NATURAL RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION & EXTENSION

ED 111 (COMMUNICATION SKILLS)

Prepared by: C. Sondo (Cert. Agric., Cert. Hort., C.A.E., D.A.E, B.A.E, MSc Agric. Ext & Rural Dev)
 COURSE CONTENT

UNIT 1: PRINCIPLES AND PROCESS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION ......................................... 1

MODEL OF COMMUNICATION ............................................................. ..........................1
COMPONENTS OF THE COMMUNICATION MODEL.................................................................2
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE OF MEDIUM OF COMMUNICATION .....................................3
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION ...................................................................... 4

UNIT 2: ORAL COMMUNICATION .....................................................................................7

EFFECTIVE LISTENER................................................................................................. 7
NOTE-TAKING ........................................................................................................ 10
READING SKILLS ..................................................................................................... 11
PRESENTATIONS TIPS FOR PUBLIC SPEAKING .................................................................. 14
ORGANISING AND FACILITATING MEETINGS EFFECTIVELY .................................................... 15
TIPS FOR ATTENDING INTERVIEWS ............................................................................... 19

UNIT 3: NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION (NVC) ................................................................... 21

FORMS OF NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION ......................................................................22

UNIT 4: WRITTEN COMMUNICATION ............................................................................... 24

LETTERS .............................................................................................................. 25
CURRICULUM VITAE ................................................................................................27
MEMORANDA ......................................................................................................... 28
REPORTS AND REPORTING ......................................................................................... 29

UNIT 5: STUDY AND EXAMINATION TECHNIQUES ................................................................ 33

WHAT IS TO STUDY? ................................................................................................ 33
MEMORY AND LEARNING ........................................................................................... 33
STUDY GROUPS AND PARTNERS ................................................................................... 34
TAKING THE EXAMINATIONS/TESTS .............................................................................. 34
ESSAY WRITTING .................................................................................................... 35
COMMON WORDS USED IN ESSAYS OR EXAMINATION QUESTIONS ............................................ 38
WRITING REFERENCES/BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................... 39
REFERENCES ...........................................................................................................44

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 UNIT 1: PRINCIPLES AND PROCESS OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 Define communication and effective communication;
 Understand the importance of effective communication in organisations;
 Using the communication model, explain the communication process in terms of its major
component activities; and
 Understand the barriers to effective communication associated with the major components in
the communication model.

‘Communication’ is a widely used (and in some ways misused) word. It has been defined in many
different ways, perhaps the simplest of which is ‘the process of transmitting information from one
person to another’. This, however, is simplistic because it covers situations where information is
transmitted but is only understood by the sender. More penetrating definitions usually point out that
‘meaning’ (rather than just ‘information’) must be conveyed, and some go much further by stating that
communication must involve an exchange of information. Desirable as it may be for other reasons,
feedback is not a necessary part of communication process, and in theory it is not a prerequisite that
the receiver understands the message with these points in mind, communication is defined here as: A
process in which information and its meaning is conveyed by a sender to receiver(s)

An elementary, but important implication to be drawn from this definition, and the reader should keep
it in mind for the remainder of the module, is that whatever the message conveyed, and whatever
means are used to convey it, the sender and the receiver must have agreement about its meaning,
otherwise communication has not taken place by merely the transmission of information. It is virtually
impossible to identify an aspect of organisational functioning that is not affected by communication
and serious problems can arise if communication is not effective. In accordance with the definition
above, effective communication is defined here as: The extent to which the sender and receiver of a
message both attribute it with the same meaning.

THE COMMUNICATION MODEL

Most of us tend to take communication for granted and when we find that we have not communicated
effectively, we blame the other person. The problem is that communication is a more complex process
than it appears at first sight. There are many factors that can stand in the way of it being performed
effectively and in order to appreciate this, it is useful to start by exploring the process from a
theoretical standpoint. The approach which dominates thinking and research in the area is the
“information processing” perspective, and a model derived from the early works of Berlo (1960),
Schramm (1953) and Shannon and Weaver (1948) is given in figure 1.1 below. Despite its age, this
model has stood the test of time and it is still the most widely used conceptualisation of the process.
Before exploring the model, however, it is necessary to make these important points:
 The model is not intended to be a faithful representation of communication in the practice,
but a specification for the components that should be present and the functions that they
should perform, which makes it useful for diagnosing communication problems.

 It can be noted that the process is portrayed in terms of one-way flow of information from
sender to receiver. In practice, many massages evoke a response in which the receiver
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 becomes the sender of a new message and the original sender becomes the new receiver. This
is reflected in the model by the line labelled ‘role reversal: return message or feedback’.

Symbols & rules agreement Symbols & rules

for their use for their use

Noise

Sender Encode channel and medium Decode receiver

Role reversal: return message or feedback

Figure 1.1: The communication model

COMPONENTS OF THE MODEL

The source of the Message (sender)

All messages originate in the brain of the sender, for whom they have meaning.

Symbols of Encoding
To be transmitted, messages have to be encoded from thoughts into a set of symbols, for example,
words (spoken or written) or diagrams. The essentials for this are:
 A set of symbols that are in common use by both sender and receiver.
 A high degree of agreement about the rules for using the symbols so that they convey common
meanings.

The channel and Medium

The same messages can usually be transmitted in more than one way, but the two basic channels of
communication are verbal and written. Within these channels there are a number of different media
that can be used, and these have different capacities to carry information. This idea is reflected in
what we refer to as information richness, which can be defined as ‘the potential information-carrying
capacity of the medium’ and is a reflection of four factors:
 Whether multiple channels are used
 Whether the channel and medium permit rapid feedback to the message sender
 The type of communication-personal (person-to-person) communication that occurs in the here
and now, or impersonal communication that is not addressed to anyone in particular
 The language sources used, together with the variety of information cues available for
establishing meaning.

These ideas are summarised in Table 1.1 below.

A number of generalisations can be made about selecting an appropriate channel and medium in order
to achieve effectiveness in communication:
 Spoken channels are best for some messages and written ones for others, and for some
messages a mixture of both is more appropriate.
 Certain messages can be notoriously difficult to encode in written form, notably sincerity,
integrity and trustworthiness, which are all much more difficult to detect on paper than they
are in the face-to-face situation.

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  Certain types of messages can seriously overload a channel; it is hard to avoid confusion if an
attempt is made to give a purely oral description of something very complex, such as details of
new organisational structures or methods of work organisation, which can be done more
effectively with the aid of diagrams.
 Face-to-face communication is usually very much richer than the written form because it has a
more personal focus and there are many additional clues to help the receiver understand what
is said.
 Face-to-face communication also allows instantaneous feedback from the receiver, which in
turn allows the sender to check the receiver has correctly interpreted the message.

Table 1.1: The Information Richness of selected communication Media

Information
Potential Type Source of language richness
for of
Medium Channel(s) feedback communication (Symbols)
Face to face Verbal and Immediate Personal Words, intonation, Very high
gestures, eye
Visual contact
Telephone Verbal Fast Personal Words, intonation, High
phraseology
Personal written: Written Slow Personal Words Medium
memos, letter and
e-mail
Formal written: Written Very slow Impersonal Words Low
bulletins, notices,
etc
Written
Formal numeric: and Very slow Impersonal Numerals Very low
budgetary reports encrypted

Decoding
The receiver has to decode the symbols into thoughts in order to be able to understand the message.
This is a cognitive process and, as noted above, if the receiver is to be able to attribute the same
meaning to the message as its sender, both parties need to have a high degree of consensus about the
meaning of the symbols and the rules for their use.

The Receiver
Assuming that we are not dealing with a case of eavesdropping, this is the person to whom the message
is directed. The person not only has to take in the message using his or her sensory processes, but also
processes the information mentally to attribute it with a meaning.

Noise
Noise can be defined as any extraneous signal that interferes with, or masks, the message. Since this is
something that acts as a barrier to effective communication, it is more appropriate to consider it later,
when barriers are dealt with in more detail.

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FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE OF MEDIUM OF COMMUNICATION

The choice of the medium of transmitting any message will obviously depend on the following factors:

 Cost: As a communicator, you need to weigh the cost of communicating information against the
results expected.
 Confidentiality: There are certain messages that require to be sent to the audience with
privacy. As such, such messages cannot be transmitted by using open means of media, such as
fax, phone, etc.
 Safety and Security: If you want to send some very delicate and sensitive information, of
course there is need to consider using safety channels of communication.
 Urgency: Depending on the results one is looking for, you will most probably choose a medium
of communication which works within the time available. In such a situation, you may use the
fastest medium such as a fax, e-mail, phone, etc
 Distance: You need have to judge the distance that the message has to reach the receiver. If
the receiver is within the same building, you can walk there, though it will again depend on the
type of message.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

There are several barriers to effective communication. Barriers are influencing factors which impede or
breakdown the continuous communications loop. They block, distort, or alter the information. It is
important for the person delivering the message to be aware of these possible barriers to ensure the
receiver is receiving the message as they intended. Many things can impair the effectiveness of the
communication process. Some are associated with the source of a message, some with the receiver;
some are common to both, while others are associated with the channel of communication.

Barriers associated with the Sender

Message Formulation
While the originator of a message can have a clear idea of the meaning he or she wishes to convey,
people differ considerably in their capabilities to express their thoughts and where skills of this type
are poor, this can be a considerable barrier to communication.

Perception
Our perceptions of other people are not necessarily true but are our own versions of reality. This can
sometimes lead to problems in the way that messages are formulated. For instance:
 If a sender perceives that a message is unlikely to be well received, it can be toned down to
the text that its real meaning is obscured.
 A sender can underrate the receiver’s capability to cope with a complex message, which can
prompt the person to ‘talk down’ to the recipient, who can then feel that he or she is being
patronised, with all the annoyance and resentment that this causes.
 If the sender perceives that the intended recipient is a ‘difficult’ person to deal with, there
can be a tendency to tell the receiver what he or she wants to hear, which can give rise to
huge distortions

Encoding
Even when the sender can clearly express thoughts and has accurate perceptions of the receiver, there
can still be problems. Thoughts have to be encoded into symbols, and both sender and receiver need to
have consensus about the meaning of these symbols. Most communication uses words as symbols and
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while these can be expressed in written or verbal form, people differ in the meaning they attribute to
the same words. A common problem here is the use of jargon, which can be a distinct barrier when
people hold different conventions about the meaning of jargon words.

These problems are not confined to words alone. Although diagrams and models can sometimes be a
considerable aid in communicating an idea, a diagram or model is just a simplified representation of
reality. Thus, while one person can take an organisation chart to be a reflection of the distribution of
power in an organisation, someone else can regard it as a way of portraying the degree of
specialisation.

