agad.

Collective unconscious- has roots in the ancestral past of the entire species. Responsible for
people’s many myths. ex. baby, di lang cute but also a responsibility. Attracted by physical
but in mind are . biological traits in impression. Maaactivate once na naranasan.

- is made up of a collection of knowledge and imagery that every person is born

with and is shared by all human beings due to ancestral experience.
- Eto naman yung mga Sinabi sayo kunyare about sa ahas, sinabihan ka ng tatay
mo na wag lumapit kasi may poison pag natuklaw ka parang magiging lesson
sayo.

Jung’s Conception of Personality

Carl Jung’s Concepts

Archetypes

Persona - the mask or image a person presents to the world. Side of personality where
people show what they want to show themselves.

Shadow - the side of a personality that a person does not consciously display in public.
Accepting your darkness within yourself. Hiding it in the society.

Great Mother-This preexisting concept of mother is always associated with both positive
and negative feelings. Fertility and neglecting. Nurturing and destructive.

- In this sense, the archetypal image of the mother is nurturing and loving but also
capricious, mysterious, and linked to feelings of vulnerability and seduction 
- A nanny who does the majority of the nurturing for a child may be considered
the mother archetype. The mother archetype is an idealized version of the
mother, which means that it usually represents what humans want in a mother
just as other archetypes represent values such as the hero or the villain

Wise Old Man- archetype of wisdom and meaning, symbolizes humans’ preexisting
knowledge of the mysteries of life. Sharing something that can benefits others.

Hero- represented in mythology and legends as a powerful person, sometimes part god,
who fights against great odds to conquer or vanquish evil in the form of dragons, monsters,
serpents, or demons.

- defined as a person who is admired or idealized for courage, outstanding

achievements, or noble qualities.
Self- ung believed that each person possesses an inherited tendency to move toward
growth, perfection, and completion, and he called this innate disposition the self.

- Archetypes of all the archetypes. Makakabuo ng self-realization. Tanngap kung

anong situation kung ano ka.

Chapter 2. Introduction to Major Perspectives

2.3 Behaviourist Psychology

TO UNDERSTAND THE MIND WHAT IS GOING ON IN THE PERSON

BEHAVIOURISM

DEFINITION:

FOCUSES ON OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOR AS A MEANS TO STUDYING THE HUMAN PSYCHE

- The primary tenet of behaviourism is that psychology should concern itself with
the observable behaviour of people and animals, not with unobservable events
that take place in their minds. 

BEHAVIORISTS CRITICIZED THE MENTALISTS FOR THEIR INABILITY TO DEMONSTRATE

EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT THEIR CLAIMS

THE MAIN INFLUENCES OF BEHAVIOURIST PSYCHOLOGY

• IVAN PAVLOV (1849-1936)

-INVESTIGATED CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THOUGH OFTEN DISAGREEING WITH

BEHAVIOURISM OR BEHAVIORISTS

• EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE (1874-1949)

-WHO INTRODUCED THE CONCEPT OF REINFORCEMENT AND WAS THE FIRST TO APPLY
PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES TO LEARNING

• JOHN B. WATSON (1878-1958)

-REJECTED INTROSPECTIVE METHODS AND SOUGHT (hinanap) TO RESTRICT

PSYCHOLOGY TO EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

• B.F. SKINNER (1904-1990)

-CONDUCTED RESEARCH ON OPERANT CONDITIONING

IVAN PAVLOV (1849-1936)

Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, actually discovered classical conditioning accidentally while

doing research on the digestive patterns in dogs.

Classical Conditioning

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) and the Unconditioned Response (UCR)

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) and the Conditioned Response (CR)

Explain first: BELL – MEAT POWDER – DOG - SALIVATION

In his research with the dogs, Pavlov began pairing a bell sound with the meat powder and
found that even when the meat powder was not presented, a dog would eventually begin to
salivate after hearing the bell. In this case, since the meat powder naturally results in
salivation, these two variables are called the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and
the unconditioned response (UCR), respectively. In the experiment, the bell and salivation
are not naturally occurring; the dog is conditioned to respond to the bell. Therefore, the
bell is considered the conditioned stimulus (CS), and the salivation to the bell,
the conditioned response (CR).

Stimulus in Response: Anxiety over niddles (condition stimulus), kailangan ng bata ang flu
shot, it will lead to crying. Nagbigay ng presentation sa class, tinawanan (unconditional
stimulus) naglead na napahiya (conditional stimulus).

