Engineering Electromagnetics

W.H. Hayt Jr. and J. A. Buck

Chapter 3:
Electric Flux Density, Gauss’ Law,
and Divergence
 3.1 Electric Flux Density
3.1.1 Faraday’s Experiments on Electric Displacement

 Experimental steps
5. The inner charge, Q, induces an equal and opposite charge, -Q,
on the inside surface of the outer sphere. This phenomenon is
maintained for intermediate materials.

Faraday conclusion: There was some sort of “displacement” from

the inner sphere to the outer which was independent of the
medium  Displacement flux or Electric flux: Ψ [psi]
⸫ Ψ = Q
 3.1.2 Electric Flux Density
 At the surface of the inner sphere, Ψ coulombs of electric flux are
produced by the charge Q (= Ψ) coulombs distributed uniformly
over a surface having an area of 4πa2 [m2].

 Electric Flux Density ( D ) : density of flux at the specific surface
 Radially-Dependent Electric Flux Density

 Electric flux densities:

 +Q
Q 
D = ar
r =a 4πa 2

@ surface of inner sphere

 Q 
D = ar
r =b 4πb 2

r
@ surface of outer sphere
 Q 
D= ar @a≤r≤b
4πr 2
 Point Charge Fields
 Let the inner sphere make smaller and smaller, still retaining a
charge of Q, it becomes a point charge.

 Electric flux density for a point charge

[C/m2] (0 < r <∞ )

: symmetrically directed outward from the point and pass

through an imaginary spherical surface of area 4πr2.

 Compare with [V/m] (@ 0 < r <∞ ) ,

then
 Finding E and D from Charge Distributions

 In chapter 2,

 As similar manner,
 
Ex.] (임의의 가상 원통면을 관통하여 밖으로 나가는) D = ?

ρ L = 8 [nC/m]

 ρL  8 × 10 −9  143.8 
E= aρ = aρ = a ρ [V/m]
2πε 0 ρ 2π × 8.854 × 10 ρ −12
ρ
 
@ ρ = 3 m, E = 47.9aρ [V/m]

 ρL  8 × 10 −9  1.273 × 10 −9 
D= aρ = aρ = a ρ [C/m 2 ]
2πρ 2πρ ρ
 
@ ρ =3 m, D = 0.424aρ [nC/m 2 ]
 3.2 Gauss’ Law

The electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal

to the total charge enclosed by that surface

 ∆S : incremental (surface) element of surface at P

 
∆S = ∆Sa N
 
DS : angled about θ with ∆S
 Development of Gauss’ Law

∆S 의 수직방향성분 고려

** Tangential 방향 성분의
vector 들의 합은 “0”
 무시 가능)

 Total flux passing through the closed surface:

내 부 로 부 터 밖 (radial 실 제 로 이 루 어 진 closed surfac 의 단 위

방향)으로 향하는 flux 면적 및 그 normal 벡터 성분
Mathematical Statement of Gauss’ Law

Several point charges:

Line charge:

(Open) Surface charge:

Volume charge:

(폐곡면을 수직으로
빠져나가는 electric flux
⸫ density의 합 = 폐곡면 내부의
전하량 합)
Ex. 3.1] Check the results of Faraday’s experimental
 Q 
E= ar
4πε 0 r 2
  Q 
D = ε0E = a
4πr 2 r

At the surface of the sphere,

 Q 
DS = a
4πa 2 r

dS = r 2 sin θdθdφ = a 2 sin θdθdφ

  Q   2
( )
  Q
DS ⋅ dS =  a ⋅ a sin θdθdφar =
2 r
sin θdθdφ
 4πa  4π
  φ = 2π θ =π Q
∴ Total charge = ∫ DS ⋅ dS = ∫
φ = 0 ∫θ = 0 4π
sin θdθdφ
S

φ = 2π Q φ = 2π Q
=∫ [− cosθ ]0 dφ = ∫
π
dφ
φ = 0 4π φ = 0 2π
2π
Q φ = 2π Q 
=
2π ∫φ =0
dφ =  φ  = Q
 2π  0
 3.3 Application of Gauss Law:
Some Symmetrical Charge Distributions
 Gauss’ Law

 The solution can be obtained easily if

So that:
 3.3.1 Point Charge Field

 DS is everywhere normal to the surface and its magnitude is
constant.
 
