c.

The basis of natural science is experimental data while

social sciences rely on experiential data.
d. With respect to experimental data, the typical method of
Republic of the Philippines
science is doing repetitive and conventional laboratory
Department of Education
REGION IV-A CALABARZON experiments. In contrast, social science, in lieu of
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF BATANGAS PROVINCE experiential data, typically involves alternative methods
TAYSAN NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL of observation and interaction with people within a
TAYSAN, SAN JOSE, BATANGAS community.
Social Sciences as the Study of Society
Social science refers to the systematic study of The humanities refer to the study of the ways in
various aspects of human society. It is a major category of which the human experience is processed and documented.
academic disciplines, dealing with society and the It encompasses the fields of philosophy, literature, religion,
relationships among people within a society. Social science art, music, history, and language.
is also occasionally used to refer specifically to the field of Humanities are branches of learning that examine
Sociology. human constructs and concerns, as opposed to natural
Its many branches, each of which is considered a social processes. Meaning, they have the overall goal of the
science, include Anthropology, Economics, exploration and explanation of human experience. The
Geography, History, Linguistics, Political Science, humanities use methods that are principally critical, or
Psychology, Sociology and Demography. As you would speculative, and have a significant historical element, as
notice, these are branches of study which deal with humans distinct from the chiefly empirical approaches of the natural
in their social relations. sciences.
Social Sciences, Natural Sciences, and Humanities Social Science vs Humanities
Natural science is a major branch of science that  If humanities emerged in the 15th century, the social
deals with the description, prediction, and understanding of science was influenced by and developed after the
natural phenomena, basically based on observational and French revolution and the industrial revolution.
empirical evidence. It includes a variety of academic  Both the humanities and social sciences are concerned
disciplines which, often in combination with each other, with human aspects like law, politics, linguistics,
focus on the various aspects of nature and the natural world. economics, and psychology.
The natural science comprises many disciplines  Both of them concern themselves with human lives and
that deal with the studyof processes that occur in nature. The human nature.
disciplines under natural science are usually divided into  One of the key differences between them is that
two main branches: life science (or biological science) and "humanities involve a more critical and analytical
physical science. Physical science is subdivided into approach whereas social sciences deal with more of a
branches, including physics, astronomy, chemistry, and scientific approach". In other words, one of their major
Earth science. differences lies in their methodology. Social sciences as
sciences adopt a more scientific approach. Humanities,
Social Science vs. Natural Science on the other hand, are not necessitated to use the
Natural science and social science share many things in scientific method. Humanities use the descriptive
common, but, as you will see later, they differ in many approach as well as the prescriptive methodology, such
aspects. Both sciences employ the scientific model in order as the case of ethical philosophy and religion. The
to gain information. In other words, while the utilization of subjects under humanities also move ahead through
scientific methods is generally regarded as typical of natural analysis but use some intuitive speculations.
science, it is not exclusive of it as social science also  Moreover, humanities are deemed to be more
employs them. philosophical than social sciences are. Humanities are
Both the natural and social science use empirical and concerned with the heritage and the question of what
measured data evidence that can be seen and discerned by makes us human. Very much philosophical in nature,
the senses. In both sciences, theories can be tested to yield humanities deal with philosophy, history, religion, arts,
theoretical statements and general positions. law, and even with ancient languages.

The two differ in the following aspects: DISCIPLINES OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
a. Natural sciences deal with objects, whereas social
science deals with subjects, that is human beings. Anthropology - It is s etymologically defined as “the study
b. Natural science is characterized by exactness, of humanity” that originated from the Greek word
controlled variables, and predictability. Contrariwise, “anthrōpos,” word for “human being,” and the suffix “-
social science is marked by the opposite — it is logy,” which means “the study or the science of”. This
spontaneous, unpredictable or uncontrollable, as it deals discipline seeks to comprehend the origins or roots of
with human emotions and behaviour. human beings, the adaptations, either cultural or biological,
that allow people to go well with their environments, and the words “geo,” which means “earth,” and “graphia,” which
variations in cultural traditions and beliefs about life among means “recoding something or writing about”. It
individuals or groups of individuals. It is a mixture of Social investigates the distribution and location of the different
Sciences and Natural Sciences, specifically Biology, for it natural or physical features of the earth, which include the
considers both cultural and biological perspectives in landscapes or topographies, the climatic conditions, the
dealing with the human nature. Its central focus is the living things (floras and faunas), and even the characteristics
concept of culture since culture molds the nature of human of the inhabited portions, and the relationships, as well as
beings and is conditioned by both social and natural the interactions, between the people and their surroundings.
