REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
REGION 10
OPOL NATIONAL SECONDARY TECHNICAL
SCHOOL
TABOC, OPOL, MISAMIS ORIENTAL

COMPETENCY–BASED LEARNING MATERIAL

AGRICULTURAL CROP PRODUCTION NC II
MODULE 3: CARE AND MAINTAIN CROPS

REMEDIOS B. CASTILLO
Master Teacher I
CARE AND MAINTAIN CROPS
Topic1: Applies pest control measures

1.1 Monitors pest incidence based on prescribed procedure

1.2 Prepares tools and materials according to specific pest control measure
1.3 Follows appropriate pest control measures based on GAP
1.4 Observes and Practice Safety measures according to Occupational Safety and Health
Standards (OSHS) Procedures
1.5 Controls weed population

Topic 2: Applies Fertilizers

2.1 Prepares tools and materials according to prescribed user’s manual

2.2 Identifies kinds of fertilizers based on crop requirement.
2.3 Applies rate of fertilizer based on crop requirement
2.4 Employs appropriate methods of fertilizer application based on crop requirement.
2.5 Applies precautionary measure to avoid cross contamination based on GAP.
2.6 Follows safety procedure according to OSHS

Topic 3: Water Crops

3.1 Determine soil moisture content based on soil field capacity.

3.2 Performs watering of crops following prescribed methods and schedule
3.3 Observes GAP
3.4 Applies proper irrigation /watering of crops

Topic 4: Perform pruning

4.1 Selects appropriate tools and materials for pruning.

4.2 Performs pruning methods according to crops.
4.3 Follows safety procedures according to OSHS.

Topic 5: Performs Physical growth-Enhancing Practices

5.1 Prepares tools and equipment for cultivation

5.2 Carries out cultivation practices based on crop requirement.
5.3 Performs rejuvenating activities
5.4 Performs growth training techniques for different crop
5.5 Carries out mulching technique.
5.6 Follows safety procedure according to OSHS.

Activities in Caring and Maintaining Crops

1. Conduct field survey, identify damages caused by insect pests and diseases of different existing
crops.
2. Carries pest control measure according to existing pest.
3. Apply fertilizer to existing crops using appropriate method.
4. Set up water lines for watering crops
5. Select three crops in the field and demonstrate appropriate pruning method.
6. Using existing crops in the field, demonstrate cultivation, rejuvenation, growth training and
mulching
on appropriate crops.

PRACTICE PROPER CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS AND DISEASES

Definition of terms
1. Insect – a small invertebrate animal with three pairs of legs and usually with wings. It has
three clearly marked body regions: head, thorax and abdomen.
2. Disease – an abnormal condition that injures the plant or cause it to function improperly. A
disease is any disturbance that interferes with the normal structure( height, tillers, leaves)
function (reduced vigor, early death) and economic value( reduced yield, poor quality
produce) of the plant (host).
3. Symptom – the physical expression of a change in the appearance and function of the plant.
4. Signs – visible presence of the pathogen
5. Pathogen - a causal agent of a disease. Pathogen, in the broader sense, is any agent that
causes disease. However, the term is generally used to refer to a living organism, such as
fungus, bacteria, and virus.
6. Pesticides – a broad term that describes all products used to control insects, diseases,
weeds, fungi, and other pests on plants, animals, and buildings.
7. Susceptible - easily affected or capable of being influenced.
8. Virulent – noxious, poisonous, infective or malignant
9. Vector – the transmitter or carrier of a disease.

INFORMATION SHEET

The insects are the worst enemies of our crops. The study of insect pests and their control is
called Entomology. The person engaged in entomological work is called an Entomologist.
Vegetables are susceptible to injury and damaged caused by insect pest which can occur at
the same time with other pests. A vegetable grower must be able to control these pests effectively
in order to be profitable.
 MAJOR TYPES OF PEST CAUSING YIELD LOSSES IN CROP PRODUCTION
1. Insects
2. Diseases
3. Weeds

Major insect pests in rice Major insect in corn

1. Plant hopper 1. Corn borer
2. Black bug 2. Corn earworm
3. Rice stem borer 3. aphids
4. Grasshopper
5. Snail

Major insect pest in fruits

Mango – fruit fly, twig borer, shoot borer, scale insects, etc.
Cacao – mirid bug, cacao pod borer, mealy bug, etc.
Coffee – twig borer, weevil, berry borer
Coconut – coconut scale insect, brontispa, rhinoceros beetle, etc.

Major insect pest in vegetables Major insect pest in ornamental

1. Diamond back moth 1. Scale insects
2. Fruit worm 2. Moth( leafhoppers)
3. White fly 3. aphids
4. Aphids
5. Mites

Integrated Pest Management

IPM refers to a sustainable approach to managing pests by combining biological, physical and
chemical tools in a way that minimizes economic, health and environmental risks.

Pest insects
Pest insects can have adverse and damaging impacts on agricultural production and market
access, the natural environment, and our lifestyle. Pest insects may cause problems by
damaging crops and food production, parasitising livestock, or being a nuisance and health
hazard to humans.
Western Australia is free from some of the world's major pest insects. Biosecurity measures on
your property are vital in preventing the spread of insects.

The Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development provides:

 biosecurity/quarantine measures at the WA border to prevent the entry of pest insects

 where relevant post border biosecurity measures
 advice on widespread pest insects present in the state

Sweetpotato weevil: Declared pest

Sweet potato weevil Cylas formicarius (Fabricius) is the most serious pest of sweet potato, not
only in the United States, but around the world. It causes damage in the field, in storage, and is
of quarantine significance. It is inherently of interest to entomologists due to its strikingly colourful
appearance and extremely long rostrum (beak)

Leaf beetle: cabbage pest

Adult leaf beetles and damage to brassica leaves

Young cabbage head caterpillar larvae Close up of near mature cabbage head caterpillar
larvae.

Cabbage head caterpillar moth

Chewing insects

Insects with sharp, powerful mandibles are classified as “chewing insects.” They are able to cut
and chew solid food such as leaves, seeds or other insects.
Grasshoppers, crickets, ants, cockroaches and earwigs are all chewing insects. They have:
 An upper and lower labrum and labium
A large pair of heavy jaws known as mandibles, which they use to cut and
crush their food
Another pair of jaws, the maxillae, which they use to chew their food
A hypopharynx, that corresponds to the bottom, or roof, of the mouth

Sucking-chewing insects
Some chewing insects only eat liquid or liquified food,
although they have well-developed mandibles. Such insects
are called “sucking-chewing insects.” For example, the water
beetle larva is a sucking-chewing insect. Each of its hook-
shaped mandibles has a narrow conduit, which the larva uses
to inject saliva into the body of its prey to liquefy it. A few
minutes later, it can suck up its

liquefied prey

Licking-chewing insects

The honeybee is a “licking-chewing insect.” It licks its food with a tongue

formed from the fusion of the labium and the maxillae. It uses its mandibles to
knead wax and buid wax cells

Insect Management

Insect Life Cycle

Insects either have a complete or incomplete life cycle. Insects in the complete life cycle group have
four distinct stages, the egg, larvae, pupae and adult. Examples of these insects are beetles and
moths. Beetles lay their eggs either singly or in groups, and they hatch into either grubs or larvae that
move about freely on the plant feeding on roots, tubers, leaves, or fruits. After reaching maturity, they
then pupate (the resting stage) and develop into adults. Adult beetles also may damage plant parts,
so two damaging stages may exist. Figure VI-1 depicts growth stages for insects having a complete
life cycle.

. Complete Life Cycle

Moths and butterflies also have a complete life cycle similar to beetles except that the damaging stage
is the larvae or worm stage which usually feeds on the stems, leaves or fruits. The adult stage,
moths and butterflies, feed on nectar or may not feed at all. Insects with a complete life cycle almost
always have a chewing mouthpart.

Insects with incomplete life cycles include grasshoppers and true bugs (stink bug and squash bugs).
Many insects in this category have piercing, sucking mouthparts and suck juice from plants. Some,
such as the grasshopper, chew on leaves and stems. Regardless, insects with an incomplete life
cycle are unique in that they hatch from eggs into tiny nymphs that resemble the adult stage. They
stay in the nymphal stage for several weeks, while growing and molting into larger insects until they
reach adulthood. Adults have fully developed wings and can fly great distances. Nymphs either do not
have wings or have wings that cannot be used for flight.

Insects with an incomplete life cycle can be controlled at any stage, but are easier to control in the
nymphal stage just after they hatch from the eggs. Figure VI-2 depicts the developmental stages of
insects with incomplete life cycles.

Insects as Disseminators of Plant Diseases

 In 1892, a plant disease (fireblight of fruit trees) was discovered to be spread by an insect (the
honeybee). At present, there is evidence that more than 200 plant diseases are disseminated by
insects. The majority of them, about 150, belong to the group known as viruses; 25 or more are due to
parasitic fungi; 15 or more are bacterial diseases; and a few are caused by protozoa.

Insects may spread plant diseases in the following ways:

 By feeding, laying eggs or boring into plants, they create an entrance point for a disease that is not
actually transported by them.
 They carry and disseminate the causative agents of the disease on or in their bodies from one plant to
a susceptible surface of another plant.
 They carry pathogens on the outside or inside of their bodies and inject plants hypodermically as they
feed.
 The insect may serve as an essential host for some part of the pathogens life cycle, and the disease
could not complete its life cycle without the insect host.
Examples of insect vectored plant diseases are shown below.
Disease Vector
 Fireblight (bacterial)  Pollinating Insects
 Tomato curly top (virus)  Beet leafhopper
 Cucumber mosaic (virus)  Aphids

Benefits and Value of Insects

Insects must be studied carefully to distinguish the beneficial from the harmful. Producers have often gone to
great trouble and expense to destroy insects, only to learn later that the insect destroyed was not only harmless,
but it was actually engaged in saving their crops by eating destructive insects.

Insects are beneficial to the vegetable grower in several ways:

 Insects aid in the production of vegetables by pollinating the blossoms. Melons, squash and many other
vegetables require insects to carry their pollen before fruit set.
 Parasitic insects destroy other injurious insects by living on or in their bodies and their eggs. Insects also act as
predators, capturing and devouring other insects.
 Insects destroy various weeds in the same ways that they injure crop plants.
 Insects improve the physical condition of the soil and promote its fertility by burrowing throughout the surface
layer. Also, the dead bodies and droppings of insects serve as fertilizer.
 Insects perform a valuable service as scavengers by devouring the bodies of dead animals and plants and by
burying carcasses and dung.

Many of the benefits from insects enumerated above, although genuine, are insignificant compared with the good
that insects do fighting among themselves. There is no doubt that the greatest single factor in keeping plant-
feeding insects from overwhelming the rest of the world is that they are fed upon by other insects.

Insects that eat other insects are considered in two groups known as predators and parasites. Predators are
insects (or other animals) that catch and devour other creatures (called the prey), usually killing and consuming
them in a single meal. The prey generally is smaller and weaker than the predator. Parasites are forms of living
organisms that live on or in the bodies of living organisms (called the hosts) from which they get their food, during
 at least one stage of their existence. The hosts usually are larger and stronger than the parasites and are not
killed promptly but continue to live during a period of close association with the parasite. Predators are typically
very active and have long life cycles; parasites are typically sluggish and tend to have very short life cycles.

Insect Control
Insect control is also important to keep the pests from spreading to other crops, and it may help reduce the
incidence of disease by killing insect vectors. Insects attacking vegetables can be divided into three categories:

 Soil Insects
 Chewing Insects
 Sucking Insects

Soil Insects
Soil insects include wireworms, white grubs, fire ants, cutworms, seed maggots and the sweet potato weevil.
These insects can be damaging because they feed on the roots, stems and tubers of plants. Often soil insects,
especially cutworms, are common in uncultivated soil sites that have had grass and weeds growing the previous
season. These undisturbed areas often harbor high populations of soil insects. Once seeds or transplants are
planted, soil insects are difficult to control and may begin feeding immediately on the crop. There is a real need
for producers to inspect fields for soil insects prior to planting. One or two soil insects per square foot of soil can
cause serious damage.

Oftentimes soil insects are clumped in a field, that is, they may be in one area and not in another. Low areas or
those areas with the most vegetation often hold the most insects. Controlling soil insects is much easier if done
prior to planting. Most insecticides for the control of soil insects should be applied 6 weeks before planting and
incorporated into the top 6 inches of the soil. Liquid or granular materials may be used. These can either be
broadcast or banded in the row. Sometimes producers will apply insecticides at planting. Make sure to read the
label for proper rates and application techniques. Some insecticides may interfere with seed germination and
should not be placed in the furrow in contact with the seed.

Pest Control with a Minimum of Chemicals

The “if a little is good, more will be better” attitude leads to a serious misuse of pesticides.

Overuse of pesticides has a number of adverse effects:

 Food products may contain unsafe pesticide residues if improperly treated with pesticide.
 Beneficial insects, earthworms and birds may be harmed or killed along with harmful insects if pesticides are
carelessly used.
 Each time producers spray they expose themselves to the possibility of inhalation or absorption of the toxin.
 Careless use of pesticides near water may contaminate water supplies.
 Misuse of pesticides can lead to the development of chemical resistance in the target pest.
 The use of pesticides can lead to outbreaks of secondary pest species.

A growing public concern over the use and misuse of pesticides has led increasing numbers of vegetable
producers to seek means of natural pest control. Although some people do not have the time or knowledge to
practice all available alternative methods for controlling pests, there are many cultural practices which will help
reduce losses. Proper soil preparation, careful plant selection and good cultural practices can be combined with
biological and mechanical controls to reduce the need for chemical pesticides.
Temperature, humidity, precipitation and natural enemies all influence insect populations. In some years,
troublesome insects may not be numerous enough to significantly damage plants. In other years, large insect
populations may cause serious damage or completely destroy host plants.

Effective control of specific insects must be preceded by proper identification of these insects. Once an insect’s
identity is known, you can learn about its life cycle, seasonal cycle, habits and host plants, and thus exercise
more effective control measures.

Several control methods are often combined in order to minimize damage by insect pests. Since insect control
methods vary in their effectiveness, you may wish to select alternative methods to correspond with differences in
plant growth and productivity, insect damage, weather conditions and cultural practices. Various control methods
will now be considered

Insect Management
James Robinson

Insects are a major limiting factor in commercial vegetable production. Minor insect damage lowers the crop’s
value because the market demands clean, unblemished produce. Growers need to quickly recognize insect
problems and practice early control to prevent a buildup and keep insect pests from getting out of control.

Insect Life Cycle

Insects either have a complete or incomplete life cycle. Insects in the complete life cycle group have four distinct
stages, the egg, larvae, pupae and adult. Examples of these insects are beetles and moths. Beetles lay their
eggs either singly or in groups, and they hatch into either grubs or larvae that move about freely on the plant
feeding on roots, tubers, leaves, or fruits. After reaching maturity, they then pupate (the resting stage) and
develop into adults. Adult beetles also may damage plant parts, so two damaging stages may exist. Figure VI-1
depicts growth stages for insects having a complete life cycle.
 Figure VI-1. Complete Life Cycle

Moths and butterflies also have a complete life cycle similar to beetles except that the damaging stage is the
larvae or worm stage which usually feeds on the stems, leaves or fruits. The adult stage, moths and butterflies,
feed on nectar or may not feed at all. Insects with a complete life cycle almost always have a chewing mouthpart.

Insects with incomplete life cycles include grasshoppers and true bugs (stink bug and squash bugs). Many
insects in this category have piercing, sucking mouthparts and suck juice from plants. Some, such as the
grasshopper, chew on leaves and stems. Regardless, insects with an incomplete life cycle are unique in that they
hatch from eggs into tiny nymphs that resemble the adult stage. They stay in the nymphal stage for several
weeks, while growing and molting into larger insects until they reach adulthood. Adults have fully developed
wings and can fly great distances. Nymphs either do not have wings or have wings that cannot be used for flight.

Insects with an incomplete life cycle can be controlled at any stage, but are easier to control in the nymphal stage
just after they hatch from the eggs. Figure VI-2 depicts the developmental stages of insects with incomplete life
cycles.

Figure VI-2. Incomplete Life Cycle. Image courtesy of North Dakota State University

Insect Injury
Insects injure plants by chewing leaves, stems and roots, sucking juices, egg laying or transmitting diseases.

Injury by Chewing Insects

Insects take their food in a variety of ways. One method is by chewing off external plant parts. Such insects are
called chewing insects. It is easy to see examples of this injury. Perhaps the best way to gain an idea of the
prevalence of this type of insect damage is to try to find leaves of plants with no sign of insect chewing injury.
Cabbageworms, armyworms, grasshoppers, the Colorado potato beetle and the fall webworm are common
examples of insects that cause chewing injury.

Injury by Piercing-Sucking Insects

Another important method which insects use to feed on plants is piercing the epidermis (skin) and sucking sap
from cells. In this case, only internal and liquid portions of the plant are swallowed, while the insect feeds
externally on the plant. These insects have a slender and sharp pointed part of the mouthpart which is thrust into
the plant and through which sap is sucked. This results in a very different but nonetheless severe injury. The hole
made in this way is so small that it cannot be seen with the unaided eye, but the withdrawal of the sap results in
either minute white, brown or red spotting on leaves, fruits and/or twigs; leaf curling; deformed fruit; or a general
wilting, browning and dying of the entire plant. Aphids, scale insects, squash bugs, leafhoppers and plant bugs
are examples of piercing-sucking insects.

Injury by Internal Feeders

Many insects feed within plant tissue during a part or all of their destructive stages. They gain entrance to plants
either in the egg stage when the female thrust into the tissues with sharp ovipositors and deposit the eggs there,
or by eating their way in after they hatch from the eggs. In either case, the hole by which they enter is almost
always minute and often invisible. A large hole in a fruit, seed, nut, twig or trunk generally indicates where the
insect has come out, and not the point where it entered.