Barriers associated with media and channel

Noise: This is the most readily identifiable barrier associated with these components of the model and
noise can be of two types:

 Physical noise involves an extraneous signal masking or drowning out a message; for example,
the din in a factory workshop, or bright sunlight that shines on a screen and makes a projected
image almost invasive.
 Psychological noise has an impact when something concerned with either the message itself or
the setting in which communication takes place interferes with its transmission or attributed
meaning

In face-to-face communication, a significant source of psychological noise can be an

unintended clash between what is said and the speaker’s non-verbal signals. Where a clash
between verbal and a non-verbal cue occurs, it is the non-verbal message that is taken to be
the factual one.

The setting in which communication takes place can also be a potential source of psychological
noise and if, for example, a manager berates someone in front of other subordinates, the
chastised person can sometimes focus more on the reactions of his or her colleagues than on
the message itself.

Space proxemics, the use of interpersonal space when communicating with others, can be a
source of noise. There are four zones of proximity for communicating with others i.e.
 An intimate zone
 The personal zone
 The social zone
 And the public zone

An individual’s intimate and personal zones are private space reserved for very close and intimate
encounters. To enter these without invitation can often make the receiver feel so uncomfortable that
barriers are erected which interfere with the message.

Inappropriateness of Media and /or Channel

Written and oral channels tend to be more appropriate for certain types of message. Because written
material gives the recipient the facility to go over the information at his or her own pace, it can be
highly effective for lengthy, detailed messages. It also provides a permanent record and so it tends to
make the sender more precise about what is said. Because it can be difficult for a receiver to hold and
integrate different parts of a long, complex message in his or her memory, the latter parts of the

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message can interfere with understanding of what has been said earlier. Written communication can
overcome this obstacle.

The verbal channel, however, is much richer than the written form, particularly if it is used in a face-
to-face situation where it has a more personal focus and gives the receiver an opportunity to use
additional, non-verbal signals that can aid understanding. It is also faster than many written channels,
both in transmission and feedback. Perhaps most important of all, feelings and emotions are much
more easily communicated in this way, and so where a message is controversial and its sender needs to
convey honesty, integrity and trustworthiness as part of the message, it has tremendous advantages.

Barriers associated with the receiver

Decoding
Perception and selectivity can be huge barriers to the accurate receipt of messages. Recipients can
have preconceived ideas about what they ‘expect’ to receive and this can distort their perceptions and
interfere with receiving the sender’s intended meaning. Here a great deal can depend on whether the
receiver has faith in the honesty and integrity of the sender, which tends to be influenced by prior
experience. If someone has been less than honest on a prior occasion, people can suspect an ulterior
motive for the current message and assign a meaning before all of it is received. As such, the receiver
attends only to those parts of the message that confirm existing beliefs and the remainder is blocked
out.

Information Overload
This is becoming a significant problem in many organisations and to some extent it is associated with
increased use of information technology. When information overload occurs, the receiver is swamped
with surfeit messages and is unable to cope with them all. The sheer difficulty of trying to assimilate
everything forces the person to ration his or her attention with the attendant risk of something
important being overlooked and, in serious cases, messages receiving no attention at all.

Unit summary
In this unit, you learned that the term communication is variously defined depending on several factors
such as educational background, philosophical inclinations, etc. Again you have learned that
communication is a process, and as such there are some barriers that militate effective
communication. Finally, you also learned that there are factors that determine the selection of
communication channel. In the next unit, you will learn about the oral communication.

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 UNIT 2: ORAL COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION

In the last unit, we looked at different tenets of communication. In this unit, you shall look at oral or
verbal communication. Language is an audible visible code as well as the dress of thoughts. We hear
the words said and if we are literate, we can write the word. In short, we are more concerned with the
spoken word and this is the common tool that we use whenever we are communicating. The biggest
question that you may ask yourself is: what is the significance for you to understand and learn about
verbal communication? Yes, it is cardinal because as an extension officer (at whatever organization) or
communicator, this knowledge will equip you to communicate with anybody regardless of one’s
culture, tradition, and colour. People have verbally communicated through different modes, such as by
listening, presentations, meetings, etc.

What is verbal communication?

Verbal communication refers to the use of sounds and language to relay a message. It serves as a
vehicle for expressing desires, ideas and concepts and is vital to the processes of learning and
teaching. In combination with nonverbal forms of communication, verbal communication acts as the
primary tool for expression between two or more people. Signs and symbols are the major signals that
make up verbal communication. Words act as symbols, and signs are secondary products of the
underlying message and include things like tone of voice, blushing and facial expressions.

What do you think is the purpose of verbal communication?

Verbal communication has many purposes, but its main function is relaying a message to one or more
recipients. It encompasses everything from simple one-syllable sounds to complex discussions and relies
on both language and emotion to produce the desired effect. Verbal communication can be used to
inform, inquire, argue and discuss topics of all kinds. It is vital to teaching and learning, as well as
forming bonds and building relationships with other people.

The effective listener

Listening is part of the communication process - and, as is usually the case, problems arise through
differences in encoding and decoding. There are differing rates for speaking/listening: people can
listen and assimilate material much faster than people can speak - how often do you supply ends to
other people's sentences?

Boredom, frustration, and a rapid loss of concentration are the results when the listener is ahead of
the speaker. So, whose fault is it if communication is not effective - the speaker's or the listener's?

If you are the listener, then the following points apply; if you are the speaker, bear the points in mind
for your listeners, and provide an environment that will enable them to listen effectively.

Review a few statistics regarding listening: 40% of the work day is spent listening; the average person
listens at a 25% efficiency level.

1. The listening process involves sensing, seeing, and interpreting what is being communicated.

a. The listening sequence allows the listener to become more involved in the process.
 Receive the message

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  Perceive the message
 Interpret the message
 Remember the message
 Evaluate the message
 React to the message

b. Types of listening include content listening, critical listening, and empathetic listening.
The ultimate goal of effective listening is to apply all three types.

2. Problems in the process can be costly for an organization; the first step to correct
communication problems is to recognize them.

a. Paying attention is a big problem; the problems may be related to an attention span,
attention wandering, and concentration on the speaker’s message.

b. Understanding the information is key to effective communication. Problems may be in

understanding the meaning or the difference between speaking and listening speeds.

c. Remembering the information after the conversation is over is often difficult. Difficulties
can be related to attention and understanding, short-term memory, and information
recall.

3. Behaviours that inhibit listening are habits that need to be changed.

a. Calling the subject uninteresting makes paying attention very difficult.

b. Judging delivery instead of content makes it difficult to pay attention.
c. Jumping to conclusions makes the listener miss key points and possibly the main idea of
the message.

d. Listening for details, not the “big picture” is a backwards approach to listening.
e. Taking excessive notes takes a lot of extra time and energy during the listening process.
f. Attentive listening shows respect.

g. Creating or tolerating distractions make concentration almost impossible.

h. Failing to listen to difficult material makes it even more difficult to understand.

4. Techniques for improving listening come from practice.

a. Deciding to listen before a meeting clears your mind of outside thoughts.

b. Getting rest and food allows for better concentration because you are not tired or hungry.
c. Finding comfortable seating close to the speaker keeps your focus on the speaker and the
message.

LISTENING EFFECTIVELY

Barriers to effective listening

1. Preconceived ideas about the subject/person.

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2. Distractions - `noise', movements, body language, information overload [being told more than you
can cope with], conflicting priorities [being told something which conflicts with something else you
have been told previously].

3. Sex [Sphere of Experience] - jargon, vocabulary, style of delivery; means that you and the speaker
are not on the same level of knowledge - she is talking down to you [you know more than she realises],
or she is talking above your head [she assumes you know more than you do].

4. Span of concentration - first 5 minutes are of great importance because interest level is high; people
tend to concentrate in 20-40 second bursts, and then switch off for a brief spell [you are thinking of
something entirely different whilst someone is talking to you]; speakers need

 variation in tone, volume and content to retain constant interest,

 summaries on the trot,
 Emphasis of major points.

Listening Aids

1. Remove distracters - irrelevant reading material, talkative friends

2. Listen for key points

3. Don't jump to conclusions; don't assume you will not learn anything

4. Jot down notes, whatever the subject, whatever your level of interest - pretend you have to give a
review of the main points to a newspaper.

TAKING LECTURE NOTES

I. There are many reasons for taking lecture notes.

A. Making yourself take notes forces you to listen carefully and test your understanding of the
material.

B. When you are reviewing, notes provide a gauge to what is important in the text.

C. Personal notes are usually easier to remember than the text.

D. The writing down of important points helps you to remember then even before you have studied
the material formally.

II. Instructors usually give clues to what is important to take down. Some of the more common clues
are:
A. Material written on the blackboard.
B. Repetition
C. Emphasis
1. Emphasis can be judged by tone of voice and gesture.
2. Emphasis can be judged by the amount of time the instructor spends on points and the number
of examples he or she uses.
D. Word signals (e.g. "There are two points of view on . . . " "The third reason is . . . " " In
conclusion . . . ")
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 E. Summaries given at the end of class.
F. Reviews given at the beginning of class.

III. Each student should develop his or her own method of taking notes, but most students find the
following suggestions helpful:
A. Make your notes brief.
1. Never use a sentence where you can use a phrase. Never use a phrase where you can use a word.
2. Use abbreviations and symbols, but be consistent.
B. Put most notes in your own words. However, the following should be noted exactly:
1. Formulae
2. Definitions
3. Specific facts
C. Use outline form and/or a numbering system. Indention helps you distinguish major from minor
points.
D. If you miss a statement, write key words, skip a few spaces, and get the information later.
E. Don't try to use every space on the page. Leave room for coordinating your notes with the text
after the lecture. (You may want to list key terms in the margin or make a summary of the
contents of the page.)
F. Date your notes. Perhaps number the pages.

SAVING TIME ON NOTE TAKING

Here are some hints regarding taking notes on classroom lectures that can save time for almost any
student. Some students say that they plan to rewrite or type their notes later. To do so is to use a
double amount of time; once to take the original notes and a second to rewrite them. The advice is
simple: DO IT RIGHT THE FIRST TIME!

Second, there are some students who attempt to take notes in shorthand. Though shorthand is a
valuable tool for a secretary, it is almost worthless for a student doing academic work. Here's why.
Notes in shorthand cannot be studied in that form. They must first be transcribed. The act of
transcribing notes takes an inordinate amount of time and energy but does not significantly contribute
to their mastery. It is far better to have taken the notes originally in regular writing and then spend
the time after that in direct study and recitation of the notes.