environments. This broad field of study analyzes culture by It is the field of study that serves as the bridge between the
exploring the people’s systems of communication, patterns Social Sciences and the Natural Sciences, particularly the
of behaviors, principles or values, tools or ornaments, and Earth Sciences, as it examines the people andtheir
even the manners of grouping themselves. It investigates the environments and analyzes the geographical relationships
changes in the traditions of various cultural groups that between all cultural and physical phenomena in the world. It
occurred throughout the years. asserts that the environments or the geographical locations
of the people ultimately determine the human actions or
Demography - It is etymologically characterized as behaviors that will be manifested within the community and
"writings about population” which was derived from two the kinds of society that will be established or developed
ancient Greek words “demos,” meaning "the people," and over a long period of time.
“graphia,” meaning "writing about or recoding something".
It analyses the different characteristics of the History - It is etymologically characterized as “knowledge
humanpopulation, such as the size, the density, the territorial acquired by inquiry or investigation” which was emanated
dispersion or spatial distribution, and the structure or from the Greek word “historía,” which means “inquiry” or
composition, and the various factors that bring about “knowledge from inquiry or investigation”. This area of
changes within its structure, namely fertility or natality, study reconstructs various recorded human events and
aging, mortality, migration or spatial movement (emigration natural phenomena and explains the different human
and immigration), and social mobility or change in social thoughts and actions in the past and the changes that these
status (e.g., horizontal, vertical), through statistical models had experienced through the analysis of primary (e.g.,
to determine how they cause changes in the society over a diaries, video footages, official records) and secondary (e.g.,
specific period of time. Its primary sources of data and articles, documentaries, encyclopedias) sources of
information are population and housing censuses, household information. It involves the systematic detection, collection,
sample surveys, and administrative records, such as birth organization, and presentation of substantial evidences or
certificates, marriage certificates, and death certificates. information regarding several past events or phenomena;
this subject of interest points out that the past events, such as
Economics - It is etymologically described as “household the rise and fall of the civilizations and the dawn of
management” which was originated from the Greek word revolutions, are still significant factors affecting the present-
“oikonomia”. This subject of interest deals with the matters day as these events continue to shape the way people act,
or problems related to the optimal allocation of limited behave, or decide in the present.
resources, which have alternative uses (decision-making). In
order to satisfy the infinite needs and desires of the people Linguistics - It is a branch of knowledge that is
or to maximize the utilities or the pleasures that the etymologically described as “the science of languages”
consumers will obtain from goods, services, or experiences. which came from the Latin word “lingua,” meaning
It seeks to comprehend the different types of economic "language or tongue,” and the suffix “-ics,” which means
system (e.g., traditional, command), the various human “the science or the study of”. It is the scientific study of
actions or behaviors with regard to the production, various human or natural languages, which are products of
distribution, exchange, and consumption of goods and humanity’s cultural and biological heritages, and their
services, and the role of the market and the government in structures, such as sounds, words, phrases, and sentences. It
these economic activities, especially in the regulation of the analyzes the nature of different human languages by closely
outputs. This branch of knowledge characterizes different examining their formal properties or features, which include
social behaviors, such as collecting of raw materials and displacement (imagination), arbitrariness (flexibility),
manufacturing of products, using mathematical equations productivity (creativity), discreetness (uniqueness), dualism
and quantitative analyses. Its primary goal is to develop (double articulation), and cultural transmission (acquisition).