The chief groups of internal feeders are indicated by their common group names: borers; worms or weevils in
fruits, nuts or seeds; leaf miners; and gall insects. Each group, except the third, contains some of the foremost
insect pests of the world. In nearly all of them, the insect lives inside the plant during only a part of its life and
emerging sooner or later as an adult. Control measures for internal feeding insects are most effective if aimed at
adults or the immature stages prior to their entrance into the plant.

A number of internal feeders are small enough to find comfortable quarters and an abundance of food between
the upper and lower epidermis of a leaf. These are known as leaf miners.

Gall insects sting plants and cause them to produce a structure of deformed tissue. The insect then finds shelter
and abundant food inside this plant growth. Although the gall is entirely plant tissue, the insect controls and
directs the form and shape it takes as it grows.

Injury by Subterranean Insects

Subterranean insects are those insects that attack plants below the surface of the soil. They include chewers,
sap suckers, root borers and gall insects. The attacks differ from the above ground forms only in their position
with reference to the soil surface. Some subterranean insects spend their entire life cycle below ground. In other
subterranean insects, there is at least one life stage that occurs above the soil surface; these include wireworm,
root maggot, pillbug, strawberry root weevil, and corn rootworm. The larvae are root feeders while the adults live
above ground.

Injury by Laying Eggs

Probably 95% or more of insect injury to plants is caused by feeding in the various ways just described. In
addition, insects may damage plants by laying eggs in critical plant tissues. As soon as the young hatch, they
desert the plant causing no further injury.

Use of Plants for Nest Materials

 In addition to laying eggs in plants, insects sometimes remove parts of plants for the construction of nests or for
provisioning nests.

Insects as Disseminators of Plant Diseases

In 1892, a plant disease (fireblight of fruit trees) was discovered to be spread by an insect (the honeybee). At
present, there is evidence that more than 200 plant diseases are disseminated by insects. The majority of them,
about 150, belong to the group known as viruses; 25 or more are due to parasitic fungi; 15 or more are bacterial
diseases; and a few are caused by protozoa.

Insects may spread plant diseases in the following ways:

 By feeding, laying eggs or boring into plants, they create an entrance point for a disease that is not actually
transported by them.
 They carry and disseminate the causative agents of the disease on or in their bodies from one plant to a
susceptible surface of another plant.
 They carry pathogens on the outside or inside of their bodies and inject plants hypodermically as they feed.
 The insect may serve as an essential host for some part of the pathogens life cycle, and the disease could not
complete its life cycle without the insect host.

Examples of insect vectored plant diseases are shown below.

Disease Vector
 Fireblight (bacterial)  Pollinating Insects
 Tomato curly top (virus)  Beet leafhopper
 Cucumber mosaic (virus)  Aphids

Benefits and Value of Insects

Insects must be studied carefully to distinguish the beneficial from the harmful. Producers have often gone to
great trouble and expense to destroy insects, only to learn later that the insect destroyed was not only harmless,
but it was actually engaged in saving their crops by eating destructive insects.

Insects are beneficial to the vegetable grower in several ways:

 Insects aid in the production of vegetables by pollinating the blossoms. Melons, squash and many other
vegetables require insects to carry their pollen before fruit set.
 Parasitic insects destroy other injurious insects by living on or in their bodies and their eggs. Insects also act as
predators, capturing and devouring other insects.
 Insects destroy various weeds in the same ways that they injure crop plants.
 Insects improve the physical condition of the soil and promote its fertility by burrowing throughout the surface
layer. Also, the dead bodies and droppings of insects serve as fertilizer.
 Insects perform a valuable service as scavengers by devouring the bodies of dead animals and plants and by
burying carcasses and dung.

Many of the benefits from insects enumerated above, although genuine, are insignificant compared with the good
that insects do fighting among themselves. There is no doubt that the greatest single factor in keeping plant-
feeding insects from overwhelming the rest of the world is that they are fed upon by other insects.

Insects that eat other insects are considered in two groups known as predators and parasites. Predators are
insects (or other animals) that catch and devour other creatures (called the prey), usually killing and consuming
them in a single meal. The prey generally is smaller and weaker than the predator. Parasites are forms of living
organisms that live on or in the bodies of living organisms (called the hosts) from which they get their food, during
at least one stage of their existence. The hosts usually are larger and stronger than the parasites and are not
killed promptly but continue to live during a period of close association with the parasite. Predators are typically
very active and have long life cycles; parasites are typically sluggish and tend to have very short life cycles.

Insect Control

Different pest control measures

1. Mechanical 4. Sanitation
2. Cultural 5. Biocontrol
3. Physical 6. Chemical

MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL CONTROL

This are special operations that kill insects by mechanical or physical action. Mechanical measures
refers to the operation of machinery or application of manual operations. This is done through the following ways:
1. Manipulation of water or humidity (draining, dehydrating, or flooding the breeding area)
2. Manipulation of temperature like burning
3. Use of electric shock
4. Use of light or radiant energy
5. Use of sound waves

CHEMICAL CONTROL
This refers to the destruction of insect pest through the use of chemicals, such as pesticides and
insecticides. This method is not environmentally friendly in the sense that it may kill other beneficial insects and
offer harm to other living things like animals and men.
1. Insecticides. This are substances that kill insects by their chemical action
a. stomach poisons – are spray, dust, or dips that kill the insect when they are swallowed.
b. contact poisons – are spray , dust, or dips that kill insect without being swallowed
c. fumigants – are chemicals in the form of gas to kill insects usually applied in an enclosure of some
kind.
2. Auxiliary , synergistic or supplemental substances are materials added to spray or dusts which are not
primarily
toxicant but which make the insecticide cover more economically; stick or adhere better to plants;
spread over foliage, fruits or the bark, or the bodies of the insects more quickly and completely;
bring
insecticidal substances into solutions or emulsions; mask distasteful or repellant properties of
insecticides or activate the chemical action of the toxicant
examples:
1. carriers such as water in a spray, talc in a dust, or bran in poison bait.
2. emulsifiers such as flour, calcium and blood albumin
3. stickers such as lime, resin, and glues
4. spreaders like wetting agents and detergents
5. stabilizers such as caustic, soda, glue, gelatin
 3. attractants – these are substances used in poison baits, spray or dust to induce the insects to eat the poisoned
materials or to lure insects into the traps.
4. repellants – are substances that keep insects away from crops and animals because of their offensive
appearance
odor or taste.

CULTURAL CONTROL OR USE OF FARM PRACTICES

These are regular farm operations performed so as to destroy insects or prevent their injuries.
1. Crop rotation 6. Pruning/ thinning
2. Tilling the soil 7. Fertilizing and stimulating vigorous growth
3. Variations in time or method of planting or harvesting
4. Destruction of crop residues, weeds, volunteer plants and trash
5. Use of resistant varieties
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
This is the introduction, encouragement, and artificial increase of predaceous and parasitic
insects.
1. Protection and encouragement of insectivorous birds and other animals.
2. The use of growing plants to destroy, repel, or prevent damage by insects.

LEGAL CONTROL
This is the eradication of insects by controlling human activities
a. inspection and quarantine laws prevent the introduction of new pests from foreign countries or the
spread or within the country.

Insect control is also important to keep the pests from spreading to other crops, and it may help reduce the
incidence of disease by killing insect vectors. Insects attacking vegetables can be divided into three categories:

 Soil Insects
 Chewing Insects
 Sucking Insects

Soil Insects
Soil insects include wireworms, white grubs, fire ants, cutworms, seed maggots and the sweet potato weevil.
These insects can be damaging because they feed on the roots, stems and tubers of plants. Often soil insects,
especially cutworms, are common in uncultivated soil sites that have had grass and weeds growing the previous
season. These undisturbed areas often harbor high populations of soil insects. Once seeds or transplants are
planted, soil insects are difficult to control and may begin feeding immediately on the crop. There is a real need
for producers to inspect fields for soil insects prior to planting. One or two soil insects per square foot of soil can
cause serious damage.

Oftentimes soil insects are clumped in a field, that is, they may be in one area and not in another. Low areas or
those areas with the most vegetation often hold the most insects. Controlling soil insects is much easier if done
prior to planting. Most insecticides for the control of soil insects should be applied 6 weeks before planting and
incorporated into the top 6 inches of the soil. Liquid or granular materials may be used. These can either be
broadcast or banded in the row. Sometimes producers will apply insecticides at planting. Make sure to read the
 label for proper rates and application techniques. Some insecticides may interfere with seed germination and
should not be placed in the furrow in contact with the seed.

Chewing Insects
Many chewing insects have a complete life cycle. Therefore, depending on species, there may be one or two
damaging stages. Grasshoppers have a chewing-type mouthpart but have an incomplete life cycle. Chewing
insects include all species of beetles, grasshoppers and moths and butterfly larvae (most often called worms).

Chewing insects damage foliage, stems and fruit. They may become as numerous as to completely defoliate
plants. Eggs of most insects are laid on the plant, and the larvae upon hatching begin to feed. Others may invade
the crop by “marching in” or by flying into the field.

Control of chewing insects is basically twofold. One, the grower must watch for eggs and small larvae that begin
to feed; two, he must watch for the adults and control them when necessary. Control of these insects is important
in the early infestation of the plant. Often, the insect after hatching may bore into the fruit or stem and be hidden
from pesticide applications.

These insects often become numerous because producers do not begin treatment early enough. It is vital that
fields be watched and these insects controlled at the earliest possible moment.

Sometimes a single application timed properly will control a generation. However, repeated applications are
needed to control others like the corn earworm in sweet corn.

Sucking Insects
Sucking insects include aphids (“plant lice”), stink bugs, squash bugs, leafhoppers and spider mites. Spider mites
are not insects but are just as damaging and numerous as are some insects. Sucking insects have an incomplete
life cycle. After hatching from the egg, they may begin to feed and move about on the plant.

They are usually attracted to the most succulent part of the plant. Aphids usually are found in the terminal or on
flowers. Stink bugs and squash bugs readily feed on the tender fruit. These insects damage the plant by reducing
the vigor or by injecting a toxin or disease-causing organisms into the plant. Heavy feeding may cause flowers to
abort or the leaves to turn yellow and fall off. Feeding on the fruit may cause catfacing injury, hard spots or
twisted and misshapen fruit.

Control is easiest to obtain soon after the insects hatch from eggs. This is when the insects are the smallest and
most vulnerable to the pesticide. Look for egg clusters, so that timing of the insecticide can be more accurate.
Most true bugs have large eggs that can be seen without the aid of a magnifying glass. They are often on the
undersurface of leaves and laid in tight groups and glued together, or in the case of squash bugs, they may be
laid singly but in a loose fitting group and not glued together.

Pest Control with a Minimum of Chemicals

The “if a little is good, more will be better” attitude leads to a serious misuse of pesticides.

Over use of pesticides has a number of adverse effects:

 Food products may contain unsafe pesticide residues if improperly treated with pesticide.
 Beneficial insects, earthworms and birds may be harmed or killed along with harmful insects if pesticides are
carelessly used.
 Each time producers spray they expose themselves to the possibility of inhalation or absorption of the toxin.
 Careless use of pesticides near water may contaminate water supplies.
 Misuse of pesticides can lead to the development of chemical resistance in the target pest.
 The use of pesticides can lead to outbreaks of secondary pest species.

A growing public concern over the use and misuse of pesticides has led increasing numbers of vegetable
producers to seek means of natural pest control. Although some people do not have the time or knowledge to
practice all available alternative methods for controlling pests, there are many cultural practices which will help
reduce losses. Proper soil preparation, careful plant selection and good cultural practices can be combined with
biological and mechanical controls to reduce the need for chemical pesticides.

Temperature, humidity, precipitation and natural enemies all influence insect populations. In some years,
troublesome insects may not be numerous enough to significantly damage plants. In other years, large insect
populations may cause serious damage or completely destroy host plants.

Effective control of specific insects must be preceded by proper identification of these insects. Once an insect’s
identity is known, you can learn about its life cycle, seasonal cycle, habits and host plants, and thus exercise
more effective control measures.

Several control methods are often combined in order to minimize damage by insect pests. Since insect control
methods vary in their effectiveness, you may wish to select alternative methods to correspond with differences in
plant growth and productivity, insect damage, weather conditions and cultural practices. Various control methods
will now be considered.

Resistant Plant Varieties

Use available plant species or varieties which are resistant to, or at least tolerant of, insect activity. Insect
resistance in plants frequently is interpreted as meaning “immune to insect damage.” Actually, it is a term for
distinguishing plant varieties which exhibit less insect damage when compared to other varieties under similar
growing and pest population conditions. Some varieties may be less “tasty” to insect pests, or may possess
certain physical or chemical properties which discourage insect feeding or egg-laying, or may be able to support
large insect populations without suffering appreciable damage.

Before buying seeds or plants, check with your local county Extension agent for information on resistant varieties
which will grow well in your area. Examples of vegetable varieties that have shown resistance to specific insect
pests are listed in Table VI-1. Some varieties may be resistant to insect attack, but may be subject to certain
restrictions such as soil pH, drainage or temperature. Your experience with different varieties will indicate the
ones best suited for your operation

Table VI-1. Vegetable Varieties that have shown Some Resistance to Specific Insect Pests

Vegetable Variety Insect resistance

Bean (snap) Wade Striped Flea Beetle
Broccoli De Cicco Striped Flea Beetle
Early Globe Cabbage Looper, Imported Cabbageworm
Cabbage Red Acre Cabbage Looper, Imported Cabbageworm
Round Dutch Cabbage Looper, Imported Cabbageworm
Cabbage (Chinese) Michihili Diamondback Moth
Collard Georgia Striped Flea Beetle, Harlequin Bug
Corn (sweet) Golden Security Corn Earworm
Ashley Pickleworm, Spotted Cucumber Beetle
Cucumber Piccadilly Pickleworm
Poinsett Spotted Cucumber Beetle
Kale Vates Diamondback Moth
 Mustard Florida Broadleaf Diamondback Moth, Striped Flea Beetle
Cherry Belle Diamondback Moth, Harlequin Bug
Radish
White Icicle Harlequin Bug
Early Prolific Pickleworm, Striped
Straightneck Cucumber Beetle
Squash White Bush Pickleworm, Striped
Scallop Cucumber Beetle
Zucchini Striped Cucumber Beetle
Centennial Sweetpotato Flea Beetle, Potato Wireworm
Sweetpotato
Jewel Sweetpotato Flea Beetle, Potato Wireworm
Turnip Seven Top Diamondback Moth, Striped Flea Beetle
Rutabaga American Purple Top Diamondback Moth, Striped Flea Beetle

Cultural Controls

Many cultural practices can be used to reduce the potential for, or actual damage of plants caused by insects:

 Plowing and cultivating exposes soil insects to adverse weather conditions, birds and other predators. In addition,
deep plowing will bury some insects and prevent their emergence.
 Crop rotation can be effective against insects that develop on a narrow range of food plants and also against
insects with short migration ranges. Movement of crops to different sites will isolate such pests from their food
source. If an alternate site is not available, then change the sequence of plants grown in the field. Do not plant
members of the same plant family in the same location in consecutive seasons. For example, do not follow
melons with cucumbers or squash.
 Proper use of fertilizers and water will induce healthy plant growth and increase the capability of plants to tolerate
insect damage. However, excessive amounts of organic matter or manure can encourage millipedes, pillbugs,
white grubs and certain other pests.
 Changes in planting or harvesting time often will reduce plant damage or keep insect pests separated for
susceptible stages of the host plant. Delayed planting, until the soil is warm enough for corn and bean seeds to
germinate quickly, reduces seed maggot damage. Hot caps or row covers placed over plants used during the
early season not only will preserve heat, but also will protect plants from damaging wind, hail and insects. In
some situations, a healthy transplant will overcome insect damage more easily than a small plant developing
from seed in the field.
 Removing soil residues and disposing of weeds and other volunteer plants eliminates food and shelter for many
insect pests such as cutworms, webworms, aphids, white grubs, millipedes and spider mites. When plants stop
producing, till them into the soil or take them to the compost pile.
 Companion planting (an orderly mixing of crop plants) is a cultural practice aimed at diversifying insect
populations. Numerous claims have been made about the ability of certain plants to protect certain other plants
from insect damage. However, no data from scientific studies are available to prove the value of companion
plantings
 Cheesecloth or spun bound polyester row covers for plant beds, hot beds and cold frames to prevent insect egg
laying.
 Mesh covers for tomatoes and other plants to keep out large insects and birds.
 Aluminum foil mulch to repel aphids.

Black light traps are effective tools for monitoring insect species in a given area, but usually provide little
protection for the crop. Light traps attract both harmful and beneficial insects that ordinarily would not be found in
the area. Attracted insects may not be caught in the traps, but may remain in the area, and the harmful ones may
cause damage later. Also, some species such as wingless insects and those insects only active in the daytime
are not caught in the traps. Consequently, the value of black light traps is questionable. Where black lights are
used, it is recommended that they be placed 50 to 75 feet away from the area which is to be protected.
 Biological Control Methods
Generally, biological control can be defined as the direct or indirect use of parasites, predators or pathogens
(bacteria, viruses, fungi protozoans) to hold pest insect populations at low levels to avoid economic losses.
Biological control methods fall into three categories:

 Introduction of natural enemies which are not native to the area (these enemies must then establish and
perpetuate themselves).
 Enlarging existing populations of natural enemies by collecting, rearing and then releasing them back into the
environment.
 Conservation of beneficial organisms by such means as the judicious use of pesticides and the maintenance of
alternate host insects, so parasites and predators can continue to develop.

