ORAL COMMUNICATION

IN CONTEXT
Oral Communication in Context for Senior High School is a response to the revolutionary change
in the country’s basic education system. Rich in strategies that hone effective communication,
this book is geared towards developing listening and speaking skills in any situation.
Written specifically with a 21st century learner in mind, this book aims to guide students to
become multi-skilled in different methods of learning and be flexible under different
communication circumstances. Furthermore, it is geared towards honing their leadership skills to
help them become self-directed and creative in problem-solving. Ultimately, this book aims to
instill a lasting commitment to lifelong learning and critical thinking.
Oral Communication in Context for Senior High School meets all the competencies outlined in
the K to 12 curriculum and incorporates information and communication technology
throughout the text. Each lesson is packed with varied strategies and activities which enhance
21st-century literacies. The book applies different instructional approaches and strategies based
on the principles of differentiation, spiral progression, process orientation, collaboration,
contextualization, reflective learning, and visual enhancement. Furthermore, it is structured
using a Socio-Cognitive Transformative Model in English as a Second Language Pedagogy
(Barrot, 2014, 2015) to ensure that lifelong learning is achieved.
 FUNDAMENTALS
OF
COMMUNICATION
Elements of Communication
Communication is divided into elements which help us better understand its mechanics or process. These
elements are the following:

1. Speaker – the source of information or message

2. Message – the information, ideas, or thoughts conveyed by the speaker in words or in actions
3. Encoding – the process of converting the message into words, actions, or other forms that the speaker
understands
4. Channel – the medium or the means, such as personal or non-personal, verbal or nonverbal, in which
the encoded message is conveyed
5. Decoding – the process of interpreting the encoded message of the speaker by the receiver
6. Receiver – the recipient of the message, or someone who decodes the message
7. Feedback – the reactions, responses, or information provided by the receiver
8. Context – the environment where communication takes place
9. Barrier – the factors that affect the flow of communication
Process of Communication
• The speaker generates an idea.
• The speaker encodes an idea or converts the idea into words or actions.
• The speaker transmits or sends out a message.
• The receiver gets the message.
• The receiver decodes or interprets the message based on the context.
• The receiver sends or provides feedback.
•
Example
• Daphne loves Rico, her suitor, as a friend.
• She thinks of how to tell him using their native language.
• She tells him, “Rico, mahal kita bilang kaibigan.”
• Rico hears what Daphne says.
• He tries to analyze what she means based on the content and their relationship, and he is heartbroken.
• He frowns and does not say something, because he is in pain.
 MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

1. Shannon-Weaver Model
• Known as the mother of all communication models, the Shannon-Weaver
model (1949) depicts communication as a linear or one-way process
consisting of five elements: a source (producer of message); a transmitter
(encoder of message into signals); a channel (signals adapted for
transmission); a receiver (decoder of message from the signal); and a
destination.
• This model, however, has been criticized for missing one essential element in
the communication process: feedback. Without feedback, the speaker will
not know whether the receiver understands the message or not.
 FIGURE 1.
SHANNON-WEAVER MODEL
2. Transaction Model
• Unlike the Shannon-Weaver Model, which is a one-way process, the
Transaction Model is a two-way process with the inclusion of feedback as
one element.
 FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION

Basically, there are five functions of communication. These are control, social
interaction, motivation, emotional expression, and information dissemination.
• Control – Communication functions to control behavior.
• Social Interaction – Communication allows individuals to interact with others.
• Motivation – Communication motivates or encourages people to live better.
• Emotional expression – Communication facilitates people’s expression of
their feelings and emotions.
• Information dissemination – Communication functions to convey information.
 FEATURES OF AN EFFECTIVE
COMMUNICATION
In their pioneer book Effective Public Relations, Professors Broom, Cutlip, and Center
(2012) list the 7 Cs of Effective Communication. This list is widely used today, especially
in public relations and advertising.