Examples:

The smell of a cologne (stimulus), the sound of a certain song, can trigger distinct
memories, emotions, (reaction).

When we make these types of associations, we are experiencing classical conditioning.

Operant Conditioning (skinner)

-another type of learning that refers to how an organism operates on the environment or
how it responds to what is presented to it in the environment

- a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior

EXAMPLES OF NT CONDITIONING INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING:

Reinforcement

- means to strengthen, and is used in psychology to refer to any stimulus which strengthens
or increases the probability of a specific response

For example, if you want your dog to sit on command, you may give him a treat every time
he sits for you. The dog will eventually come to understand that sitting when told to will
result in a treat. This treat is reinforcing the behaviour because the dog likes it and will
result in him sitting when instructed to do so. 

THERE ARE FOUR TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT

• Positive Reinforcement - involves adding something in order to increase a response

- The most common types of positive reinforcement are praise and reward, and
most of us have experienced this as both the giver and receiver. For example,
adding a treat will increase the response of sitting; adding praise will increase
the chances of your child cleaning his or her room

• Negative Reinforcement - involves taking something negative away in order to increase a

response

- Imagine a teenager who is nagged by his parents to take out the garbage week
after week. After complaining to his friends about the nagging, he finally one day
performs the task and, to his amazement, the nagging stops. The elimination of
this negative stimulus is reinforcing and will likely increase the chances that he
will take out the garbage next week.
• Positive Punishment - refers to adding something aversive in order to decrease a
behaviour

- The most common example of this is disciplining (e.g., spanking) a child for
misbehaving. The child begins to associate being punished with the negative
behaviour. The child does not like the punishment and, therefore, to avoid it, he
or she will stop behaving in that manner.

• Negative Punishment -it involves taking something good or desirable away to reduce the
occurrence of a particular behavior

- Increase the behavior. Remove something, nagbabawas , pagbabawalan lumabas

kasi umaga na nakakauwi. Mawawala ang freedom

Research has found positive reinforcement is the most powerful of any of these types of
operant conditioning responses. Adding a positive to increase a response not only works
better, but allows both parties to focus on the positive aspects of the situation. Punishment,
when applied immediately following the negative behaviour, can be effective, pero hindi
laging positive ang magiging outcome nito. Punishment can also invoke other negative
responses such as anger and resentment.

TYPES OF REINFORCERS

 Natural reinforcers occur directly as a result of the behavior. – automatic na

nagreresulata ng behaviour ng tao

 Social reinforcers involve expressing approval of a behavior, such as a teacher,

parent, or employer saying or writing, "Good job" or "Excellent work." – pag
nipraise, magpupursigi pa sa kanyang action

 Tangible reinforcers involve presenting actual, physical rewards such as candy,

treats, toys, money, and other desired objects. – actual or physical awards tangible
reinforcer.

EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE’S LAWS OF LEARNING (1874-1949)

Thorndike’s Own Theory of Learning (1932)

 Kailangan matutunan ng cat na maiangat yung door para makatakas yung cat

Thorndike’s (1898) work with cats and puzzle boxes illustrates the concept of
conditioning. The puzzle boxes were approximately 50 cm long, 38 cm wide, and 30 cm tall
(Figure 2.13). Thorndike’s puzzle boxes were built so that the cat, placed inside the box,
could escape only if it pressed a bar or pulled a lever, which caused the string attached to
the door to lift the weight and open the door. Thorndike measured the time it took the cat
to perform the required response (e.g., pulling the lever). Once it had learned the response
he gave the cat a reward, usually food.

Thorndike found that once a cat accidentally stepped on the switch, it would then press the
switch faster in each succeeding trial inside the puzzle box. By observing and recording
how long it took a variety of animals to escape through several trials, Thorndike was able
to graph the learning curve (graphed as an S-shape). He observed that most animals had
difficulty escaping at first, then began to escape faster and faster with each successive
puzzle box trial, and eventually levelled off in their escape times. The learning curve also
suggested that different species learned in the same way but at different speeds. His finding
was that cats, for instance, consistently showed gradual learning.

• Law of Effect - If an association is followed by satisfaction, it will be strengthened, and if it

is followed by annoyance, it will be weakened

- Nakareceive ng promotion, dahil masipag sa work, nasatisfy sya para

magcontinue at mag effort.

