ORAL COMMUNICATION IN CONTEXT

Communication is a process of sharing and conveying messages or information from

one person to another within and across channels, contexts, media, and cultures (McCornack,
2014). There is a wide variety of contexts and situations in which communication can be
manifested; it can be a face-to-face interaction, a phone conversation, a group discussion, a
meeting or interview, a letter correspondence, a class recitation, and many others.

Verbal Communication and Nonverbal Communication

Verbal Communication refers to an interaction in which words are used to relay a
message. For effective and successful verbal communication, use words to express ideas
which can be easily understood by the person you are talking to. Consider appropriateness,
brevity, clarity, ethics, and vividness when engaging in this type of communication.
1. Appropriateness
 The language that you use should be appropriate to the environment or occasion (i.e.,
whether formal or informal).
2. Brevity
 Speakers who often use simple yet precise and powerful words are found to be more
credible. Try to achieve brevity by being more direct with your words. Avoid fillers
and insubstantial expressions which do not add to the message, such as “uh,” “you
know,” “I guess,” and others.
3. Clarity
 The meanings of words, feelings, or ideas may be interpreted differently by a listener;
hence, it is essential for you to clearly state your message and express your ideas and
feelings.
4. Ethics
 Words should be carefully chosen in consideration of the gender, roles, ethnicity,
preferences, and status of the person or people you are talking to.
5. Vividness
 Words that vividly or creatively describe things or feelings usually add color and
spice to communication. Hence, you are encouraged to find ways to charm your
audience through the use of vivid words.

Nonverbal communication refers to an interaction where behavior is used to convey and

represent meanings. All kinds of human responses that are not expressed in words are
classified as nonverbal communication. Examples of nonverbal communication are stares,
smiles, tone of voice, movements, manners of walking, standing and sitting, appearance, style
of attire, attitude towards time and space, personality, gestures, and others.
Mastery of nonverbal communication is important for several reasons:
1. It enhances and emphasizes the message of your speech, thus making it more meaningful,
truthful, and relevant.
2. It can communicate feelings, attitudes, and perceptions without you saying a word.
3. It can sustain the attention of listeners and keep them engaged in the speech.
4. It gives the audience a preview to the type of speaker you are.
5. It makes you appear more dynamic and animated in your delivery.
6. It serves as a channel to release tension and nervousness.
7. It helps make your speech more dramatic.
8. It can build a connection with listeners.
9. It makes you a credible speaker.
10. It helps you vary your speaking style and avoid a monotonous delivery.

NATURE OF COMMUNICATION
1. Communication is a process.
2. Communication occurs between two or more people (the speaker and the receiver).
3. Communication can be expressed through written or spoken words, actions
(nonverbal), or both spoken words and nonverbal actions at the same time.
 Communication is a two-way process of connecting to both living and non-living
things. It is also a means of sharing and exchanging messages, information, ideas, and
feelings for mutual understanding (Gregoriom, J.C., 2015).
 Communication connects people and the world they live in. It is through
communication that people are able to express their thoughts and ideas or convey
information and messages through word of mouth, gestures and signals, signs, and
others. People have always communicated with one another in various forms.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication is divided into elements which help us better understand its
mechanics or process. These elements are the following:
1. Speaker – the source of information or message
2. Message – the information, ideas, or thoughts conveyed by the speaker in words
or in actions
3. Encoding – the process of converting the message into words, actions, or other forms
that the speaker understands
4. Channel – the medium or the means, such as personal or non-personal, verbal or
nonverbal, in which the encoded message is conveyed
 5. Decoding – the process of interpreting the encoded message of the speaker by the
receiver
6. Receiver – the recipient of the message, or someone who decodes the message
7. Feedback – the reactions, responses, or information provided by the receiver
8. Context – the environment where communication takes place
9. Barrier – the factors that affect the flow of communication

PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

Process of Communication Example

The speaker generates an idea. Daphne loves Rico, her suitor, as a friend.

The speaker encodes an idea or converts She thinks of how to tell him using their
the idea into words or actions. native language.

The speaker transmits or sends out a She tells him, “Rico, mahal kita bilang
message. kaibigan.”

The receiver gets the message. Rico hears what Daphne says.