1. Completeness
• Complete communication is essential to the quality of the communication process
in general. Hence, communication should include everything that the receiver
needs to hear for him/ her to respond, react, or evaluate properly.
2. Conciseness
• Conciseness does not mean keeping the message short, but making it direct or
straight to the point. Insignificant or redundant information should be eliminated
from the communication that will be sent to the recipient.
3. Consideration
• To be effective, the speaker should always consider relevant information about
his/her receiver such as mood, background, race, preference, education, status,
and needs, among others. By doing so, he/she can easily build rapport with the
audience.
4. Concreteness
• Effective communication happens when the message is concrete and supported
by facts, figures, and real-life examples and situations. In this case, the receiver is
more connected to the message conveyed.
5. Courtesy
• The speaker shows courtesy in communication by respecting the culture, values,
and beliefs of his/her receivers. Being courteous at all times creates a positive
impact on the audience.
6. Clearness
• Clearness in communication implies the use of simple and specific words to
express ideas. It is also achieved when the speaker focuses only on a single
objective in his/her speech so as not to confuse the audience.
7. Correctness
• Correctness in grammar eliminates negative impact on the audience and
increases the credibility and effectiveness of the message.
BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
 VERBAL COMMUNICATION AND NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION
Verbal Communication refers to an interaction in which words are used to relay a
message. For effective and successful verbal communication, use words to
express ideas which can be easily understood by the person you are talking to.
Consider appropriateness, brevity, clarity, ethics, and vividness when engaging in
this type of communication.
1. Appropriateness
• The language that you use should be appropriate to the environment or
occasion (i.e., whether formal or informal).
2. Brevity
• Speakers who often use simple yet precise and powerful words are found to be
more credible. Try to achieve brevity by being more direct with your words.
Avoid fillers and insubstantial expressions which do not add to the message,
such as “uh,” “you know,” “I guess,” and others.
3. Clarity
• The meanings of words, feelings, or ideas may be interpreted
differently by a listener; hence, it is essential for you to clearly state
your message and express your ideas and feelings.
4. Ethics
• Words should be carefully chosen in consideration of the gender,
roles, ethnicity, preferences, and status of the person or people you
are talking to.
5. Vividness
• Words that vividly or creatively describe things or feelings usually
add color and spice to communication. Hence, you are
encouraged to find ways to charm your audience through the use
of vivid words.
Nonverbal communication refers to an interaction
where behavior is used to convey and represent
meanings. All kinds of human responses that are not
expressed in words are classified as nonverbal
communication. Examples of nonverbal
communication are stares, smiles, tone of voice,
movements, manners of walking, standing and
sitting, appearance, style of attire, attitude towards
time and space, personality, gestures, and others.
MASTERY OF NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION IS
IMPORTANT FOR SEVERAL REASONS:
• It enhances and emphasizes the message of your speech, thus making it more
meaningful, truthful, and relevant.
• It can communicate feelings, attitudes, and perceptions without you saying a word.
• It can sustain the attention of listeners and keep them engaged in the speech.
• It gives the audience a preview to the type of speaker you are.
• It makes you appear more dynamic and animated in your delivery.
• It serves as a channel to release tension and nervousness.
• It helps make your speech more dramatic.
• It can build a connection with listeners.
• It makes you a credible speaker.
• It helps you vary your speaking style and avoid a monotonous delivery.
 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
• Characteristics of Competent Intercultural Communicators
• World Bank (2010) identifies the following traits that define a
competent intercultural communicator.
• flexibility and the ability to tolerate high levels of uncertainty
• reflectiveness or mindfulness
• open-mindedness
• sensitivity
• adaptability
• ability to engage in divergent thinking (or thinking creatively) and
systems-level thinking (or thinking how each one in a system or
organization influences each other)
• politeness
Note that in addition to culture, other elements such as gender, age, social status,
and religion
must also be taken into consideration when communicating with others. Refrain
from showing
bias when talking to someone by following the tips below.

1. Avoid stereotypes, i.e., generalizations about a certain group.

2. Challenge gender norms; avoid using “he” and “man” to refer to a general
group of people.
To remedy this, you may use plural pronouns or rewrite a sentence to avoid using
pronouns.
The use of his/her is also acceptable.
3. Do not talk down on younger people and the elderly.
4. Be sensitive to the religious practices of others.
5. Be polite at all times; do not belittle people you perceive to be on a lower social
class than
STRATEGIES IN VARIOUS
SPEECH SITUATIONS
 TYPES OF SPEECH CONTEXT
1. Intrapersonal – This refers to communication that centers on one person where the speaker acts
both as the sender and the receiver of message. “The message is made up of your thoughts and
feelings. The channel is your brain, which processes what you are thinking and feeling. There
is feedback in the sense that as you talk to yourself, you discard certain ideas and replace them
with others.” (Hybels & Weaver, 2012, p 16)

Examples:
• You spent the night thinking and analyzing why a student from the other class talked to you
on the way home and you decided it probably meant nothing.
• You felt happy while thinking about how your teacher appreciated you for submitting your
project before the due date and you reflected on why this was so.
2. Interpersonal – This refers to communication between and among people
and establishes
personal relationship between and among them. Solomon and Theiss (2013)
state that “the
inter part of the word highlights how interpersonal communication connects
people… when
you engage in interpersonal communication, you and another person become
linked together…
The personal part means that your unique qualities as a person matter during
interpersonal
communication…” (p. 5)
 TYPES OF INTERPERSONAL
CONTEXT
Dyad Communication – communication that occurs between two people
Example:
• You offered feedback on the speech performance of your classmate.
• You provided comfort to a friend who was feeling down.

Small Group – This refers to communication that involves at least three but
not more than twelve people engaging in a face-to-face interaction to
achieve a desired goal. In this type of communication, all participants can
freely share ideas in a loose and open discussion.
Example:
• You are participating in an organizational meeting which aims to address
the concerns of your fellow students.
• You are having a discussion with your group mates on how to finish the
Public – This type refers to communication that requires you to deliver or
send the message before or in front of a group. The message can be driven
by informational or persuasive purposes. “In public communication, unlike in
interpersonal and small group, the channels are more exaggerated. The
voice is louder and the gestures are more expansive because the audience
is bigger. The speaker might use additional visual channels such as slides or
a Power Point presentation.” (Hybels & Weaver, 2012, p 19)
Example:
• You deliver a graduation speech to your batch.
• You participate in a declamation, oratorical, or debate contest watched
by a number of people.