• Law of Exercise- also understood as the ‘law of use and disuse’ in which case connections
or bonds made in the brain cortex are weakened or loosened.
 - Training for development, athlete nageexercise, the more na nagprapractice the
more na nageenhance ka. Practice example oral recitation, sports

• Law of Readiness- which means that learning takes place when an action tendency is
aroused through preparatory adjustment, set or attitude

- Preparation of action. Need to be prepared para magkaron ng progress,

- Pag ready ka mas capable ka to know something new.

JOHN B. WATSON (1878-1958) & B.F. SKINNER (1904-1990)

Watson conducted research on animal behaviour, child rearing, and advertising while
gaining notoriety for the controversial “Little Albert” experiment.

Related example kay little albert: EXAM look for articles

• Radical Behaviourism (Burrhus Frederic Skinner called his particular brand of

behaviourism)

-the philosophy of the science of behaviour

- It seeks to understand behaviour as a function of environmental histories of reinforcing

consequences. This applied behaviourism does not accept private events such as thinking,
perceptions, and unobservable emotions in a causal account of an organism’s behaviour.

- laging may reason kung bakit ganong ang behavior ng isang tao. For example, natatakot
na makisocial, kinakabahaan, hindi pwedeng walang reason kung bakit kinakabahan, kung
ano ang nararamdaman cause sa environment.

• Operant Conditioning Chamber/ Skinner Box (Skinner invented)

- used to measure responses of organisms (most often rats and pigeons) and their orderly
interactions with the environment

- The box had a lever and a food tray, and a hungry rat inside the box could get food
delivered to the tray by pressing the lever. Skinner observed that when a rat was first put
into the box, it would wander around, sniffing and exploring, and would usually press the
bar by accident, at which point a food pellet would drop into the tray. After that happened,
the rate of bar pressing would increase dramatically and remain high until the rat was no
longer hungry.

• Escape Learning

- Goal you want to persuade , para makuryente yung rat, to escape

- May tumalon na aso, at tumakbo sa kanyua, kaya tatakas sya

• Avoidance Learning

- Nagkaroon ng signal or cue para mavoid nung rat yung electric shock
- May tumalon na aso don sa nakaraan kaya di ka na pupunta don.

Negative reinforcement was also exemplified by Skinner placing rats into an electrified
chamber that delivered unpleasant shocks. Levers to cut the power were placed inside
these boxes. Skinner noticed that the rats, after accidentally pressing the lever in a frantic
bid to escape, quickly learned the effects of the lever and consequently used this knowledge
to stop the currents both during and prior to electrical shock. These two learned responses
are known as escape learning and avoidance learning. The Skinner box led to the principle
of reinforcement, which is the probability of something occurring based on the
consequences of a behaviour.

The Skinner box led to the principle of reinforcement

Natutunann ni rat na kaialngan ipull para may lumabas na food.

2.4 HUMANIST, COGNITIVE, AND EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY

Table 2.2 Humanistic Therapies and their Theorists.

Humanistic Therapies Theorists

Analytical and Archetypal Psychology C.G. Jung, James Hillman

Authentic Movement Mary Whitehouse

Encounter Carl Rogers, Will Schultz

Existential Analysis Rollo May, James F.T Bugental

Focusing Eugene Gendin

Gestalt Art Therapy Janie Rhyne

Logotherapy Viktor Frankl

Neuro-Linguistic Programming Richard Bandler, John Grinder

Psychosynthesis Roberto Assagioli

 Rational-Emotive Therapy Albert Ellis

Reality Therapy William Glasser

Self-Disclosure Sidney Jourard

Sensory Awareness though Moshe Feldenkreis

Movement

Humanistic Psychology

- focus on intentionality and ethical values, determining human behavior

- holds a hopeful, constructive view of human beings and of their substantial capacity to be
self-determining

- acknowledges that the mind is strongly influenced by determining forces in society and
the unconscious, and emphasizes the conscious capacity of individuals to develop personal
competence and self-respect

- naka base sa action mo as a whole Hindi lang nakatingin sa ugali nakatingin sya sa lahat
sayo, The way you act, speak, or sense etc.

• Client-Centred Therapy (Carl Rogers)

tinutulungan tayo na ma established yung sarili natin, na ibalik kung ano ka talaga na hindi
need ng approval ng iba.