Third, do not record the lesson on a cassette tape or any other tape. The lecture on tape precludes
flexibility. This statement can be better understood when seen in the light of a person who has taken
his/her notes in regular writing. Immediately after taking the notes this person can study them in five
minutes before the next class as s/he walks toward the next building, as s/he drinks his/her coffee, or
whatever. Furthermore, this student, in looking over his/her notes, may decide that the notes contain
only four worthwhile ideas which s/he can highlight, relegating the rest of the lecture to obscurity.
Whereas the lecture on tape has to be listened to in its entirety including the worthwhile points as well
as the "garbage," handwritten notes may be studied selectively. A student who takes the easy way out -
recording the lecture on tape as he or she sits back doing nothing - will box him or herself into
inflexibility.

READING SKILLS

You are expected to do much more reading at college than at high school; it's not called “reading for a
diploma” for nothing. Here are five tips to help you improve your reading:

1. Styles of reading
2. Active reading
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3. A tip for speeding up your active reading
4. Spotting authors' navigation aids
5. Words and vocabulary

1. Styles of reading

There are three styles of reading which we use in different situations:

Scanning: for a specific focus

The technique you use when you're looking up a name in the phone book: you move your eye quickly
over the page to find particular words or phrases that are relevant to the task you're doing.

It's useful to scan parts of texts to see if they're going to be useful to you:

 The introduction or preface of a book

 The first or last paragraphs of chapters
 The concluding chapter of a book.

Skimming: for getting the gist of something

The technique you use when you're going through a newspaper or magazine: you read quickly to get the
main points, and skip over the detail. It's useful to skim:

 To preview a passage before you read it in detail

 To refresh your understanding of a passage after you've read it in detail.

Use skimming when you're trying to decide if a book in the library or bookshop is right for you.

Detailed reading: for extracting information accurately

Where you read every word, and work to learn from the text.

In this careful reading, you may find it helpful to skim first, to get a general idea, but then go back to
read in detail. Use a dictionary to make sure you understand all the words used.

2. Active reading

When you're reading for your course, you need to make sure you're actively involved with the text. It's
a waste of your time to just passively read, the way you'd read a thriller on holiday.

Always make notes to keep up your concentration and understanding.

Here are four tips for active reading.

Underlining and highlighting

Pick out what you think are the most important parts of what you are reading. Do this with your own
copy of texts or on photocopies, not with borrowed books. If you are a visual learner, you'll find it
helpful to use different colours to highlight different aspects of what you're reading.

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Note key words

Record the main headings as you read. Use one or two keywords for each point. When you don't want
to mark the text, keep a folder of notes you make while reading.

Questions

Before you start reading something like an article, a chapter or a whole book, prepare for your reading
by noting down questions you want the material to answer. While you're reading, note down questions
which the author raises.

Summaries

Pause after you've read a section of text. Then:

1. Put what you've read into your own words;

2. Skim through the text and check how accurate your summary is and
3. Fill in any gaps.

3. A tip for speeding up your active reading

You should learn a huge amount from your reading. If you read passively, without learning, you're
wasting your time. So train your mind to learn.

Try the SQ3R technique. SQ3R stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recall and Review.

Survey: Gather the information you need to focus on the work and set goals:

 Read the title to help prepare for the subject

 Read the introduction or summary to see what the author thinks are the key points
 Notice the boldface headings to see what the structure is
 Notice any maps, graphs or charts. They are there for a purpose
 Notice the reading aids, italics, bold face, questions at the end of the chapter. They are all
there to help you understand and remember.

Question: Help your mind to engage and concentrate. Your mind is engaged in learning when it is
actively looking for answers to questions. Try turning the boldface headings into questions you think
the section should answer.

Read: Read the first section with your questions in mind. Look for the answers, and make up new
questions if necessary.

Recall: After each section, stop and think back to your questions. See if you can answer them from
memory. If not, take a look back at the text. Do this as often as you need to.

Review: Once you have finished the whole chapter, go back over all the questions from all the
headings. See if you can still answer them. If not, look back and refresh your memory.

4. Spotting authors' navigation aids

Learn to recognise sequence signals, for example:

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"Three advantages of..." or "A number of methods are available..." leads you to expect several points
to follow.

The first sentence of a paragraph will often indicate a sequence: "One important cause of..." followed
by "Another important factor..." and so on, until "The final cause of..."

General points are often illustrated by particular examples, for example:

General: Birds' beaks are appropriately shaped for feeding.

Particular: Sparrows and other seed-eating birds have short, stubby beaks; wrens and other insect
eaters have thin pointed beaks; herons and other fish hunters have long, sharp beaks for spearing their
prey.

Whatever you are reading, be aware of the author's background. It is important to recognise the bias
given to writing by a writer's political, religious, social background. Learn which newspapers and
journals represent a particular standpoint.

5. Words and vocabulary

When you're a graduate people expect you to use a vocabulary which is wider than a school-leaver's. To
expand your vocabulary:

Choose a large dictionary rather than one which is ‘compact' or ‘concise'. You want one which is big
enough to define words clearly and helpfully (around 1,500 pages is a good size).

Avoid dictionaries which send you round in circles by just giving synonyms. A pocket dictionary might
suggest: ‘impetuous = rush'.

A more comprehensive dictionary will tell you that impetuous means ‘rushing with force and violence',
while another gives ‘liable to act without consideration', and add to your understanding by giving the
derivation ‘14th century, from late Latin impetuous = violent'.

It will tell you that rash means ‘acting without due consideration or thought', and is derived from Old
High German rasc = hurried.

So underlying these two similar words is the difference between violence and hurrying.

There are over 600,000 words in the Oxford English Dictionary; most of them have different meanings,
(only a small proportion is synonyms).

Avoid dictionaries which send you round in circles by using very complicated language to define the
term you're looking up, leaving you struggling to understand half a dozen new words.

Keep your dictionary at hand when you're studying. Look up unfamiliar words and work to understand
what they mean.

Improve your vocabulary by reading widely.

If you haven't got your dictionary with you, note down words which you don't understand and look them
up later.
13
PRESENTATION TIPS FOR PUBLIC SPEAKING

Know the needs of your audience and match your contents to their needs. Know your material
thoroughly. Put what you have to say in a logical sequence. Ensure your speech will be captivating to
your audience as well as worth their time and attention. Practice and rehearse your speech at home or
where you can be at ease and comfortable, in front of a mirror, your family, friends or colleagues. Use
a tape-recorder and listen to yourself. Videotape your presentation and analyze it. Know what your
strong and weak points are. Emphasize your strong points during your presentation.

When you are presenting in front of an audience, you are performing as an actor on the stage. How you
are being perceived is very important. Dress appropriately for the occasion. Be solemn if your topic is
serious. Present the desired image to your audience. Look pleasant, enthusiastic, confident, proud, but
not arrogant. Remain calm. Appear relaxed, even if you feel nervous. Speak slowly, enunciate clearly,
and show appropriate emotion and feeling relating to your topic. Establish rapport with your audience.
Speak to the person farthest away from you to ensure your voice is loud enough to project to the back
of the room. Vary the tone of your voice and dramatize if necessary. If a microphone is available,
adjust and adapt your voice accordingly.

Body language is important. Standing, walking or moving about with appropriate hand gesture or facial
expression is preferred to sitting down or standing still with head down and reading from a prepared
speech. Use audio-visual aids or props for enhancement if appropriate and necessary. Master the use of
presentation software such as PowerPoint well before your presentation. Do not over-dazzle your
audience with excessive use of animation, sound clips, or gaudy colors which are inappropriate for your
topic. Do not torture your audience by putting a lengthy document in tiny print on an overhead and
reading it out to them.

Speak with conviction as if you really believe in what you are saying. Persuade your audience
effectively. The material you present orally should have the same ingredients as that which are
required for a written research paper, i.e. a logical progression from INTRODUCTION (Thesis statement)
to BODY (strong supporting arguments, accurate and up-to-date information) to CONCLUSION (re-state
thesis, summary, and logical conclusion).

Do not read from notes for any extended length of time although it is quite acceptable to glance at
your notes infrequently. Speak loudly and clearly. Sound confident. Do not mumble. If you made an
error, correct it, and continue. No need to make excuses or apologize profusely.

Maintain sincere eye contact with your audience. Use the 3-second method, e.g. look straight into the
eyes of a person in the audience for 3 seconds at a time. Have direct eye contact with a number of
people in the audience, and every now and then glance at the whole audience while speaking. Use your
eye contact to make everyone in your audience feel involved.

Speak to your audience, listen to their questions, respond to their reactions, adjust and adapt. If what
you have prepared is obviously not getting across to your audience, change your strategy mid-stream if
you are well prepared to do so. Remember that communication is the key to a successful presentation.
If you are short of time, know what can be safely left out. If you have extra time, know what could be
effectively added. Always be prepared for the unexpected.

Pause. Allow yourself and your audience a little time to reflect and think. Don't race through your
presentation and leave your audience, as well as yourself, feeling out of breath.

14
Add humour whenever appropriate and possible. Keep audience interested throughout your entire
presentation. Remember that an interesting speech makes time fly, but a boring speech is always too
long to endure even if the presentation time is the same.

When using audio-visual aids to enhance your presentation, be sure all necessary equipment is set up
and in good working order prior to the presentation. If possible, have an emergency backup system
readily available. Check out the location ahead of time to ensure seating arrangements for audience,
whiteboard, blackboard, lighting, location of projection screen, sound system, etc. are suitable for
your presentation.

Have handouts ready and give them out at the appropriate time. Tell audience ahead of time that you
will be giving out an outline of your presentation so that they will not waste time taking unnecessary
notes during your presentation.

Know when to STOP talking. Use a timer or the microwave oven clock to time your presentation when
preparing it at home. Just as you don't use unnecessary words in your written paper, you don't bore
your audience with repetitious or unnecessary words in your oral presentation. To end your
presentation, summarize your main points in the same way as you normally do in the CONCLUSION of a
written paper. Remember, however, that there is a difference between spoken words appropriate for
the ear and formally written words intended for reading. Terminate your presentation with an
interesting remark or an appropriate punch line. Leave your listeners with a positive impression and a
sense of completion. Do not belabour your closing remarks. Thank your audience and sit down.