The receiver decodes or interprets the He tries to analyze what she means based
message based on the context. on the content and their relationship,
and he is heartbroken.

The receiver sends or provides feedback.

He frowns and does not say something,
because he is in pain.

FUNCTION OF COMMUNICATION
Regulation or control
Communication functions to control behavior. It enables the control or regulation of
behavior in many ways.

EXAMPLES:
Doctors’ Prescription
 “Take your medicine 3 times a day.”
Parents’ Instruction to their child
 “Wash the dishes now, or else I won’t allow you to go to
the party later.”
In a formal communication network, a leader may post the following memorandum to
impose a policy that regulates a school procedure.

Social Interaction
We interact with people in almost all aspects of our life and in every communication
situation.
EXAMPLES:
Encouragement
“You can do it.”
Marriage Proposal
“Will you marry me?”
Invitation
“Would you like some coffee, tea, or me?”

Motivation
Communication motivates or encourages people to live better
EXAMPLES:
“I must trim down my weight for her.”
“We need to be proactive and stop procrastinating.”

Information
Communication functions to convey factuality. Giving information comes usually
with statement of facts.
EXAMPLES:
“Did you know that there’s a secret apartment at the top of the
Eiffel tower?”
“Do you know that there is a museum under the Dambana ng
Kagitingan?”

Emotional Expression
 Communication allows people in an organization to express their feelings,
satisfaction, frustration, and needs
EXAMPLES:
Appreciation
“I’m so glad that you came into my life.”
“I like you so much!”
Expressing one’s ambition
“I want to finish up my studies with good grades to be accepted in a good university.”
Expressing a need
“I need you in my life.”

PURPOSES OF COMMUNICATION
Speech to Inform
This is evident in a lecture where the speaker presents factual information. Speech to
inform is formal and expository. It is often accompanied with visual presentation so that the
audience will not get tired of the facts and figures simply read before them.

Speech to Persuade or Convince

They are appeals to the audience’s intellect or emotion. The speakers of this type of
speech want their audience to think and feel the way they want them to.

Speech to Entertain
This speech is aimed at lightening the mood of the audience. This could be a
standalone speech like those done by stand-up comedians or short segments used as adlib for
long informative or persuasive speeches.

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
A. LINEAR COMMUNICATION
 is one-way, focusing on the transmission of a message to a receiver who
never responds or has no way of responding to the information conveyed.
Examples:
1. A competition organizer is presenting the contest mechanics.
 2. A notification or automated message that does not require a reply.
3. A speech
4. A television broadcast
5. Sending a memo

1. Shannon-Weaver Model
 Known as the mother of all communication models, the Shannon-Weaver
model (1949) depicts communication as a linear or one-way process
consisting of five elements: a source (producer of message); a transmitter
(encoder of message into signals); a channel (signals adapted for
transmission); a receiver (decoder of message from the signal); and a
destination.
 This model, however, has been criticized for missing one essential element in
the communication process: feedback. Without feedback, the speaker will not
know whether the receiver understands the message or not.

Inform ation
S ource Transmitter Receiver Destination

C hanne l

S ignal R eceived
Signal
M essa ge Message

Noise Source

Fig 1. Shannon-Weaver
Model

B. INTERACTIVE MODEL
 Also known as converge model
 Is a two-way communication process where a response is given after a
message is sent. The recipient of the action intentionally or unintentionally
gives feedback associated with the information received.
 Is all about give and take. It relies on an exchange of communication from the
sender to the receiver and back again.
COMPONENTS OF INTERACTIVE MODEL
Interactive Model of communication requires different following components for the
communication process to work:
 Encoder-Source-Decoder (two sources): The person who originates a message is the
source. The encoder and the decoder are the same person/source. The second source is
also the encoder as well as the decoder. The source acts as an encoder while sending
the message and as a decoder while receiving the message. The second source
decodes the message, then originates another message, encodes it and sends it to the
first source. The source is known to be encoder and decoder during the act of
encoding and decoding
 Message: Message is the information sent during the interaction.
 Feedback: The decoder forms a second message after receiving the first which is
known as feedback.
 Field of experience: Field of experience is the experience and knowledge that the
source possesses which affects the message information and interpretation. For
example, the source’s culture, social behavior, etc.
Examples:
1. Internet can be taken as the best way of interactive communication as receiver
can give feedback even in newspaper and books. Internet has increased the
opportunity of interactive communication and it is still evolving.
2. Human-computer interaction is also now considered as interactive
communication as the model is circular where the senders interchange every
time with:
a) Social media
b) Interactive marketing and user generated contents
c) ATM machines
d) Online shopping
e) Chat rooms
1. Schramm Model
 Schramm (1954) visualized the process of communication as an
exchange of thoughts and ideas. Feedback was added to the
Shannon-Weaver Model. The recipient of the message decodes it
and creates as feedback based on his understanding of the
information sent and vice versa.
 The figure identifies the six elements of communication which are
the sender, the message sent, the receiver and the feedback
provided by the receiver and sent back as a response to the sender
and the processes of encoding and decoding.
 2. Transaction Model
 U
n
l
i
k
e