Person or client-centred therapy

- which relies on clients’ capacity for self-direction, empathy, and acceptance to promote

clients’ development

- Central to this thinking is the idea that the world is judgmental, and many people fear that
if they share with the world their true identity, it would judge them relentlessly. People
tend to suppress their beliefs, values, or opinions because they are not supported, not
socially acceptable, or negatively judged.

- provides a supportive environment in which clients can re-establish their true identity
(These three techniques are central to client-centred therapy because they build trust
between the client and therapist by creating a nonjudgmental and supportive environment
for the client.)

1. Unconditional Positive Regard (hindi dapat i judge ng psychologist or psychiatrist yung

client nya based don sa pinapaliwanag or sinasabe.)
 -  is where parents, significant others (and the humanist therapist) accepts and
loves the person for what he or she is.  Positive regard is not withdrawn if the
person does something wrong or makes a mistake. The consequences of
unconditional positive regard are that the person feels free to try things out and
make mistakes, even though this may lead to getting it worse at times.

- Conditional positive regard is where positive regard, praise, and approval, depend
upon the child, for example, behaving in ways that the parents think correct. Hence
the child is not loved for the person he or she is, but on condition that he or she
behaves only in ways approved by the parent(s)

2. Authenticity/Congruence (kailangan ma build ng isang therapist yung trust ng isang

client so para mag tiwala ang cliente sa kanya ay dapat makita ng client na may tiwlaa yung
psychologist sa kanya.

3. Empathic Understanding (nilalagay nya yung sitwasyon nya sayo, para magkaintindihan
kayo at para maintindihan mo siya.)

- like sigmund freud forum, it means may different theory.

Incongruence –A person’s ideal self may not be consistent with what actually happens in
life and experiences of the person. It can lead to anxiety, depression, insecurities (the self-
image is different to the ideal self. Self-actualization of a person will be difficult.)

Congruence – gusto ng tao yung ginagawa nya. The development of congruence is

dependent on unconditional positive regard.  (the self-image is similar to the ideal self. This
person can self-actualize.)

Self-actualize - to fulfill one's potential and achieve the highest level of 'human-beingness’
This means that self-actualization occurs when a person’s “ideal self” (i.e., who they would
like to be) is congruent with their actual behavior (self-image). Kailangan na sa state sila ng
congruence.

According to Rogers, people can heal or aid

• Existential Therapy (Rollo May)

- contrasts the psychoanalysts’ focus on the self and focuses instead on “man in the world.”

- tinutulungan ka nmn neto para ibuilt yung srili mo na may purpose ka sa mundong ito, na
malaman mo yung halaga mo bilang isang tao

- The counsellor and the client may reflect on how the client has answered life’s questions
in the past, but attention ultimately emphasizes the choices to be made in the present and
future and enabling a new freedom and responsibility to act. By accepting limitations and
mortality, a client can overcome anxieties and instead view life as moments in which he or
she is fundamentally free.

1.Essence - reason in live

2.Existence - bakit tayo nabuhay, anong purpose natin sa mundo

• Gestalt Therapy (Fritz Perls)

- focuses on the skills and techniques that permit an individual to be more aware of their
feelings

- it is much more important to understand what patients are feeling and how they are
feeling rather than to identify what is causing their feelings. 

Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Figure 2.15 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.

 Maslow called the bottom four levels of the pyramid deficiency needs because a

person does not feel anything if they are met, but becomes anxious if they are not .
Thus, physiological needs such as eating, drinking, and sleeping are deficiency
needs, as are safety needs, social needs such as friendship and sexual intimacy, and
ego needs such as self-esteem and recognition.

 In contrast, Maslow called the fifth level of the pyramid a growth need[2] because it
enables a person to self-actualize or reach his or her fullest potential as a human
being. Once a person has met the deficiency needs, he or she can attend to self-
actualization.
Frederick Taylor’s Motivation Theory

Two Main Drives powering Human Behavior:

- To make an action kasi alam makakareceive sila ng rewards

• Biological Drive - an innate(inborn) motivational state produced by depletion or

deprivation of needed substance (e.g., water, oxygen) in order to impel behavior that will
restore physiological equilibrium

- can be defined as physiological needs necessary for human survival such as the
need for food, water, love and affection, and sex for reproduction.
- Needs, ex. sa forest,
- Kapag hindi naprovide and needs ng mga tao, magkakaron ng negative outcome
or can lead to do something bad.