Mass Communication – This refers to communication that takes place

through television, radio, newspapers, magazines, books, billboards, internet,
and other types of media.
Example:
• You are a student journalist articulating your stand on current issues
 TYPES OF SPEECH STYLE
The context dictates and affects the way people communicate, which results in various
speech styles. According to Joos (1968), there are five speech styles. These are (1) intimate,
(2) casual, (3) consultative, (4) formal, and (5) frozen. Each style dictates what appropriate
language or vocabulary should be used or observed.
1. Intimate – This style is private, which occurs between or among close family members or
individuals. The language used in this style may not be shared in public.
2. Casual – This style is common among peers and friends. Jargon, slang, or the vernacular
language are used.
3. Consultative – This style is the standard one. Professional or mutually acceptable language
is a must in this style. Examples of situations are communication between teachers and
students, employers and employees, doctor and patient, judge and lawyer, or President and
his/her constituents.
4. Formal – This style is used in formal settings. Unlike the consultative style, this is one-way.
Examples are sermons by priests and ministers, State of the Nation Address of the President,
formal speeches, or pronouncements by judges.
5. Frozen – This style is “frozen” in time and remains unchanged. It mostly occurs in
ceremonies. Common examples are the Preamble to the Constitution, Lord’s Prayer, and
Allegiance to country or flag.
 DEFINITION OF SPEECH ACTS

A speech act is an utterance that a speaker makes to achieve an intended

effect. Some of
the functions which are carried out using speech acts are offering an apology,
greeting, request,
complaint, invitation, compliment, or refusal. A speech act might contain just
one word or several
words or sentences. For example, “Thanks” and “Thank you for always being
there for me. I really
appreciate it” both show appreciation regardless of the length of the
statement.
 THREE TYPES OF SPEECH ACT
According to J. L. Austin (1962), a philosopher of language and the developer
of the Speech Act
Theory, there are three types of acts in every utterance, given the right
circumstances or context.
These are:
 PERFORMATIVES

Austin also introduced the concept of performative utterances: statements

which enable the speaker to perform something just by stating it. In this manner,
verbs that execute the speech act that they intend to effect are called
performatives. A performative utterance said by the right person under the right
circumstances results in a change in the world. Note that certain conditions
have to be met when making a performative utterance.
For example, the phrase “I now pronounce you husband and wife,” when
uttered by an authorized person such as a judge will have the actual effect of
binding a couple in marriage. However, if the same statement is uttered to the
same couple in the same place by someone who is not authorized to marry
them—as in the case of the accompanying picture, a robot—then there is no
effect whatsoever because a condition was not met.
 SEARLE’S CLASSIFICATIONS OF SPEECH ACT

As a response to Austin’s Speech Act Theory, John Searle (1976), a

professor from the University of California, Berkeley, classified
illocutionary acts into five distinct categories.

1. Assertive – a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker expresses belief

about the truth of a proposition. Some examples of an assertive act are
suggesting, putting forward, swearing, boasting, and concluding.

2. Directive – a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker tries to make the
addressee perform an action. Some examples of a directive act are asking,
ordering, requesting, inviting, advising, and begging.
3. Commissive – a type of illocutionary act which commits the
speaker to doing something in the future. Examples of a
commissive act are promising, planning, vowing, and betting.

4. Expressive – a type of illocutionary act in which the speaker

expresses his/her feelings or emotional reactions. Some examples
of an expressive act are thanking, apologizing, welcoming, and
deploring.

5. Declaration – a type of illocutionary act which brings a change

in the external situation. Simply put, declarations bring into
existence or cause the state of affairs which they refer to. Some
examples of declarations are blessing, firing, baptizing, bidding,
passing a sentence, and excommunicating.
TYPES OF
COMMUNICATIVE STRATEGY
 TYPES OF COMMUNICATIVE STRATEGY
Since engaging in conversation is also bound by implicit rules, Cohen
(1990) states that strategies must be used to start and maintain a
conversation. Knowing and applying grammar appropriately is one of the
most basic strategies to maintain a conversation. The following are some
strategies that people use when communicating.

1. Nomination
A speaker carries out nomination to collaboratively and productively
establish a topic. Basically, when you employ this strategy, you try to open
a topic with the people you are talking to.
2. Restriction
Restriction in communication refers to any limitation you may have as a
speaker. When communicating in the classroom, in a meeting, or while
hanging out with your friends, you are typically given specific instructions
that you must follow. These instructions confine you as a speaker and
limit what you can say.
3. Turn-taking
Sometimes people are given unequal opportunities to talk because
others take much time during the conversation. Turn-taking pertains to
the process by which people decide who takes the conversational floor.
There is a code of behavior behind establishing and sustaining a
productive conversation, but the primary idea is to give all
communicators a chance to speak.
4. Topic Control
Topic control covers how procedural formality or informality affects the
development of topic in conversations. For example, in meetings, you
may only have a turn to speak after the chairperson directs you to do so.
Contrast this with a casual conversation with friends over lunch or coffee
5. Topic Shifting
Topic shifting, as the name suggests, involves moving from one topic to
another. In other words, it is where one part of a conversation ends and
where another begins.