the Shannon-Weaver Model, which is a one-way process, the Transaction

Model is a two- way process with the inclusion of feedback as one
element.
 Communication is dynamic. It has a complex nature. It takes place among
individuals at any given time with any given subject. However, there are
tendencies that barriers would interfere which may create a sudden impact
and change in the processing of information.
 This model is more interactive. There is a collaborative exchange of
messages between communicators with the aim of understanding each
other. It also shows that a barrier, such as noise, may interfere with the
flow of communication.
 The communicator (source) encodes the message and transmits it through
a channel. The message transmitted may be affected by the noise (barrier).
The receiver (recipient of the message) decodes, processes, and filters the
message for understanding and is now ready to give his own feedback to
the sender.

BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

Feedbac Feedbac
(Sends k k (Sends
and Responds Responds and
Decodes
Messag Decodes
receives e receives
) ChannelsChannels )
COMMUNICATION BREAKDOWN
WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?
 Communication is an active process that involves giving and receiving ideas,
thoughts, opinions, feelings, and attitudes between two or more participants.
 Communication is a process of exchanging thoughts and ideas and opinions in order
to connect with ither people.
 Its goal is to achieve a clear and effective understanding resulting to good
relationships in the community.
Communication breakdown, as defined by Emily Rodgers in her online article, “is a
failure to exchange information, resulting in a lack of communication.”

LACK OF COMMUNICATION
 Inadequate information
 No communication between or among concerned parties
 Incorrect assumptions
 Misleading information

Physical Barriers are the natural or environmental condition that act as a barrier in
communication in sending the message from sender to receiver.
Examples:
1. People talking too loud.
2. Noise from a construction site
3. Loud sound of a karaoke
4. Blaring of jeepney horns

Psychological Barriers are called as mental barriers. These refer to social and
personal issues of a speaker towards communicating with others.
Examples:
1. Trauma
2. Shyness, lack of confidence
3. Depression
4. Fear, stage fright

Cultural Barriers pertain to communication problems encountered by people

regarding their intrinsic values, beliefs, and traditions in conflict with others. People’s culture
affects the way they communicate and relate to others.
Examples:
 1. Different beliefs
2. Traditions, and customs
3. Manners of dressing
4. Speaking

Linguistic Barriers pertain conflicts with regard to language and word meanings.
Because words carry denotative and connotative meanings, they can sometimes cause
confusion and misunderstanding. Meaning of words and symbols also vary depending on
culture.
Examples:
1. Difference in language
2. Accent and dialect
3. Use of jargon and slang
4. Speech defects or language impairments

Verderber (1991) gives a similar idea of barrier when he classifies noise into three
kinds: External, Internal and Semantic noise.

External Noises are the “sight, sound and other stimuli that draw people’s attention
away from intended meaning.”
Examples:
1. Noise from vehicles
2. Singing at the neighborhood
3. Visual aids in front of the classroom
4. The dog barking
5. The sound of airplane

Internal noises are the “thoughts and feelings that interfere with meaning.”
Examples:
1. Confrontation with a friend
2. Fear of speaking in front of the class.
3. Racial prejudice

Semantic noises are the “alternate meanings aroused by a speaker’s symbols”. This
idea means that a word may have another meaning in the minds of the students. This is
affected by the language in which they grew and the culture in which they are exposed.
Examples:
 1. Incorrect grammar
2. Using excessive technical jargon
3. Using idiomatic expressions