Many beneficial organisms occur naturally around crops, but often they are not numerous enough to control a
pest before it inflicts severe damage. In fact, parasites and predators appear to be most effective when a pest
population has stabilized or is relatively low. Their influence on an increasing pest population usually is minimal
since any increase in parasite and predator numbers depends on an even greater increase in pest numbers.
Pathogens, however, seem to be most effective when pest populations are large. Consequently, the nature of the
host insect-natural enemy relationship makes it impossible to have an insect-free environment and at the same
time maintain sizable populations of beneficial insects.

The following is a list of some of the more popular biocontrol agents:

 Bacillus thuringiensis: (Dipel, Thuricide, Biological Worm Killer). This bacterial insecticide provides effective
control of the larvae of several moths and butterflies. The bacterial spores are harmless to warm blooded animals
and beneficial insects.
 Bacillus popilliae: (Milky Spore, Doom, Japedimic). This bacterial insecticide controls grubs of Japanese beetles
in the eastern U.S., and some testing has been done for control of white grubs (Phyllophaga spp.and Cotinis
spp.) in Texas. It has not been effective against the principal white grub species in Texas.
 Nosema locustae: A spore (Protozoan) used to control grasshoppers. The material is sprayed on the plants
which grasshoppers ingest. The spores germinate inside the grasshopper, causing death. Control is extremely
slow and growers may not be satisfied with results. Baits have proven more effective.
 Trichogramma wasp: Adult wasps are available from several sources. The tiny wasps attack the eggs of more
than 200 pest species, including cutworms, armyworms, fruit worms and many moth and butterfly eggs deposited
in orchards and field crops. Wasps should be released when the moths are first seen, but a sequence of releases
throughout the season is preferable to a single, large release. Results will depend on the timing of the releases,
selection of Trichogramma species and placement of wasps near host egg masses.
 Green lacewings (Chrysopa): The larvae, known as aphid lions, prey on many vegetable pests including aphids,
spider mites, leafhoppers, thrips, moth eggs and small larvae. Adult lacewings feed on honeydew, nectar and
pollen. Introduced lacewings must have a readily available supply of food, or they will leave. Eggs are sometimes
available.
 Praying Mantis: Egg cases, containing about 200 individual eggs, are available from a number of sources. The
mantis is a voracious predator. In addition, it is cannibalistic immediately after hatching, so few nymphs survive
the first week of life. However, the mantis is a poor searcher for food and usually waits for prey to come to it. This
greatly influences the kinds of insects it captures and kills. Food preferences include grasshoppers, crickets,
bees, wasps and flies.
 Lady beetles: Adult beetles are available from several sources. Aphids are the preferred hosts, but lady beetles
will eat mealy bugs, spider mites and certain other soft bodied pests and eggs. They do not, however, kill grubs,
caterpillars and other beetles. Unless an ample supply of live aphids or other hosts are available at the release
point, lady beetles will disperse and leave the area. In some cases, most of the beetles will leave the area
regardless of the availability of food. Lady beetles can be encouraged to remain on a plant by using small
meshed screen cages (remove cages before they devour all of their food supply). In hot dry weather these
beetles enter a nonactive (aestivation) state in which feeding and reproduction cease. Little control from lady
beetles can be expected during this time
 Natural Insecticides
Despite all efforts, noninsecticidal methods at times will fail to prevent excessive insect damage. At such times,
the use of insecticides may be the only alternative left. Insecticides chosen should have only low toxicity for
humans and other warm blooded animals. They should be used only when needed and according to label
directions. A better understanding of insecticides will enable you to use these materials more effectively and to
realize that they can be an aid without harming you or the environment

 Pyrethrum: Botanical Insecticide. This slightly toxic insecticide is derived from the flowers of a species
of Chrysanthemum imported mainly from Kenya and Ecuador. The material causes rapid paralysis of most
insects, but the insects usually recover unless the pyrethrum is used in combination with a synergist or other
poison. Pyrethrum, mixed with synergists such as piperonyl butoxide or piperonyl cyclonene to increase toxicity
and produce longer residual action, is used extensively in crop sprays and dusts. This chemical is registered for
use on most vegetables at any time during the growing season.
 Nicotine: Botanical Insecticide. Pure nicotine is a tobacco extract highly toxic to warm blooded animals. The
insecticide usually is marketed as a 40% liquid concentrate of nicotine sulfate, which is diluted in water and
applied as a spray. Dusts can irritate the skin. Nicotine is used primarily for piercing-sucking insects such as
aphids, whiteflies, leafhoppers and thrips. Nicotine is more effective when applied during warm weather. It
degrades quickly, so it can be used on many food plants nearing harvest. It is registered for use on a wide range
of vegetable and fruit crops.
 Sabadilla Botanical Insecticide: Sabadilla is obtained from the seeds of a lily-like plant and acts as both a contact
and stomach poison for insects. It is not particularly toxic to mammals, but does cause irritation of the eyes and
respiratory tract. A mask should be worn when working with this insecticide. This material deteriorates rapidly
upon exposure to light and can be used safely on food crops shortly before harvest. Sabadilla generally is used
as a 5 to 20% dust or as a spray.
 Rotenone: Botanical Insecticide. Rotenone is extracted from the roots of Derris plants in Asia and cube plants in
South America. This general insecticide is harmless to plants, highly toxic to fish and many insects, moderately
toxic to mammals, and it leaves no harmful residues on vegetable crops. It acts as both a contact and stomach
poison to insects. It is slow acting, and in the presence of sun and air, its effectiveness is lost within a week after
application. Wear a mask during application because rotenone can irritate the respiratory tract. Rotenone dusts
and sprays have been used for years to control aphids, certain beetles and caterpillars on plants

Organic Controls

 Growers have been using soap to control insects since the early 1800’s. Researchers have not yet
determined exactly how soaps work. Some soap simply wash off the outer waxy coating of the insect
cuticle, destroying its watertight nature and causing the insect to dry up and die. Other soaps have
additional insecticidal properties which may affect the nervous system. These soaps appear to have
toxic activity only against plant eating insects, and thus may spare beneficial insects such as lady
beetles, honeybees, lacewings and predatory mites. Although a number of soaps tested have
insecticidal properties, only Safer’s Insecticidal Soap is currently registered for use on edible crops. It
controls such pests as spider mites, aphids, mealybugs, whiteflies, harlequin bugs, stink bugs and
thrips.
 Organic growers have been using a spray mixture containing onions, garlic and pepper mixed together
to control insects for many years. Research indicates that of combination of these materials have been
erratic and in many cases ineffective for insect control. Sprays of food-derived substances do not
appear to be good choices as a pesticide. Some success may be achieved with them, but it is likely to
be sporadic. Spraying several times a week might help to bring infestations under control. Control with
one application should not be expected

Controlling Insects with Pesticides

 Insects often pass the winter in a life stage that can damage crops early the next season. They may
pass the winter in the field in grass, trash or in weedy fence rows. Squash bugs spend the winter in the
adult stage and often invade fields soon after planting and begin feeding. Good squash bug control can
be achieved if producers realize this and treat them before the plants actually begin to bloom. Deep
plowing of fields in the winter can eliminate some overwintering stages.
  Fall grown vegetables are usually heavily attacked by insects. More insecticides may have to be used
on fall vegetables.
 Some cultural control measures can be used to suppress insect pressure. Examples of these measures
are deep plowing, controlling weeds and grass around the field and destroying crop residue soon after
harvest.
 Carbaryl (Sevin) insecticide is an excellent material, and vegetables sprayed with Carbaryl can be
harvested soon after spraying. However, repeated use of Carbaryl often results in a spider mite
outbreak.
 Use alternate classes of insecticides in the spray program. Do not rely on one product for the entire
season. Be prepared to switch when insect pressure or different species are found. For specific insect
control recommendations, refer to the Texas AgriLife Extension publication B-1305, “Texas Guide for
Controlling Insects on Commercial Vegetable Crops.”
 Various reference materials are available in the form of USDA publications and books. A good reference
book is ‘Destructive and Useful Insects’ by Metcalf, Flint, and Metcalf. The Peterson Field Guide series
are also excellent references. ‘The Field Guide to the Insects of America North of Mexico’ by D.J. Borror
and R.E. White is an excellent reference for the identification of the various insect

Safe Use of Pesticides

When it is necessary to use insecticides, use them wisely and safely. The following tips will help you make better
use of insecticides:

 Inspect plants and monitor insect numbers and activity on a regular basis.
 Pay particular attention to underside of leaves where insects and their eggs frequently occur. If treatments are
applied when an infestation first starts, insect numbers can be maintained at lower levels much more easily and
with smaller amounts of chemicals.
 When applying insecticides to plants, treat all plant surfaces unless otherwise stated on the product’s label. This
ensures that an insect anywhere on the plant will be exposed to a lethal amount of the chemical.
 Do not apply insecticides to wilted plants or during the hottest part of the day.
 Apply dusts only when the wind is calm and plants are dry.
 Sprays should be applied when the wind is no more than 5 to 10 mph.
 Retreatment may be necessary after rainfall.

Common Insects Attacking Vegetable Crops

Soil Insects
Wireworm
Plants Attacked: Corn, small grains, grasses, potatoes and other root crops such as sweet potatoes.
Description: Adults are usually hard shelled, brownish gray or nearly black, somewhat elongated with the body
tapering toward each end. The larvae usually are hard, dark brown, smooth, wire like worms from ½ to 1½ inches
long when grown.

Life History: Young adults remain in the soil until spring. The subsequent egg stage requires a few days to a few
weeks to hatch. Larvae spend from two to six years in the soil feeding on roots of grasses and other plants.
Pupation usually is completed in a few weeks.

Damage: Crops may fail to emerge, or stay thin and patchy. Wireworms feed on seed and underground plant
parts. On potatoes they cause small holes or trail-like appearance in their feeding habits.

White Grubs
Plants Attacked: Corn, beans and potato tubers and other root vegetable crops.
Description: Adult beetles are from ½ to 1 inch long, vary from light to dark brown and are robust in form. The
larvae are white, curved bodied grubs with brown heads and three pairs of legs. The hind part of the abdomen
appears darker because soil particles inside show through the body wall. There are probably 100 species, and
many cause damage.

Life History: The life cycle of the more abundant species extends over three years. In late spring pearly white
eggs are deposited from 1 to 8 inches deep in the soil. Approximately 3 weeks later the eggs hatch, and the
larvae feed on roots and decaying matter. In autumn when cooler temperatures prevail, the larvae emigrate
downward and remain inactive until the following spring when they return to feed on plant roots near the soil
surface. Greatest damage occurs at this time. At the next autumn, they begin to go deep into the soil, returning to
the surface in the spring of the third year; they feed until June. Then oval, earthen cells are made and pupation
follows. Adult beetles form in the pupae in a few weeks; they remain in the cells throughout the winter and
emerge from the soil the following year to begin feeding, mating and egg laying. In Texas the period from egg to
adult seems to be two years for most species.

Damage: Most severe damage by grubs occurs on crops which follow grass sod the next year. Grubs feed on the
roots of crops attacked and destroy the root system

Chewing Insects
Fruit Worms

There are many types of worms that feed on plants, the fruit or leaves and buds of the plant. These worms
include armyworm, beet armyworm, fall armyworm, melon worms, pickle worms, tomato hornworm, tomato
pinworm, yellow striped armyworm and the corn ear worm, or the tomato fruit worm.

Plants Attacked: Sweet corn, beans, peas, beets, peppers, melons, squash, cucumber, cauliflower, broccoli and
similar crops. The description of these various insect larvae is completely different. Many have elongate bodies,
may be striped with spots, and most of them are green to brown to reddish color. The stripes may be white or
yellow. Most all of them have three legs behind the head and five sets of legs along the abdomen.

Life History: Many spend the winter as pupae 2 to 6 inches below the soil surface and emerge as moths during
the spring and early summer to begin depositing eggs on their favorite crops or host plant. Fresh laid eggs
usually are waxy white, but soon turn yellow and darker as the insect matures inside. They are about half the size
of a pinhead and variously shaped. A female can deposit from 500 to 3,000 eggs singly on foliage and fruit of
many plants. They prefer the tender growing point of the plant to deposit eggs, but eggs commonly are deposited
in the curl of various plants and in the whirl of corn or grassy crops. Later in the season, they may deposit eggs
directly on the fruit of the plant. The eggs usually hatch in 2 to 4 days, but it may take up to ten days in cold
weather; the worm stage lasts 2 to 4 weeks. Full grown larvae crawl down the host plant or drop to the ground
when they burrow forming a wall shell cell and pupate. The adult moths usually emerge in 10 to 25 days following
pupation. Time from egg to adult varies from 1 to 2 months depending upon weather conditions. There may be 4
to 7 generations of these various worms throughout the year.

Damage: Newly hatched larvae begin feeding immediately on the part of the plant where the eggs were laid.
They may then bore into the fruit such as tomatoes or the ears of corn or feed on pods of beans and peas. The
worms cause considerable damage because they gnaw or eat out sections of the fruit, and may cause the fruit to
rot.

Cabbage Looper

Plants attacked: Cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, lettuce and occasionally beans, tomatoes and
other crops.

Description: Light, grayish brown moth with a small lighter colored spot near center of forewings. Moths have a
wing spread of about 1½ inch. Larvae are light green caterpillars with a few white or pale yellow stripes. Larvae
travel with a characteristic looping motion. They have three legs behind the head and three legs at the tip of the
abdomen.
Life History: There are continuous generations in the Lower Rio Grande Valley with reproduction slowing down
during cold periods. In colder areas the insects overwinter as pupae in flimsy silken cocoons attached to plant
residue. A complete generation occurs in 3 to 6 weeks.

Damage: Cabbage loopers are voracious feeders which can strip foliage from infested plants in a short time.
Often, when cabbage looper populations become crowded, a virus disease strikes causing high larval mortality.

Thrips

Plants Attacked: General feeders on vegetables, flowers and field crops.

Description: These are slender, spindle shaped, active insects varying from pale yellow to yellowish-brown.
Adults average about 1/25 inch long. Four slender wings are present on females, fringed with long hairs and
black margins. Males are wingless, and the larvae resemble adults but have no wings and are smaller.

Life History: The minute eggs are inserted into leaves or stems. These hatch in 2 to 10 days. The larval stage
lasts from 5 to 30 days. Adult females can reproduce regularly without mating with the rarely found males. All
stages can be found during warmer months, but during colder months, only adults and larvae can be found. It is
probable that 5 to 8 generations occur per year, but more may occur in the warmer parts of the state.

Damage: Thrips puncture plants, rasp the surface and then suck the juice. This causes the formation of whitish
blotches that first appear as dashes. Severely attacked plants develop a gray or silver appearance and may
become distorted. Damage may be found first in the leaf sheaths and stems or in the undersides of a bent leaf
where the insects always are most abundant

Sucking Insects
Aphids

Aphids are small, sluggish soft-bodied insects often called plant lice. Most species give birth to living young and
the young build up very rapidly.

Plants Attacked: All vegetables. Most common vegetables are peas, beans, tomatoes, lettuce, turnips, broccoli
and corn.

Description: The most common aphids are the melon or cotton aphid, green peach aphid, cabbage aphid and the
pea aphid. They are usually 1/16 inch long, soft-bodied and pear-shaped. They may be black, gray, green, red or
yellow, depending on the species.

Life History: Most species give birth to living young; they do lay eggs, and some have wings. There can be 15 to
20 generations per year of certain species.

Damage: Aphids congregate in large numbers and, therefore, may infest vegetables such as mustard greens and
leaf lettuce; they also may cause the plant to stunt. Disease transmission is probably more important than actual
feeding damage.

Squash Bugs

Plants Attacked: All cucurbits with preference for squash.

Description: The adults are brownish gray to dark gray bugs about 5/8 inch long. The immature, or nymphs, when
first hatched are green with black legs. Later, they become grayish-white with nearly black legs and antennae.

Life History: Adults overwinter, unmated in any type of shelter. They appear in the spring as plants begin to vine
and mate. Yellowish to bronze-brown eggs are laid in clusters on the underside of leaves usually in vine angles.
Eggs hatch in 1to 2 weeks, and nymphs feed in groups on the stems of the plant for 6 to 8 weeks before
transforming to adults.
Damage: Leaves attacked by the squash bug will rapidly become black, crisp and dead. Attacked plant stems
often are enlarged but later wither and die.

Stink Bugs

Plants Attacked: Seed beets, okra, squash, beans, peas, corn, cowpeas, and tomatoes.

Description: The adults are approximately ½ inch long, and each has a triangular shaped shield on the back that
extends just back of the shoulders narrowing posterior to a point. Front wings are thickened and stiff about the
base, but the distal half is much thinner and membranous. Crushed bugs often have an odor fitting their name.
The nymphs are without wing covers and smaller but otherwise similar to adults.

Life History: Life history and habits of each of the stink bugs are similar. Generally barrel shaped eggs are
deposited in clusters usually on the underside of foliage. Eggs often are beautifully colored and ornamental.
Development from egg to adult occurs in 4 to 6 weeks. From 1 to 3 or perhaps four generations may occur
annually. They overwinter as adults in places affording protection from cold weather.

Damage: Damage is caused by nymphs and adults sucking sap primarily from pods, buds, blossoms and seeds.
In removing the liquid from contents of developing seeds causes them to become flattened and shriveled. If the
pods are attacked at an early stage of development, catfacing or pitted holes will occur on bean pods and squash
fruit.

Whiteflies

Plants Attacked: Potato, tomato, eggplant, pepper and sweet potato.