Q=∫ DS ⋅ dS = ∫ DS dS = DS ∫ dS
S sphere
2π π 2π
= DS ∫ ∫ r sin θdθdφ = DS ∫ 2r 2 dφ
2
0 0 0

= 4πr 2 DS
Q
∴ DS =
4πr 2

 Since
 r may have any value and
DS is radially outwarded,
 Q   Q 
D= a E= a
4πr 2 r
4πε 0 r 2 r
 3.3.2 Line Charge Field
  
D = Dρ aρ ( aρ directional radiate)
 
Q = ∫ DS ⋅ dS = DS ∫ dS + 0∫ dS + 0∫ dS
cyl sides top bottom
L 2π
= DS ∫ dS = DS ∫ ∫ ρdφdz
sides z =0 φ =0

= DS 2πρL
Q
DS = Dρ = ← Q = ρLL
2πρ L
ρL  ρL 
= → D= aρ
2πρ 2πρ
ρL  ρL 
Eρ =
→ E aρ
2πε 0 ρ 2πε 0 ρ
 3.3.3 Coaxial Transmission Line
 Surface charge distribution at outer surface (ρ = a) of inner
conductor: ρS [C/m2]
 Total electric flux by coaxial cylindrical conductor which is of
length L and radius ρ, where a < ρ < b:

 Total charge on a length L of the inner conductor:

L 2π
Q=∫ ∫φ ρ S adφdz = 2πaLρ S = DS 2πρL L
z =0 =0

aρ S
∴ DS = ρ
ρ
 aρ S 
∴D = a ρ ( a < ρ < b)
ρ
 Coaxial Transmission Line (continued)
 The previous result might be expressed in terms of line charge
per unit length.
ρ L = 2πaLρ S = 2πaρ S  L = 1 [m]
ρL
ρS =
2πa
ρL
a
 aρ S  2πa  ρL 
D= aρ = aρ = aρ
ρ ρ 2πρ
 Coaxial Transmission Line: Exterior Field
 Because every line of electric flux starting from the charge on the
inner cylinder must terminate on a negative charge on the inner
surface of the outer cylinder

Qouter cyl = −2π aLρ S .inner cyl

= 2π bLρ S .outer cyl
a
ρ S .outer cyl = − ρ S .inner cyl
b
 At ρ > b,
(⸪ Total enclosed charge would be zero.)

 At ρ < a, 0 = Ds 2πρL
Ds = 0 (⸪ Total enclosed charge would be zero.)
Ex.] L = 50 cm, ρinner = 1 mm (= a), ρouter = 4 mm (= b), ε0 (in
intermediate space).

 Total charge on the inner conductor: 30 nC

30 × 10 −9
Qinner . cyl
ρ S .inner = = = 9 .55 [μC/m 2
]
2πaL 2π × 10 × 0.5
−3

 Internal fields:
aρ s 10 −3 × 9.55 × 10 −6 9.55
Dρ = = = [nC/m 2 ]
ρ ρ ρ
9.55 × 10 −9 / ρ 1079
Dρ
Eρ = = = [V/m] (1 < ρ < 4 mm)
ε0 8.854 × 10 −12
ρ
Eρ = Dρ = 0 ( ρ < 1, ρ > 4 mm)
 3.4 Gauss’s Law in Differential Form: Divergence
 at point P
   
D0 = Dx 0 a x + D y 0 a y + Dz 0 a z
 
Q = ∫ DS ⋅ dS
S
 
= ∫ DS ⋅ dS + ∫ +∫ +∫ +∫ +∫
front back left right top bottom

 Since the surface element is very small,

is essentially constant over this
portion of the entire closed surface.
 
∫ front
≈ D front ⋅ ∆S front
 
= D front ⋅ ∆y∆za x = D x. front ∆y∆z
   
( D front = Dx , front a x + D y , front a y + Dz , front a z )
 ∆x
Dx , front ≅ Dxo + × rate of change Dx with x
2
∆x ∂Dx
= Dxo +
2 ∂x
∆x ∂Dx
∴∫ ≅ ( Dxo + )∆y∆z
front 2 ∂x

 Consider the integral over the back surface,

    ∆x ∂D x
∫ = Dback ⋅ ∆Sback = Dback ⋅ (−∆y∆zax ) 
back
D x.back ≅ D xo −
2 ∂x
= − Dx , back ∆y∆z
∆x ∂Dx
∴∫ ≅ (− Dxo + )∆y∆z
back 2 ∂x