COMMUNICATON BREAKDOWN
STRATEGIES TO AVOID COMMUNICATION BREAKDOWN
Various Strategies to Avoid Communication Breakdown
5 Ways to Avoid Communication Breakdown by Ronnie Peterson
Have Clarity of thought before speaking
 Arrange your thoughts before verbalizing them this can help you communicate much
more clearly and succinctly. It's a better idea to say something like, "I've got a few
ideas here. Let me go through them one at a time. We can treat each one on its own
merit."
Learn to Listen
 As simple as it sounds, you’ll be surprised how many people out there don’t know
how to listen well.
 Not understanding those who you are trying to communicate with will lead to a
conversation fraught with misunderstandings. Don’t be afraid to ask them to repeat or
explain further in polite manner once you don’t understand the point.
Take Care of your Body Language and Tone
 Keep your emotions in check, try to maintain eye contact, and adopt a relaxed tone
when conversing with others.
Build up your confidence by asking for feedback and observing others
 Focus on improving your skills by practicing in front of those who you may feel more
comfortable with. You can also ask those whose advice you value to give you
feedback and critique your communication style after a discussion.
Communicate Face to Face on the important issues
 Having that face-to-face dialogue means you can convey your point more clearly,
with your body language as well as your tone of voice.
 It can also help to clear up any misunderstandings or distortion of the message that
could occur through other mediums.

STRATEGIES TO AVOID COMMUNICATION BREAKDOWN (QUIPPER N.D.)

Keep Focused
 One way of being focused is to put in mind the purpose communication. As a
speaker, identify your purpose for speaking and as a listener find the speaker’s
purpose thru his/her verbal and non-verbal cues.
Speak Intelligibly
 Speaking intelligibly or clearly means using the appropriate speaking volume, pitch
rate, proper enunciation, stress, and acceptable pronunciation. We speak in order to
be understood.
Listen with your Ears and Eyes
 Pay attention to verbal and non-verbal message. Effective communication depends on
what people say and how they say it.
Minimize Distractions
 Look for a place where you can minimize distractions or noise like closed area,
empty room, or quiet places. Lessening the cause for confusion means giving more
room to focus and concentrate.
Be Specific
 Use simple and concise words as much as possible in delivering a message. Being
specific means being particular and direct to the point.
Do not Jump to Conclusions
 Before you give your comments and judgement, be sure that you have listened
attentively to the speaker. Conclusions should be drawn after a thorough analysis of
point given or information received.

Features of an Effective Communication

In their pioneer book Effective Public Relations, Professors Broom, Cutlip, and Center
(2012) list the 7 Cs of Effective Communication. This list is widely used today, especially in
public relations and advertising.
1. Completeness
 Complete communication is essential to the quality of the communication process in
general. Hence, communication should include everything that the receiver needs to
hear for him/her to respond, react, or evaluate properly.
2. Conciseness
 Conciseness does not mean keeping the message short, but making it direct or
straight to the point. Insignificant or redundant information should be eliminated
from the communication that will be sent to the recipient.
3. Consideration
  To be effective, the speaker should always consider relevant information about
his/her receiver such as mood, background, race, preference, education, status, and
needs, among others. By doing so, he/she can easily build rapport with the audience.
4. Concreteness
 Effective communication happens when the message is concrete and supported by
facts, figures, and real-life examples and situations. In this case, the receiver is more
connected to the message conveyed.
5. Courtesy
 The speaker shows courtesy in communication by respecting the culture, values, and
beliefs of his/her receivers. Being courteous at all times creates a positive impact on
the audience.
6. Clearness
 Clearness in communication implies the use of simple and specific words to express
ideas. It is also achieved when the speaker focuses only on a single objective in
his/her speech so as not to confuse the audience.
7. Correctness
 Correctness in grammar eliminates negative impact on the audience and increases the
credibility and effectiveness of the message.