better economic policies in order to mitigate the issues about This discipline investigates the origins of various natural
the allocation of scarce resources or the distribution of languages, language acquisition procedures, and the changes
wealth and to maximize the benefits that the people will get that have occurred in different human languages over a
from consuming goods and services. period of time, including their modern modifications or
variations. Its main focus is the concept of language, since it
Geography - It is etymologically defined as “description of is a universal and identifiable feature of human capacity and
the earth's surface” which was derived from two Greek behaviour. It plays a vital role in both understanding and
culture of acertain society and molds the people living in it. Sociology - It is etymologically described as “the study of
Its principal goals are to create language theories by society” which was derived from the Latin word “socius,”
analyzing the nature of several human languages and to which means "companion," and the suffix “-logy,” which
employ these theories in order to describe all natural means “the science or the study of”. This area of study is the
languages. systematic analysis of the various developments, systems,
structures, and functions of human society. It examines how
Political Science - It is etymologically defined as “the individuals behave and interact with each other as members
science of city-state” which was originated from Greek of a certain social or cultural group and how these people
word “polis,” meaning “city-state,” and the Latin word work as a whole in the larger society through the
“scire,” meaning “to know”. This subject of interest is the sociological perspective, which is an effective approach in
systematic analysis of various political institutions and discovering several repetitive and general patterns of human
processes, sources and limits of political power and its behaviour and interaction. This subject of interest, which is
manifestations, types of legitimate authority or rule, and a sister discipline of anthropology, investigates the different
systems of government. It examines the different political social influences that affect general patterns of human
thoughts or philosophies (e.g., patriotism, neutralism) and behavior and interaction, such as historical events (e.g.,
political ideologies (e.g., democracy, fascism) as well as the revolutions, reforms, wars), social institutions (e.g., family,
impacts of these concepts on the political activities or education, religion), socially derived cultural norms (e.g.,
behaviors (e.g., supporting or opposing a particular laws, folkways, taboos), collective values, socially shared
candidate for public office) of the people or groups of beliefs and practices, and social problems (e.g., poverty,
people by utilizing numerous empirical and scientific gender discrimination, ecological imbalance), and
methods of analysis. This branch of knowledge investigates hypothesizes regarding the processes wherein the
the various social structures or patterned social individuals are socialized in a particular society in which
arrangements, such as public policies and social laws that they are living. It mainly deals with the concept of social
maintain peace and order within a certain society and interaction since social interaction is the fundamental
address the needs of the people living in it. It considers element of all relationships and groups that comprise every
politics or the political realm as the domain that captures human society. Its goal is to recognize the various
human lives and as a competition for control of and access characteristics of the people living in a specific society, such
to wealth or resources among contending interest groups. as their genders, nationalities, or age groups, in order to
apprehend the distinct nature of human relations.
Psychology - It is etymologically characterized as “the
study of the mind” which was derived from the Greek word Major Social Science Theories
“psyche,” which means “soul or mind” and the suffix “-
logy,” which means “the study or the science of”. It is the STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONALISM
scientific investigation of different human behaviors, The structural functionalism depends to a great
physical structures (e.g., nervous system, endocrine system), extent on the works of Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), Emile
mental states (conscious and unconscious), cognitive Durkheim (1858-1917), Talcott Parsons (1902-1979), and
processes (e.g., critical thinking, problem-solving), and on Robert Merton (1910-2003). Structural-functionalism sees
how these all relate to the surroundings of the people. This society as an arrangement of interconnected parts that are
field of study analyzes the various internal (e.g., personality incongruity to keep up a condition of parity and social
traits) and external (e.g., environmental or situational equilibrium. Functionalists use the terms functional and
features) factors that shape humans and affect their dysfunctional to describe the effects of social elements on
behaviors or reactions, such as the blink of an eye, the rise society. Elements of society are functional if they contribute
in blood pressure, or the disorderly violence that frequently to social stability and dysfunctional if they disrupt social
explodes in a large group of people, using systematic and stability. Some aspects of society can be both functional and
objective procedures of investigation and observation. It dysfunctional. For example, crime is dysfunctional because
insists that whatever is going on within the psyche or the it is associated with physical violence, loss of property, and
human mind, such as sensation, pleasure, phobia, doubt, fear. But according to Durkheim and other functionalists,
victory, or conflict, molds the way a person sees his/her crime is also functional for society because it leads to
society and, therefore, affects his/her relationship or heightened awareness of shared moral bonds and increased
connection with other people and the environment. Its main social cohesion.
goals are to figure out how people living in a particular Robert Merton (1968) has identified two types of
society act and why these people behave in a certain functions: (1) Manifest function; and (2) Latent function.
manner, to make predictions regarding how people think and The manifest functions are consequences that are intended
act, and to create positive and permanent changes in people's and commonly recognized. An example of manifest function
lives, such as treating different mental health conditions and in education is to transmit knowledge and skills to the youth
improving the well-being of the people. in society. While, latent functions are consequences that are
unintended and often hidden. An example of latentfunction
in education is the socialization with peers and adults and social world through exchange of language and symbols.
conformity to the norms. The establish meanings come from human interactions with
others and the society. These definitions develop their views
MARXISM in life and use it to communicate with each other.