 Therefore:
 By exactly the same process,
∂D y
∫ right
+∫
left
≅
∂y
∆x∆y∆z

∂Dz
∫ top
+∫
bottom
≅
∂z
∆x∆y∆z

 All assembled results :

   ∂Dx ∂D y ∂Dz 
∫S D ⋅ dS =  ∂x + ∂y + ∂z ∆x∆y∆z
 ∂Dx ∂D y ∂Dz 
=  + + ∆v
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
=Q
 Charge enclosed within volume ∆v
∂Dx ∂D y ∂Dz
≅( + + ) × volume ∆v
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ex. 3.3]
 -x  -x     
D = e sin ya x - e cos ya y + 2 za z [C/m ] ( = Dx a x + D y a y + Dz a z )
2

∂Dx
= −e − x sin y
∂x
∂D y
= e − x sin y
∂y
∂Dz
=2
∂z

.∙. Charge enclosed within volume ∆v = 2∆v

If ∆v = 10-9 m3, then volume charge is 2 nC.

 3.4.2 Divergence and Maxwell’s First Equation

 
∂Dx ∂D y ∂Dz
+ + ≅ s
∫ D ⋅ dS
=
Q
∂x ∂y ∂z ∆v ∆v  
∂Dx ∂Dy ∂Dz ∫ D ⋅ dS ∫ Q
= ρv
 As a limit, ∂x + ∂y + ∂z = ∆lim = lim
S S
v→0 ∆v ∆v →0 ∆v

= div D

Point form of Gauss’s law:

Maxwell’s first equation
 Divergence Expressions in the Three Coordinate Systems


Ex. 3.4] D = e − x sin ya x − e − x cos ya y + 2 za x
3.4.3 Maxwell’s First Equation: Gauss’s Law in Point Form

 Q 
[Ex.] D = ar
4πr 2

 1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂Dφ
Since div D = 2 (r Dr ) + (sin θDθ ) + ,
r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ

1 ∂ Q
div D = 2 ( )=0
r ∂r 4π

∴ ρv = 0 @ r ≠ 0 (everywhere except at the origin,

where it is infinite)
 3.5 Divergence Theorem
3.5.1 The Del Operator

Note that:

= = div D
 In other coordinate systems,

 1 ∂ 1 ∂Dφ ∂D z
∇⋅D = ( ρD ρ ) + + (cylindrical coordinate)
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂φ ∂z

 1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂Dφ
∇⋅D = 2 (r Dr ) + (sin θ Dθ ) +
r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ

(spherical coordinate)
 3.5.3 Divergence Theorem

 Maxwell’s first equation (or the point form of Gauss’ Law) :

 Gauss’s Law in large-scale (or integral) form

 Divergence theorem
Statement of the Divergence Theorem

(면적분  체적적분, 이중적분  삼중적분)

   2
Ex. 3.5] D = 2 xya x + x a y [C/m 2 ]

Solution I)
   
D ⋅ dS z =0 = 0a z ⋅ ( ± dxdya z ) = 0
z =3
 
∫ D ⋅ dS = ∫
s
+∫
front
+∫ +∫
back
left right
3 2   3 2  
= ∫ ∫ D ⋅ (−dydzax ) + ∫ ∫ D ⋅ (dydzax )
=0 0 x 0=0 0 x 1
3 1   3 1  
+∫ ∫ D ⋅ (−dxdza y ) + ∫ ∫ D ⋅ (dxdza y )
=0 0 y 0=0 0 y 2

3 2 3 2
= − ∫ ∫ ( D ) dydz + ∫
=
x x 0= x x 1 ∫ (D ) dydz
0 0 0 0

3 1 3 1
= −∫
y y 0= y y 2 ∫ (D ) dxdz + ∫ ∫ (D ) dxdz
0 0 0 0
 Since ( Dx ) x =0 = 0 and ( D y ) y =0 = ( D y ) y =2 ,

Solution II)
 ∂ ∂ 2
∇ ⋅ D = (2 xy ) + ( x ) = 2 y
∂x ∂y
 3 2 1
∫ ∇ ⋅ Ddv = ∫ ∫ ∫ 2 ydxdydz
vol 0 0 0
3 2 3
= ∫0 ∫0 2 ydydz = ∫0 [ y 2 ]02 dz = [4 z ]30 = 12

(⸫ 직육면체 안에 12 [C]의 전하가 존재)