ORGANISING AND FACILITATING MEETINGS EFFECTIVELY

Responsibilities in the conduct of meetings are as follows.
The Chairperson
The role of a chairperson of any kind at a meeting is to:
 Preside, maintain order and ensure that the group does a good job of the work.
 Together with the secretary decide the agenda item of the next business meeting, of course with
some inputs from the members.
 Keep the person on the floor to the point and ensure that one person speaks at a time
 Make an effort to be impartial and avoid arguing with members at all costs.
 Learn to speak after others have spoken

The Secretary
 Ensure the effective administration of the meeting, including all work before and after the
meeting, e.g., organizing the date, time and place of meeting.
 Can also advise people on the application of the rules of business
 Generally, the secretary is to have close relationship with the chairperson to ensure that the
proceedings go smoothly as planned.
 Ensures that the agenda is prepared well in advance and distributed, together with the minutes.
 Take notes of proceedings during and after the meeting.
 Ensures that the minutes are distributed to the members within two of the meeting.
 Ensure that the resources for the meeting are ready.

Advice and tips on how to organise meetings which fulfil their purpose efficiently.

15
Before the meeting

Make sure everyone knows the time and place

A new group or one engaged in a lot of activity should meet at least once a week, at the same time and
day. It helps to establish a consistent meeting day, time and location, as soon as possible so people can
make it a habit. If they have to search for you or keep track of an ever-changing meeting time, they're
far more likely to forget or not to bother. You'll want a space that's private enough for you to have
strong disagreements in and where only the members of the group will be while you are using it.

Develop an agenda

An agenda gives people time to plan, to think over things that will be discussed, to do assignments and
bring necessary information and materials. It doesn't have to be set in stone - you can always add and
adjust as needed, even during the meeting.

The agenda can be printed and distributed either in advance or at the meeting. Or, it can be written
on a chalkboard or whiteboard where everyone can see it. This helps keep people on topic and lets
them know what will be covered and when. If its known who is chairing the meeting in advance it may
be a good idea for that person to start the meeting with a suggested agenda.

Points on a typical agenda may include:

 Welcome/open meeting
 Apologies for absence
 Reading of previous minutes, corrections, adoption
 Matters arising from the previous meeting
 A list of specific points to be discussed — this section is where the bulk of the discussion as well
as decisions in the meeting usually takes place
 Any other business (AOB) — allowing a participant to raise another point for discussion.
 Arrange/announce details of next meeting
 Close meeting

If the chair thinks there is a lot to get through it may make sense to set a maximum amount of time
that can be spent discussing particular topics right at the start of the meeting.

Make sure the room is open and set up properly

Have you ever arrived at a meeting only to find the door locked, and everyone had to stand around
waiting while the facilitator scrambled to find the key? Or have you ever been in a meeting where
there weren't enough chairs, and each time a latecomer arrived, they had to interrupt and search for
one and move it in? Not especially effective ways of inspiring confidence and credibility or getting
things done efficiently, are they? Try and arrange the room so that everyone sits in a circle and make
sure you are seated where you can see everyone.

During the meeting

Start as you mean to continue

16
Make sure you start on time. This is especially important for newcomers, who can get a bit put-off by
the meeting start time being increasingly pushed back while people chat or wander around. First thing
to do is make sure everyone knows who everyone else is. As clichéd as it may be - have a 'go-round' and
get people to say their names and maybe a bit of other information about themselves. Next make sure
someone has volunteered to facilitate the meeting (who will have the agenda, and make sure the
meeting flows smoothly) and someone else is taking decent notes of the meeting. It’s important that
the same people don't end up doing these tasks every meeting, perhaps the best way to tackle this is to
have a list of everyone willing to chair and each week take the next person on the list.

Minute taking

Someone should be responsible every week for keeping minutes of the meeting and preparing these to
be read at or distributed before the next meeting. Minutes need not be very detailed (you don't need
to write down what everyone says). They should aim to include:

1. Who attended the meeting?

2. Topics discussed,
3. Decisions reached for each topic,
4. Who has volunteered to do what?
5. Items to be discussed at next meeting (and when that will be).

Encourage group discussion to get all points of view

Turn questions back to the group for their input. Ask people to comment on something just said.
Compliment people on their ideas and thank them for their input. Ask open-ended questions. You may
need to ask the more quiet people for their thoughts, and tactfully interrupt the longwinded ones to
move the discussion along. Encourage people who just want to agree with a previous speaker to say
"ditto" rather than taking the time to repeat her/his point.

Stay on top of things

It's part of your job as facilitator to manage the traffic and help the discussion move along. If several
people are trying to talk at once, ask them to take turns. It helps to have a pen and paper to hand for
when things get busy- jot down people's names in the order they raised their hands. It can be a good
idea to let people who have not spoken yet to skip the queue and put them at the top of your list.
Make sure everyone gets their turn and things keep moving - you might have to start asking some
people to keep it short! Often a discussion can become dominated by a couple of speakers, try and
avoid this situation by inviting the rest of the people to contribute (going round in a circle and asking
for people's views can help).

If the discussion is getting off-topic (i.e. it strays from the agenda), point this out and redirect it back
on course. If someone is getting hostile, argumentative, or needlessly negative, tactfully intervene and
try to turn the discussion in a more constructive direction. If necessary, ask the group to agree to a
time limit on a discussion that might take too long. You might want to agree to limit each speaker's
time, or say that no one can speak a second time until everyone has spoken once.

If the group is spinning its wheels and people are only repeating themselves, restate and summarise the
issues and ask if people are near ready to make a decision on the subject. If it just doesn't seem that
the group can make a good decision right now, suggest tabling the matter until another time. You may
want to ask someone to bring back more information, or form a committee to work on the issue.

17
Don't use your position as facilitator to impose your personal ideas and opinions on the group.
If you have strong feelings on a particular issue, you may want to step aside and let someone else
facilitate that discussion. At the very least, keep your own comments to a minimum, try to let others
speak first, and identify them as your personal beliefs, outside of your role as facilitator. Avoid
criticising the ideas of others - your position gives your comments undue extra weight.

Non-verbals are important, too

Be attentive to people who are speaking - look at them, lean forward, smile, nod. Make eye contact
with people who may need encouragement to speak. Pay attention - people who are less confident
about speaking will often indicate that they want to speak in minor way (e.g. briefly half put up their
hand). A good chair will spot this and encourage them to speak.

Don't be afraid of silence

It's a very useful tool. It gives people a chance to consider and collect their thoughts. It may encourage
someone to voice a comment they've been thinking about but hesitant to say.

Guide the discussion toward closure

Restate people's comments to make sure everyone understands their point. Ask for clarification.
Summarise what has been accomplished or agreed and what is left to resolve. Suggest when it's time to
wrap up and make decisions or take action.

Decision making

Arguments about how best to reach decisions are fundamental to anarchism. You may wish to leave
time for discussion in the hope of being able to reach consensus, only then moving to a vote, or you
may wish to go straight to the vote. If time permits it may make sense to postpone making a
contentious decision to the next meeting to give people a chance to think things over (and calm
down!).

Take time at the end of the meeting to process

Reflect on what went well and what people appreciate about others' input and actions. Check out
assumptions. Encourage people to share any lingering concerns or things that just don't sit right.

End on time

Nothing makes people dread and avoid meetings more than knowing they're likely to go on and on and
consume far more of their time than they want to give. Set a time to end the meeting at the very
beginning and stick to it!

After the meeting

Minutes
Make sure the minutes will be written up, organised and then distributed among those who attended
within a reasonable time scale.

Follow up with people.

18
Thank them for their input. Make sure they understand assignments and have what they need to do
them.

TIPS FOR ATTENDING INTERVIEWS

Whether you’re heading out for your first interview ever or you’re on your hundredth try, it helps to
learn as much as you can about attending interviews.

Those new to the job market should take the time to understand what to expect on a job interview.
Those who have had many interviews can benefit by reviewing what they’ve experienced and making
adjustments to better their chances of success.

Interviewing will differ by industry – interviews for IT jobs will vary from interviews for healthcare jobs
– but there are certain universal interviewing tips that will apply to all fields.

Attending an Interview

Good news! You’ve been asked to meet with an employer face-to-face. Consider yourself successful.
Obviously your resume, cover letter, and/or contacts have paid off and someone is expressing that they
may want to hire you. You’re probably excited and even nervous about attending an interview. Should
you be? Yes and no. Yes, it is natural to be excited and nervous about an interview because it means
you are enthusiastic about the prospect of employment. Employers want people who really want the
job. Yet it is important to make sure that you aren’t nervous due to the “unknown” of interviews. Are
you nervous because you don’t know what to anticipate? If so, it is important to do your best to
eliminate that feeling. You can do so by following these tips:

Tips for Attending Interviews

Tip #1: Prepare!

Nothing is more important than preparation when it comes to an interview. Preparation includes
research. Research the company, the job description, and even the person you are about to meet if
possible.

Know as much as you can about what the employer is looking for before you attend the interview. Be
prepared to show how your experience can meet and even exceed the company’s needs. Anticipate
interview questions and prepare how you will answer them. Prepare good questions about the position
and the company.

Tip #2: Organize!

Organization is another part of preparation. Nothing can make you feel more nervous or look more
bumbling than a lack of organization. It also tells the employer that you will behave similarly once you
have the job. Organize your materials so you can easily access them for application purposes and on
the interview itself. Know what time you are to attend the interview and be there early. Organize all
your details including clothing, travel route, contact phone numbers, materials, etc. in advance so you
don’t feel rushed, flustered, or confused before or during the interview.

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Tip #3: Behave!

You know how your mother told you to “behave?!” Well, there’s no better time to behave than on an
interview. It’s a time to be professional and use your best manners. Today there are more
opportunities than ever to do the wrong thing on an interview. For example,
 Don’t let your cell phone ring when you attend an interview.
 Don’t wear a Bluetooth on your ear.
 Don’t carry in a cup of coffee.
 Even while you are waiting, try to avoid constant texting or listening to music through earbuds
or playing games on your phone. Someone may be watching you to see how you spend your
time.
 Do take the time to review your materials.
 Do observe the office.
 Be polite and shake hands, smile and be friendly.
 Do take part in conversation but not to the point that you’re rambling about personal details.
The interviewer doesn’t need to know about your recent divorce or your honor roll student.
 Be yourself but be professional. Engage in conversations the interviewer initiates.
 Try your best to use good body language including straight posture. Try not to fidget. Eliminate
anything that causes you to do so.

Tip #4: Thank!

An important part of attending an interview is how you leave an interview. Thank the hiring manager
for the opportunity to present your qualifications. You can show your interest by asking questions about
when you can expect to hear about their decision and you should express that you are interested in
having the job (if you are). Follow up by thanking the employer in writing.