6. Repair
Repair refers to how speakers address the problems in speaking, listening,
and comprehending that they may encounter in a conversation. For
example, if everybody in the conversation seems to talk at the same
time, give way and appreciate other’s initiative to set the conversation
back to its topic.

7. Termination
Termination refers to the conversation participants’ close-initiating
expressions that end a topic in a conversation. Most of the time, the
topic initiator takes responsibility to signal the end of the discussion as
FUNDAMENTALS
OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
 THE SPEECH WRITING PROCESS
Just like events planning, or any other activities, writing an effective speech
follows certain steps or processes. The process for writing is not chronological or
linear; rather, it is recursive. That means you have the opportunity to repeat a
writing procedure indefinitely, or produce multiple drafts first before you can
settle on the right one. Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram.
The following are the components of the speech writing process.
• Audience analysis entails looking into the profile of your target
audience. This is done so you can tailor-fit your speech content
and delivery to your audience. The profile includes the following
information.

demography (age range, male-female ratio, educational

background and affiliations or degree program taken, nationality,
economic status, academic or corporate designations)
situation (time, venue, occasion, and size)
psychology (values, beliefs, attitudes, preferences, cultural and
racial ideologies, and needs)
The purpose for writing and delivering the speech can be classified into three—
to inform, to entertain, or to persuade.
An informative speech provides the audience with a clear understanding of the
concept or idea presented by the speaker.
An entertainment speech provides the audience with amusement.
A persuasive speech provides the audience with well-argued ideas that can
influence their own beliefs and decisions.

The topic is your focal point of your speech, which can be determined once
you have decided on your purpose. If you are free to decide on a topic,
choose one that really interests you. There are a variety of strategies used in
selecting a topic, such as using your personal experiences, discussing with your
family members or friends, free writing, listing, asking questions, or semantic
webbing.

Narrowing down a topic means making your main idea more specific and
focused. The strategies in selecting a topic can also be used when you narrow
down a topic.
In the example below, “Defining and developing effective money
management skills of Grade 11 students” is the specific topic out of a general
one, which is “Effective money management.”
Data gathering is the stage where you collect ideas, information, sources, and references relevant
or related to your specific topic. This can be done by visiting the library, browsing the web, observing
a certain phenomenon or event related to your topic, or conducting an interview or survey. The
data that you will gather will be very useful in making your speech informative, entertaining, or
persuasive.
Writing patterns, in general, are structures that will help you organize the ideas related to your topic.
Examples are biographical, categorical/topical, causal, chronological, comparison/contrast,
problem-solution, and spatial.
An outline is a hierarchical list that shows the relationship of your ideas. Experts in public speaking
state that once your outline is ready, two-thirds of your speech writing is finished. A good outline
helps you see that all the ideas are in line with your main idea or message. The elements of an
outline include introduction, body, and conclusion. Write your outline based on how you want your
ideas to develop. Below are some of the suggested formats.
The body of the speech provides explanations, examples, or any details that can help you deliver
your purpose and explain the main idea of your speech.
One major consideration in developing the body of your speech is the focus or central idea. The
body of your speech should only have one central idea.
The introduction is the foundation of your speech. Here, your primary goal is to get the attention of
your audience and present the subject or main idea of your speech. Your first few words should do
so. The following are some strategies.
The conclusion restates the main idea of your speech. Furthermore, it provides a summary,
emphasizes the message, and calls for action. While the primary goal of the introduction is to get
the attention of your audience, the conclusion aims to leave the audience with a memorable
statement.
Editing/Revising your written speech involves correcting errors in mechanics, such as grammar,
punctuation, capitalization, unity, coherence, and others. Andrew Dlugan (2013), an award-winning
public speaker, lists six power principles for speech editing. QQEdit for focus.

“So, what’s the point? What’s the message of the speech?”

Ensure that everything you have written, from introduction to conclusion, is related to your central
message.
Edit for clarity.

“I don’t understand the message because the examples or supporting details were confusing.”
Make all ideas in your speech clear by arranging them in logical order (e.g., main idea first then
supporting details, or supporting details first then main idea).
Edit for concision.

“The speech was all over the place; the speaker kept talking endlessly as if no one was listening to
him/her.”
Edit for continuity.
“The speech was too difficult to follow; I was lost in the middle.”
Keep the flow of your presentation smooth by adding transition words and phrases.

Edit for variety.

“I didn’t enjoy the speech because it was boring.”
Add spice to your speech by shifting tone and style from formal to conversational and vice-versa,
moving around the stage, or adding humor.