The starting point of the conflict perspective can be Communicating with one another makes society goes on and
rooted with the great works of Karl Marx (1818–1883). He continues.
proposed that all social orders experience phases of financial Sociologist W.I. Thomas (1966) highlighted the
turn of events. As societies evolve from agricultural to significance of definitions and implications in social conduct
industrial concern over meeting survival needs is replaced and its outcomes. He recommended that humans react to
their meaning of a circumstance as opposed to the objective
by concern over making a profit, the hallmark of a capitalist
circumstance itself. Subsequently Thomas noticed that
system. Industrialization prompts the improvement of two circumstances that we characterize as genuine becomes
classes of individuals: (1) the bourgeoisie or proprietors of genuine in their outcomes. Representative interactionism
the methods for creation and (2) the proletariat or laborers additionally proposes that our personality or feeling of self
who triumph for compensation. The division of society into is formed by social cooperation. We build up our self-idea
two expansive classes of individuals the "haves" and the by seeing how others collaborate with us and mark us. By
"havenots" is valuable to the proprietors of the methods for seeing how others see us, we see a reflection ourselves that
Cooley calls the "mirror self."
creation. The laborers, who may gain just means
compensation, are denied access to the numerous assets THE APPLICATION AND IMPORTANCE OF THE
accessible to the rich proprietors. As indicated by Marx, the MAJOR SOCIAL SCIENCE THEORIES
bourgeoisie utilize their capacity to control the
establishments of society for their potential benefit. For Structural-Functionalism
instance, Marx recommended that religion fills in as a The Structural-functionalism perspective of society
"sedative of the majority" in that it calms the pain and is a structure with interrelated parts intended to meet the
enduring related with the average workers way of life and gradual and social needs of the people in the society. Hebert
spotlights the laborers' consideration on other worldliness, Spencer (1820–1903) claimed that various parts must work
God, and existence in the wake of death instead of on such together to keep society functioning. These parts of society
common worries as day-to-day environments. Basically, were social institutions such as government, education,
religion redirects the laborers with the goal that they focus family, healthcare, religion, and the economy. Émile
on being compensated in paradise for carrying on with an Durkheim (1858-1917) assumed that society was composed
ethical life instead of on scrutinizing their misuse. of interdependent and interconnected parts that were put
The conflict perspective sees society as made out together to keep instability held collectively by shared social
of various gatherings and enthusiasm seeking force and construct which served to regulate social life such as laws,
assets. The conflict perspective clarifies different parts of morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashions, and
our social world by seeing which gatherings have force and rituals.
advantage from a specific social game plan. Max Weber
 Socio-Cultural - According to Émile Durkheim (1895)
(1864-1920) added that there were also inequalities of social
society is an intricate arrangement of interrelated and
structure and political power that caused struggle. He noted
related parts that cooperate to look after steadiness and
that various groups were treated differently based on race,
that society is held together by shared qualities, dialects,
educational, and gender. Relative to this is the normative
and images. He stated that people may make up society,
feminist view society as a male centric culture—a various
yet sociologists need to look at earlier people social
leveled arrangement of association constrained by men. In
realities. On the other hand, Parsons believed that
spite of the fact that there are numerous assortments of
society is a universal social system comprises of
women's activist hypothesis, most would hold that feminism
structured and organized subsystems that are
“demands that existing economic, political, and social
categorized by conforming existing norms.
structures be changed” (Weir and Faulkner 2004, p.xii).
An example of socio-cultural aspect of examining
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM society through Structural-functionalism is the situation
Symbolic interactionism mirrors the miniaturized when the Philippine government responded to COVID-
scale sociological viewpoint, and was to a great extent 19 Pandemic, by providing financial aid to poor
affected by the works of early sociologists and scholars such families through the Social Amelioration Program or
as George Simmel (1858-1918), Charles Cooley (1864- SAP. The agency in charge of the distribution is the
1929), George Herbert Mead (1863-1931), and Erving DSWD with the help of the LGU’s. The
Goffman (1922-1982). Symbolic Interactionism is a theory implementation of this program gained a lot of
that centered to human communication both verbal and controversies because of some issues about the proper
non-verbal and to images, symbols significance through distribution and corruption-related cases. The
language and the manner of individual understanding. government program's manifest function to help the
The symbolic interactionism focuses on the study poor is not fully realized, because of the negligence and
of human interaction in which people make sense of their personal interest of some local government officials.