Unit summary
In this unit, you learned that verbal or commonly known as oral communication is done through
different ways such as: listening, reading, taking notes; presentations, meetings; and interviews. In the
next unit, you are going to look at another type of communication which is rarely considered in every
day’s interaction. In short, you are going to look at the basics of non-verbal communication.

20
 UNIT 3: NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION (NVC)

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Upon completion of this unit, you should be able to:

 Fully explain forms of non-verbal communication; and
 Be sensitized on the importance of distance you should be keeping when communicating with
your clients of opposite sexes to avoid social conflicts that may hinder you mission.

Forms of Non-Verbal Communication

As we have seen from the discussion of the communication process and its barriers, communication
involves more than spoken or written words. For example, when Mutinta arrives punctually for a job
interview wearing a conservative blue suit and when she leans forward to answer questions in an
animated voice, she is sending messages to the interviewer. These non-verbal messages will be
observed and registered, just as her words are interpreted and processed by the interviewer. Learning
to recognize and control non-verbal cues is important to the successful communicator.

Some authorities consider non-verbal signals to be even more important than words. In experiments
testing the communication of feelings (such as approval or disapproval of another individual),
psychologist Albert Mehrabian found that body movements and tone of voice conveyed 93 percent of a
message. The actual words conveyed only 7 percent. Whether you are communicating feelings or ideas
(and most messages contain both), a number of nonverbal factors are at work.

Paralanguage—How the Voice Communicates. The way in which a message is spoken is often as
important as what is said. Paralanguage describes the vocal qualities, such as tone, inflection, volume,
emphasis, and pitch, of a spoken message.

Although the words are the same, the receiver perceives different messages when voice emphasises
changes. Paralanguage often reveals the emotions, conscious and unconscious, underlying our words.
Dynamic speakers and successful business leaders capitalize on paralanguage to reinforce their words.
Because their voice patterns complement their words, they avoid sending conflicting messages.

Kinesics—How the Body Communicates. It would be inaccurate, however, to suggest that specific
positions and movements are infallible indicators of underlying motivation. Such simplicity of course,
belies reality. Although we may not be able to catalog every body movement and indicate its hidden
meaning, we should be aware that facial expression, eye contact, posture, and gestures exert a
significant effect on viewer’s perceptions.

Facial Expression. Experts estimate that we can make and recognize nearly 250,000 distinct facial
expressions. The most common expressions are interest, enjoyment, surprise, distress, shame,
contempt, anger, and fear. In conversations, facial expressions are a principal source of feedback.
Alert communicators display and interpret facial expressions accurately; they modify their messages to
produce the effect they intend. For example, the appearance of frowns, yawns, or smirks on the faces
of listeners in the audience should signal Clark Kent, a sales representative, to alter his presentation
because he's not obtaining his desired result.

21
Eye Contact. Often described as the "windows of the soul," eyes are the most expressive element in
face-to-face communication. Individuals who maintain direct eye contact are usually considered to be
open, honest, and trustworthy. "Shifty" eyes suggest dishonesty; and a downward gaze may be
interpreted as a sign of submission, inferiority, or humility. In this culture it's difficult to have
confidence in a speaker who is unable to "look you in the eye." It must be remembered, of course, that
the interpretation of much nonverbal communication is culture dependent.

Posture. The way you stand and hold your body also sends messages about your self confidence.
Stooped or bowed shoulders may signal that you are burdened, self conscious, lacking confidence,
submissive, beaten, guilty, or afraid. A straight back with squared shoulders typifies strength and
responsibility. Hunched shoulders suggest anxiety or weariness.

Gestures. Some hand gestures are recognized and easily interpreted. A circle formed with the index
finger and thumb signals satisfaction, shaking the index finger indicates a warning, and showing the
palm symbolizes a peaceful greeting. Other gestures are not so easily translated. Do crossed arms mean
"I will not let you in"? Does rubbing the nose with a finger represent disapproval? Does patting the hair
mean approval? Does forming a "steeple" with the fingertips indicate superiority? The interpretation of
these gestures and others depends greatly on the situation and also on the culture.

Image—How appearances influence communication. The image an individual projects and the objects
surrounding that person can communicate nonverbally. Clothing, for example, tells a great deal about
an individual's status, occupation, self-image, and aspirations. A researcher testing the perceptions of
individuals conducted an experiment in which two men dressed in inexpensive and expensive clothing
on alternate days. Their task was to enter stores of all types and select merchandise. When it was time
to pay, they searched their pockets and announced that they had left their wallets at home. Then they
tried to pay by cheque. When dressed in expensive clothing, the men were able to cash twice as many
cheques as they did when wearing inexpensive clothes. Clothing apparently communicated a non-verbal
message indicating worth, integrity, and trustworthiness. Appearances definitely affect perceptions. If
you look successful, you are often perceived to be successful.

In addition to clothing, a person's possessions and ornaments send messages. In a business office, the
condition of an individual's desk, the appearance (or lack) of personal decorations, the kind of
paintings on the wall, the quality of the furniture, and the books or magazines in view suggest the
occupant's status, work habits, personal habits and interests, education, and personality traits. An
office visitor forms opinions, conscious and unconscious, from such nonverbal clues.

Proxemics—How space influences communication. Proxemics refers to the amount of space that
individuals naturally maintain between each other. Sociologists report four territorial zones: intimate
space (up to 45 cm), personal space (30-65cm), social space (120-280cm), and public space (>300).
When our territorial space is invaded, we resent and resist the intrusion. Business conversations may
take place in personal or social space, but never in intimate space. Meetings are usually conducted in
public space. Although effective communicators probably could not name these four zones, they
instinctively understand and observe spatial requirements.

Manipulation of space illustrates another form of non-verbal communication. The arrangement of

furniture in an office, for example, communicates a variety of information about the occupant. Richard
Snyder, human resources director, places a visitor's chair close to his desk, suggesting that he is open,
approachable, and genuinely interested in getting to know his visitors personally. On the other hand,
Victoria Santos, branch manager, places visitors' chairs across the room from her desk and keeps a
coffee table in front of the chairs. The nonverbal message is that she is distant, aloof, and
uninterested in visitors.

22
 Unit Summary

In this unit, you learnt that ideas and feelings are communicated by more than the words we speak or
write. Messages are also sent nonverbally by paralanguage (how the voice sounds), by kinesics (facial
expressions, eye contact, posture, and gestures), by image (clothing, objects, and appearances), and
by proxemics (spatial relationships). Becoming aware of nonverbal signals helps you improve your
ability to control these elements in your own communication. You can also become more skilled at
deciphering non-verbal cues, thus enhancing your comprehension of the total message. Beware,
however, of relying too heavily on non-verbal signals. Individual cues and images are misleading when
taken out of context. Moreover, non-verbal messages are significantly influenced by culture. As global
markets expand and as Zambia becomes increasingly diverse, communicators must remember that
nonverbal signals can no longer be interpreted universally in terms of "Zambian" norms.

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 UNIT 4: WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

INTRODUCTION

The written word is another medium of communication. It is an extension of the spoken word and is
commonly used in organizations. The written word is used in notes, notices, letters, memos, circulars,
reports, electronic mails etc. Written communication is especially useful in circumstances such as;
 When there is plenty of information to be communicated;
 When there is need to have permanent record of information; and
 When the information to be communicated has detailed numerical data.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Upon completion of this unit, you should be able to:
 Produce appropriate range of written communication.
 Apply skills of writing good English to letter writing, memo writing, and many other written
communications.

LETTERS

Have you not wondered why may be at one time your application letter for a job was not honoured? Did
you take time to ask yourself why you were not even short listed? Many times, job applicants fail to
convince their potential employers of their suitability simply because they failed to meet the
expectations. Therefore, it is necessary for you to learn how letters are formulated. This is because
letter writing is a skill that needs to be mastered. For this reason, you must have a good knowledge of
the principles of letter writing, the correct layout for the main kinds and uses of letters for successful
communication in different situations.
There are many types of letters, but they are generally classified into two i.e. informal and formal
letters. Informal letters are usually those that are used for casual or personal communication between
two individuals. They do not have any standard format in which they are supposed to be written. On
the other hand, formal letters are those letters that are written between individuals, organisations or
individuals and organisations for impersonal or business purposes. Formal letters come in different
formats depending on the different circumstances that demand for their writing. However, the
following is the standard letter format that applies to all types of letters:

(a) Sender’s address and other details.

(b) Receiver’s names and address
(c) Date of writing the letter
(d) Appropriate greeting or salutation, e.g., Dear Sir, Dear Mr. Jones, etc
(e) References

24
 (f) Opening paragraph: May refer to previous correspondence, acknowledgement of a request, or
explains the purpose of the letter. Please avoid words such as ‘I am pleased to be writing you.”
They already know you have written to them, all what they want to know is why you are
writing them.
(g) Middle paragraph: This is a section that describes the events or ideas relating to the opening
paragraph. Always keep this section short and simple.
(h) Closing paragraph: This is a crucial section. It is a summary of what has been presented before.
Never introduce new ideas in this section.
(i) Signature and name of writer.

Caution! Remember that:

“Dear Sir”
“Dear Madam” ends with “Yours faithfully”
“Dear Madam/Sir”
“Dear Mr. Smith” ends with “Yours sincerely”
‘Dear Caroline” - may end “With best wishes”

Sample of an application letter:

NATURAL RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT COLLEGE

PO BOX 310099,
LUSAKA. Addressee

25th January, 2009.

The Human Resource Manager,
Tanganda Farms Ltd,
Po Box 21456.
KAWAMBWA. Addressor

Dear Sir/Madam, Salutation

RE: APPLICATION FOR POSITION OF FARM MANAGER Reference

I am interested in applying for the above captioned position as advertised in the Kamungoma
Newspaper of 23rd December, 2009. Opening paragraph

I have been working as a farm manager for the above institution for the last 6 years. Currently, I am
pursuing an agricultural course with a major in Crop Sciences. My course will finish at the end of
September, 2009 and therefore, I am looking forward to joining a progressive farm such as Tanganda
Farms Ltd. Middle paragraph

I shall appreciate to attend some interviews at any time and look forward to hearing from you. I have
enclosed photocopies of my curriculum vitae, and other relevant documents Closing paragraph
25
Yours faithfully,
Your signature

Daka Maliambisi

Most employers will usually ask applicants to submit their Curriculum Vitae (CVs) with their job
application letters.