Edit for impact and beauty.

“There’s nothing really special about the speech.”
Make your speech memorable by using these strategies: surprise the audience, use vivid descriptive
images, write well-crafted and memorable lines, and use figures of speech.

• Rehearsing gives you an opportunity to identify what works and what does not work for you and for
your target audience. Some strategies include reading your speech aloud, recording for your own
analysis or for your peers or coaches to give feedback on your delivery. The best thing to remember
at this stage is: “Constant practice makes perfect.”
PRINCIPLES OF
SPEECH DELIVERY
 INSIGHTS ON PUBLIC SPEAKING
After listening to the speeches of the champions, you may have noticed
that aside from the speech content, their delivery was also essential to
their victory. The speakers seemed so natural and at ease that you
wonder: Are effective speakers made, or are they naturally born
effective speakers? It is true that some people are born with special gifts
in public speaking, but it is also true that most of the best public speakers
either underwent intensive formal training or got involved in several
speaking situations that, over time, enabled them to hone the skill.
According to Stephen Lucas (2011), author of The Art of Public Speaking,
a good delivery means that you are capable and able to present your
message in a clear, coherent, and interesting way. In addition to this, he
also says:
TYPES OF SPEECH ACCORDING TO PURPOSE

1. An informative speech provides the audience with a clear

understanding of a concept or idea. The lectures of your teachers
are the best examples of this type.
2. An entertainment speech amuses the audience. The humorous
speeches of comedians and performers are the best examples of
this type.
3. A persuasive speech seeks to provide the audience with
favorable or acceptable ideas that can influence their own ideas
and decisions. The campaign speeches of the running candidates
for government posts are the best examples of this type.
TYPES OF SPEECH ACCORDING TO DELIVERY
 DELIVERY FOR DIFFERENT SITUATIONS
Bear in mind that not all speaking situations happen in the classroom. Some
may happen
in unfamiliar environments. To illustrate, you may run or be nominated for a
school or local
government office, so a room-to-room and public campaign speech is
required; or you may be
invited to welcome a visitor in your school or community, so an opening or
welcoming remark is
necessary; or you may be asked to represent your school or community in a
literary contest. These
are a few situations where your delivery skill will be simultaneously challenged
and honed.
As a public speaker you need to be ready to deal with the most
common challenges in different
speaking environments. Below are some of them.
TOOLS FOR EFFECTIVE SPEECH DELIVERY

To be effective in your delivery, watch and emulate people who speak in public
excellently. While observing, take note of the following:

• How they approach their audience (formal, informal, personal, conversational,

intimate, among others)
• How they connect with their audience (using eye contact, body movements, and
facial expressions)
• How they present themselves (stage presence: how they look, stand, walk, use
nonverbal cues, act on and off the stage)
• How they use their voice in terms of volume (loudness or softness), pitch (highness
or lowness), rate or speed, pauses to show emphasis and strengthen the clarity of
the message, vocal variety (effective changes in volume, pitch, rate and pauses),
and pronunciation
TYPES OF SPEECH
When speaking from a manuscript, you write and deliver a speech word for word. The
question
is, for whom is the manuscript method most advantageous?

1. Public figures. Since public figures are always constrained by a hectic schedule, they
need
ghost writers. Consequently, they would have to read the text of the speech as it is. The
President’s State of the Nation Address (SONA) is a concrete example of this situation.

2. Media personalities. Speakers on radio and television always battle with time limits. For
example, a televised panel discussion about a social issue may require radio and TV
anchors
to critically choose and refine the words of their speech in advance.

3. Spokespersons for government and private organizations. This public speaking role
requires
a great deal of contemplation and preparation. For example, we have speeches of
different
country’s spokespersons in an international seminar on climate change.
 POTENTIAL PROBLEMS WITH THE
MANUSCRIPT METHOD
1. Since this type of speech follows a word-for-word method, you might be tempted to skip
practicing
the speech.

2. In relation to the previous point, if you fail to practice your speech and decide to read it during
the time of delivery itself, you might be glued to the speech all throughout. You may overlook
making eye contact with your audience. Note that glancing at the audience only at the end of a
sentence is not sufficient to establish and maintain rapport during the speech.

3. Lastly, because everything is planned based on the time allotted, you will surely want to cover
everything in your speech before you run out of time. This might affect your connection with the
audience, as there is a tendency to ignore the audience and neglect responding to their feedback
when busy with the speech. Pay attention and make sure to check and adjust if the audience
displays anxiety, impatience, or boredom.
 STRATEGIES IN ORGANIZING AND
DELIVERING THE MANUSCRIPT SPEECH