 The latent functions arise upon the situations, the representation of the powerful elite. Karl Marx believed that
government investigated the cases and call up the conflict and struggle between groups happen to attain wealth
attention of barangay officials who committed unlawful and power which was inevitable in a capitalist society.
actions. With all the issues related to SAP distributions  Socio-Cultural – For Griffiths (2015), inequalities
resulted to dysfunction in the society. happen in every cultural classification. Therefore,
 Economic - The functionalist perspective of economics cultural standards are an advantage to people with status
assumes that the continued progress of the economy is and power. For example, even though cultural diversity
important to the nation, as it guarantees the circulation is valued in most of the countries, some people and
of goods and services. However, a dysfunction might states prohibit interracial marriages, same-sex
happen when some institutions fail to adapt quickly marriages, and polygamy. Conflict theory focuses on
enough to fluctuating social conditions. An example of the social inequalities and power differences within a
economic aspect of examining society through group, analyzing society through this lens. For Marxism
Structural-functionalism is during the outbreak of the education, gender, income, race, sexuality, and other
COVID-19 Pandemic and the panic buying of goods social factors culture reinforces issues of "privilege”
and healthcare products happened. The people were individuals and their position in society.
overwhelmed and bought volumes of medical supply, An example of socio-cultural aspect of examining
specifically facemask and alcohol disinfectant. The society through Marxism is when the Philippine
spread of coronavirus determined a high demand of government released to the public the implementing
these products. The panic buying may be driven by an guidelines of the SAP subsidy for the COVID-19
extremely low supply which can rise up the price and pandemic. The issue of disparity between the middle
led to price inflation. This happened because some class and the poor has elevated. Because the
institutions failed to adapt quickly enough to the government priorities the poorest of the poor which
changing social conditions which can have economic includes the member of the 4P’s or Pantawid Pamilyang
implications. Pilipino Program for financial aid. While the families
 Political - According to functionalism, the government belong to the middle class were exempted, since they
has four main purposes: (1) planning and directing were still earning even in pandemic. With these, some
society; (2) meeting social needs; (3) maintaining law members of the middle class aired their grievances
and order; and (4) managing international relations. about the situation and claimed that they are the ones
Functionalism viewed government as a system to who are taxpayers in the country. That’s why they are
impose norms and control conflict. Functionalists the ones who deserve of the help from the government.
understand active collective change and seek consensus This situation shows the social structure as inherently
and order in society. Dysfunction creates social unequal resulting from the differences in social class,
problems that lead to social change. For instance, education, income, and other social factors. Culture
functionalists would see political regulations as a way reinforces issues of "privilege” groups and their status
of keeping people connected to the democratic process. in social categories.
An example of political aspect of examining  Economic - In the monetary circle, Karl Marx
society through Structural-functionalism is when concentrated on the mode and relations of production.
President Rodrigo Roa Duterte signed the Philippine The bourgeoisie possesses and controls the means of
Anti-Terror Bill into a law, despite of many criticisms production, which prompts misuse because of the
about its implementing guidelines. The government benefit intention. In this course of action, the proletariat
assumed that they acted upon their function and purpose has just their work to sell, and don't claim or control
such as planning and directing society for maintaining capital. Marx argued that the narrowing down of the
law and order. The government stands for their beliefs working class, tied with an increasing number of
that this law is created to prevent terrorism as early as people, low wages, and the price of goods and services
possible before the bombing or an incident might are not reasonable for the true cost of labor. Marx’s
happen. This shows the functionalism view of favored government interference on economic decisions
government and politics as a way to enforce laws for should not be made by producers and consumers but
the safety of the people. should be carefully accomplished by the state to ensure
that it is beneficial to all. He also foresaw that
Marxism capitalism would sooner or later put to an end as many
Marxism or conflict theory of Karl Marx (1818–1883), who people get associated to the workingclass, which will
considered society consist of two classes: (1) the lead to a rebellion and production will be turned over to
bourgeoisie or the capitalist who owns the production, and the state.
(2) the proletariat or the working class. Max Weber (1864- An example of economic aspect of examining
1920) added that aside from economic inequalities, there society through Marxism is the Rice Tariffication Law
were also inequalities of social structure and political power which negatively affects the Filipino farmers. Since this
that caused struggle. The people’s state of inequality was allows cheaper foreign rice imports without restrictions
influenced by class stratification, social immobility, and and competes with the production of local rice. The
 government should make a necessary intervention on who apply symbolic interactionism search for examples
economic decision that should be carefully made and of communication between people. Their examinations
accomplish by the state to ensure that it is beneficial to regularly include the perception of one-on-one
all. connections.