Curriculum Vitae
Curriculum vitae are a list of one’s qualifications and experience. Curriculum vitae are literally
translated as “the course of one’s life.” Many times people are baffled on how they should write and
present their CVs. The format depends on individual organization’s needs; however, the following
aspects are common to all formats:

Order-the information should be set in order of personal details, then education and experience, then
other interests like spare time activities, membership to clubs, groups, parties, etc. and finishing with
referees.

Presentation-each piece of information should be written under appropriate headings, with sub-
headings and columns where necessary, the appearance should be neat and systematic and well spaced
out making sure that you do not crowd the page.
Style-it is not necessary to write in complete sentences, but be consistent.

Curriculum Vitae Sample

1. Personal Details
Name: Kachali Davis
Date of Birth: 06/01/79
Sex: Male
Place of Birth: Nsenga District
Marital Status: Married Photo
N.R.C Number: 218765/63/1
Cell phone Number: 260 095 5452860

PROFILE: As a technical nutritionist, with vast expertise in agriculture, I am able to design an

appropriate machine that processes and packs vegetables, thereby maintaining nutritional elements.

2. Education Qualifications
Institution Subject Qualification Period Examining Body
NRDC Food $ Nutrition Diploma 2007- 2009 Unza
Nsenga High School General education Certificate 2002- 2006 E.C.Z
Chabwela Basic School Junior Education Certificate 1998- 2001 E.C.Z

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3. Work Experience
DATES POST RESPONSIBITIES
2006-2008 Food technologist Buy foodstuff for PLWA

4. EVALUATION & RESEARCH ACTIVITIES

2003-2004: Carried out an academic research entitled: Factors militating people Living with HIV
AND AIDS to shun ARVs: A case study of the Zambian context.
2000-2001- Designed vegetable processing equipment

5. SEMINARS AND WORKSHOPS

YEAR WORKSHOP SEMINAR PLACE HELD DURATION
2004 TOT on HIV and AIDS Galu Lodge 3 weeks
2005 Computer –word processing Taj Pamodzi Hotel 2 weeks

Referees: Here you include the names, addresses, posts, and phone numbers of people who know you
very well, from the academic and profession point of view.

MEMORANDA
A memorandum is a written communication used to effectively convey simple information or
instructions to someone or a small group of people quickly within an organization. Memoranda are used
for such things as;
 Giving brief instructions about a new procedure;
 Conveying a single item of information;
 Reminding people about existing arrangements or regulations;
 Requesting information or suggestions; and
 Serving as a covering note when sending a report or file.

NB: Memoranda (abbreviated as Memos) are restricted to internal use only consequently, they are
usually referred to as Internal Memos.
A memo has the following components:

1. Main heading – it must be written MEMORANDUM or ‘INTERNAL MEMO’ in bold to make it stand
out among other papers.
2. To and From headings – these make clear who the sender and recipients are. The position of
the sender must be written. The name or position of the recipient(s) individually or as a group
must be written too.
3. Date – This is very important because it indicates when the communication was sent and if it is
one in a series, it makes it easy for filing.
4. Subject heading – this is a brief sentence to show what the memo is all about.
5. First paragraph - this gives the background, context or reason for the communication.

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 6. Second paragraph – this gives the actual message i.e. the information, reminder or instructions
which must follow the first paragraph logically.

For longer memos the second paragraph will contain two or more points giving more details of the
communication. Below is an example of a memo;

Sample of a memo:

INTERNAL MEMORANDUM

To : The Farm Manager,

From : All Unionized workers (Signature & date stamp),
Date : 22nd December, 2015.

SUBJECT: GENERAL MEETING

This serves to inform you that on 24th December, 2015, there will be a general meeting. Please,
observe punctuality, and all should attend.

REPORTS AND REPORTING

A report is a formal piece of written work based on facts, process or test. It is usually written in a
concise style, giving precise details. Reports are written between officers in the same department,
different departments or even organisations.

Much internal communication will be characterized by its reporting procedures as determined by the
channels within the organization, and the type of organizational structure used. Every employee will
have to report to someone whether it is:
 A colleague
 A Section head
 Departmental head
 A Senior manager
 An auditor, etc.

Reports can be classified in the following ways:

(a) Regular and Routine reports
 Health and safety reports
 Maintenance reports
 Progress reports*
 Staff appraisal reports
 Sales reports

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  Financial reports
 Field visit reports*
 Educational reports*
(b) Occasional Reports
 Accident reports
 Disciplinary reports
(c) Specially commissioned Reports
 Market research reports
 Policy change reports
 Production reports
 Investment in new equipment reports

It is worth mentioning that all these reports are characterized by a standard format to allow
comparison between current and previous reports.

 Audience - Who is the report for?

 Aims - What end result do they want - to inform, persuade, recommend?

 Topic and focus - What is the main subject area and which particular aspect/issues will
the report cover?
The procedure of report writing includes:
 defining the aims to be achieved

 deciding the appropriate format

 writing a report plan

 selecting the content

 structuring clearly

 drafting

 editing - related to: correction of style and language errors, critical rationalisation of the
content, pagination, layout, etc.

 writing final version

The main structural elements of every report are: title, author, summary, abstract/synopsis,
acknowledgment, terms of reference, foreword, aims, objectives, introduction, methodology,
findings/results, conclusions, recommendations, references/bibliography, appendices and index.

In this section, you are introduced to only some of the reports that you will or are always using when
reporting, and these are: progress, field and educational reports.

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PROGRESS REPORTS
Most sponsors and any serious organization require progress reports upon implementation and
completion of activities. The purpose of this report is to update the client on the progress of the
project/programme- its achievements, critical issues and any problems that may have arisen since the
last reporting period and the plans for solving or overcoming these problems. Progress reports take
many forms- memos, letters, short reports, formal reports or presentations. And many organizations
have very specific reporting requirements for all their required reports. These requirements may
include specific outline to be followed, when and where to submit the reports, number of copies to be
sent, page limits, type of font to be used, etc.

Regardless of the specific format, most progress reports have the following components:

Title:
Reporter (name, and title):
Date:
Table of contents:
Abstract: You should briefly state the most important issues such as the context, goals, achievements,
problems/challenges encountered and methods for overcoming them.

1. Introduction. You should fully detail the background to the project.

 Background/History/Context of the project
 Outlining project aims, goals, and objectives

2. Achievements to date and major milestones for each objective outlined above:
 Discuss the actions taken or activities implemented since the last reporting period to meet the
objectives;
 Discuss major achievements and milestones reached and reasons for this success;
 Discuss important lessons learned since the last reporting period.

3. Problems, challenges encountered and methods for overcoming them: for each objective:
 Discuss problems, and challenges encountered in achieving the objectives or in carrying out the
activities of the scope of work;

4. Plans for the next reporting period.

 Discuss major activities planned for the next reporting period;
 Discuss what you have done or will do to overcome the problems, and challenges and why you
think you will be successful, and
 Discuss the likelihood of meeting the project objectives and carrying out project activities within
the allotted time and budget.

Alternatively, you can use a memo or letter format. All major components, that is, from component 1
to component 4 remains the same and changes are only in the first part:
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To : Programme Officer, Katanga Farm
From : The Executive Officer, Katanga Farm (Signature & Date stamp)
Date : 22nd October, 2015
Subject: Progress Report for September, 2008
(All other information as above)

FIELD TRIP REPORTS

Field trip reports usually take the form of a memo and are relatively short (3 pages as maximum). Field
trip reports are NOT an hour by hour narrative of what happened, but are structured to highlight what
was important and necessary follow-up action. Here is the recommended format:

To :
From :
Date :
Subject :
1. Name of traveller and dates of travel:
2. Purpose of travel:
 List all the objectives of the field trip.
3. Accomplishments/Results
For each objective stated above:
 Discuss accomplishments and results
 Describe constraints and problems encountered if any in achieving objectives.
 Not what did not get accomplished and why?
4. Resource mobilization implications for the project
5. Recommendations and Follow-ups
 Describe the next steps for carrying forward the results achieved during the travel
6. Appendices
Include a travel itinerary here and list of contacts made.

Unit summary

In this unit, you learned how to write good and effective written documents such as: letters, memos,
progress, and field reports. In the next unit, you are going to learn about several study and
examination techniques. The knowledge and skills you are about to acquire, will enable you to excel in
academic assessments such as examinations, assignments, quizzes, tests, etc.

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 UNIT 5: STUDY AND EXAMINATION TECHNIQUES

Introduction
Studying for examinations is a cardinal aspect for every student. Studying for any assessment requires
some skills, and a good number of academic aspects are covered in this unit. More emphasis will be on
techniques of studying, essay writing, quoting and writing references of both electronic and print
materials. The emphasis on these aspects is because very soon you will be required to write a project
or research proposal, assignment essays, a reports, etc.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Upon completion of this unit, you should be able to:

 Use effective study strategies for preparing for examinations, tests and assignments.
 Effectively write essay questions.
 Write references according to the APA convention system.

What Is to Study?
As earlier defined, studying is a process in which students or any other scholar remembers and recalls
information (Theodore, 1993). Similarly, Mwansa and Moonga (2002:3) defined study as “an intensive
reading of a text with a view to retain or comprehend its content.” The retention of the material is
reflected through responses you give when you are tested or examined.

Studying Techniques

1. Management of time
You should always remember that the most important thing is to plan your study. Make sure that each
subject is given enough study time. You should avoid a situation where one subject dominates other
subjects’ study time. This implies that you should apportion your studying proportionally. In
apportioning your study time, ensure that each study time is spent in a silent place for you to be
focused and attentive to your studying material. Mwansa and Moonga (2005) stated that, “the human
mind has a limited capacity to absorb and retain what is read. This, therefore, requires that specific
amount of time should be spent in order to allow maximum retention and comprehension.”

2. Using your notes to study

If you have taken detailed notes during the lectures or practical sessions, studies show that you have
done more than half of your studying for any test/examination. There is need for you then to highlight
some important points.

3. Memory and Learning

At times you may think that because you have understood what you heard or read then you have leant
it. Neglecting to take steps to remember is a common academic mistake you can ever make. Your first
efforts in studying any subject are always directed toward moving information from your Short-Term
Memory (STM) into your Long-Term Memory (LTM). This information can then be recalled when you
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need it. The term ‘memorization’ here is used in a much broader sense than when you were told at
elementary school that you have to memorize a poem, speech, rules of grammar, series of dates in a
history course. The kind of memorization we are looking at, involves the whole range of activities that
expand your mind and abilities in all sorts of dimensions, that is, the storing of the information in the
long-term memory and its retrieval. In sum, it is the ability to recall and make connections between
ideas, events or things you know or applying the learnt information in different contexts.