1. Practice! Practice delivering the speech several times. Mark the text.
Even if it’s a manuscript, know
the speech by heart. Only if you do these can you keep frequent eye
contact with the audience.
2. Adapt! Even if you have a manuscript, feel free to modify the text
when the situation demands it.
If you observe that your audience is bored, you may use shorter yet
more vigorous words. If your
audience is impatient, add words of strong motivational power. If your
audience is anxious, share
personal anecdotes to lighten the mood.
TIPS IN USING THE MANUSCRIPT METHOD
1. Prepare! Keep your text easy to use by neatly composing it in triple space.
2. Mark! Own your manuscript by highlighting key words and phrases. This way you will be guided
during the speech delivery.
3. Practice! You can make a lot of notes on the draft of your manuscript during the first few rehearsals,
but make sure to reprint your script, especially if you make too many changes.
4. Practice some more! Read the text over and over orally. This will help you avoid mispronounced
words, faulty starts, and wrong pauses. As you practice, vary the volume, rate, and pitch of your
voice during appropriate points in the speech.
5. Concentrate! Concentrate on keeping eye contact, but do not stare at only one section of the
audience. It is best if you familiarize yourself with the most important parts of your speech. If you
do this, you will be more confident in looking at your audience during the key points of the speech.
6. Act it out! Use a lectern or a podium when practicing the speech. If you can find one before the
actual speech delivery, practice using it so that you will be used to laying your notes flat on the
podium and looking at them once in a while.
ORGANIZING AND DELIVERING
A
MEMORIZED
SPEECH
 WHEN SHOULD YOU MEMORIZE?
Although keeping a speech in memory is needed only on very rare occasions,
memorizing a
speech can help you achieve a smooth and effortless delivery. You do not
need to focus on notes
or a manuscript. You can concentrate on maintaining eye contact with your
audience, establishing
rapport, and interacting with your audience.
Since memorizing can be very tough and mechanical, it is best that you
memorize short speeches
for special occasions. A memorized speech works best for the introduction of a
guest, acceptance of
award or recognition, toast, eulogy, tribute, and the like.
DISADVANTAGES OF THE MEMORIZED SPEECH

1. You might forget what you are supposed to say. Long pauses can create a
very awkward moment
between you and your audience.
2. You might memorize the speech mechanically. This can result in a very
unnatural delivery.
3. You might focus on content. Consequently, groping for the right words
might make you look
uptight and stiff.
4. You might be too tied to remembering your script. This will give you no
chance to pay attention
and respond to audience feedback.
ADVANTAGES OF DELIVERING A MEMORIZED
SPEECH
1. You do not need notes anymore. Since the speech is memorized, you do not
have to worry about
when to read and when to glance at your audience.
2. You can plan gestures, facial expressions, and movement. When you know
the speech by heart,
it will be easier for you to work on nonverbal communication.
3. You can concentrate on visual aids and props. A memorized speech will help
you focus more on
your props if you have any.
4. You will feel more confident. If you know that you have committed the
speech to memory, you
will not be anxious about running out of words or not knowing what to say.
 TIPS IN MEMORIZING A SPEECH
1. Break it down! You cannot memorize a speech in one sitting. If your speech has four
paragraphs,
you should focus on one paragraph at a time. Once you have memorized the first
paragraph,
focus on the next one.
2. Build it up! After memorizing the speech in snippets, you need to put them together.
Recite the
first paragraph and move on to the second. After this, recite the first and second
paragraphs and
move on to the third. The next thing you know, you have completed your speech.
3. Speak out! Do not memorize the speech silently. When you recite your speech over
and over
while memorizing it, your brain multitasks and aids your memory retention.
4. Identify keys! Identify a key point in every paragraph. Even if you miss out some of the
words in
the actual speech delivery, you can easily expound on the key points.
5. Have a break! After memorizing some parts of your speech, take a break for
some hours or for a
day. After this, recite the speech again. This will test how well you can recall
what you think you
have memorized.
6. Record and listen! Record yourself delivering the speech and listen to it over
and over again. Like
a song, the speech will get stuck in your head.
7. Use note cards! Write one key point on one note card. Bring these note cards
wherever you go
and take them out whenever you have extra time to memorize, especially
during idle times of the
day.
ORGANIZING AND DELIVERING
AN
IMPROMPTU
SPEECH
 STRATEGIES IN ORGANIZING AND
DELIVERING AN IMPROMPTU SPEECH

Below are some of the strategies that you can follow when you organize and deliver an
impromptu speech.

1. Past, Present, Future

Example: In the past, I was not comfortable in making impromptu speeches because I
could
not think right away of what to say; maybe it was because of nervousness and lack of time
to prepare. At present, however, I am enjoying it because I constantly practice and keep
on
exposing myself to any speaking situation. In the future, I look forward to teaching others
how to survive impromptu speech situations.
DELIVERING AN
EXTEMPORANEOUS
SPEECH
 THREE STEPS IN STUDYING YOUR
EXTEMPORANEOUS TOPIC

1.Identify the type of extemporaneous question that you have to answer.

