Oral Communication – Reviewer Models of Communication

Lesson 1: Nature and Elements of Communication 1. Shannon-Weaver Model (mother of all

Nature of Communication communication models) - it depicts communication
1. Communication is a process. as a linear or one-way process consisting of five
2. Communication occurs between two or more people elements:
(the speaker and the receiver). - a source (producer of the message);
3. Communication can be expressed through words - a transmitter (encoder of the message into
(verbal), actions (nonverbal), or both at the same signals);
time. - a channel (signals adapted for transmission);
- a receiver (decoder of message from signal);
Elements of Communication - and a destination.
1. Speaker - source of the message or information. 2. Transaction Model - is a two-way process with the
2. Message - the information, ideas, or thoughts inclusion of feedback as one element.
conveyed by the speaker whether through words or 3. Schramm Model - it is similar to the transaction
actions. model, but you will notice that it added one element
3. Encoding - the process of converting the message which is the field of experience. This new element
into words, action, or other forms that the receiver refers to the commonality of the two communicators.
could understand.
4. Channel - the medium or means of communication. Functions of Communication
It could be personal or non-personal in which the 1. Control - to control the behavior of people or to
message is conveyed. regulate the nature and number of activities people
5. Decoding - the process of interpreting the encoded engage in.
message of the speaker by the receiver. 2. Social Interaction - allows individuals to interact
6. Receiver - the recipient of the message and someone with each other. It maintains the bond, connection,
who decodes the message. relationship, and intimacy with other people.
7. Feedback - the reactions, responses, or information 3. Emotional Expression - humans need to express
provided by the receiver. their emotions through verbal and nonverbal
8. Context - the environment where the communication. One function of communicating is
communication takes place. to express what one is feeling.
9. Barrier - the factors that affect and hinders the flow 4. Information Dissemination - is to convey
of communication. important information.

The Communication Process Features of an Effective Communication

- The speaker generates an idea. 1. Clear - ask yourself, “What’s the purpose of your
- The speaker encodes an idea or converts the idea message?”
into words or actions. 2. Concise - keep it brief, avoid repetition, and delete
- The speaker transmits or sends out a message. unnecessary adjectives and “filler words,” like “kind
- The receiver gets the message. of” or “basically.”
- The receiver decodes or interprets the message based 3. Concrete - your audience will have a clear picture of
on the context. what you’re telling them. Detail is important, but
- The receiver sends or provides feedback. not too much.
4. Correct - double-check for mistakes. When your
communications are error-free, they will look
professional and polished.
5. Coherent - when something is coherent, it’s
“logical.” It means that you have connected all of
your points and made them relevant to the key topic.
Barriers of Communication Lesson 2: Intercultural Communication
1. Emotional Barriers
2. Use of Jargon Intercultural Communication happens when individuals
3. Lack of Confidence interact, negotiate, and create meanings while bringing in
4. Noisy Environment their varied cultural backgrounds (according to
Ting-Toomey, 1999.)
Verbal and Nonverbal Communication - It is sending and receiving messages across
Verbal Communication refers to an interaction in which languages and cultures.
words are used to relay a message.
Culture Sensitivity is the ability to discriminate and
1. Appropriateness - the language that you use should experience relevant cultural differences.
be appropriate to the environment or occasion.
2. Brevity - speakers who often use simple, yet precise The Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity
and powerful words are found to be more credible. (DMIS):
One should be more direct in using words. Avoid - explains how people or groups tend to think and feel
fillers and insubstantial expressions which do not about cultural differences.
add to the messages, such as “uh,” “you know,” - is the basis for effective coaching and development
“like,” “I guess,” and others. to work more effectively with people from other
3. Ethics - words should be carefully chosen in cultural backgrounds.
consideration of gender, roles, ethnicity, preferences,
religion, and status of the person or people you are
talking to.
4. Vividness - words that vividly or creatively describe
things or feelings usually add color and spice to
communication. Try to find ways to charm your
audience using vivid words.