4. Study Groups and partners

At college or university level, never be cheated to study alone especially when you are intellectually
weak. Working in pairs or groups helps a lot and can only be effective if certain guidelines are observed
such as:
 You should only work with students who take the same serious attitude toward their studies as you
do;
 Decide how you are going to work together;
 Make sure that everyone takes responsibilities in discussions, data collection, etc;
 Stick to your agreement unless everyone agrees to make some changes; and
 Group with students who attend lectures and instructions.

Group work helps to compare and contrast notes, hence, clarify difficulty points encountered in the
lecture or practical sessions. Posing questions for each other about the material can help increase and
broaden your understanding.

Studying for Examinations/Tests

Examinations/tests generate a lot of anxiety for many students. The actual solution to reducing this
anxiety is by proper preparation and knowing what to study as earlier stated. For you to be a successful
student, you should recognize that studying for a test, ends on the day of taking examination as
indicated below.

What you should do before the examination/test is taken

Make sure that you apply the study techniques discussed earlier. A point of emphasis is that, you should
get prepared from the time lectures or instructions start; be in a study group that is focused; and use
your lecture notes. You should also make sure that all the examination requirements are set in place.
More importantly, familiarize yourself with the examination rules and regulations.

Expectations during the examination/test

The best state of mind in which you can take an examination or a test should be that which is alert and
calm. There is no reason for you to get overwhelmed if you have prepared yourself. The following
essential guidelines can assist you when taking an examination:

 Keep calm and relaxed, if possible take a light meal and dress comfortably.
 Arrive at the examination room at least 30 minutes before the start of the examination.
 Remind yourself of the examination rules and regulations.
 When the examination paper is given, check that the paper is the right one you are sitting for.
33
  Pay careful attention to any verbal directions that are given by invigilators.
 Read instructions very careful and make sure you understand them. If you have any questions,
raise your hands to the invigilators.
 Skim over the question paper and quickly plan how you will handle it.
 Answer the easiest questions first. As you read through, note down some points that you have
remembered. Please ensure that you write legibly and neatly.
 Always stick to the number of questions instructed. Many markers penalize for writing more
questions than instructed.

Expectations prior to the end of the examination/test

Always spare between 15-20 minutes of proof-reading your work. By so doing, you may discover some
mistakes, hence, the time to make corrections Also you can use this time to make sure that you have
numbered the questions and filled in the front page of each answer booklet.

What to do after the examination/test

You are advised to forget about the examination you have written because you can do nothing about
missed points. There is a tendency for students to discuss the written examinations. If you waste your
time on it, you may be discouraged, simply because the so called answers to the questions may not be
the correct ones. Therefore, plan for your next examination paper.

Essay Writing
Mwansa and Moonga (2005) state that, “writing has for a long time distinguished University education
from lower levels in many countries and systems of education. There is a general departure from using
the multiple-choice, one-word answer or short answer schemes of testing.”

The use of essays or assignments becomes prominent in colleges and universities in order to allow for a
critical expression of one’s understanding of a phenomenon. Essays are used in continuous assessments
as well as in examinations. As a distance learner, this is the most common delivery method in which
you will be required to be submitting your assignments. In some cases, these assignments will be in
essay form, hence, the need for you to learn how essays are written.

Steps in essay or assignment writing

Mwansa and Moonga (2005) suggested opting to use the learner’s or student’s reference method which
is applicable to you as a distance learner. In a summary form, Wallace’s (1984) steps are as follows:

[STUDY THE TITLE]

[NOTE THE LIMITS AND REQUIREMENTS]
[DRAFT THE ESSAY OUTLINE]
[IDENTIFY READING SOURCES]
[MAKE AND ARRANGE NOTES]
[MAKE FINAL OUTLINE]
[WRITE ESSAY]

34
Step 1 - Studying the title: Essay titles found in assignments, tests and examinations are carefully
phrased in order to capture the relevant details. It is very important for you as well, to carefully study
the title of the question/task in order to discover the relevant details asked for. Mwansa and Moonga
(2005) state that, ‘many a time students have written essays after working very hard but have scored
low marks because they did not respond to the needs of the title. In other words, they did not
understand the topic.’ Therefore, from the start, it is important for you first to understand the essay
title.

Step 2 - Note the Limits and Requirements: In this step, you should take note of the length and the
due date. The length of the essay will assist you to decide the amount of information to put, while the
due date will give you the specific time you should do the work. Make sure that you do not submit your
work later than the due date as doing so, may attract a penalty from the marker/examiner.

Step 3 – Draft the Essay Outline: You should make sure that after knowing the limits and due dates, it
is now important for you to draft an outline. This implies that you should come up with strategies on
how you are going to approach your essay. It must be a guideline or direction indicating exactly what
you are going to look at. Remember that this is just a tentative guideline and is subject to changes. In
short, the outline will assist you with the type of information to look for.

Step 4 – Identify the reading sources: Try by all means to collect all relevant data for your essay. The
type of literature required will be determined by the nature and scope of the topic. For example, if
the topic is all about the current issues, there’s need for you to collect data that is recent. Apply the
reading skills. Never collect data that was written some years back which have been overtaken by
current events, unless tackling a historical topic.

Step 5 – Make and arrange the notes: Ensure that as you read, you record all what you are reading.
This will assist you to answer the questions you have set for yourself. Make sure that direct quotations
are acknowledged.

Step 6 – Make the final outline: Since there is a possibility of thinking and coming up with additional
points as you observe them, put the points you have raised under each subtitle and check carefully
whether they match.

Step 7 – Write the essay: At this stage, the essay topic is well established in your mind and all the
points you have raised have become part of your own language. You can now write your essay in your
own vocabulary. Lastly, always proof-read your work.

Essay Structure
Every essay question comprises four major sections or parts and has to be presented in the following
order: Introduction, main body and summary/conclusion and references.

 Introduction

35
Essay presentations commonly start with an introduction. The introduction normally introduces the
topic to be discussed. For example, a suitable introduction may involve some of the following:
 Introduces the topic to be discussed: Mention of the main requirements of the question,
 The main line of argument, ideas or perspectives that you want to adapt in your essay, etc.

 The Main Body

The next stage is to write the body of the essay. This is the longest and most important part of your
essay. It is commonly divided into paragraphs, comprising different ideas or perspectives. These
paragraphs should be of reasonable length. They should neither be too short nor too long.

 Summary/Conclusion
You should make sure that the essay is summarized or concluded. A summary involves isolating all the
major points raised in a given essay, while a conclusion contains your final words. It tells the reader
what you as a writer on a given topic think about the topic, the problems raised and the solution given.

 References
Any information that you may have read about the task and cited must be included in this section.

Editing & proof-reading

Make sure that the title of your assignment reads as that given by the lecturer or instructor. For
example, ensure that all capital and small letters, punctuation marks and grammar in the title that you
copied are the same as in the original title. A slight variation in the title may distort the meaning that
was intended. Some lecturers specify the length of the assignment in terms of words or pages. Ensure
that this is adhered to when writing your assignment.

Essay Writing Format: Cover page

On the cover page of your assignment, the format should be as follows:

The institution’s name:

Department:
Course name/code:
Lecturer/instructor’s name:
Student number:
Due date:
Assignment topic:

COMMAND WORDS USED IN ESSAYS OR EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

Montgomery (1986) and Wallace (1984) acknowledged the importance of analyzing essay title according
to the words used to frame it. Wallace (1984) called them the ‘Direct Words or the D-Words.’
You are going to notice how some assignments, tests or examination questions are asked in this part.
The following are some of the popular D-words used in essay topics and their explanations or meanings:
 Account for: say the reasons for, what for, what brought about.
 Analyze: the answer should discuss the things closely, weigh for and against - talk critically.
36
  Asses: the answer weighs the pros and cons, say to what extent or level.
 Compare: requires an answer that sets items side by side and shows their similarities.
 Contrast: requires an answer that sets items side by side and shows the differences between the
two.
 Criticize: the answer needs to point out mistakes or weaknesses and indicate any favourable
aspects of the subject of the question. It must be a balanced answer.
 Define: this demands an answer that which explains the precise meaning of a concept from
different perspectives.
 Discuss: the answer should give a clear explanation of something, give details of features.
 Distinguish: the answer should show how something differs from another or others.
 Explain: the answer should show the features and characteristics of a thing (Give reasons to
support the ideas).
 Express: the answer requires writing in your own words, the significance of factors.
 Identify: the answer requires you to isolate and discuss, out of many factors available.
 Narrate: the answer should give a step by step story of an important thing. It should follow a
chronological order.
 Illustrate: this requires you to demonstrate with examples.
 Justify: you are required to give only the reasons for a position or argument. The position may
either be negative or positive.
 Evaluate: this is similar to Discuss but the conclusion in this type is expected to make a judgment
either ‘pro’ or ‘contra’ (for or against), the concept being discussed or evaluated.
 Summarize (Outline): your answer should contain a summary of all the available information
about a subject.
 Trace: this requires you to give a brief description of something in logical or chronological order
of the stages.
 State: this requires you to give an answer which expresses the relevant points briefly and clearly
without lengthy discussion or minor details.
 Describe: the answer should show how something works, is done, or appears

Writing References/Bibliography
Reference writing is an important part for all academic work. Thus, the work you are going to do apply
to all aspects of your work in other subjects such as: research, projects, assignments, and other field
tasks. A word of caution: do not treat this unit as in isolation from what you are doing or will be doing
elsewhere in other subjects.

Defining concepts

Reference: This is a list of cited books and other materials written by other people that are read and
quoted in any work.
Quoting: This is the mentioning of the points of view brought out by someone and has to be in
quotation marks.
Citation: This is the quoting of the author’s names and date of publication.
Bibliography: This is a list of written materials on the subject that is read but not cited in the work.
37
Element: These are parts or divisions of each reference. For example, the title of a book is an element
as well as the commas, towns, year published, town published etc.
To paraphrase means to summarise somebody’s ideas and putting them in your own words without
losing the meaning.

Plagiarism: This is the act of using somebody’s information without indicating or acknowledging
sources. It is an academic crime, and if such a person is discovered, s/he can be vindicated, sued or
the work or certificate withdrawn.

In-text citation

When writing APA citations, you should make use of the author-date method of in-text citation. In this
method, the author's last name and the year of the source material's publication enclosed in
parentheses should appear at the beginning of the sentence/in the text or at the end of the sentence.
It is inserted directly after the information being sourced from the scientific literature.