• Reward-Punishment Drive

• actions are often inspired by a desire to gain outside reinforcement

• incentive theory - suggests that behavior is motivated by a desire for reinforcement or

incentives

- People are motivated for the rewards or incentives

- para siyang Positive punishment na mamomotivate ka pag nakareceive ka ng
praise or reward na kung saan excellent ka sa bagay na ginagawa mo, for
example, namomotivate ka mag aral mabuti or pumasok sa trabaho kasi
someone praise you or give you a reward.

Harry F. Harlow, professor of psychology at the University of Wisconsin, began to argue for
a third drive: intrinsic motivation.

- Intrinsic motivation involves doing something because it's personally rewarding

to you or because it is inherently satisfying them, enjoyable, fun and interesting.
Andito yung mga hobbies and passion ng isang tao dahil nga sa nageenjoy sya
gawin yung mga bagay na yon.
o Example: Reading about something because it's fun to learn is an example of
intrinsic motivation.
- Extrinsic motivation which refers to doing something because you want to earn
a reward or avoid punishment. Ginawa nya yung activity without enjoyment just
to get a reward. Rewards or other incentives — like praise, fame, or money —
are used as motivation for specific activities. 
 o Example: Reading about something to receive praise from an instructor is an
example of extrinsic motivation.
- Painting (in), naeenjoy nagwoworkout

Factors that promote Intrinsic Motivation

• Curiosity. Curiosity pushes us to explore and learn for the sole pleasure of learning and
mastering. na curious ka sa isang bagay, na kaya ka nagkakaroon ng motivation para gwin
yung activity na yon.

• Challenge. Being challenged helps us work at a continuously optimal level work toward
meaningful goals. na chachallenge ka kaya na momotivate ka gawin yung activity.

• Fantasy. Fantasy involves using mental or virtual images to stimulate your behavior.
Parang nag imagine ka ng isang bagay then pag susumikapan mong makuha or machieve.

Motivation Goals
Goals come from within and the
You do the activity because it’s
outcomes satisfy your basic
internally rewarding. You may
Intrinsic psychological needs for
do it because it’s fun,
autonomy, competence, and
enjoyable, and satisfying
relatedness.
Goals are focused on an outcome
and don’t satisfy your basic
You do the activity in order to
psychological needs. Goals
Extrinsic get an external reward in
involve external gains, such as
return.
money, fame, power, or avoiding
consequences.

Cognitive Psychology

-study of mental processes such as attention, memory, perception, language use, problem
solving, creativity, and thinking

- Focus on how people think

Kinakailangan maramdaman ng isang tao ang outside world for them to learn and of course
para magkaron sila ng perspective sa mga bagay bagay.

Kadalasan sa mga tao is naghahanap ng sagot sa buhay. Mga answers sa life is

makakatulong ang therapist dito.
• Attention - a state of focused awareness on a subset of the available perceptual
information

- first step in the learning process. The key function of attention is to filter out
irrelevant data, enabling the desired data to be distributed to the other mental
processes. Without the ability to filter out some or most of that simultaneous
information and focus on one or typically two inputs at most, the brain would
become overloaded as a person attempted to process all the information.
- ex. multitasking, no matter how ready you are, kung wala naman don ang
attention mo, wala kang matutunan.

• Memory - three main subclasses:

1. Procedural Memory: memory for the performance of particular types of action, is

often activated on a subconscious level, or at most requires a minimal amount of
conscious effort.

- Lagging Include dito ung childhood or laging nakabased sya sa emotional

experiences

- muscle memory, automatic movements. Ginagamitan ng katawan, memory of

practicing something. habang paulit ulit ginagawa tumatatak sa isip natin kaya
automatically nagagawa naten yung bagay na yon. Kadalasan mahirap ipaliwanag
yung mga gantong bagay dahil nga automatic saten na gawin ito.

2. Semantic Memory: the encyclopedic knowledge that a person possesses

- Based on common knowledge, nang hindi nanggaling sa personal experience mo

- ex. hindi pa ako nakakpunta ng paris pero alam nya kung anong itsura ito dahil
nakikita mostly sa mg social media, internet or articles.

3. Episodic Memory: memory of autobiographical events that can be explicitly

stated, contains all memories that are temporal in nature, such as when you last
brushed your teeth.

- episode of life, nakabase sa emotional, biological and personal experiences. Involve

ka na don sa situations.