Description: Adults are 1/16 inch in length. They have four wings which along with the dorsal part of the body are
covered with white, waxy powder. The nymphs are light green, oval, flattened and about the size of a pinhead.
They are attached to the leaf surface until mature, with the last instar more elevated and slightly segmented. The
bodies are covered with radiating long filamentous threads resembling young, soft scale insects
.
Life History: Overlapping generations occur in the Lower Rio Grande Valley during spring, summer and fall.
Adults emerge, mate and begin depositing elongated yellow eggs and attaching them to the host plant by short
stalk. Before hatching, the eggs darken; nymphal period is one month.

Damage: Both nymphs and adults feed by sucking plant juices. Heavy feeding gives plants a mottled
appearance, or it causes them to turn yellow and die. The sticky honeydew excreted by the insect often glazes
the lower leaves and permits development of black sooty mold on plants, thus detracting from the plant’s beauty
and cutting down on photosynthesis.

Spider Mites

Plants Attacked: Various plants are attacked including tomatoes, eggplants, beans, corn, peas and various
cucurbits.

Description: The two-spotted spider mite has two forms, a green form with a dark spot on each side and the more
common which is a reddish form. Some species of mites may be yellow. All mites are very tiny and almost
microscopic. They are about 1/60 inch long.

Life History: Adult mites lay eggs on leaf undersides and spin webs beneath which eggs hatch and mites feed.
Spider mites reproduce rapidly during hot, dry weather.

Damage: Mites pierce leaf tissue and suck sap in the larval, nymphal and adult stages. Plants attacked begin to
lose color, fading from green to yellow and eventually turn red. Heavy infestation may kill some plants, and heavy
webbing may appear on certain plants.

The following table is courtesy of S.E. Webb and P.A. Stansly at University of Florida, IFAS Extension Publication
ENY-419 titled ‘Insecticides Currently Used on Vegetables’.

Table 1.
Insecticides for Use On Vegetables

Typical Target
Insecticide General Characteristics Signal Word MOA1
Pests

Carbamates

beetles, some
*Furadan(carbofuran) systemic action Danger-Poison 1A
caterpillars

caterpillars,
*Lannate(methomyl) very short residual Danger-Poison 1A
leafhoppers

Larvin(thiocarb) larvacide & ovicide Warning 1A caterpillars

Caution – 4F, beetles,

use can result in aphid and
Sevin(carbaryl) XLR, Bait; 1A leafhoppers,
mite outbreaks
Warning – 80S caterpillars

aphids, mites, some

*Temik(aldicarb) systemic action Danger-Poison 1A
beetles

contact action, systemic if aphids, thrips,

*Vydate(oxamyl) Danger-Poison 1A
applied to soil some beetles

Organophosphates

*Counter(terbufos) systemic action Danger-Poison 1B soil pests

aphids, beetles,
*Diazinon Caution 1B caterpillars, soil
pests, thrips

some short residual fumigant

Dibrom(naled) Danger 1B caterpillars
action

aphids,
Dimethoate local systemic Warning 1B
leafhoppers, mites

*Di-Syston(disulfoton) systemic action Danger-Poison 1B aphids

caterpillars,
Imidan(phosmet) Warning 1B
sweetpotato weevil

Caution –
15GWarning –

75WG, *4E caterpillars, soil

Lorsban(chlorpyrifos) long residual 1B
pests

Danger – 50W

Malathion short residual Warning 1B broad spectrum

aphids, thrips &

*MSR Spray Concentrate systemic; contact & stomach
Warning 1B other sucking
(oxydemetonmethyl) action
insects

*Mocap(ethoprop) contact action Danger-Poison 1B aphids, caterpillars

aphids, caterpillars
*Monitor(methamidophos) long residual Danger-Poison 1B
& other pests

*Penncap-M(methyl contact & fumigant action;

Warning 1B caterpillars, thrips
parathion) slow release formulation
 Typical Target
Insecticide General Characteristics Signal Word MOA1
Pests

*Thimet(phorate) systemic action Danger-Poison 1B soil pests, thrips

Organochlorines

aphids, beetles,
*Endosulfan(endosulfan) fairly long residual Danger-Poison 2A caterpillars,
whiteflies

Pyrethroids
beetles, caterpillars,
*Ambush(permethrin) Warning 3
leafhoppers, thrips

beetles, caterpillars,
*Ammo(cypermethrin) Caution 3
leafhoppers, thrips

beetles, caterpillars,
*Asana(esfenvalerate) Warning 3
leafhoppers

beetles, caterpillars,
*Baythroid XL(beta-cyfluthrin) Warning 3
leafhoppers, thrips

beetles, caterpillars,
*Brigade(bifenthrin) Warning 3 leafhoppers, thrips,
whiteflies

caterpillars,
*Danitol(fenpropathrin) Danger 3 leafhoppers,
whiteflies

*Force(tefluthrin) Caution 3 soil pests

*Mustang Max (zeta- beetles, caterpillars,

Warning 3
cypermethrin) leafhoppers, thrips

Caution -(3.2EC,
1.5G)

beetles, caterpillars,
*Pounce(permethrin) 3
Warning – leafhoppers, thrips
(25WP, WSP)

beetles, caterpillars,
*Proaxis(gamma-cyhalothrin) Caution 3 leafhoppers, plant
bugs, stink bugs

contact, stomach, & fumigant

Pyronyl Crop Spray
action; extract from Caution 3 broad spectrum
(Pyrethrins)
chyrsanthemums

beetles, caterpillars,
*Warrior (lambda-cyhalothrin) Warning 3
leafhoppers, thrips

Neonicotinyls

aphids, potato
leafhopper, some
Actara(thiamethoxam) local systemic Caution 4A
beetles, stinkbugs,
whiteflies

aphids,
Admire(imidacloprid) systemic, long residual Caution 4A leafhoppers, some
beetles, whiteflies
 Typical Target
Insecticide General Characteristics Signal Word MOA1
Pests

aphids, Colorado
local systemic, ovicidal
Assail(acetamiprid) Caution 4A potato beetle,
effects
whiteflies

Colorado potato
ccccccc systemic, long residual Caution 4A beetle, aphids,
leafhoppers

aphids, potato
leafhopper, some
Platinum (thiamethoxam) systemic, long residual Caution 4A
beetles, stinkbugs,
whiteflies

aphids,
Provado(imidacloprid) local systemic Caution 4A leafhoppers, some
beetles, whiteflies

aphids, Colorado
systemic or locally systemic, potato beetle,
Venom(dinotefuran) depending on application Caution 4A leafhoppers,
method, long residual leafminers, thrips,
whiteflies

Other insect nerve poisons

contact, long residual, ovicidal

Acramite(bifenazate) Caution un mites
activity against spider mites

active once ingested; some leafminers, mites,

*Agri-Mek(abamectin) contact action; mostly stomach Warning 6 some beetles, tomato
poison pinworm

ingestion plus contact, slightly to

Avaunt(indoxacarb) Caution 22 caterpillars
moderately translaminar

contact & ingestion, causes rapid

Beleaf(flonicamid) Caution 9C aphids
cessation of feeding

caterpillars, Colorado
long residual, causes rapid
Coragen(rynaxypyr) None 28 potato beetle,
cessation of feeding
leafminers

Fulfill(pymetrozine) feeding inhibitor Caution 9B aphids, whiteflies

ingestion & topical; translaminar,

*Proclaim(emamectin benzoate) Caution 6 caterpillars
not systemic

ingestion & contact; enters leaf caterpillars, some

Radiant(spinetoram) Caution 5
but does not translocate beetles and thrips

ingestion & contact; enters leaf caterpillars, some

SpinTor(spinosad) Caution 5
but does not translocate beetles and thrips

Insect Growth Regulators

Confirm(tebufenozide) slow acting Caution 18 caterpillars

disrupts egg hatch and molting;

Courier(buprofezin) use in rotation iwth other Caution 16 whiteflies
insecticides

slow acting, disrupts molting

caterpillars, pepper
*Dimilin(diflubenzuron) process, reduces egg hatch of Caution 15
weevil
pepper weevil

breaks reproductive cycle of

Esteem Ant Bait(pyriproxyfen) Caution 7C ants
ants; slow acting but effective

Extinguish[(S)-methoprene] slow acting Caution 7A fire ants

 Typical Target
Insecticide General Characteristics Signal Word MOA1
Pests

Intrepid(methoxyfenozide) Caution 18 caterpillars

use in combination or rotation

Knack(pyriproxyfen) Caution 7C whiteflies
with other insecticides

Caution – Azatin
slow acting, also acts as feeding
Neemix(azadirachtin) XL Plus; Warning – un broad spectrum
repellent
Neemix 4.5

disrupts cuticle formation and

deposition at molting, resulting in
Rimon(novaluron) Warning 15 caterpillars
death of larva; no effect on adult
insect

dipterous leafminers,
most effective against small
Trigard(cyromazine) Caution 17 maggots, some
leafminer larvae
beetles

Miscellaneous

Bacillus thuringiensis(B.t.)
pest must ingest; slow acting but caterpillars or beetles,
var. aizawai Caution 11
feeding stops long before death depending on strain
(B.t.) var. kurstaki

pest must ingest; not rainfast; an

Cryolite(Kryocide) Caution un beetles, caterpillars
inorganic fluorine compound

M-Pede(potassium salts of fatty contact activity; phytotoxic at aphids and other soft-
Warning
acids) high temperatures bodied arthropods

ingestion, fully systemic in plant aphids, psyllids,

Movento(spirotetramat) Caution 23
after foliar application whiteflies

aphids, leafhoppers,
Mycotrol(Beauveria) contact; slow acting —
whiteflies

inhibitor of lipid synthesis; most

effective on juvenile stages of mites, psyllids,
Oberon(spiromesifen) Caution 23
mites and on nymphs and pupae whiteflies
of whiteflies and psyllids

SunSpray Ultra Fine Spray aphids, mites,

contact activity Caution —
Oil(mineral oil) whiteflies

M-Pede(potassium salts of fatty contact activity; phytotoxic at aphids and other soft-
Warning —
acids) high temperatures bodied arthropods

*Vendex (fenbutatin-oxide) Danger-Poison 12B mites

*Restricted Use PesticideOriginally adapted from: Welty, Celeste. Insecticides for use on vegetables in Ohio. pp. 46-48, 2002
Ohio Vegetable production Guide, Ohio State University.
1
Mode of Action codes for vegetable pest insecticides from the Insecticide Resistance Action Committee
(IRAC) Mode of Action Classification v.3.3 October 2003.

1A. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, Carbamates (nerve action)

1B. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, Organophosphates (nerve action)

2A. GABA-gated chloride channel antagonists (nerve action)

3. Sodium channel modulators

4A. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonists (nerve action)

 Typical Target
Insecticide General Characteristics Signal Word MOA1
Pests

5. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor allosteric activators (nerve action)

6. Chloride channel activators (nerve and muscle action)

7A. Juvenile hormone mimics (growth regulation)

7C. Juvenile hormone mimics (growth regulation)

9B & 9C. Selective homopteran feeding blockers

10. Mite growth inhibitors (growth regulation)

11. Microbial disruptors of insect midgut membranes

12B. Inhibitors of mitochondrial ATP synthase (energy metabolism)

15. Inhibitors of chitin biosynthesis, type 0, lepidopteran (growth regulation)

16. Inhibitors of chitin biosynthesis, type 1, homopteran (growth regulation)

17. Molting disruptor, dipteran (growth regulation)

18. Ecdysone receptor agonists (growth regulation)

22. Voltage-dependent sodium channel blockers (nerve action)

23. Inhibitors of acetyl Co-A carboxylase (lipid synthesis, growth regulation)

28. Ryanodine receptor modulators (nerve and muscle action)

un. Compounds of unknown or uncertain mode of action

Most fungi are not dangerous, but some types can be harmful to health

 Aspergillosis. Caused by the fungus Aspergillus and usually occurs in people with
lung diseases or weakened immune systems.
 Candidiasis. Caused by the yeast Candida. ...
 Fungal eye infections. Different types of fungi can cause eye infections. ...
 Ringworm

Fungal disease signs:

 Leaf rust (common leaf rust in corn)
 Stem rust (wheat stem rust)
 Sclerotinia (white mold)
 Powdery mildew

Most plant diseases – around 85 percent – are caused by fungal or fungal-like organisms.
However, other serious diseases of food and feed crops are caused by viral and bacterial
organisms. Certain nematodes also cause plant disease. Some plant diseases are classified
as “abiotic,” or diseases that are non-infectious and include damage from air pollution,
nutritional deficiencies or toxicities, and grow under less than optimal conditions. For now,
we’ll look at diseases caused by the three main pathogenic microbes: fungus, bacteria and
virus. If plant disease is suspected, careful attention to plant appearance can give a good
clue regarding the type of pathogen involved

A sign of plant disease is physical evidence of the pathogen. For example, fungal fruiting
bodies are a sign of disease. When you look at powdery mildew on a lilac leaf, you’re
actually looking at the parasitic fungal disease organism itself (Microsphaera alni). Bacterial
canker of stone fruits causes gummosis, a bacterial exudate emerging from the cankers. The
thick, liquid exudate is primarily composed of bacteria and is a sign of the disease, although
the canker itself is composed of plant tissue and is a symptom

A symptom of plant disease is a visible effect of disease on the plant. Symptoms may
include a detectable change in color, shape or function of the plant as it responds to the
pathogen. Leaf wilting is a typical symptom of verticilium wilt, caused by the fungal plant
pathogens Verticillium albo-atrum and V. dahliae. Common bacterial blight symptoms
include brown, necrotic lesions surrounded by a bright yellow halo at the leaf margin or
interior of the leaf on bean plants. You are not actually seeing the disease pathogen, but
rather a symptom that is being caused by the pathogen

Here are a few examples of common signs and symptoms of fungal, bacterial and
viral plant diseases:

Fungal disease signs:

 Leaf rust (common leaf rust in corn)

 Stem rust (wheat stem rust)
 Sclerotinia (white mold)
 Powdery mildew

Fungal disease symptoms:

 Birds-eye spot on berries (anthracnose)
 Damping off of seedlings (phytophthora)
 Leaf spot (septoria brown spot)
 Chlorosis (yellowing of leaves)

Stripe rust pustules on a winter wheat leaf is a

symptom.
Photo credit: Fred Springborn, MSUE

Bacterial disease signs (difficult to observe, but can include):

 Bacterial ooze
 Water-soaked lesions
 Bacterial streaming in water from a cut stem

Bacterial disease symptoms:

 Leaf spot with yellow halo

 Fruit spot
 Canker
 Crown gall
 Sheperd’s crook stem ends on woody plants
 Dark red kidney bean leaf showing bacterial leaf spot symptom
(brown leaf spot with yellow halo). 
Photo credit: Fred Springborn, MSUE

Viral disease signs:

 None – the viruses themselves can’t be seen

Viral disease symptoms:

 Mosaic leaf pattern

 Crinkled leaves
 Yellowed leaves
 Plant stunting

You can see that there is a lot of overlap between fungal, bacterial and viral disease
symptoms. Also, abiotic diseases, herbicide injury and nematode problems must be
considered possibilities when an unknown plant problem appears. These lists
are not complete or exhaustive, only examples
 rice blast caused by microscopic
fungi

Organisms that cause infectious disease include fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, viruses, viroids, virus-

like organisms, phytoplasmas, protozoa, nematodes and parasitic plants. Not included are
ectoparasites like insects, mites, vertebrate, or other pests that affectplant health by consumption
of plant tissue

Plant pathology (also phytopathology) is the scientific study of diseases in plants caused

by pathogens (infectious organisms) and environmental conditions (physiological factors).
[1]
 Organisms that cause infectious disease include fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, viruses, viroids, virus-
like organisms, phytoplasmas, protozoa, nematodes and parasitic plants. Not included are
ectoparasites like insects, mites, vertebrate, or other pests that affect plant health by consumption of
plant tissues. Plant pathology also involves the study of pathogen identification, disease etiology,
disease cycles, economic impact, plant disease epidemiology, plant disease resistance, how plant
diseases affect humans and animals, pathosystem genetics, and management of plant diseases

Bacteria

Crown gall disease caused by Agrobacterium

Most plant pathogenic bacteria are rod-shaped (bacilli). In order to be able to colonize the
plant they have specific pathogenicity factors. Five main types of bacterial pathogenicity factors
are known: uses of cell wall–degrading enzymes, toxins, effector
proteins, phytohormones and exopolysaccharides

Viruses, viroids and virus-like organisms[edit]

Main article: Plant Virus
There are many types of plant virus, and some are even asymptomatic. Under normal circumstances,
plant viruses cause only a loss of crop yield. Therefore, it is not economically viable to try to control
them, the exception being when they infect perennial species, such as fruit trees.
Most plant viruses have small, single-stranded RNA genomes. However some plant viruses also have
double stranded RNA or single or double stranded DNA genomes. These genomes may encode only
three or four proteins: a replicase, a coat protein, a movement protein, in order to allow cell to cell
movement through plasmodesmata, and sometimes a protein that allows transmission by a vector.
Plant viruses can have several more proteins and employ many different molecular translation
methods.
Plant viruses are generally transmitted from plant to plant by a vector, but mechanical and seed
transmission also occur. Vector transmission is often by an insect (for example, aphids), but
some fungi, nematodes, and protozoa have been shown to be viral vectors. In many cases, the insect
and virus are specific for virus transmission such as the beet leafhopper that transmits the curly
top virus causing disease in several crop plants

Tobacco mosaic virus

Nematodes

`root-knot galls
Larva of a Root-knot nematodes adult lesion nematode

root-knot nematodes are plant-parasitic nematodes from the genus Meloidogyne. They exist

in soil in areas with hot climates or short winters. About 2000 plants worldwide are susceptible to
infection by root-knot nematodes and they cause approximately 5% of global crop loss.[1] Root-
knot nematode larvae infect plant roots, causing the development of root-knot galls that drain the
plant's photosynthate and nutrients. Infection of young plants may be lethal, while infection of
mature plants causes decreased yield.