 Political - Wright Mills (1956) elaborated on some of An example of the socio-cultural aspect of
Marx’s concepts, coining the phrase power elite to examining society through Symbolic Interactionism is
describe what he saw, as the small group of powerful in this time of pandemic crisis, some Filipinos are using
people controls much of society. Mills believed the social media applications like TikTok as a platform to
power elite use government to develop social policies show their gestures and symbols of love and support to
that allow them to keep their wealth. In the present the frontliners. Just like the Frontliners Dance
time, the power elite may be seen as some oligarchs Challenge, the dance moves have specific message and
who hold on big corporations and dynasties that handle meaning which been popular way of showing message
an exclusive position in the state and control the of love and care for the frontliners.
society.  Economic - One of the significant symbolic
An example of political aspect of examining interactionism ideas interrelated to work and economy
society through Marxism is the two distinct political is called as “career inheritance”. The meaning of this
ideologies of Filipinos which is very evident in social concept is that a child me have the same job as their
media posts and tweets. They are called “Yellowtards” parents. They may have shown a career path for his/her
or dilawan and “Dutertads” known as DDS. Philippine child to follow. They may find their parent’s career
politics is greatly affected by these two opposing parties interesting and suitable for them. Career exposure is
in our government and their supporters keep on learning the standards and ideals of a specific career.
expressing their thoughts and contradictions with one An example of economic aspect of examining
another. Marx’s concepts of politics coined as the society through Symbolic Interactionism is a situation
power elite to describe his thoughts on what he saw in when a child of the businessman/ businesswoman may
the society wherein the small group of powerful people learn the standards and ideals that will help him/her
controls much of society. succeed in business and since the parents’ model a
career path to follow. The child may find business
Symbolic Interactionism interesting and a money-making opportunity for
Symbolic Interactionism is a smaller scale level theory that him/her.
focuses on the studied human interactions within a society  Political – Symbolic interactionism relates to
or human communication through the exchange of language, government emphases on images, symbols, or
symbols, and meaning. Humans interact based on the individuals that signify authority and power. The
meanings attributed to those interactions. The recognized figures that embody the power and authority. This
meaning comes from our interactions with others and theory does not deal with large organizations like the
society. George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) was considered government and focuses on the study of the face-to-face
as the founding father of symbolic interactionism. His facets of politics.
commitment was true to the advancement of the self, An example of political aspect of examining
particularly in youth, which we'll examine in more detail society through Symbolic Interactionism is the Seal of the
when we address speculations of socialization. Philippine President, which a symbol that signifies the
history and dignity of the president. The seal is composed of
 Socio-Cultural - Symbolic interactionism is a
the coat of arms of the president. Some symbols in the arms
sociological theory that examines communication are derived from the Philippine national flag and there is a
patter, interpretation, and adjustment among individuals sea lion in the middle part of the seal.
relative to the meanings of symbols. This theory PSYCHOANALYSIS
emphasizes anindividual’s verbal and nonverbal
responses, symbols, negotiated meaning, and its ● Theory of personality, an
construct in society. Role-taking is an important approach to psychotherapy,
mechanism determined in which a person can
and a method of
appreciate other perspectives to understand well the
meaning of a certain action. In social contexts, the investigation founded by
ambiguity of roles dwells the difficulty of role-making Sigmund Freud.
on a person in a certain situation. Ethnomethodology, a
● Psychoanalytic theory,
branch of symbolic interactionism, studies how human
interactions can make the impression of collective which is used in psychotherapy, is a technique of
social order despite the absence of common examining and treating personality problems. This
understanding and the existence of opposing
concept includes the idea that things that happen to
perspectives. Studies that utilize the symbolic
interactionism perspective are bound to utilize people as adolescents might influence how they
subjective examination techniques. Social scientists function as adults.
 ● Freud believed that the mind is made of two parts -
the conscious mind and the unconscious mind.
RATIONAL CHOICE

● It is a product of scarcity and demands people to

Models of the Minds
make the right and rational choice to maximize the
● Conscious: This is the location of our current use of its resources.
thoughts, feelings, and emotions. ● The sociologist George Homans pioneered the
● Preconscious (sometimes called the subconscious): rational choice theory in 1961.