ORAL COMMUNICATION ACTIVITIES

INFORMAL
1. Face-to-face conversations
2. Phone conversations
3. Discussions that take place in business meetings
FORMAL
1. Business presentations
2. Classroom lectures
3. Commencement speeches
OTHER ORAL ACTIVITIES
1. One-on-One Speaking
 Student – Student, or Student – Teacher
 Can arrange from moments punctuating a lecture, where students are asked to
discuss or explain some question or problem with the person next to them, to
formal student conferences with their teacher.
2. Small Group
 Also called as ‘team-based oral work’
 Smaller-scale setting for discussion, deliberation, and problem solving.
  Appropriate for both large lectures and smaller classes and allows levels of
participation
3. Full-Class Discussion
 ‘Teacher – or student - led’
 Typically, less agonistic, argument-based, and competitive than debate and
deliberation but still dialogue in character
 Often times has a quality of creating an atmosphere of collective, out-loud
thinking about some question, idea, problem, text, event, or artifact.
 Like deliberation and debate, a good way to encourage active learning
4. In-Class Debates and Deliberations
 A structured consideration of some issue from two or more points of view
 Debates typically involve participants who argue one side throughout, while
deliberation allows for movement by individuals within the process
 Both features reason-giving argument
 Can be applied to issues of many kinds, from disputed scientific facts to
theories, policy questions, the meaning of a text, or the quality of an artistic
production
 Can arrange from two participants to a lecture hall
5. Speeches and Presentations
 Classically, the stand-up, podium speech delivered by an individual from an
outline or script
 Also includes group presentation or impromptu speaking
 A strong element of monologue, but dialogue can be built in with question
and answer or discussion with the audience afterward
6. Oral Examinations
 Can take place in the instructor’s office, in small groups, or before a whole
class
 Range from one oral question on an otherwise written exam to an oral
defense of a written answer or paper to an entirely oral quiz or examination
 Difficulty with very large groups, but an excellent way to determine the
depth and range of student knowledge and to stimulate high levels of
preparation
HOW TO EXAMINE ORAL COMMUNICATION ACTIVITIES
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
1. Regulation or Control
2. Social Interaction
3. Motivation
4. Emotional Expression
5. Information Dissemination
PURPOSES OF COMMUNICATION
1. Speech to inform
2. Speech to persuade or convince
3. Speech to entertain
CENTRAL MESSAGE
 The main point/ thesis/ bottom line/ take-away of the presentation
 A clear central message is easy to identify
 A compelling central message is vivid and memorable
DELIVERY TECHNIQUES
 Postures, gestures, eye contact, and use of the voice
 Delivery techniques enhance the effectiveness of the presentation when the speaker
stands and moves with authority, looks more often at the audience than at his/her
speaking materials/notes, uses the voice expressively, and uses few vocal fillers
(“um,” “uh,” “like,” “you know,” etc.)
LANGUAGE
 Vocabulary, terminology, and sentence structure
 Language that supports the effectiveness of a presentation is appropriate to the topic
and audience, grammatical, clear, and free from bias
 Language that enhances the effectiveness of a presentation is also vivid, imaginative
and expressive.
CONTENT AND ORGANIZATION
 The grouping and sequencing of ideas and supporting materials in a presentation
 An organizational pattern that supports the effectiveness of a presentation typically
includes an introduction, one or more identifiable sections in the body of the speech,
and a conclusion

TYPES OF SPEECH CONTEXT

SPEECH CONTEXT
 Context when referring to speech communication is the surroundings, circumstances,
environment, background or setting that determine, specify, or clarify the meaning of
an event.
 According to DeVito (2005), “Context refers to the setting in which the
communication takes place. Context helps to establish meaning and can influence
what is said and how it is said.”
INTRAPERSONAL
This refers to a type of communication that is focused on one person, where the
speaker acts both as the sender and as the receiver of the message. The message is made up of
thoughts and feelings while the medium is the brain that processes what you think and feel.
(Hybels & Weaver, 2012, p 16)
EXAMPLES:
 There is a voice within you that tells you, “It’s okay, you can still do it! You can make
it!” when you are losing your drive to finish the task that you are doing.
  When you told yourself not to talk to your friends when you have read in a Facebook
post that they were in a party and you were not invited
INTERPERSONAL
This refers to the type of communication that takes place between and among people
and creates a personal relationship between and among them. Normally, it includes two
individuals, and it can vary from casual and very personal to formal and impersonal.