Leaf rust
Fruit rot leaf gall
Leaf spot
CROWN GALL Leaf gall

Gall
LEAF SPOT leaf necrosis citrus canker

Root rot stem rot cercospora

APPLIES FERTILIZER
DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. Fertilizer – any material of natural or synthetic in origin which is added to the soil to supply the needed nutrient
–
elements for normal plant growth and development.
2. Soil productivity – the ability of the soil to produce more than a sufficient quantity of agricultural crops.

3. Soil fertility – the richness of the soil in terms of organic and inorganic plant foods which plants can use for
growth
and production.
4. Liming – the application of calcium or magnesium containing compounds to the soil to neutralize acidity.

5. Plant food – the necessary materials from which a plant can build new tissues and at the same time carry on
its
normal functions.

6. Leaching – the loss of soluble substances in water that drains down to the lower depth of the soil beyond the
reach of the roots.

Plant Food
Soil is the only one of the many factors that contribute to high productivity. Fortunately, it can be
controlled by man. Maximum benefit from the soil fertility program can be realized only if the other factors of plant
growth are favorably controlled.
A fertilizer is any material of natural or synthetic in origin which is added to the soil to supply the needed
nutrient elements for normal plant growth and development. Fertilizers are used to increase the growth rate, yield
and quality or nutritive value of plants.

Plants have three sources from which they get their necessary nutrients:

1. Air – The air contains carbon dioxide (carbon combined with oxygen). Carbon dioxide provides source of
carbon and oxygen for growing crops. In turn, when plants’ residues decay, carbon dioxide is again released into
the air.
The air around us is composed largely of nitrogen, a very inert gas. Although nitrogen is needed in large
amounts by plants, nitrogen from the air cannot be used by the growing plant. Through legumes, the bacteria in
their nodules, which develop in their roots as a result of inoculation, can fix and utilize nitrogen from the
atmosphere.

2. Water – water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen, thus it provides plant with these elements.
It is also a universal solvent.
3. Soil – it is the home of the plant. Source of the much needed nutrients for plant growth and development.

FERTILIZERS, USES AND APPLICATIONS

Fertilizer – any substance added to the soil to supply the needed
nutrient elements for plant growth
Macro elements - substances or nutrients needed by plants in large
quantities
Micro elements - substances or nutrients needed by plants in small
quantities
Organic fertilizer - a fertilizer that comes from decomposed plant and
animal residues
Inorganic fertilizer - a commercially prepared and in concentrated
form of plant food which may be complete or incomplete. It is
complete when the three macro elements are present (NPK);
incomplete when one or two elements are lacking

Fertilizer ratio - the relative percentage of N, P2O5 and K2O in a fertilizer

grade. Example: 14–14-14 has a ratio of 1.1.1 NPK
Fertilizer recommendation - the recommended rate of fertilizer
application expressed in kilograms N,P and K per hectare
 Example: 90–50–30 fertilizer recommendation indicates that
in a certain kind of soil you need to apply 90 kg N, 50 kg P2O5 and
30 kg K2O per hectare.
Fertilizer formula - the quantity and analysis of fertilizer materials
which make up a mixed fertilizer
Example: ammonium sulfate, urea, super phosphate and
muriate of potash
Fertilizer grade - the minimum guarantee of the nutrient content in terms of percent N, P and K.
Example: If urea is 46 percent N that means 46 kg of every 100 kg of the fertilizer material
(46%) is available N

Fertilizer adds nutrients and texture to soil that needs to provide nutrients to trees,

vegetables, herbs, shrubs and flowers. There are several ways to categorize fertilizer, and the
most basic is whether it is organic or inorganic. It also can be classified according to its
ingredients, whether it is solid or liquid and by its particular actions, such as slow-release
fertilizers that dissolve and release their nutrients slowly. The choice of fertilizer that is used
typically depends on the nature of the soil, such as whether it is acidic or alkaline; sandy, clay or
rocky; and weak or rich

Fertilizers are chemical compounds applied to promote plentiful plant and fruit growth.
Fertilizers are applied through soil for uptake by plant roots, or by applying liquid fertilizer
directly to plant leaves. They typical fertilizer provides proportions of the three major plant
nutrients; nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. The secondary plant nutrients such as
calcium, sulfur, and magnesium are also contained in fertilizers. Fertilizers can be placed
into categories of organic fertilizers and inorganic fertilizers

Organic

Organic fertilizer is all natural and includes things such as bat guano, compost, peat moss, wood
ash and manure. These are general soil amendments. They don't burn or harm plants, and they
can have long-term positive effects on the soil without damaging groundwater. Organic fertilizer,
however, generally has lower nutrient concentrations than inorganic fertilizer

Organic Fertilizers
Naturally occurring fertilizers include:

Manure Guano
Worm castings

Peat moss

Seaweed

Sewage

Organic fertilizers are used to enrich soil through nitrogen fixation from the atmosphere by
bacterial nodules on plant roots, as well as phosphorus content of soils. Processed organic
materials from natural sources include compost, blood meal powdered blood, and bone
(crushed ground bones) meal from organic meat production facilities, and seaweed extracts.

There is more diversity with organic fertilizers, so choosing the right one is not always easy.
In general organic fertilizers cannot cause plant burns, get into ground water, affect
surrounding growth, and do not need as strict of watering schedules

Organic fertilizer sources:

Animals:-
Sourced urea , are suitable for application organic agriculture, while pure synthetic forms of
urea are not. The common thread that can be seen through these examples is that organic
agriculture attempts to define itself through minimal processing (in contrast to the man-
made Haber process), as well as being naturally occurring or via natural biological processes
such as composting.

Sewage sludge use in organic agricultural operations in the U.S. has been extremely limited
and rare due to USDA prohibition of the practice (due to toxic metal accumulation, among
other factors). The USDA now requires 3rd-party certification of high-nitrogen liquid organic
fertilizers sold in the U.S

Plant:-
Cover crops are also grown to enrich soil as a green manure through nitrogen fixation from
the atmosphere; as well as phosphorus (through nutrient mobilization) content of soils.

Mineral:-
Naturally mined powdered limestone, mined rock phosphate and sodium nitrate, are
inorganic (in a chemical sense), are energetically intensive to harvest, and yet are approved
for usage in organic agriculture in minimal amounts

Benefits of Organic Material

By nature organic fertilizers provide increased physical and biological storage mechanisms
to soils, reducing risks of over fertilization. Organic fertilizers nutrient content, solubility, and
nutrient release rates are typically much lower than inorganic fertilizers. Over fertilization of
a vital nutrient can be as detrimental as under fertilization to a plant. Fertilizer burn can
occur when too much fertilizer is applied resulting in the drying out of roots along with
damage and even death to plants. All organic fertilizers are classified as slow release
fertilizers. Studies have found that organic fertilizers:

Release 25% to 60% of nitrogen as inorganic.

Controlled release fertilizers had a relatively constant rate of release.

Soluble fertilizer released most of its nitrogen content at the first leaching.

Inorganic Fertilizers: - Naturally occurring inorganic fertilizers include sodium nitrate, mined
rock phosphate and lime stone which is used to raise pH and calcium sources

Macronutrients and Micronutrients

Fertilizers can be divided into macronutrients and micronutrients based on their
concentration levels in dry plant matter. There are six macronutrients; nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium (3 main primary elements), calcium, magnesium, and sulfur

Macronutrient Fertilizers:-
Synthesized materials are also called artificial, and may also be called straight were a
product contains the three primary elements of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
Fertilizers are named according to the content of the three elements in the fertilizer. If the
main ingredient in the fertilizer is nitrogen, then the fertilizer will be described as a nitrogen
fertilizer. But regardless of the name of the fertilizer they are labeled according to the
amounts of each of these primary elements, by their weight.

The amount of nitrogen will encourage growth of stems and leaves by promoting protein
and chlorophyll. More Flowers, bigger fruits, and healthier roots will result from added
phosphorus, and it will also help plants resist certain diseases. Potassium thickens stems
and leaves by fostering protein development, meaning the vegetables would prefer a
different potassium ratio than flowers or fruit plants would.
Benefits of inorganic fertilizers
Synthetic fertilizers are commonly used to treat fields used for growing maize, followed by
barley, sorghum, rapeseed, soy and sunflower. One study has shown that application of
nitrogen fertilizer on off-season cover crops can increase the biomass (and subsequent
green manure value) of these crops, while having a beneficial effect on soil nitrogen levels
for the main crop planted during the summer season.

Nutrients in soil develop in symbiosis, which can be thrown out of balance with high
concentrations of fertilizers. The interconnectedness and complexity of this soil 'food web'
means any appraisal of soil function must necessarily take into account interactions with the
living communities that exist within the soil. Stability of the system is reduced by the use of
nitrogen-containing inorganic and organic fertilizers, which cause soil acidification

Problem with inorganic fertilizers

Trace mineral depletion:-

Many inorganic fertilizers may not replace trace mineral elements in the soil which become
gradually depleted by crops. This depletion has been linked to studies which have shown a
marked fall (up to 75%) in the quantities of such minerals present in fruit and vegetables.
In Western Australia deficiencies of zinc, copper, manganese, iron and molybdenum were
identified as limiting the growth of broad-acre crops and pastures in the 1940s and 1950s.
Soils in Western Australia are very old, highly weathered and deficient in many of the major
nutrients and trace elements. Since this time these trace elements are routinely added to
inorganic fertilizers used in agriculture in this state.

Over fertilization :-
Over-fertilization of a vital nutrient can be as detrimental as under fertilization. "Fertilizer
burn" can occur when too much fertilizer is applied, resulting in a drying out of the roots
and damage or even death of the plant.

Burning of plants

High energy consumption:-

The production of synthetic ammonia currently consumes about 5% of global natural gas
consumption, which is somewhat fewer than 2% of world energy productions.

Natural gas is overwhelmingly used for the production of ammonia, but other energy
sources, together with a hydrogen source, can be used for the production of nitrogen
compounds suitable for fertilizers. The cost of natural gas makes up about 90% of the cost
of producing ammonia. The increase in price of natural gases over the past decade, along
with other factors such as increasing demand, has contributed to an increase in fertilizer
price

Long-Term Sustainability :-
Inorganic fertilizers are now produced in ways which theoretically cannot be continued
indefinitely. Potassium and phosphorus come from mines (or saline lakes such as the Dead
Sea) and such resources are limited. More effective fertilizer utilization practices may,
however, decrease present usage from mines. Improved knowledge of crop production
practices can potentially decrease fertilizer usage of P and K without reducing the critical
need to improve and increase crop yields. Atmospheric (unfixed) nitrogen is effectively
unlimited (forming over 70% of the atmospheric gases), but this is not in a form useful to
plants. To make nitrogen accessible to plants requires nitrogen fixation (conversion of
atmospheric nitrogen to a plant-accessible form).

Artificial nitrogen fertilizers are typically synthesized using fossil fuels such as natural gas
and coal, which are limited resources. In lieu of converting natural gas to syngas for use in
the Haber process, it is also possible to convert renewable biomass to syngas (or wood gas)
to supply the necessary energy for the process, though the amount of land and resources
(ironically often including fertilizer) necessary for such a project may be prohibitive (see
Energy conservation in the United States

Environmental effects of fertilizer use

Water Eutrophication :-
The nitrogen-rich compounds found in fertilizer run-off is the primary cause of a serious
depletion of oxygen in many parts of the ocean, especially in coastal zones; the resulting
lack of dissolved oxygen is greatly reducing the ability of these areas to sustain oceanic
fauna.Visually, water may become cloudy and discolored (green, yellow, brown, or red

About half of all the lakes in the United States are now eutrophic, while the number of
oceanic dead zones near inhabited coastlines are increasing. As of 2006, the application of
nitrogen fertilizer is being increasingly controlled in Britain and the United States. If
Eutrophication can be reversed, it may take decades before the accumulated nitrates in
groundwater can be broken down by natural processes.

High application rates of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers in order to maximize crop yields,
combined with the high solubility's of these fertilizers leads to increased runoff into surface
water as well as leaching into groundwater. The use of ammonium nitrate in inorganic
fertilizers is particularly damaging, as plants absorb ammonium ions preferentially over
nitrate ions, while excess nitrate ions which are not absorbed dissolve (by rain or irrigation)
into runoff or groundwater.

Fig 10

Soil acidification: Nitrogen-containing inorganic and organic fertilizers can cause soil
acidification when added. This may lead to decreases in nutrient availability which may be
offset by liming

Heavy metal accumulation :-

The concentration of up to 100 mg/kg of cadmium in phosphate minerals (for example,
minerals from Nauru and the Christmas islands)increases the contamination of soil with
cadmium, for example in New Zealand.

Uranium is another example of a contaminant often found in phosphate fertilizers (at levels
from 7 to 100 pCi/g). Eventually these heavy metals can build up to unacceptable levels and
build up in vegetable produce. (See cadmium poisoning) Average annual intake of uranium
by adults is estimated to be about 0.5 mg (500 μg) from ingestion of food and water and
0.6 μg from breathing air.

Steel industry wastes, recycled into fertilizers for their high levels of zinc (essential to plant
growth), wastes can include the following toxic metals: lead arsenic, cadmium, chromium,
and nickel. The most common toxic elements in this type of fertilizer are mercury, lead, and
arsenic. Concerns have been raised concerning fish meal mercury content by at least one
source in Spain.

Also, highly radioactive Polonium-210 contained in phosphate fertilizers is absorbed by the

roots of plants and stored in its tissues; tobacco derived from plants fertilized by rock
phosphates contains Polonium-210 which emits alpha radiation estimated to cause about
11,700 lung cancer deaths each year worldwide.
For these reasons, it is recommended that nutrient budgeting, through careful observation
and monitoring of crops, take place to mitigate the effects of excess fertilizer application

Atmospheric effects:-
Methane emissions from crop fields (notably rice paddy fields) are increased by the
application of ammonium-based fertilizers; these emissions contribute greatly to global
climate change as methane is a potent greenhouse gas.

Through the increasing use of nitrogen fertilizer, which is added at a rate of 1 billion tons
per year presently to the already existing amount of reactive nitrogen, nitrous oxide (N2O)
has become the third most important greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide and methane. It
has a global warming potential 296 times larger than an equal mass of carbon dioxide and it
also contributes to stratospheric ozone depletion.

Storage and application of some nitrogen fertilizers in some weather or soil conditions can
cause emissions of the potent greenhouse gas-nitrous oxide. Ammonia gas (NH3) may be
emitted following application of 'inorganic' fertilizers and/or manures and slurries.

The use of fertilizers on a global scale emits significant quantities of greenhouse gas into the
atmosphere.

Emissions come about through the use of:

animal manures and urea, which release methane, nitrous oxide, ammonia, and carbon
dioxide in varying quantities depending on their form (solid or liquid) and management
(collection, storage, spreading)

fertilizers that use nitric acid or ammonium bicarbonate, the production and application of
which results in emissions of nitrogen oxides, nitrous oxide, ammonia and carbon dioxide
into the atmosphere.

By changing processes and procedures, it is possible to mitigate some, but not all, of these
effects on anthropogenic climate change
APPLICATION OF BASAL FERTILIZER
The basal is applied just one day before sowing or planting and mixed or drilled in the soil.
Care is taken for the presence of sufficient soil moisture. Top dressing of fertilizer,
particularly nitrogenous fertilizers is done 15 to 21 days after sowing/planting

METHODS OF FERTILIZER APPLICATION

The different methods of fertilizer application are as follows:

a) Broadcasting

1. It refers to spreading fertilizers uniformly all over the field.

2. Suitable for crops with dense stand, the plant roots permeate the whole volume of the soil,
large doses of fertilizers are applied and insoluble phosphatic fertilizers such as rock
phosphate are used.

Broadcasting of fertilizers is of two types.

i) Broadcasting at sowing or planting (Basal application)

The main objectives of broadcasting the fertilizers at sowing time are to uniformly distribute the
fertilizer over the entire field and to mix it with soil.

ii) Top dressing

It is the broadcasting of fertilizers particularly nitrogenous fertilizers in closely sown crops like paddy
and wheat, with the objective of supplying nitrogen in readily available form to growing plants

Disadvantages of broadcasting

The main disadvantages of application of fertilizers through broadcasting are:

i) Nutrients cannot be fully utilized by plant roots as they move laterally over long distances.
ii) The weed growth is stimulated all over the field.
iii) Nutrients are fixed in the soil as they come in contact with a large mass of soil.

b) Placement

1. It refers to the placement of fertilizers in soil at a specific place with or without reference to the
position of the seed.
2. Placement of fertilizers is normally recommended when the quantity of fertilizers to apply is
small, development of the root system is poor, soil have a low level of fertility and to apply
phosphatic and potassic fertilizer.