Nonverbal Communication refers to an interaction where

behavior is used to convey and represent meanings. Any
responses which are not expressed using words or language Ethnocentrism is a belief that one’s own culture is superior
are considered as nonverbal communication. to all others and the tendency to judge all cultures by one’s
own criteria. It is judging another culture solely by the
Some examples of nonverbal communications are stares, values and standards of one’s own culture.
smiles, tone of voice, movements, manners of walking, Ethnorelativism is a belief based on deep and heart-felt
standing and sitting, appearance, style of attire, attitude respect for other cultures that all groups, cultures, or
towards punctuality and space, personality, and others. subcultures are inherently equal. Other cultures are seen
neither as better or worse, but as equally valid but different
Understanding nonverbal communications is very important and complex worldviews. No one’s culture is superior to the
because of several reasons: others.
1. It enhances and emphasizes the message.
2. It sustains the attention of the listener. Stage 1: Denial
3. It can build connections with the audience or - The individual does not recognize cultural
listener. differences.
4. It can also serve as a channel to release tension and - example: “All cities are the same; they have tall
nervousness. buildings, fast food chains, and coffee shops.”
Stage 2: Defense Lesson 3: Speech Contexts and Styles
- The individual starts to recognize cultural Types of Speech Contexts
differences and is intimidated by them, resulting in - Intrapersonal refers to communication that centers
either a superior view on own culture or unjustified in one person where the speaker acts both as the
high regard for the new one. sender and the receiver of the message.
- example: “This culture does not view life the way - Interpersonal refers to communication between and
we do; our culture is certainly better.” among people and establishes personal relationships
Stage 3: Minimization between and among them.
- Although individuals see cultural differences, they Types of Interpersonal Contexts
bank more on universality of ideas rather than on - Dyad Communication is a communication
cultural differences. that occurs between two people.
- example: “Once we see through the cultural - Small Group is a communication that
differences, we really are just the same!” involves at least three but not more than ten
Stage 4: Acceptance people engaging in a face-to-face interaction
- The individual begins to appreciate important working to achieve a desired goal.
cultural differences in behaviors and eventually in - Public refers to communication that requires you to
values. deliver or send the message before or in front of a
- example: “These people and I have different values group.
and experiences, and I think we can learn from one - Mass Communication refers to communication that
another.” takes place through television, radio, magazines,
Stage 5: Adaptation book, billboards, internet, and other types of media.
- The individual is very open to worldviews when
accepting new perspectives. Five Speech Styles
- example: “To address our issue, I have to adjust my - Intimate is a type of speech style which occurs
approach to consider both my own and my between or among close family members or intimate
counterpart’s background.” individuals. The language used in this style may not
Stage 6: Integration be shared in public.
- Individuals start to go beyond their own cultures and - Casual is a type of speech style that is common
see themselves and their actions based on among peers and friends. Jargon, slang, street
multifarious cultural viewpoints. language, gay language or vulgar words are used.
- example: “I can look at things from the perspective - Consultative, this style is the standard one.
of various cultures.” Professional or mutually acceptable language is a
must in this style.
- Formal, this style is used in formal settings. This
style is one-way. It uses formal words and
expressions.
- Frozen, this style is “frozen” in time and remains
unchanged. Also known as fixed speech. The most
formal communicative style.
Lesson 4: Speech Acts and Strategies Types of Communicative Strategies
- Cohen (1990) states that strategies must be used to
Speech Acts is an utterance that a speaker makes to achieve start and maintain a conversation.
an intended effect.
1. Nomination - a speaker carries out a nomination to
Three types of Speech Acts collaboratively and productively establish a topic.
1. Locutionary Act - is the actual act of uttering. 2. Restriction - refers to any limitation you may have
2. Illocutionary Act - is the social function of what is as a speaker.
said. 3. Turn-Taking - pertains to the process by which
3. Perlocutionary Act - is the resulting act of what is people decide who takes the conversational floor.
said. This effect is based on the particular context in 4. Topic Control - covers how procedural formality
which the speech act was mentioned. and informality affects the development of topics in
conversation.
There are also indirect speech acts which occur when there is 5. Topic Shifting - as the name suggests, involves
no direct connection between the form of the utterance and moving from one topic to another.
the intended meaning. 6. Repair - refers to how the speaker addresses the
Inferred Speech Act: “Do you have the ability to pass the problems in speaking, listening, and comprehending
rice?” that they may encounter in a conversation.
Indirect Speech Act: “Please pass the rice.” 7. Termination - refers to the conversation
participants’ close initiating expressions that end a
Performatives - verbs that execute the speech act that they topic in a conversation.
intend to effect. The utterance said by the right person under
the right circumstances results in a change in the word.

Searle’s Classification of Speech Acts

1. Assertive - a type of illocutionary act in which the
speaker expresses the belief about the truth of a
proposition. Example: “No one makes better
pancakes than I do.”
2. Directive - a type of illocutionary act in which the
speaker tries to make the addressee perform an
action. Example: “Please close the door.”
3. Commissive - a type of illocutionary act which
commits the speaker to doing something in the
future. Example: “From now on, I will participate in
our group activity.”
4. Expressive - a type of illocutionary act in which the
speaker expresses his/her feelings or emotional
reactions. Example: “I am sorry for not helping out
in our group projects and letting you do all the
work.”
5. Declaration - a type of illocutionary act which
brings a change in the external situation. Simply put,
declarations bring into existence or cause the state of
affairs which they refer to. Example: “You are
fired!”