2.2. Determine the purpose appropriate to your topic.

3.3. Stick to your topic and look at all of the sides and angles of the
problem.
 STEPS IN PREPARING FOR A SUCCESSFUL
EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEECH
1. Reinforce! You may explore other main points, but always refer back to your
thesis. This will
greatly help your audience remember your message.
2. Capture! State the central idea of your extemporaneous speech in one
declarative sentence. Keep
your sentence specific. Ask yourself what you want your audience to know exactly.
3. Develop! Now that you have a clear central idea, you are ready to map out the
supporting points
in an outline.
4. Introduce! In the introduction, make sure you:
• grab the attention of the audience with a striking one-liner.
• give a short background by explaining why they have to listen.
• state your thesis.
1. Reinforce! You may explore other main points, but always refer back to your thesis. This
will
greatly help your audience remember your message.
2. Capture! State the central idea of your extemporaneous speech in one declarative
sentence. Keep
your sentence specific. Ask yourself what you want your audience to know exactly.
3. Develop! Now that you have a clear central idea, you are ready to map out the
supporting points
in an outline.
4. Introduce! In the introduction, make sure you:
• grab the attention of the audience with a striking one-liner.
• give a short background by explaining why they have to listen.
• state your thesis.
DELIVERING AN
ENTERTAINMENT
SPEECH
 AIMS OF AN ENTERTAINMENT SPEECH

An entertainment speech aims to share goodwill, joy, and pleasure to the

audience. The purpose
of an entertainment speech is not to educate, inform, or inspire because the
primary goal is to
make the audience relax, enjoy, and even laugh. This means that you, the
speaker, are expected to
be friendly and relaxed, but still courteous during the speech delivery.
Moreover, you should know
your audience well in order to entertain them effectively.
HOW TO MAKE YOUR SPEECH ENTERTAINING

To make your speech entertaining, you may:

• tell jokes;
• share funny stories;
• dramatize experiences; and
• recall a scary story.
 STEPS IN WRITING AN ENTERTAINING SPEECH

1. Choose! Choose a light topic. Remember, you are there to give the audience a good
time.
2. Enjoy! If you exude confidence and you obviously enjoy the moment, the audience
will enjoy
your presence, too.
3. Simplify! Simplify the flow of your speech. Your audience does not need a mentally
exhausting
message.
4. Visualize! Your words should be highly descriptive. Use vivid words and keep them
flowing to
make your audience feel as if they were in your story.
5. Surprise! Astonish your audience with unexpected twists in your presentation. The more
you
surprise them, the more entertaining your speech will become.
DELIVERING AN
INFORMATIVE
SPEECH
TYPES OF INFORMATIVE SPEECHES
 ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERNS
An informative speech can follow different patterns of organization to
arrange and frame the
details effectively.
A. Chronological Pattern. This can be used if you want to present the
history, evolution, or
development of your topic in a sequential order, from past to present or
beginning to end.
ORGANIZING AND
DELIVERING A
PERSUASIVE SPEECH
 DEFINITION OF PERSUASIVE SPEECH

Persuasive speaking is the form of communication that people of diverse

backgrounds mostly
engage in. This kind of speech can center on any arguably interesting
topic under the sun. When you
deliver your persuasive speech, your primary goal is to influence the
thoughts, feelings, actions, and
behaviors or attitudes of your listeners (Gamble & Gamble, 2012).
Likewise, you also aim to change
their perception and convince them that your argument is more
important, practical, attainable, or
feasible. In essence, you—as a persuasive speaker—advocate for
whatever your message is.
TYPES OF CLAIMS IN PERSUASIVE SPEECH
1. Speech that Questions Fact
This type questions the existence of a particular event or happening. In
this case, the
persuasive speaker poses questions of fact, derives conclusions from
different sources of
information, and attempts to convince the audience to believe in
his/her ideas.
Below are a sample argument and a sample outline.
Argument: Death penalty as a punishment is not effective, as it does not
deter crime.
2. Speech that Questions Value
This type focuses on questions of value regarding topics on the self,
family, friendship,
religion, government, freedom, love, and money, among others. In this
case, the persuasive
speaker (1) makes a statement or claim which reflects his/her judgment,
(2) attempts to convince
his/her audience of his/her judgment, and (3) justifies it based on
standards.
Below are a sample argument and a sample outline.
Argument: Sentencing criminals to death is wrong.
3. Speech that Questions Policy
This type questions the current state of things which can impact the
future. In this case, the
persuasive speaker asks relevant questions that can help in making a
decision on whether or
not something should be implemented, observed, or done.
Below are a sample argument and a sample outline:
Argument: The government should not revive death penalty.
 METHODS OF PERSUASION
Consider what Lucas (2011) writes about how the audience can be persuaded by a speaker.
The
audience can be persuaded by the following reasons.
• They perceive that the speaker has credibility.
• They are convinced by the evidence presented by the speaker.
• They are convinced by the speaker’s reasoning.
• Their emotions are touched by the speaker’s ideas or use of language.
The above ideas highlight some of the methods you can use in your persuasive speech. These
methods are commonly used and proven to be effective by any prominent and excellent
speaker
across the globe. The following are some tips on how to enhance your credibility, how to use
evidence, how to use reasoning, and how to observe ethics and emotional appeal in a
persuasive
speech.
1. How to enhance your credibility
a. Explain how you became an expert on the topic.
You can do this by sharing how well you read, investigated, or
researched the topic.
For example: You could share that in the beginning you did not know
much about your
topic until you researched about it. By saying you researched on your
topic, your audience
will feel that you made an effort in building your credibility by collecting
information.
b. Connect your experiences, beliefs, values or attitudes with your audience’s.
You can do this by telling your audience that you have the same experiences,
beliefs,
values or attitudes.
For example: In the beginning of your speech, you can emphasize to your audience
that
regardless of background, status, age, gender, beliefs, and values, among others,
you all
have one thing in common and then add that which you have in common. By
saying this,
your audience will feel respected and comfortable because you can identify with
their
c. Practice more often so you can deliver your speech with conviction.
You can do this by exposing yourself more often to speaking situations
such as reciting
and reading announcements in class, introducing people in a program,
hosting events,
participating in debates, or acting as a spokesperson of a group. Also,
simply practicing
more often before your actual speech performance will increase your
confidence and
help you deliver your speech with conviction.