The most common methods of placement are as follows:

i) Plough sole placement

1. In this method, fertilizer is placed at the bottom of the plough furrow in a continuous band
during the process of ploughing.
2. Every band is covered as the next furrow is turned.
3. This method is suitable for areas where soil becomes quite dry upto few cm below the soil
surface and soils having a heavy clay pan just below the plough sole layer.

ii) Deep placement

It is the placement of ammoniacal nitrogenous fertilizers in the reduction zone of soil particularly in
paddy fields, where ammoniacal nitrogen remains available to the crop. This method ensures better
distribution of fertilizer in the root zone soil and prevents loss of nutrients by run-off.

iii) Localized placement

It refers to the application of fertilizers into the soil close to the seed or plant in order to supply the
nutrients in adequate amounts to the roots of growing plants. The common methods to place fertilizers
close to the seed or plant are as follows:

a) Drilling

In this method, the fertilizer is applied at the time of sowing by means of a seed-cum-fertilizer drill.
This places fertilizer and the seed in the same row but at different depths. Although this method has
been found suitable for the application of phosphatic and potassic fertilizers in cereal crops, but
sometimes germination of seeds and young plants may get damaged due to higher concentration of
soluble salts.

b) Side dressing

It refers to the spread of fertilizer in between the rows and around the plants. The common methods of
side-dressing are

1. Placement of nitrogenous fertilizers by hand in between the rows of crops like maize,
sugarcane, cotton etc., to apply additional doses of nitrogen to the growing crops and

Placement of fertilizers around the trees like mango, apple, grapes, papaya etc

) Band placement

If refers to the placement of fertilizer in bands.

Band placement is of two types.

i) Hill placement

It is practiced for the application of fertilizers in orchards. In this method, fertilizers are placed close to
the plant in bands on one or both sides of the plant. The length and depth of the band varies with the
nature of the crop.

ii) Row placement

When the crops like sugarcane, potato, maize, cereals etc., are sown close together in rows, the
fertilizer is applied in continuous bands on one or both sides of the row, which is known as row
placement

Row placement

d) Pellet application

1. It refers to the placement of nitrogenous fertilizer in the form of pellets 2.5 to 5 cm deep
between the rows of the paddy crop.

The fertilizer is mixed with the soil in the ratio of 1:10 and made small pellets of convenient size to
deposit in the mud of paddy fields

Advantages of placement of fertilizers

The main advantages are as follows:

i) When the fertilizer is placed, there is minimum contact between the soil and the fertilizer, and
thus fixation of nutrients is greatly reduced.
ii) The weeds all over the field can not make use of the fertilizers.
iii) Residual response of fertilizers is usually higher.
iv) Utilization of fertilizers by the plants is higher.
v) Loss of nitrogen by leaching is reduced.
vi) Being immobile, phosphates are better utilized when place

Following are the common methods of applying liquid fertilizers

a) Starter solutions
It refers to the application of solution of N, P2O5 and K2O in the ratio of 1:2:1 and 1:1:2 to young
plants at the time of transplanting, particularly for vegetables. 
Starter solution helps in rapid establishment and quick growth of seedlings. 
The disadvantages of starter solutions are 
(i) Extra labour is required, and 
(ii) the fixation of phosphate is higher.

b) Foliar application

1. It refers to the spraying of fertilizer solutions containing one or more nutrients on the foliage of
growing plants.
2. Several nutrient elements are readily absorbed by leaves when they are dissolved in water
and sprayed on them.
3. The concentration of the spray solution has to be controlled, otherwise serious damage may
result due to scorching of the leaves.
4. Foliar application is effective for the application of minor nutrients like iron, copper, boron, zinc
and manganese. Sometimes insecticides are also applied along with fertilizers.

c) Application through irrigation water (Fertigation)

1. It refers to the application of water soluble fertilizers through irrigation water.

2. The nutrients are thus carried into the soil in solution.
3. Generally nitrogenous fertilizers are applied through irrigation water.

d) Injection into soil

1. Liquid fertilizers for injection into the soil may be of either pressure or non-pressure types.
2. Non-pressure solutions may be applied either on the surface or in furrows without appreciable
loss of plant nutrients under most conditions.
3. Anhydrous ammonia must be placed in narrow furrows at a depth of 12-15 cm and covered
immediately to prevent loss of ammonia.

e) Aerial application.

In areas where ground application is not practicable, the fertilizer solutions are applied by aircraft
particularly in hilly areas, in forest lands, in grass lands or in sugarcane fields

Table 1. Essential plant nutrients and their elemental (chemical) symbol

Nutrients Supplied by Air Nutrients Supplied by the Soil System

and Water
 Non-Mineral Primary or Secondary Micronutrients
Macronutrients
Carbon - C Nitrogen - N Calcium - Ca Zinc - Zn
Hydrogen - H Phosphorus - P Magnesium - Mg Chlorine - Cl
Oxygen - O Potassium - K Sulfur - S Boron - B
Molybdenum - Mo
Copper - Cu
Iron - Fe
Manganese - Mn
Cobalt - Co
Nickel - Ni

NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN

Functions of the Essential Nutrients in Plants

Table 3 provides a brief description of the various functions of essential plant
nutrients within the plant and lists the form(s) of the nutrient that the plant is able to
obtain from the soil solution complex. Some nutrients are present in the soil solution complex as
positively charged cations and others as negatively charged anions.

Table 3. Functions and available forms of nutrients

Plant Available
Nutrient Element Functions in Plants From Soil Solution Complex
Form(s) Symbol(s)
Promotes rapid growth, chlorophyll Anion and NO3 NO3
Nitrogen Anion and NO3 NH4
-
formation and protein synthesis +

Stimulates early root growth. Hastens Anion H2PO4

Phosphorus maturity. Stimulates blooming -HPO4
and aids seed formation --

Increases resistance to drought and Cation K+

Potassium disease. Increases stalk and straw
strength. Increases quality of grain and
seed.
Improves root formation, stiffness of Cation Ca++
Calcium straw and vigor. Increases resistance to
seedling diseases.
Aids chlorophyll formation and Cation Mg++
Magnesium phosphorus metabolism. Helps regulate
uptake of other nutrients.
Amino acids, vitamins. Imparts dark Anion SO4
Sulfur green color. Anion SO4 --
--
Stimulates seed production
Aids carbohydrate transport and cell Anion H3BO3
division H2BO3
Boron - HBO3
--
BO3
- - - B4O7
-
Enzymes, light reaction Cation* Cu++
Copper
 Chlorophyll formation Cation* Fe++ Fe+++
Iron
Oxidation-reduction reactions. Cation* Mn++
Manganese Hastens germination and maturation
Auxins, enzymes Cation* Zn++
Zinc
Aids nitrogen fixation and nitrate Anion MoO4
Molybdenum assimilation --

Essential for nitrogen fixation Cation Co++

Cobalt
Grain filling, seed viability Cation Ni++ Ni+++
Nickel
Water use Anion CI
Chlorine
Component of most plant compounds
Oxygen
Component of most plant compounds.
Obtained from air and water.
Hydrogen
Component of most plant compounds.
Carbon

Cations are attracted to and held by the negatively charged surface area of clay
and organic matter. Anions move more freely with the soil solution.

Visual Diagnoses of
Plant Nutrient Deficiencies
Sometimes the soil chemistry is such that the soil is not able to supply
sufficient nutrients to the plant. Toxic conditions such as excessive soil acidity
may prevent plant roots from growing (see figure 1) or perhaps nutrients are
simply in low supply. When these conditions are severe enough, plants will
exhibit nutrient deficiency symptoms. The symptoms expressed by the plant are
often used to somewhat subjectively diagnose plant nutrient problems. Some
common symptoms shown by plants are:

(1) Chlorosis — A yellowing, either uniform or interveinal, of plant tissue due to

a reduction of the chlorophyll formation processes.
(2) Necrosis — The death or dying of plant tissue. It usually begins on the tips
and edges of older leaves and also may be caused by drought, herbicides, disease,
foliar application of fertilizer or animals marking territorial boundaries.
(3) Rosetting — A cluster of leaves crowded and arising from a crown, resulting
from a lack of new terminal growth.
(4) Anthocyanin (pigment) accumulation — This results in the appearance of
reddish, purple or brownish coloration. The pigment anthocyanin forms due to
sugar accumulation.
(5) Stunting or reduced growth, with either normal or dark green coloring or
Yellowing
 The symptom location on the plant depends on how well the nutrient moves from
older plant tissues to younger developing parts. Nutrients that can be moved readily by the
plant (mobile nutrients) to younger developing tissue are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and
magnesium. Deficiency symptoms for these nutrients are usually first expressed in the older
leaves. The entire plant may develop symptoms if the deficiency is severe. Nutrients that are
not easily moved by the plant from older, developed plant parts into younger tissue are sulfur,
calcium and all of the micronutrients. Deficiency symptoms for immobile

nutrients are usually first expressed in the growing points and youngest leaves. The following is a
generalized key to commonly expressed nutrient deficiency symptoms

pH 6.5 pH 5.5 pH 5.2

Figure 1. Soil pH effect on plant roots

GENERALIZED KEY TO PLANT- NUTRIENT

Deficiency symptoms

I. Effects occur mostly on older or lower leaves of plant; effects generalized

or localized.

A. Whole plant more or less uniformly affected; may exhibit drying or firing in lower leaves.
1. Plants light green; chlorosis in lower leaves (progresses down the midrib), more or less drying or
firing of lower leaves; plants may be stunted or woody; stalks short and slender if element is
deficient in later stages of growth NITROGEN

2. Plants dark green, young leaves appearing abnormally dark green; stems and leaves usually highly
pigmented with purplish red, especially near end of shoots; stalks short and slender if element is
deficient in later stages of growth. Fruiting often delayed. Vegetative growth less than
normal PHOSPHORUS

B. Effects on plants localized; mottling or chlorosis with or without spots

of dead tissue on lower leaves; little or no drying up of lower leaves.
1. Mottled (often prominently) or chlorotic leaves; may redden as with cotton;
sometimes with dead spots; tips and margins turned or cupped upward; stalks
slender MAGNESIUM

2. Mottled or chlorotic leaves with large or small spots of dead tissue. Plants perhaps
not
particularly stunted; stalks may be slender; leaves, especially the older ones, scorched
and dying at tip and outer margins. Leaf margins often crinkled and curled. Corn
 stalks may be brittle (browning of tissue evident in split joints, especially toward base
of plant) with cobs not filled to the ends POTASSIUM
II. Terminal buds or younger leaves affected; symptoms localized

A. Terminal bud death common, following appearance of distortions at tips or bases of younger
leaves.

1. Young leaves of terminal bud at first typically hooked, finally drying back at tips and
margins, so that later growth is characterized by a cut-out appearance at these points; stalk
finally dies at terminal bud. Tips of unfolding leaves gelatinize, sticking together when dry as
in corn CALCIUM

2. Young leaves of terminal bud becoming light green at bases, with final breakdown here, in
later
growth, leaves become twisted; stalk finally dies back at terminal bud. Sometimes a distinct
cupping of young leaves. With fleshy tissues, often internal browning and death BORON

B. Terminal bud commonly remains alive

1. Young leaves permanently wilted (wither tip effect), without spotting or marked chlorosis;
twig or stalk just below tip and seed head often unableto stand erect in later stages when
shortage is acute COPPER

2. Young leaves not wilted; chlorosis is present with or without spots of dead tissue (necrosis).
a. Necrosis not commonly present. Plants not particularly stunted.
Leaves pale green, veins often somewhat lighter in color than interveinal area. Often
difficult to distinguish from nitrogen deficiency SULFUR

b. Necrosis commonly present, in spots scattered over the leaf Interveinal tissue
yellowish,veins green MANGANESE

C. Necrosis may be present, often confined to leaf tip or margins, Interveinal tissue
yellowish, veins often green but may become lighter in color later IRON
d. Necrosis may be present, generally within interveinal tissue surrounding midrib,
veins
remain green, younger leaves yellowish (striping in grasses) or even white (white bud
in
corn) ZINC

Soil pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration.

The pH scale goes from 0 to 14 with pH 7 as the neutral point. As the amount of hydrogen
ions in the soil increases the soil pHdecreases thus becoming more acidic.

P - potential

H – hydrogen

How does the pH affect plant growth?

Although the optimum range is 5.5 to 7.0 some plants will grow in a more acid soil and
some at a more alkaline level. PH is not an indication of fertility, but it does affect the
availability of fertilizer nutrients. The soil may contain adequate nutrients yet plant health
may be limited by an unfavorable pH level
 What is soil pH stand for?

“pH” stands for potential Hydrogen, a phrase meaning the “power of hydrogen” or

the “potential of hydrogen,” and it's just easier to abbreviate it as pH. H is capitalized
because the chemical name abbreviation for hydrogen is H, as in H2O for water.

How do you lower the pH in soil?

Part 2 Using pH-Lowering Techniques

1. Add organic matter. Many types of organic matter, like compost, composted manure,
and acidic mulches (e.g. pine needles) can gradually lower your soil pH over time. ...
2. Add aluminum sulfate. ...
3. Add sulfur. ...
4. Add sulfur-coated urea. ...
5. Add another acidic additive. ...
Grow alkaline-tolerant plants

FERTILIZER COMPUTATION

To supply a certain amount of plant nutrients, determine the amount of fertilizer to be applied
per hectare based on the composition of the fertilizer materials to be used. Here are some examples
on how to determine the amount of fertilizer.

Nutrient recommendation
Weight of fertilizer = ------------------------------------- x 100
% nutrient of fertilizer

Fertilizer recommendation is usually expressed in 90-60-30`

Fertilizer Computation Formula:

Formula # 1

Weight of fertilizer material= Recommended rate x 100

% nutrient of the fertilizer material

Formula # 2

Number of fertilizer bags = Weight of nutrient

Weight of nutrient per bag

Sample Problems and Computations

 The recommended rate is given in the form of NPK. Calculate the number of kilograms of
ammonium sulfate (21% N or 21–0–0) or Urea (45-0-0), super phosphate (20% P 2O5 or 0–20–0) and
muriate of potash (60% K2O or 0–0–60) to meet the 100–70–40 fertilizer recommendation.

Example # 1

The recommended rate for Nitrogen is 100–0–0/ha. Convert the weight of fertilizer using the
formula:

Weight of fertilizer material= Recommended rate x 100

% nutrient of the fertilizer material

Step1. Determine the kind of fertilizer to use to meet the N recommended rate. The
recommendations could be supplied with ammonium sulfate (21 – 0 - ) or urea (46 – 0 – 0).
If you use urea:

= 100 kg x 100

46

= 100 kg

.46

= 217.39 kg

Step 2. Convert the computed weight of fertilizer material into number of bags by dividing it
with 50 kg which is the commercial weight per bag of the fertilizer material.

= 217.39 kg

50 kg/bag

= 4.35 or 4.4 bags

Therefore, approximately 4.4 bags of urea per hectare are needed to supply the
fertilizer recommended rate of 100-0-0.

Example # 2
Step 1. Determine the amount of fertilizer to use to meet the recommended rate for
phosphorous 0-70-0. The recommendations could be supplied with super phosphate (0 –20 -
0 ):

= 70 kg x 100

20

= 70 kg or 3.5 x 100

.20

= 350 kg

Step 2. Convert the computed weight of fertilizer material into number of bags by dividing it
with 50 kg which is the commercial weight per bag of the fertilizer material.

= 350 kg

50 kg/bag

= 7 bags

Therefore, a total of 7 bags per hectare are needed to supply the fertilizer recommended
rate of 0-70-0.

Example # 3

Step 1. Determine the amount of fertilizer to use to meet the recommended rate for
potassium 0-0-40. The recommendations could be supplied with muriate of potash (0- 0-
60 ):

= 40 kg x 100

60

= 40 kg or 0.6666 x 100

.60

= 66.67 kg

Step 2. Convert the computed weight of fertilizer material into number of bags by dividing it
with 50 kg which is the commercial weight per bag of the fertilizer material.

= 66.67 kg

50 kg/bag
 = 1.33bags

Therefore, approximately 1.33 bags per hectare are needed to supply the fertilizer
recommended rate of 0-0-60.

Example # 4

The fertilizer recommendation for a given area is 80–50-0 per hectare. Compute the kind
and amount of fertilizer needed to meet the requirement.

Step 1. Determine the fertilizer to be used. The recommendation could be supplied by:

ammonium phosphate (16–20-0) and urea (46–0–0) or ammonium sulfate (21-0–0) or urea (46–0–0)
and ordinary phosphate (0–16–0) or superphosphate (0–20–0).

Step 2. If you use two single element fertilizers follow the same sequence as example 1. If
ammonium phosphate is to be used (16–20-0) or superphosphate (0-20-0)

Step 3. Determine the weight of the fertilizer with the formula:

Weight of fertilizer material= Recommended rate x 100

% nutrient of the fertilizer material

= 50 kg x 100

20

= 30 kg

.20

= 250 kg

Step 4. Change into number of bags by dividing with 50 kg/bag.

 = 250 kg

50 kg/ha

= 5 bags

Step 5. Find the nutrient weight of nitrogen. Since 16–20–0 has 16% nitrogen and 20%
phosphorus 250 kilograms 16–20–0 contains 25 kg N and 30 kg phosphorus.

Therefore, 250 kg of 16–20–0 will supply 40–50–0 nutrient weight.

Step 6. Subtract the nutrient weight in step 5 from the recommendation rate.

80 – 50 – 0

- 40 – 50 – 0

40 – 0 – 0

Step 7. Suppose urea is available, compute for the remaining

nutrient.

= 40 kg x 100

46

= 36 kg

.46

= 86.96 kg

Step 8. Change the number of kilograms into bags per hectare.

= 86.96 kg

50 kg/bag

= 1.74 bags
Finally, 5 bags of ammonium phosphate and 1.74 bags of urea are needed to satisfy the
recommendation.

Example # 5.

Suppose the fertilizer recommendation is 100–60–60 per hectare. In this case, you may use
complete fertilizer 14–14–14 and urea (46–0–0) to come up with the recommendation.
Step 1. Compute for the smaller content first which is 60 to determine the amount of
complete fertilizer needed to supply the requirement .

Weight of fertilizer material= Recommended rate x 100

% nutrient of the fertilizer material

= 60 kg x 100

14

= 60 kg

0.14

= 428.6 kg

Step 2. Convert the weight of fertilizer material into number of bags by dividing the weight
of fertilizer material per hectare by 50 kg.