• Problem Solving

• Metacognition - involves conscious thought about thought processes

 - also involves knowing yourself as a learner; that is, knowing your strengths and
weaknesses as a learner.
- Na a-identify mo kung san ka magaling at sa hindi magaling
- Ex. aware na nahihirapan sa math. But then again kahit nahihirapan kang
sagutan yung questions sa math, you’re still trying to study para mas
maintindihan mo pano magsolve and makuha mo yung mga answers na yon.
Nagkakaroon ka dito ng self-reflection, realizations, awareness, conscious about
don sa mga bagay na maling ginagawa mo.

Cognitive Distortions – errors in thinking (anxiety or depression)

- Negative or irrational patterns of thinking. Malaking influence sa motivation self-

esteem.
- are internal mental filters or biases that increase our misery, fuel our anxiety,
and make us feel bad about ourselves.

• All-or-nothing thinking - also known as black and white thinking or polarized thinking

- Walang in between, walang maybe sa yes or no. walang medyo sa maganda o

panget. Laging dalawa lang ang sagot.
- For example, Joan feels like a failure at school. Every time she makes a mistake,
instead of acknowledging the error and trying to move past it, she gives up and
assumes that she'll never be able to do well.

• Overgeneralization - happens when you make a rule after a single event or a series of
coincidences. The words "always" or "never" frequently appear in the sentence. Because
you have experience with one event playing out a certain way, you assume that all future
events will have the same outcome.

- For example, Ben has inferred from a series of coincidences that seven is his
lucky number and has overgeneralized this to gambling situations involving the
number seven, no matter how many times he loses.

• Mental Filter - opposite of overgeneralization, but with the same negative outcome.
Instead of taking one small event and generalizing it inappropriately, the mental filter takes
one small event and focuses on it exclusively, filtering out anything else.

- This type of cognitive distortion can contribute to problems including addiction,

anxiety, poor self-belief, and interpersonal problems, among other issues.
- For example, Nathan focuses on all of the negative or hurtful things that his
partner has said or done in their relationship, but he filters all the kind and
thoughtful things his partner does. This thinking contributes to feelings of
negativity about his partner and their relationship.
• Discounting the Positive -involves ignoring or invalidating good things that have
happened to you. It is similar to mental filtering, but instead of simply ignoring the
positives, you are actively rejecting them.

- For example, Joel completes a project and receives an award for his outstanding
work. Rather than feeling proud of his achievement, he attributes it to pure luck
that has nothing to do with his talent and effort.

• Jumping to Conclusions

Ex. may nakasalubong, napatingin, at nag jujump sya sa conclusion na pinaguusapan

sya. Wala syang basis or magiging reason kung bakit nangyari iyon

•Mind reading: When you think someone is going to react in a particular way, or you
believe someone is thinking things that they aren’t

•Fortune telling: When you predict events will unfold in a particular way, often to
avoid trying something difficult

• Magnification - exaggerating the importance of shortcomings and problems while

minimizing the importance of desirable qualities.  Similar to mental filtering and
discounting the positive, this cognitive distortion involves magnifying your negative
qualities while minimizing your positive ones. 

- When something bad happens, you see this as "proof" of your own failures. But
when good things happen, you minimize their importance.
- ex. nadumihan yung uniform mo sa work, pero inisip mo agad na mawawala ka
sa trabaho pag nakita yon ng boss mo. Minamaliit mo lang yung mga bagay na
kakayahan mo or kung saan ka nageexcel dahil mas nakikita mo yung mga bagay
na pagkakamali mo

• Emotional reasoning - a way of judging yourself or your circumstances based on your

emotions.

- This type of reasoning assumes that because you are experiencing a negative
emotion, it must be an accurate reflection of reality. If you feel experience
feelings of guilt, for example, emotional reasoning would lead you to conclude
that you are a bad person.
- For example bigla kang natatakot sa isang situation, kaya nasabi mo or feeling
mo na sa danger ka.

• "Should" statements- involve always thinking about things that you think you "should" or
"must" do.
 - They can also cause you to experience feelings of guilt or a sense of failure.
Because you always think you "should" be doing something, you end up feeling
as if you are always failing.
- An example: Cheryl thinks that she should be able to play a song on her violin
without making any mistakes. When she does make mistakes, she feels angry
and upset with herself. As a result, she starts to avoid practicing her violin.