TYPES OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

DYAD COMMUNICATION
 Communication that happens between two people.
Examples:
1. You consoled your brother who was feeling down.
2. A conversation between your father and mother about the latest announcement of
your Barangay Chairman.
SMALL GROUP
 This applies to interactions involving at least three but not more than twelve people
engaged in face-to-face interactions to achieve the desired goal. In this type of
conversation, all participants can freely express their ideas throughout the discussion.
Examples:
1. You are having a discussion with your two brothers about the surprise party you are
planning for your mom’s birthday.
2. Kathlyn who came back from the United States called her three brothers and four
sisters and announced that she is getting married.
PUBLIC
 This type refers to a communication that enables you to send or deliver a message
before a crowd. The message can be transmitted for informative or persuasive
purposes. "In public communication, unlike interpersonal and small groups, the
channels are more exaggerated. The voice is louder and the gestures are more
expansive because the audience is larger” (Hybels & Weaver, 2012, p 19).
Examples:
1. Delivering a graduation speech to your fellow graduates.
2. You were elected as the new SSG president of your school and were given a chance
to deliver a message of gratitude to your fellow students.
MASS COMMUNICATION
 This refers to communication through television, radio, newspapers, magazines,
books, billboards, the internet, and other types of media.
Examples:
1. You are watching a televised briefing of IATF on COVID-19.
2. You have recorded a commentary for your school’s Online Discussion of the
pandemic and uploaded it in your social media account.
Verbal and Non-verbal Behavior in a Speech Context
When talking to yourself

You might be familiar with the feeling of quietly talking to yourself in your mind, and it's
normal — and good for you. By performing this, it makes you think and reflect on the things
you have done or are planning to do. But here are some important reminders that you need to
keep in mind:
1. Use self-talk to your advantage: Cheering yourself up before an important event
or talking to yourself while completing a task are two perfect opportunities for self-
talk (Gould, 2018, Talking to yourself is normal, n.d.).
2. Don’t overdo it: While it is normal to talk to yourself constantly, it is better not to
overuse yourself of doing so. The most common reason why people end up talking
to themselves is because they feel like they do not have someone else to talk to. To
address this, you need to be more sociable, it would give you more people to talk to
other than yourself.
When talking to one person or a small group of people
Consoling your friend who is feeling down, or simply talking with your classmates
about your plans for a group activity is an example of a dyad and small group
communication. This kind of communication implies that the conversation is being shared
and there is exchange of ideas. Small group involves different skills because unlike dyad, it
consists of more than two people. In both cases, you can be as natural as yourself, however,
unlike a running conversation in your head, you have to consider that there are others who are
equally important in the conversation. Thus, to achieve successful communication in a dyad
or small group, you have to consider the following:
1. Listen carefully: Needless to say, this is the very basic foundation of effective
communication. You have to listen carefully and understand what the other person
is saying. Asking clarifying questions lets the other person know that you are
indeed listening attentively. More so, take active part. You also need to be heard
and understood when it is your time to speak.
2. Check your tone and body language: The vocabulary of the body is more
revealing than the actual words you speak. So, watch your tone and body language
while you are talking. Your body language talks more about your emotions and
thoughts than your actual words. Check your body language to ensure that it is
consistent with your words (Oakes, 2017).
When talking to the public
Speaking in front of the crowd requires many preparations; from analyzing your target
audience, to planning and drafting your speech up to the rehearsing part. The key therefore is
to come prepared. Be yourself while you are on stage and speak in the way that you will be
easily understood by your audience.

TYPES OF SPEECHES ACCORDING TO DELIVERY

 1. EXTEMPORANEOUS
 is the presentation of a carefully planned and rehearsed speech, spoken in a
conversational manner using brief notes.
EXAMPLE: a campaign speech before a voting public
2. IMPROMPTU
 is the presentation of a short message without advance preparation and is for people
knowledgeable about the subject.
EXAMPLE: a doctor’s response to the question of a patient
3. MANUSCRIPT
  is the word-for-word iteration of a written message using visual aids
EXAMPLE: news anchor with a teleprompter
4. MEMORIZED
 is the rote recitation of a written message that the speaker has committed to memory.
EXAMPLE: actor’s dialogue