= 428.6 kg

50 kg/ha

= 8.6 bags

Step 3. Since 14–14–14 contains 14% NPK equivalent to 60 kg determine the remaining or
lacking amount of nitrogen by subtracting the computed weight from the
recommended rate.

100 - 60 - 60

- 60 - 60 - 60

40 - 00 – 00

Step 4. Compute for the lacking amount of nitrogen using urea

(46-0-0)

= 40 kg x 100
 46

= 86.96 kg

Step 5. Convert the number of kilograms into bags/ha.

= 86.96.2 kg

50 kg/bag

= 1.74 bags

So you need 8.6 bags of 14–14–14 and 1.7 bags of urea to supply the fertilizer
recommendation per hectare

LET US REMEMBER

 Oversupply of nutrients result to increased susceptibility of the crop to pests, lodging, etc.
 Undersupply and untimely application slow down the growth of seedlings, lower number of
tillers, and lower grain weight.
 The macro elements are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK).
 The two kinds of fertilizers are the organic and inorganic.
 The methods of applying fertilizers are basal, top dress, and foliar .
 Fertilizer computation formulas:

Formula # 1

Weight of fertilizer material= Recommended rate x 100

% nutrient of the fertilizer material

Formula # 2

Number of fertilizer bags = Weight of nutrient

Weight of nutrient per bag

COMPOST AND COMPOSTING

 Compost is a mixture of decayed organic materials decomposed by micro-organisms in a
warm, moist and aerobic environment (oxygen-breathing) releasing nutrients into readily
available forms for plant nutrients.

Why use compost?

 There is a need for sustainable production through integrated nutrient management.
 Compost produces less methane than non - decomposed rice straw when incorporated in
the soil
 It solves problem on declining yield.
 It also corrects micronutrient problems like zinc deficiency

What is composting?
Composting is the controlled decay of plant and animal wasted to produce compost, a
dark, rich soil-like material. Compost is added to the soil to improve its structure and nutrient
content.
Bacteria, fungi, worms and other soil organisms help in breaking down dead plants and
animals, as well as animal wastes. The decomposed organic material becomes part of the soil.
This natural decay usually takes place very slowly. To speed up the process, composters create
ideal growing conditions for compost organisms.

What do compost organisms need?

1. Balanced diet of compost materials

 Browns – compost materials that are brown and dry like sawdust, dried leaves, straw and
small twigs. Browns are high in carbon, which for microbes are energy food.
 Greens – compost materials that are green and moist like kitchen waste and grass
cuttings.
It is high in nitrogen which microbes need to make proteins.

If you add about 3 parts of browns to 1 part of greens, then the compost organisms will
have a balanced diet.

2. Right amount of air and water

If there’s right amount of oxygen and moisture, microbes can rapidly grow and multiply. If
there is much or too little of water, the microbes die.
Compost materials should have a thin film of water around them, and lots of pore spaces
filled with air.

3. Right temperature
Organic materials will eventually decay even in a cold compost pile but decay process is
sped in a hot compost pile. When bacteria and fungi grow rapidly, they burn a lot of food, and
give off a lot of heat. If the compost pile is big enough, the heat will build up inside the pile.
Bacteria that grow well at high temperature takes over and speed up the decay process.

WAYS OF MAKING COMPOST

1. Traditional method – this is a slow process, requiring 3-4 months before farm wastes are fully
decomposed and ready for use as compost fertilizer. This means that the
fertilizer can only be used after one planting season. This also requires a
bigger composting area. This method involves only eight steps. It is
inexpensive to produce and requires no input except labor.

2. Rapid method – with the aid of fungus activator called Trichoderma harzianum, decomposition
of
farm wastes is accelerated to just 3-4 weeks.
3. Bio-enriched method – employing both fungus activator and a nitrogen-fixing bacteria, farm
 wastes are first decomposed by Trichoderma sp. For 2-3 weeks , after which
the
resulting compost is inoculated with live N- fixing bacteria Azotobacter sp.
Inoculation for 1 week produces a nitrogen –enriched compost that can supply
a
rice crops’ total N requirement depending on the material used, soil
condition,
and planting season.
4. Vermicomposting

STEPS IN MAKING COMPOST

A. Traditional way

1. Make the soil firm, and dig a trench around for excess water to flow into.
2. Stack up about six(6) inches high of grass. Do not compress.
3. Put up 1-2 inches thick animal manure over the grass. Urea or ammonium sulfate about 1-2
kilograms may also be used if available.
4. Put 1 inch thick of rich soil mixed with wood ashes , lime over the pile.
5. Repeat the process over the pile until about 1 ½ meters high.
6. water the pile to make it moist.
7. thrust a pipe(s) or bamboo pole(s) with holes to allow the air to penetrate to the bottom of the
pile.
8. After three weeks, turn the compost over with the aid of a garden fork. This is easily done by
transferring into another pile so that the bottom layer will now be on the top.
9. Turn the compost again bottom up after 5 weeks. Wait for 4 weeks to allow complete
composting.
10.Water the compost during hot weather; cover the compost pile with banana leaves during
rainy
days.

The pile of compost will be hot. This means that the bacteria in it are working.
Composting can also be hastened with the use of a chemical for this purpose.

B. Making compost for 11 days

Materials
 Farm wastes: leaves, straw, hull, grasses, weeds (fresh or dry)
 Fresh animal manure: carabao, cow, horse, chicken, goat, etc.
 Kerosene can or basket
 Eight pieces posts about 2”- 3” diameter at 5” high
 Bamboo slats
 Shovel, garden fork, bolo

Procedures in making compost pile

1. Select a shady place in your yard that is somewhat elevated and does not lodge water
2. Construct compost pile measuring 1 x 1.5 square meter by 1 meter high using 8 posts nd
bamboo slats to enclose the posts; allow space for air at the bottom.
3. Cut the farm wastes about 3-4 inches or smaller.
4. Wet these or soak in water for 5 minutes. If they are plenty, spray waste water on the
mound.
5. Mix with equal amount of fresh animal manure; mix them well.
6. Stack up the enclosed place up to 4 feet high.
7. See if the pile is getting heated. If not, sprinkled with dissolved fresh manure. It is not
important to have this heat in 24-48 hours.
8. Reverse the pile; see if it is heating up. Keep it moist but not wet. If it is not, sprinkle
dissolved manure.
 9. Reverse again; see if it is heating up. Keep it moist.
10. When the pile is cooling; it means the compost is done.
11. The resulting compost is ground (pulverized). If desired, let it stay to decompose longer
because the natural bark coating takes a longer time to deteriorate.

C. Vermicomposting

Composting is the process of converting organic materials like leaves and animal manure
into humus, an organic matter through decomposition by the action of microbes and other
organisms.

My kitchen trash used to smell awful! Coffee grounds, banana peels, lettuce leaves,
onion trimmings, orange peels, and plate scrapings all joined with an accumulation of
papers, cans, plastic wraps, jars, and bottle caps to produce an unpleasant—and
unusable—collection of refuse. Although I emptied the trash can frequently to reduce
the odor in the kitchen, I had to hold my breath when I did! 

But no longer! I've now solved my problem entirely with the help of Eisenia
foetida,the common red wiggler (or brandling) worm. That's right, worms eat my
garbage! What's more, they convert it to black, earthy-smelling, nutrient-rich humus
that I use to grow delicious garden vegetables and beautiful houseplants. Operating
an indoor worm-powered waste converter is easy, convenient, environmentally
sound, and inexpensive. It's fun, too. Anyone can do it, and here's how.

Basics of Vermicomposting
The essential components of a home vermicomposting unit ("vermi" = worm) are an
aerated container, some moist bedding, and a few thousand red worms. Because
you'll be working with a dynamic process, you'll need to carry out certain
maintenance procedures both to keep the worm population healthy and to obtain and
utilize the end product. These tasks are scarcely demanding: Set your vegetable
waste aside in a small container when preparing meals or cleaning up afterward,
feed it to the worms once or twice a week, and every few months or so, remove the
vermicompost and put the worms in fresh bedding.   

To determine the size of your worm bin, keep track of the amount of kitchen waste
you throw away for a couple of weeks. Use a small bucket or can, and collect such
discards as potato peels, citrus rinds, greens, leftover vegetables, eggshells, and
bread, just about any non meat food residues from your kitchen. Weigh your
container to get the average number of pounds per week, then size the
vermicomposter accordingly. Your worm bin should provide approximately one
square foot of surface for every pound of garbage you'll bury each week. For
example, the 8" × 2' × 2' box described here will handle about 4 pounds per week.
This bin will be adequate for many one- or two-person households. Another common
size is a 1' × 2' × 3' box, which will accommodate about 6 to 6-1/2 pounds of
garbage. Aeration is important, and since red worms tend to be surface feeders
rather than deep burrowers, a shallow bin with a large surface area is preferable to
one that's tall and deep

VERMI

IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE PRACTICES

Definition of terms

1. Field capacity - the amount of water held by the soil after gravitational water is drained away.
2. Permanent wilting point - a level of moisture in the soil which is unavailable to the plant.
3. Drainage - the removal of excess water from the soil.
4. Evaporation - the loss of water in vapor form
5. Transpiration - the loss of water from the leaves in the form of water vapor.
6. Seepage - the horizontal passage of water or sideward loss of water from the soil.
7. Percolation – the vertical/downward movement and loss of water from the soil
8. irrigation – the application of water to the soil by any means other than rainfall

Irrigation
Vegetables, being succulent products by definition,are generally more than 90% water . Thus, water
determines the weight and yield of vegetables. The quality of vegetable products may be traced directly or
indirectly to the mismanagement of water supply in the production field.
A good proportion of investment in vegetable growing allocated for water management, whether or not it
is in a traditional farm where water is applied by manual labor or in an automated drip-irrigation system. Unlike
crops that can be grown under rain fed condition, vegetables with few exceptions are always irrigated, at least
partially. It is every grower’s utmost concern to use irrigation water in thr most efficient way,. It is equally
important to provide adequate drainage facilities in the field because most vegetables cannot tolerate prolonged
waterlogged conditions.

Benefits of irrigation

1. Irrigation is insurance to drought.

2. It enables the growing of quick maturing crops.
3. It is a guarantee to the quick germinating of seeds.
4. It is a means of securing early maturity on most crops.
5. It increases quality, attractive, and yield of crops.

Factors that determines water deficiency for irrigation schedules

1. Based on soil water measurements. The level of the soil water supply is measured directly by soil
sampling using the tensiometer, electrical resistance block or gravimetry.
2. Based on evaporation rates. This needs evaporative devices. The amount of moisture lost from the
crop through transpiration is also measured. The amount of water in the soil minus the amount
transpired, the amount to be added is the difference. This is the best index for irrigation requirement.
3. Calculated irrigation schedules. This method necessitates knowledge of the field capacity, permanent
wilting percentage, bulk/specific gravity and effective depth of rooting, all of which require measurement.
4. Temporary wilting. When water stress occurs in plant, cells lose turgidity, and plants show symtoms of
wilting. Temporary wilting may occur at mid-day when water demand reaches its climax, specially during
the hottest months of the year. Soil moisture may really be adequate, but transpiration may out pace
water absorption. If this is so, plant will recover by evening, However, if plants wilt in the morning
continuously for 3-4 days, water may indeed be lacking and the crop must be irrigated immediately.
5. Color of foliage. Not all plant show temporary wilting when water is limited. Instead, their leaves turned
yellowish as in beans, and in some cases bluish green as in eggplants, as the water is reduced in the
soil. Color is an indicator of plant variety where there is nitrogen supply so take this into account.
6. Rate of growth of the plants. If the rate of growth of the crop is sluggish, water may not be enough.
7. “Feel of the soil”. Get samples from a depth where most of the roots, and try to feel the soil. This
depends on the type of the soil.

Type of soil Irrigation is needed

Sandy Appears to be dry but does not form a ball when squeezed
Loam Somewhat crumbly but holds together
clayey Somewhat pliable, forms a ball, too dry to form ribbon (ribbon is formed
between thumb and fore finger)

8. Sand-cum-soil-mini plot technique. It involves digging thoroughly a one cubic pit in one part of the field.
Mix 55 sand to the soil which has been dug and return it to the pit. Now the soil has reduced water-holding
capacity. The crop, including the test plot, is planted as usual. The plants in the test plot will start to wilt 2-3 days
ahead of those in the field. Irrigation must be done when wilting is observed in the test plot.

Kinds of irrigation water

 1. Surface irrigation. In this case water is applied over the surface of the ground, either in furrows or by
spreading it broadcast over the land being irrigated. Water is conducted from the source to the points of
distribution, either in open ditches or pipe lines. This kind of irrigation is usually used in the Philippines
for irrigating their rice fields.
2. Sub-irrigation. In this kind of irrigation the water is delivered to a porous stratum of the soil at proper
depth. The moisture spreads to the plant roots through this stratum.
3. Overhead or spray irrigation. This case, water is put into the plants in the form of very fine drops or
spray or mist. In small scale, this method is used, like in nurseries, where water is applied by means of
sprinklers, water hose with nozzles.

Methods of irrigation

1. Irrigation by hand. This requires hand labor. This system is used only where a valuable crop can be
grown in a small piece of land, as in school and home gardens. Water is applied either early morning or
late in the afternoon.
2. Irrigation by windmill. It is used for irrigating a fruit plantation or a truck garden. This system furnishes
a very satisfactory means of pumping water in some localities in the Philippines.
3. Irrigation by power machinery. Water pumps are set as the source of water.
4. Irrigation by gravity. This is the cheapest and most common method of obtaining water from irrigation.
Ditch canals are dug from the source of water like streams or rivers going to the field; thus, water is
taken from the river at an outlet that can be opened and shut down.
5. Drip irrigation. Water passes to small pipes that are directed to the garden or field of crops. The water
can be controlled by closing the source of water.

Types of Irrigation System

a. Reservoir type. A large dam or a small water impounding dam is constructed across a stream
of river where water is impounded for irrigation and for domestic use. The flow of irrigation
water is dependent on the selection of the methods of water distribution to meet the water
needs of the service area. The rotation method is usually employed to ensure even
distribution of available water supply and to ensure that a wider area will be supplied with
irrigation water.

b. The run-off-the-river type. In this method a controllable gate is constructed along the river
or stream . When water outlet is closed, water level rise which could be diverted to the
canals and laterals. The quantity of water entering the main canal is regulated at the intake
gate. The available water supply is dependent on the elevation at the source. As a general
rule, the supply is proportionate to the height of the source and volume flowing from the
source. During periods of high flow when available supply becomes abundant, the
continuous method is usually practiced. When the supply is scarce, the rotational method is
employed.

c. Pumping type. This method makes use of a pump powered by an engine installed to draw
water from underground or open sources like rivers and lakes. The available water supply is
dependent upon the capacity of the pumps and the water level. Energy is used to run the
system, hence, higher operation expenses are incurred. When using this type, never allow
the rice paddies to dry and have cracks, which will cause water seepage making irrigation
more expensive.
 Whatever type of irrigation is used, cooperation among farmers is to be practiced at
all times in order to implement the schedule of irrigation calendar for an efficient and
effective rotation method.

Causes of loss of irrigation water

1. Over irrigation. A farmer should not use more water than his crop needs. The amount of wter needed
by the crops varies with the crop, and a farmer should ascertain what amount is for each crop and how it
is best distributed among the different times of the application.
2. Poor grading of land. When a piece of land to be irrigated is not uniformly graded, as for example,
when certain spots are high while others are low, or when their is hardly any grade at all to allow
movement of water by gravity, there will be loss of water.
3. Seepage. Horizontal passage of water from irrigation canal trough the surrounding ground. Loss of
water by seepage is prevented by lining the canal properly with a clay puddle.
4. Deep percolation. Percolation is the vertical downward movement of water. Water which sinks much
deeper than the roots of the plants is wasted water. Skillful cultivation should prevent much loss of water
due to deep percolation.
5. Run-off at the ends of the fields or furrows. To avoid waste of water in the form of run offs, it is
necessary to supervise carefully the irrigation work so that only enough water is allowed to flow in the
irrigation furrows.
6. Direct evaporation. This refers to the loss of water from plant parts, soil surface and even from bodies
of water with the aid off sunlight.

Different methods of watering plants

1. Drip – plantation, ornamentals, vegetables, fruits
2. Furrow – corn, banana, coffee, cacao
3. Sprinkler – ornamentals, vegetables
4. Flooding – rice

DRAINAGE
Drainage is defined as the process of removing water from the soil to increase its productivity.

Benefits derived from drainage

1. It improves the tilth of the soil

2. It leads to the improvement of soil aeration.
3. It improves the temperature condition of the soil.
4. It increases the availability of plant food.
5. It encourages multiplication and development of useful organisms in the soil.
6. It increases benefits obtained from the use of fertilizers.

Systems of drainage

1. Surface drainage, also called open drainage

2. Under –surface drainage
3. Combination of surface and under surface drainage
4. Vertical drainage- the water runs more or less vertically through the soil into a porous bed of sand or
gravel beneath.

WEEDING AND CULTIVATION

Man’s attitude toward the so- called weeds is more or less the same as his attitude towards
the so- called harmful insects.
 Weed control is killing or limiting the growth of plants in places where they are not
wanted, usually for economic, health, or aesthetic reasons. Weeds play an important role in
nature by rebuilding soil that has been distributed by bulldozers, fire , flood, but in many
areas weeds compete with more desirable plants for available light , water, and nutrients.
Weeds are exceptionally tough plants and are able to reproduce aggressively. They often
produce great quantities of seed, or disperse seed over a large area or they may quickly
reproduce by sending out far-reaching stems above or below ground, from which new weeds
can sprout. As a result, they may quickly out number other desired plants in the area.