2. How to use evidence

a. Specify evidence.
You can do this by citing statistics, research studies, and other valid and credible information.
For example: When stating a fact, do not simply say a general detail. Instead of saying, “There
is a law that protects women and their children against violence,” state the exact details, as in,
“RA 9262 is an act that protects women and their children against violence.” By specifying your
evidence, you give the impression that you know what you are saying.
b. Avoid outdated evidence.
You can do this by reading and digging new evidence to keep yourself updated on the
significant facts and figures.
For example: If you are arguing about social networking site addiction and you are using
data taken from 2000 or earlier, your speech might not hold enough credibility and it
might not retain the interest of your audience as well. Since we are now in the
Information Age, data quickly get old and replaced by more current ones, so they quickly
become irrelevant. Therefore, always make sure to use current available data. This way,
your speech will be more accurate and your audiences will be more interested to listen.

c. Choose reputable or credible sources for your evidence.

You can do this by carefully identifying and evaluating your sources.

For example: You are persuading your audience that your solution in improving the interest of readers in
Philippine literature is the most efficient method, but you cite sources such as fan sites, Wiki answers,
Yahoo answers, or blogs. This creates a bad impression, as it might come off that your arguments and
points are based on unreliable facts. As a guide, Google, Yahoo, or any search engine can provide you
a wealth of reputable or credible sources for your evidence.
3. How to use reasoning
Avoid logical fallacies or errors in reasoning.
You can do this by studying the types of logical fallacies. The following
are some of the
most common errors in reasoning.

Ad Hominem: This happens when you attack the character of a person instead of his argument.
Example: Professor X does not deserve to be the head of this organization because he is separated from his
wife.
How to avoid: When you give your rebuttal, focus on the arguments of the person, not on his/her character or
values.
Circular Argument: This happens when the idea of a stated argument is repeated.

Example: My mother is a good teacher because she teaches me well.

How to avoid: Do not repeat the argument; instead, prove it.
• False Analogy: This happens when two things, which might be alike in some
respects, are compared and assumed to be similar in other ways.
• Example: President Aquino is the Socrates of the 21st century.
• How to avoid: Look at the characteristics, features, or components of two
people or objects closely to see whether they can really be compared or not.
• False Authority: This happens when a statement of someone who is not an
expert in the field in question is being used in an argument.

• Example: I avoid drinking coffee at night because of the advice of my English

teacher.
• How to avoid: Check properly the qualifications of the person being cited.
• False Cause and Effect: This happens when the connection between two
consecutive
events are not clear.
Example: Because I attended a party, I got a high grade in my persuasive speech.
How to avoid: Clarify the connections between the events by explaining both
backgrounds clearly.
• Hasty Generalization: This happens when a conclusion is drawn from insufficient
evidence.
Example: The senator stuttered while giving his speech, therefore government
officials are not good in public speaking.
How to avoid: Provide enough pieces of evidence before making any conclusions.
• Red Herring: This happens when the answer does not address the question.
Example: Question: Should the President sign Cyberbullying bill into law? Answer:
The President has other priorities.
How to avoid: Do not avoid opposing arguments. Instead, address them properly.
4. How to use emotional appeal
a. Internalize what you are saying.
The audience will be more convinced of your message if you also show conviction in
what you are saying.
For example: If you use emotionally charged words, but you deliver it in a monotonous
voice, the audience will not see the sincerity of your message. Instead, make sure to
observe your non-verbal cues and to ensure that you believe in what you are saying.
b. Use emotion appropriately.
Although a well-executed emotional appeal can be used as a strong weapon in persuasive
speech, take note to use it only when appropriate to the message. Use it as an accessory
only; make sure not to replace evidence and reasoning with pure emotion.
For example: If you are making a speech on a question of fact, there is little need to use
emotional appeal to your audience since you are dealing with facts and information.
However, if you are making a persuasive speech to change a certain policy, you can add
emotional appeal to your speech to capture not only the minds but also the hearts of
your audience.