TYPES SPEECHES ACCORDING TO PURPOSE

SPEECH
Expressing thoughts and emotions is natural to humans. Throughout the years,
numerous speeches and various forms of spoken communication were made by speakers
before an audience. Such speeches are deemed to be more formal and primarily aimed to
deliver and leave a remarkable message, compared to usual conversations.
TYPES OF SPEECHES
As a senior high school student of public speaking, you have been oriented that public
speaking is not simply reading your speech or topic. It strictly requires building rapport and
making connections with your audience. Furthermore, in order to help you choose which
speech is the most appropriate in a given situation, let’s discuss the different types of
speeches according to purpose and delivery.
1. According to Purpose
2. According to Delivery
1. Informative Speech
 Is mainly performed for the purpose of educating the audience on new or relevant
piece of information on a particular topic.
 The information should be based on facts and are supported by credible sources.
Examples:
1. Catbalogan City Mayor, Dexter Uy delivers his State of the City Address (SOCA).
2. Lecture of your Englsih teacher.
2. Entertainment Speech
 It aims to share laughter and enjoyment to the audience through witty and humorous
lines.
 Commonly delivered in special occasions (e.g. weddings, awards ceremonies,
motivational talks, etc.).
 Less informative
 Less complicated
  Witty and humurous lines
 Atmosphere is light
Exanples:
1. Speeches of Stand-up Comedian, Jay Patrick “Pooh” Roquero
2. A toast at the wedding
 3. Persuasive Speech
 It is given solely for the purpose of convincing the audience to agree with the
speaker’s opinion on a particular topic.
 Presents sound claims, provides supporting evidences, and organizes information in
coherent manner.
Examples:
1. Speech of a lawyer
2. Aampaign speeches of the running candidates for government posts
3. A sales pitch

TYPES OF SPEECH STYLES

SPEECH STYLES
The way we communicate varies depending on a lot of factors such as the speech
context, speech purpose, and speech delivery. The form of language that the speaker uses
which characterized by the degree of formality is known as speech style (Martin Joos,
1976:156).
1. INTIMATE
 This style is private, which occurs between or among close family members or
individuals.
 This is used for very close relationships.
 The language used in this style may not be shared in public.
EXAMPLE: couple
2. CASUAL
 This is an informal communication between groups and peers who have something to
share and have shared background information but do not have close relations.
 This style is common among peers and friends.
 Jargon, slang, or the vernacular language are used.
EXAMPLE: classmates
 3. CONSULTATIVE
 This is used in semi-formal and standard communication
 This style is the standard one.
 Professional or mutually acceptable language is a must in this style.
EXAMPLE: teacher and student
4. FORMAL
 This style is used in formal settings. Unlike the consultative style, this is one-way.
 What the speaker says is something that has been prepared beforehand.
EXAMPLE: State of the Nation Address
5. FROZEN
 This style is “frozen” in time and remains unchanged
 It does not require any feedback from the audience.
EXAMPLE: pledges

SPEECH ACTS
The meaning of all our utterances depends on one thing…
The meaning of all our utterances depends on one thing…

Purpose why we say it

Our reasons

Speaker’s meaning beyond the literal one

Speech Acts Pragmatics

PRAGMATICS
Speech Acts and Communicative Maxims

The “code model” of communication

What is problematic in the “code model” of communication? Ans. It has no context.

Why the code model is too simple?
■ It neglects the role of context.
■ It rests on the assumption that meanings are ‘in the words’ and that those meanings
are the same in all situations.
■ It neglects the role of inference (hearers figuring out what speakers meant although
they did not literally say it).
CONTEXT
■ Physical environment
■ Participants
■ Social setting
■ Prior discourse
■ Cultural norms and expectations

 Context makes things “go without saying”

 Context is always available as a resource
 Meaning is contextually bound

INFERENCE
■ Conveyed message is not identical with (or goes beyond) what is literally said.
■ Hearer infer the intended meaning.
■ The message is “enriched” by the hearer
■ Relying on inference is the norm in language.
LOCUTION– ‘what is said’ (What does X mean?), the literal meaning of the words
ILLOCUTION– ‘what is meant’ (What do you mean by X?), the speaker tries to convey
with the words.