Why should we control weeds ?

 Weeds cause decrease in crop production
 Weeds increase labor and of production cost
 Weeds harbor plant pest which may affect plant growth and yield
 Weeds clog irrigation and drainage canals or ditches hampering flow of
water resulting in overflow and waste of water resources.
 Some weeds are injurious to man and animals
 Weeds lower land value
 Roots of.
 weeds interlace with roots of plants which makes cultivation and
weeding difficult
 Weeds cause wear and tear of farm implement or equipment

Principles of weed control

To control weeds successfully, understand thoroughly their nature, life
history, habit of growth, and their methods of natural reproduction.

 It is necessary to know if a weed is terrestrial or aquatic

 It is necessary to know whether weeds are resistant to drought or to
water lodging or easily affected by these conditions.
 It is important to know if it is s method of reproduction is by seeds, by
underground vegetative parts, or both.

The type of weeds commonly found in rice fields are:

1. Grasses. These are monocotyledonous plants which have long narrow leaves, usually flat
leaves with parallel veins and round hollow stem. Among these are:
a. Cynod and dactylon (L.) Pens
Common name: bakbaka or galut-galut (Iloc.), kawadkawad (Tag.), Bermuda
grass or runners (Eng.)
b. Echinochloa glabrescens Muriro
Echinochloa crusgalli sbsp. Hispidula
Common name: marapagay (Iloc.), bayakibok (Tag.), Barnyard grass (Eng.) and
lagton (Bicol)
 c. Echinochloa colona (L.) Link
Common names: dukayang or bulang (Iloc.), pulang puwit (Tag.), jungle rice
(Eng.)
d. Paspalum sp
Common name: karunsi (Iloc.), plastic grass (Eng.)
e. Rottboellia chochichinensis (L)
Common name: marapagay, sagisi (Iloc.), aguingay (Tag.)

Echinoclora colona (Dakayang, left), Echinocloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv (center), Rottboella
chochichinensis

(Marapagay, right).

Sources: CBLM Year 3

2. Sedges. These are weeds with triangular stem, long narrow leaves and modified rhizomes
for storage and propagation. Examples are:
a. Fimbrystilis littoralis Gaud
Common name: siraw-siraw (Iloc.), ubud-ubod, taulat (Tag.), gumi
(Pangasinan), sirisibuyas (Bicol)
b. Cyrperus iria (L)
Common name: payong-payong (Iloc.), umbrella sedge (Eng.)
c. Scirpus maritimus( L)
Common name: bawang-bawang, marilango, marabawang or buslig (Iloc.),
apulid (Tag.), bulrush (Eng.)
d. Cyperus difformis (L.)
Common names: marabutones, ballayang (Iloc.), payong-payong, tagataga
(Tag.)
e. Cyperus rotundus (L.)
Common name: barsanga (Iloc.), mutha (Eng.)
f. Schenoplectus grossus (L.) Palla
Common names: bilid-bilid (Iloc.), giant bulrush (Eng.), Tikiw (Tag.)

3. Sedges. These are weeds with triangular stem, long narrow leaves and modified rhizomes
for storage and propagation. Examples are:
a. Fimbrystilis littoralis Gaud
Common name: siraw-siraw (Iloc.), ubud-ubod, taulat (Tag.), gumi
(Pangasinan), sirisibuyas (Bicol)
 b. Cyrperus iria (L)
Common name: payong-payong (Iloc.), umbrella sedge (Eng.)
c. Scirpus maritimus( L)
Common name: bawang-bawang, marilango, marabawang or buslig (Iloc.),
apulid (Tag.), bulrush (Eng.)
d. Cyperus difformis (L.)
Common names: marabutones, ballayang (Iloc.), payong-payong, tagataga
(Tag.)
e. Cyperus rotundus (L.)
Common name: barsanga (Iloc.), mutha (Eng.)
f. Schenoplectus grossus (L.) Palla
Common names: bilid-bilid (Iloc.), giant bulrush (Eng.), Tikiw (Tag.)

Fimbristylis littoralis Guad. (left), Cyperus iria (right)

Source: CBLM Year 3

4. Broadleaves. These are dicotyledonous plants with netted veined leaves. Among the most
common in rice fields are:
a. Monochoria vaginalis Presl
Common name: gabing uwak, biga-bigaan (Tag.), bil-lagut (Iloc.), Upi-upi
(Bicol)
b. Ipomoea aguatica (Forssk)
Common name: balangeg (Iloc.), kangkong (Tag.), swamp cabbage (Eng.)
c. Sphenoclea zeylanica (Gaertn.)
Common names: sili-silian (Tag.), marasili (Iloc.)
d. Ipomoea triloba (L. Common names: marakamote (Iloc.) kamokamoteha Tag.)

Monochoria vaginalis
Sphenochlea zeylanica Gaertn

Source :CBLM Year 3

Methods of Weed Control

In all cases, all kinds of weeds must be controlled before they could compete with the
plants. It is therefore more economical to make use of the cultural and biological methods before
resorting to chemicals.

A. Physical/mechanical method. Weeds can be controlled by means of:

1. hand pulling or hand weeding
2. use of mechanical weeders or rotary weeder possible when transplanted, using the
straight row planting and mechanical seeder in direct row planting
3. efficient use of irrigation water which prevents the emergence of all kinds of weeds

B. Cultural method. This involves good land preparation and flooding during land preparation
to remove weed seeds, closer crop spacing, and use of varieties that are taller and will
produce more tillers early in the season.

C. Chemical Control. Herbicides may be used to kill weeds or suppress their growth.
Chemical control is cheaper than hand weeding and can be used in all rice
environments. However, the continued use of the same herbicides leads to build-up of
perennial weeds which are difficult to control with herbicide. This can be prevented by hand
or mechanical weeding periodically. Herbicides are applied either pre-emergence (before
weeds germinate) or post-emergence (after weeds have germinated) in granular or
sprayable form.

Pre-emergence application of granular or sprayable herbicides controls most annual

weeds. This is applied 3-5 DAT in a water depth of 3-5 centimeters.

Post-emergence herbicides control annual broadleaf weeds and sedges. This is applied 20-25
DAT. Drain water from the paddy before spraying. Reflood the paddy the following day to a depth of
5-7 cm. to suppress late germinating weeds

Monochoria vaginalis Sphenochlea zeylanica Gaertn

 Source :CBLM Year 3

Methods of Weed Control

In all cases, all kinds of weeds must be controlled before they could compete with the
plants. It is therefore more economical to make use of the cultural and biological methods before
resorting to chemicals.

D. Physical/mechanical method. Weeds can be controlled by means of:

1. hand pulling or hand weeding
2. use of mechanical weeders or rotary weeder possible when transplanted, using the
straight row planting and mechanical seeder in direct row planting
3. efficient use of irrigation water which prevents the emergence of all kinds of weeds

E. Cultural method. This involves good land preparation and flooding during land preparation
to remove weed seeds, closer crop spacing, and use of varieties that are taller and will
produce more tillers early in the season.

F. Chemical Control. Herbicides may be used to kill weeds or suppress their growth.
Chemical control is cheaper than hand weeding and can be used in all rice
environments. However, the continued use of the same herbicides leads to build-up of
perennial weeds which are difficult to control with herbicide. This can be prevented by hand
or mechanical weeding periodically. Herbicides are applied either pre-emergence (before
weeds germinate) or post-emergence (after weeds have germinated) in granular or
sprayable form.

Pre-emergence application of granular or sprayable herbicides controls most annual

weeds. This is applied 3-5 DAT in a water depth of 3-5 centimeters.

Post-emergence herbicides control annual broadleaf weeds and sedges. This is

applied 20-25 DAT. Drain water from the paddy before spraying. Reflood the paddy the
following day to a depth of 5-7 cm. to suppress late germinating weeds.

In spraying herbicides always follow the recommended rate of application so as not to

incur damage to the growing plant.

Preventive Method. Before sowing the seeds make use of big container in soaking to allow the
weed seeds to float and discard. During the land preparation for the seed bed just after leveling the
bed, flood and allow the water to flow out to discard the floating seeds. Use certified seeds, wire
mesh in canal, and remove weeds before seeds mature

Pointers for Effective Herbicide Application

1. Apply herbicides at the right time.

a. Pre-planting – apply herbicide after land preparation before the crop is planted.
b. Pre-emergence – apply herbicide before the emergence of the crop or weeds.
Post-emergence – herbicide is applied after emergence of
 c. the crop or weeds.
2. Use the right dosage of chemicals. Weak or strong dosage of chemicals may not be useful to
the plant; therefore, follow the recommended dosage.
3. Spray during fair weather. Do not spray when the wind is strong nor during rainy weather.
Spray early in the morning or late in the afternoon.
4. Distribute spray solution accurately.

Knapsack sprayer

Preparing Herbicide Sprays

All granular herbicides can be used directly but herbicides in the form of wettable powder
(WP), as well as emulsifiable concentrates (EC) should be mixed with water or other diluting liquids
such as oil before using. If you mix them properly, your herbicide will work effectively. If any
common container is used in the preparation, label it properly and keep it away from children.

1. Prepare the required amount of herbicide. Remember that too much herbicide may injure
the crop and too little herbicide may not control weeds effectively.
2. Pour ¼ of the required water into the container. Your container should contain more than
what the sprayer tank can contain. Never apply the herbicide ahead of the water because
the wettable powder tends to float and many emulsifiable concentrates are acidic.
3. Add the herbicide to the water. If you are using wettable powder, thoroughly mix it with
small amount of water before pouring into the water container. This makes the dispersion of
the powder in a large amount of water easier.
4. Mix the herbicide in the water container using a bamboo stirrer, not your hand.
Add the remaining water to complete the dilution

Cultivation
Cultivation is a tillage operation of loosening or breaking up the soil about
growing crops or plants in order to maintain it in a condition favorable for their
growth.
 Cultivation is necessary in the case of annual crops. With permanent plants
the ground may be cultivated. In this case we can say clean culture is practiced, but
it should really be grown to cover crops in order to protect the soil from erosion.

Benefits of cultivation
1. Cultivation aerates the soil to facilitate the respiration of plant roots and
micro-organisms as well as to supply nitrogen for nitrogen-fixing
organisms.
2. It makes the top soil loose to increase its capacity to absorb water.
3. It kills the weeds, the chief plant competitor.

Methods of cultivation
 Off – barring – the soil is cultivated away from the base of the plant.
 Hilling-up – the soil; is brought towards the base of the plants to cover
the fertilizer and control weeds.

Objectives of cultivation
1. Destroy the weeds
2. Conserve soil moisture
3. Help conserve food materials in the soil.
4. Improve aeration of the soil.

Frequency of cultivation

The ideal way of taking care of an annual crop like vegetables is to keep
the field free from weeds, and the soil in excellent tilth all the time through
cultivation. This is usually done in gardening and so when a field receives the
same amount of attention, we can often say we “garden” the field. By this we
simply mean we give the field a very intensive care just we generally do to a
garden.

Depth of cultivation
As a rule, cultivation should beat a depth of about 5 centimeters. It
should be deep to kill the weeds. It is not advisable to cultivate deeper than it
is necessary to kill the weeds because the roots of the cultivated plants may be
injured. The depth varies according to crops.

Time of cultivation
 Cultivation is done after planting and before the crops cover the ground.
Since cultivation is actually a process of working the soil, the rules governing
plowing reference to the condition of the soil should apply to cultivation.

Below is the time table when to hill up the following vegetable crops
crop When to cultivate
Beans and peas 2-3 weeks after planting
Eggplant 2-3 weeks after planting
Pepper 2-3 weeks after planting
Potato 30 days after planting
lettuce 2-3 weeks after planting
Chinese cabbage 2-3 weeks after planting
Celery 2-3 weeks after planting
Carrots 30 days after planting
Cabbage 2-3 weeks after planting
Cauliflower and broccoli 25-30 days after planting
tomato 2-3 weeks after planting

Glossary of Terms
 Eradicate – to wipe out
Weeds - plants that grow in places where they are not wanted
Grasses - weeds which have long narrow, two-ranked usually flat
leaves with parallel veins and round stem
Sedges - similar to grasses but of three-ranked leaves, and
with triangular solid stems
Broad-leaved weeds - dicotyledonous plants with broad leaves
Herbicides - chemical used to control and kill weeds
Insect pests - insects that are harmful to plants
Rodents – rats
Diseases – impairments on the normal health of the plant
Insecticides - chemicals used to control insects
Fungicides - chemicals used to control fungus
Molluscicide - chemical used to control golden snails
Lesion - a well-marked but limited diseased area on the plants
Nocturnal insect - insect that feeds on plants during night time
Dead heart - dried youngest leaf of the plant during tillering stage
White head – dried, unfilled white panicle during heading stage
Symptoms - observable characteristics of a diseased plant
PPE - personal protective equipment

PERFORM MULCHING
Definition of terms

1. Mulch- any material spread on the ground to protect plant roots from heat,
cold
or drought and to keep fruits clean.
2. Mulching – the practice of covering the soil with any material like leaves,
paper,
and plastic in order to protect the plants from extreme temperature
and
to conserve soil moisture.

Importance of mulching
 Mulching reduces the washing away of soil particles especially in sloping gardens.
Also, mulches prevent raindrops from splashing on the soil surface.
 Conserving soil moisture is an important use of mulch. A layer of mulch in the soil
surface allows the soil to conserve more water. Mulch also reduces the rate of water
loss from the soil.
 Mulches modify soil temperature in vegetable gardens. Proper mulching in summer
months keeps the soil cooler. Soil conserved by black or clear plastic or dark organic
mulch in the early morning warms faster than the bare soil.
 Organic mulches enrich the soil as they decay and provide a better environment for
plant growth. Soils that have high organic matter are easier to till and better suited to
 vegetable gardening. Organic mulch such as straw, newspaper can be turned under
the soil at the end of the season. This helps builds the soil organic matter content.
Turn the mulch under as soon as the gardening season is over so it breaks down
before the garden is replanted.
 Most mulch also excellent weed control. Mulches do not prevent weed seeds from
sprouting. Weed seed emergence is blocked by a mulch layer thick enough to
exclude light. A 3 inch layer of mulch on the soil surface is enough to prevent the
growth of weeds.
 Garden mulching reduces maintenance. A good mulch layer eliminates the need of
weeding, and mulched vegetables are cleaner at harvest time. For example, the fruits
of tomato, melon, and other plants never touch the soil, so they are a lot cleaner than
those un mulched vegetable crops.
 There will be more fruit harvests because of less fruit rot. This is because the soil
does not splash upon the fruits.

Mulch materials
 Compost is generally the best mulching material for home and school garden.it is
usually free from weeds seeds ad is inexpensive.
 Straw is short-lived and course textured.
 Sawdust is common mulch available especially in urban places if well managed, it is
a good mulch. Add a small amount of garden fertilizer after applying sawdust directly
to a garden. Even better, add nitrogen to sawdust , and then compost it before
spreading it in your garden.
 Plastic is effective mulch if properly used. Black plastic keeps light from the soil and
prevents weeds from growing. Clear plastic warms the soil, but weeds grow beneath
the plastic. A disadvantage of plastic is that it cannot be turned into the soil at the end
of the planting season. However, it can be recycled.
 Newspaper is much better than the plastic because they can be turned into the soil
after use.

When selecting mulch materials consider these factors:

 Cost of materials
 The crop you plan to mulch
 The time when mulch is to be used

How to use mulches

Spread mulches on freshly cultivated, used free soil before plants are large enough
to interfere. Apply organic mulch thick enough to leave a 3 inch layer after setting. Four
inches of fine materials like compost should be adequate. Remember that the courser
materials , such as straw, settle an d many require 6 inches or more initially. If you use
newspaper, place three layers on each side of the row. add more mulch during the season
when working with organic materials. The mulch settles and gradually rots during the
growing season where it meets the moist soil surface. Adding more layers assures
continuous weed control and a clean resting place for the fruits of your labor and creates a
pleasing appearance throughout the season.
PRUNING
IMPORTANCE OF PRUNING

 GROWTH ORIENTATION
 REMOVAL OF INFECTED PLANT PARTS
 EASE OF MAINTENANCE AND HARVESTING
 FLOWER INDUCTION
 INCREASE LIGHT PENETRATION FOR GROWTH AND PEST CONTROL
 INCREASE PRODUCTION

METHODS OF PRUNING APPLICABLE TO A PARTICULAR CROP

1. Topping – vegetables, ornamentals, plantation crops

2. Pinching – vegetables and ornamentals
3. Top pruning – fruit tress
4. Deleafing – vegetables and ornamentals

IMPORTANCE OF REJUVINATION
 To improve/increase the productivity of the crop
 To maintain the desired height
 To remove diseased plant parts

Crops applicable for rejuvenation

Fruit trees and selected vegetation and ornamentals

PLANT REJUVINATION TECHNIQUES

 Side grafting
  Cutting of unproductive branches
 Ratooning

DEMONSTRATE REJUVINATION TCHNIQUES

 Side grafting- insertion of scion
 Ratooning- cutting of old branches ( eggplant, okra, sorghum)
 Side pruning- removal of one side of the tree (coffee, cacao)
 Bending – bending of stem ((coffee, cacao)

IMPORTANCE OF GROWTH TRAINING

 Control shading
 Increase production
 Improve the aesthetic value in selected ornamentals

Crops in growth training application

 Vine crops
 Selected ornamentals
 Fruit trees and plantation crops

DISCHARD AND STORE HAZARDOUS MATERIALS AND CHEMICALS

1. Discard hazardous materials by burying

2. Store hazardous materials in specific location
3. Follow OSHS procedures

GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES

 Food safety
 Prevent cross contamination
 Practice field sanitation and personal hygiene
 Clean workplace and environment