This is the repository for anything we can RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY
remember or retrieve from our memory.
● Also known as choice theory
● Unconscious:Contains all the feeling, urges or
● It is a sociological theory that states that there is a
instinct that are beyond our awareness but it affects
rational, definable, and calculable basis to human
our expression, feeling, action.
decision-making which will provide people with
Components of the Mind
the greatest benefit or satisfaction.
● Id - is the only part of your personality that is there ● Based on this theory, people are motivated by their
from the moment you are born. personal goals and desires. Since it is not possible
o It is driven by the pleasure principle, for individuals to attain all of their wants, they
which is the idea that every single wishful must make choices related to both their goals and
impulse must be satisfied immediately, the means for attaining these goals
regardless of the consequences.
● Ego - It is the constituent of personality that is
The Social Consequences of Decision Making Based on
responsible for dealing with reality.
Scarcity
o Mediating between the unrealistic id and
● Choice is the result of scarcity.
the external real world, the ego is the
● Scarcity is the chief economic problem of having
decision-making component of
unlimited human wants in a world of insufficient
personality.
resources. It is a condition where the resources are
o It functions based on the reality principle
limited to satisfy the unlimited needs and wants of
which attempts to satisfy the id’s longings people.
based on the reality principle. ● With each choice we make, we face “trade-offs”
● Superego - It operates to control the id’s impulses, because something must be sacrificed or given up
especially those socially prohibited. whenever a choice is made.
o It encompasses our sense of right and ● The choice that has been sacrificed is called
wrong, the values, and the moral standards opportunity cost.
and ideals of society which are learned
from one’s parents.
INSTITUTIONALISM

● A method in social sciences that emphasizes the

role of institutions in shaping the political,
economic, and social relations.
● The term institution is usually used to refer to a
significant practice or behavior pattern in a
community, as well as certain formalized
government and public sector institutions.
 ● An institution can also refer to an organization, like pagmamano and the uttering of po
establishment, foundation, society dedicated to the and opowhen talking to older people were
advancement of a certain cause or purpose, not made into law and yet they are
particularly one of a public, educational, or considered institutionalized practices in
philanthropic nature. the society.
Kinds of Institutionalism

● Old Institutionalism - It focuses on the effects of FEMINIST THEORY

institutions, as well as general rules, schemes, and
● Feminist theory can be classified into two waves. The
factors, on the scale of the global or local economy.
first wave, which started in about 1800 and lasted until
● New Institutionalism - Also known as neo-
the 1930s, was principally concerned with achieving
institutionalism is a theory that centers on
equal rights between men and women.
developing a sociological view of institutions, the
● The second wave, which began around the 1970s, has
way they interact, and the ways they influence
continued to campaign for equality but has also
society.
formulated a range of theories and approaches that
● Historical Institutionalism - Analyzes the evolution
emphasize the difference between men and women and
of both socioeconomic and political behaviors in
that elicit attention to the particular needs of women.
society throughout the course of an institution's
● The feminist theory refers to that which emphasizes
growth and history.
gender as the key basis of structured inequality,
The Constitutive Nature of Informal and Formal
challenges conventional distinctions between public and
Institutions and Their Actors
private, and problematizes the fundamentally political
● Formal Institutions are those formally established relationship between gender and power.
in one way or another, often by governments The Relationship between Gender Ideology and Gender
through official procedures. Inequality
o Laws are an outstanding example of
● Gender ideology refers to meanings involved in the
formal institutions
assignment of roles for women and men within the
o Laws that constitute civil or criminal
household and outside of it.
offenses have corresponding well-defined
o It refers to the attitude regarding the
penalties and persons in authority to
appropriate roles, rights, and responsibilities of
implement the sanctions (institutional
men and women in society.
actors).
● Gender equality, the opposite of gender inequality, is
o The most prominent formal institution
realized when women and men enjoy the same rights
established by the government is the
and opportunities across all sectors of society and when
government itself.
the behaviors, desires and needs of both women and
o Example: Three branches of the
men are equally favored and valued.
government, PNP, MMDA
● Informal institutions are not formally established,
but they are practices generally accepted
throughout society.
o Societies, for example, have informal
institutions concerning courtship and
marriage.
o In the Philippines, things like harana,
panunuyo, and other cultural traditions