DIRECT SPEECH ACT - Locution (what is said) and Illocution (what is meant) coincide:
1. Please wash the dishes!
2. I bet you five dollars that the Hostpurs win!
3. I hereby pronounce you man and wife!

INDIRECT SPEECH ACT - Locution (what is said) and Illocution (what is meant) differ
from one another:
1. Could you wash the dishes?
2. A: Want to see a movie tonight? B: I gotta study.
3. A: How’s that Ling 200 class? B: Don’t ask!

J.L. Austin:
 Book: How to do things with words
 Speech Act Theory
Six General Types of Speech Acts
1. Representative/s - The only kind that Mr. Logic would acknowledge
 Assertions, statements, claims, hypotheses
 Stating facts that are either true or false
 Ex: Paris is the Capital of France.
We have no milk left.

2. Commissive/s
 Commit the speaker to a course of action.
 Promises, threats, vows, oaths
 Ex: You’re saying something like “I’ll be there in five” and that commits you to a
certain action, to be there at five
1. I’ll be there in five
2. I’ll call you later
3. Do that once more and you shall regret it for the rest of your life.
3. Directive/s
 Direct the hearer to a course of action
 Orders, requests, questions
1. One pie, please.
2. can you lend me that pen.
3. What time is the next bus ride?

4. Declaration/s
 Result in the state they name
 Blessings, hirings, firings, baptism, arrest, marriage.
 Ex: you have to be a certain person to be declaring.
1. You are now man and wife.

5. Expressive/s
 Indicates the speaker’s attitudes
 Greetings, apologies, thanks,…
 *Personal anecdote: We put our feelings on display

6. Verdictive/s
 Assessment and judgements
 Appraisals, assessments, convictions
 Ex: The accuse is charged guilty!
 * Personal anecdote: you need to have a certain social role to be able to do an
assessment, judgement, or pronounce a conviction

3 TYPES OF SPEECH ACTS

■ Locutionary – is the actual act of uttering
“Please do the dishes”
■ Illocutionary – is the social function of what is said
By uttering the locution “Please do the dishes,” the speaker requests the addresses to
wash the dishes.
■ Perlocutionary – is the resulting act of what is said. This effect is based on the
particular context in which the speech act was mentioned.
“Please do the dishes” would lead to the addresses washing the dishes.

Performatives - Statements which enable the speaker to perform something just by

stating it.
In this manner, verbs that execute the speech act that they intend to effect are called
performatives.
THE COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE
■ Speakers co-operate, even when they argue!
■ All speakers design their utterances in accordance with certain norms of talk and can
expect everyone to do so.
■ Why? Grice: Because it’s rational (a social contract of sorts). If everyone did what
they wanted, everyone would be worse off.
■ H. P. Grice’s maxims:
1. Quantity
2. Relevance
3. Manner
4. Quality
* Personal anecdote: according to Grice, it is a social contract

The Maxim of Quantity

■ Say enough, but not too much.
A: Do you have any pets?
B: I have two cats (I have two and no more than to cats, no dogs, no Ilamas, no frogs, and
no parrots, or any other pets you might think of.)

The Maxim of Relevance

■ Be relevant
A: Do you have any pets?
B: I’m allergic. (No, I don’t have any pets, and because I assume that you will wonder
why, let me tell you, it is because I am allergic, not necessarily because I do not like
them.

The Maxim of Manner

■ Be orderly
A: How do I get to the station?
B: When you’re outside the university, go towards the main road, tur left, and follow the
main road until you see the Funambule, then either take the Funambule or walk up the hill
until you see the station.
Getting married and having children is better than having children and getting married.

The Maxim of Quality

■ Say what you believe to be true
If speakers lied all the time, communication would make little sense.
Telling the truth as the default makes it possible to achieve communicative effects with
obviously untrue statements.

Flouting the Maxims

■ It’s ok to disregard the maxim as long as this is clear to the hearer
Ex:
Maxim of quantity
If it rains, it rains
Business is business
Boys will be boys
*These are tautology; you must mean something more than you just said.
Maxim of quality
A: I love the linguistics class!
B: Yes, and I like to be hit on the head with blunt objects.
* The hearer of their conversation will realize that they say things that are blatantly
untrue, and they try to mean something else, like the linguistics class really sucks.