• Labeling -involves making a judgment about yourself or someone else as a person, rather
than seeing the behavior as something the person did that doesn't define them as an
individual

- You might think of this cognitive distortion as an extreme type of all-or-nothing

thinking because it involves attaching a label to someone
- Nalate sa class, ilelabel bilang irresponsible student. Problem. Nag lelabel ng
negative thoughts sa isang taong.

• Personalization and Blame -- cognitive distortion whereby you entirely blame yourself, or
someone else, for a situation that in reality involved many factors that were out of your
control

- Personalizayion - Pinepersonal ang lahat ng nangyayare, ex. hindi nainvite sa

bday ng kaibigan at Nakita nya sa story nito na invited pa yung iba nyang
kaibigan. Iniisip tuloy nya na abaka paguusapan sya, or baka hindi sya gusto
isama. May basis or reason kung bakit naiiisip ng isang tao yung pangyayaring
yon.
- Blaming - sinisi mo yung sarili mo
- For example, Anna blamed herself for her daughter's bad grade in school.
Instead of trying to find out why her daughter is struggling and exploring ways
to help, Anna assumes it is a sign that she is a bad mother.

Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT)

- has demonstrable utility in treating certain pathologies, such as simple phobias, post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and addiction

- focus on helping individuals challenge their patterns and beliefs and replace erroneous
thinking

- It help people to recognize cognitive distortions. thoughts and emotions are connected

- helps individuals take a more open, mindful, and aware posture toward their distorted
thoughts and feelings so as to diminish their impact

Most Popular Techniques Used in CBT

  Journaling – This technique is a way to gather about one’s moods and thoughts. It
can help us to identify our thought patterns and emotional tendencies, describe
them, and change, adapt, or cope with them.
 Self-talk – nakakatulong mabago yung mga negative thoughts mo na para mas
maging maayos sa kung ano yung nangyayari sa situation mo.
 Cognitive Restructuring (Anxious and Realistic thoughts) ina identify kung anong
cognitive ang meron ka.
- Cognitive Restructuring are patterns of faulty thinking that convince us
something is true when it is not. To unravel them, the client must learn which
are present for them and how to challenge those ways of thinking.
 Situation exposure - can be used to confront fears and phobias. The therapist will
slowly expose you to the things that provoke fear or anxiety, while providing
guidance on how to cope with them in the moment.

Comparison of Therapy types

Types of Core beliefs + Can be most useful for Subtypes

therapy therapeutic addressing
approach
Cognitive How to identify Mood disorders, Dialectical behavioral
behavioral harmful patterns anxiety and phobias, therapy (DBT)
therapy (CBT) and beliefs that eating disorders,
negatively impact substance use Rational emotive
you disorder, OCD, therapy
insomnia
Psychodynamic Examining emotions, Depression, anxiety,
therapy relationships, and eating disorders,
thought patterns to somatic symptoms,
explore the substance use
connection between disorder
your subconscious
mind and actions
Behavioral Action-oriented Anxiety, phobias, Systematic
therapy approaches to substance use desensitization
changing behavioral disorder, ADHD, OCD,
responses that cause other behavioral Aversion therapy
you distress issues
Humanistic Observing how your Self-esteem issues, Existential therapy
therapy individual effects of trauma,
worldview affects depression, Person-centered
the choices you relationship issues, therapy
make and how you feelings of
can develop true worthlessness Gestalt therapy
self-acceptance
Cognitive behavioral therapy types

There are various forms of therapy that fit under the CBT umbrella. You'll work with your
therapist to find which type of therapy works best for you and your goals.

These subtypes include:

Exposure therapy. This type of therapy involves slowly introduces anxiety-inducing

activities/situations into your life for measured periods of time (one to two hours up to
three times a day, for example). This subtype can be particularly effective for people who
deal with phobias or obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD).

Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT). DBT incorporates things like mindfulness and
emotional regulation through talk therapy in an individual or group setting. This subtype
can be particularly effective for people who deal with borderline personality disorder
(BPD), eating disorders, or depression.

Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). ACT is therapy that involves learning to
accept negative or unwanted thoughts. This subtype may be particularly effective for
people who deal with intrusive thoughts or catastrophic thinking.

Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT). MBCT uses mindfulness techniques and

meditation along with cognitive therapy. This subtype can be particularly effective for
people who deal with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and generalized anxiety
disorder (GAD).

Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT). REBT Is the original form of CBT and focuses
on negative thought patterns and how they influence issues with emotions or behaviors.
This subtype can be particularly effective for anything from anxiety to depression, sleep
Issues to addictive behaviors and more.