Citing at the beginning of a sentence: less than 40 words

If you want to acknowledge a quotation at the beginning of a sentence only the year of publication is
enclosed in parentheses immediately after the source or author you cite as follows:

Banda (2002) stated that “surface irrigation system is mostly used by small-scale farmers in Third World
countries.” p.5.

Citing at the end of a sentence (s): more than 40 words

If you want to cite by showing the sources at the end of the text, you indicate the author followed by a
comma, the year of publication, a full colon, at times, the pages on which the quotation is found. You
can only make this type of citation if the sentences are more than five.

Surface irrigation though not advocated in the developing countries plays a pivotal role in as far as food
production is concerned. It is therefore, imperative to promote it in the developing countries as well
since it is a sustainable irrigation method. Sustainable irrigation methods have to be carefully
disseminated to small-scale farmers because of their alleged complexity. (Fraser, 2006:5).

If you quote by showing sources and you do not want to include all the words or sentences, you can
write it this way:

In the Northern Province of Zambia, many small-scale farmers practice shifting cultivation in the
miombo woodlands. Though farmers are able to an average of three successive crops under this
practice, soil fertility and crop yields decline after the third year. . . . Studies have shown that the
chitemene system can be sustained as long as the population density does not exceed seven persons
per square kilometre. However, farmers . . . are no longer able to wait for up to 25 years (Siame, 2006:
14).

In the third sentence, the four dots indicate that there are some words that are missing at the end of a
sentence and can only be accessed in the original source. On the other hand, in the fifth sentence,
there are three dots in between, indicating there are only few words missing within the sentence.

If the statement you want to quote is 40 or more words, use a block quote format or indentation as
follows:

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Rossett (1995) pointed out that:

The examination of extant data is a wonderful needs assessment tool because it is

inexpensive. This tool takes the instructional technologist across the organization in search of
the natural outcomes of effective and ineffective performance. It involves asking colleagues
for the data that automatically flow from their work. The only challenge is to convince
colleagues that they ought to release that information to you (pp. 192-193).

REMEMBER: Use ‘p’ to indicate a single page number and ‘pp’ to indicate multiple page numbers.

Citing a work with 2 authors

The following shows how two authors are cited:

According to Chanda and Banda (2011), “climate change has been practiced . . . .” (p. 2).

A work with 3 to 5 authors

When citing a work with three to five authors for the first time, identify all authors in the signal phrase
or in parenthesis:
Mulenga, Liywalii, and Mutesa (1999) stated that “. . . .”

In subsequent citations, only use the first author's last name followed by "et al.," meaning and many
more in the signal phrase or in parentheses:

Mulenga et al., (1999) argued that “. . . .”

A work with 6 and more authors

When citing a work with six and more authors, identify the first author’s name followed by “et al.”
Smith et al., (2006) maintained that “. . . .” or

Citing organizations
When citing an organization, mention the organization the first time when you cite the source in the
signal phrase or the parenthetical citation:
The data collected by the Food and Drug Administration (2012) confirmed that “. . . .”

If the organization has a well-known abbreviation, include the abbreviation in brackets the first time
the source is cited and then use only the abbreviation in later citations:

Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (2012) confirmed that “. . . 12 people consumed poisonous
mushrooms . . . .”

Citing authors with same last names

When citing authors with the same last names, use first initials with the last names:
(B. Mulenga; 2005 and F. Mulenga, 2008)

When citing two or more works by the same author published in the same year, use lower-case letters
(a, b, c) with the year of publication to order the references:

Mulenga’s (1998 a) study of adolescent immigrants revealed that “. . . .”

39
Personal communication
When citing interviews, letters, e-mails, etc., include the communicator’s name, the fact that it was
personal communication, and the date of the communication. However, do not include personal
communication in the reference list:

B. Mulenga also claimed that many of his students had difficulties with APA style (personal
communication, November 3, 2002).

Guidelines on how references are presented

Different journal writers and publishers provide guidelines as to how references or bibliography should
be presented. There are some variations in the way citations are written. In this context, you are going
to adopt the guidelines provided by the American Psychological Association (APA). The APA is generally
used by most scholars in renowned universities and this is the one that is adopted at Natural Resources
Development College.

Please, note that the following references do not reflect the real source. These references are given as
examples only.

PERIODICALS

A periodical is a publication that comes out at a particular or specified time. Journals, newspapers,
monographs, and magazines are some of the examples. The way these periodicals are cited varies on
the basis of a number of authors that have written them. Below are some of the variations in writing:

JOURNALS
a.) Written by one author:
Banda, G. (2002). Agriculture extension: Its challenges in the 21st century. Agricultural Review 9,
257-260.

You may notice that the first element is the surname of the author, followed by a comma, initial,
full stop, year published (in parentheses), full stop, the title of the article and sub-title, a full
stop, the title of the journal in which the article is appearing, full stop the volume number,
comma, and page numbers of the journal on which the article appeared. Capitalise the first letters
of the nouns, other words such as conjunctions, prepositions, unless they appear at the beginning,
are not capitalized. The title of the journal and the volume number should be bold, italicised or
underlined.

b.) Written by two authors:

Banda, G., and Jani, H.M. (1998). The impact of communication on the learning process.
International Review of Education. 31 (2), 205-212.

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 Note that everything remains the same except where there are two authors; a comma is used to
separate the first author’s name from the second author. The other variation is that the volume
number e.g. 31, is followed by an issue number that is enclosed in parentheses. This element
indicates that sometimes a journal may not have both volume and an issue number. The underlined
or bold number will always be the volume number and the number in parentheses will always
designate an issue number.

c.) Written by more than two authors:

Banda, G., Jani, H.M., Mubita, K., Hamusankwa, H., and Felix.(2001). The Agro forestry study in
Chief Shakumbila’s Kingdom. Research Journal of Zambia. 25 (5), 23.

Most of the elements remain the same except that the number of authors increases. Note that the
number of this entry will apply to any journal article with any number of authors that are more than
two.

MAGAZINES

Gardner, H. (1981, Dec.5). Do Babies sing a song? Psychology Today. p.4.

The year, the month or date of publication, are shown. In this journal, the volume and the issue
numbers are not indicated while all other elements are the same but a single p.means page while
double pp. means pages.

Newspaper article (no author)

Study finds free care used more. (1982, Jan. 22). APA Monitor, p.14.
You have to capitalize the first letter of the title of the article and underline or italicize the title of
the newspaper and show the page number.

Newspaper article (with author)

Mulenga, J. C. (1987, Dec. 7). The effect of GMO’s on the environment. Times of Zambia. p.8.

TEXBOOKS
Written by one author:
Mtopa, A.M. (1989). Land Surveys in Mongu. Lusaka: Kenneth Kaunda Foundation.

All the elements up to the year of publication remain the same as seen in the Journal. The changes are
that the third element is the title of the book in which the first letter of the first word is capitalized
and all first letters in nouns are capitalized. The next element is the town where the book was
published followed by a full colon, the name of the publisher and a full stop Furthermore, where the
book was written by more than one author, what is obtaining in the journals applies here.

Written by two authors:

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Kelly,M.J., and Achola, P.P.P.(1986) . The Provision of Education for All: Towards Implementation of
Educational Reforms. Lusaka: School of Education, University of Zambia.

Written by more than two authors:

Kelly, M.J., Achola, P.P.W., Kaluba, L.H., Nilson,K., and Kamanga, T. (2006). Agriculture at
Crossroads: A Case Study in Zambia. Lusaka: Macmillan.p.45.

Note that all authors are separated by commas and all other elements remain the same.

Editioned Book
Banda, G., and Mubita, K. (2000). Agriculture in Zambia: Its challenges (3rd Ed.). New York:
Macmillan.

All the elements remain the same except two. The first is that after the title of the book, you enclose
edition in parentheses. Note that the edition number is neither underlined nor bold.

An Edited Book
Bown, L., and Tomori, S.H.D. (Eds.). (1979). A Handbook of Adult Education in West Africa. New York:
Hutchinson.

The additional element is (Eds.), which comes immediately after the second author. The initials (Eds.)
stand for editors and if there is only one editor, could be indicated as (Ed.).

Chapter in an edited book:

Ampene, K.E. (1979). Teaching Adults. In L. Bown, and S.H.D. Tomori (Eds.), A Handbook of Adult
Education in West Africa. New York: Hutchingson.

All other elements remain the same except that the title of the chapter in the book, is followed by the
names of the editors, each starting with initials and separated from each other by a comma. The
comma at the second author is followed by the title of the book.

Dissertations/Theses
When referencing a theses or dissertations, use the same method as a book reference but include the
level of the award (e.g. B.A., BSc., M.Sc.) and the name of the awarding institution.

Mwangala, L. (2012). A study of the development hypogeal in soybean production on sodic soils

in Rufunsa District (Unpublished Doctoral dissertation). Northern Michigan University,

Marquette, MI.

Sometimes you may wish to use material from lectures, discussions, interviews, or modules to
supplement your assignments. Use the following conventions to ensure that your referencing is correct

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 CONFERENCE PAPERS

Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MACO). (2009). “Fertiliser Input Supply Programme: report of

the FISP National Conference on the impact.” Paper presented at the annual conference, 6-12

September, 2010. Mansa: MACO. pp. 12-13.

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Lectures and modules: Unpublished, verbal sources such as interviews and lectures are not
reproduced in the reference list. However, you must put any published course materials that you have
used in the reference list using the conventions below. Unpublished, verbal sources such as interviews
and lectures are not reproduced in the reference list. However, you must put any published course
materials that you have used in the reference list using the conventions below.

Sondo, C. (2012). ED 111 Module: Communication Skills. Department of Agriculture Education and

Extension.Lusaka: NRDC.

OR, if the author is unknown

Department of Crop Science. (2011). CS 345 Lecture: Crop protection, Lusaka: NRDC.

Electronic Reference Writing

Mwansa and Moonga (2005:50) state that, “the use of information communication and technology is
spreading fast…and it covers the entire world.” In this respect, the use of electronic devices such as
the computer has become a very necessary instrument in the field of academic writing. This requires
you as an academic student to be acquainted with it. Basically, the format is as follows: Author, date
of publication, title of article, title of the source, volume, issue, page numbers, retrieved (date) or
DOI, from (database).

Article with a Doi

Muller, V. (1994). Hydraulics: Transmission. The Australian Engineering Journal, 3 (2), 103-107. DOI:

10:1002/piq.20033.

NOTE: Use the article’s DOI (Digital Object Identifier), the unique code given by the publisher to a
specific article.

Article without a Doi

Atkinson, R. C., and Shiffrin, R. M. (1979). The control of short-term memory. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 26(2), 80-89.

Note: The name and volume of the journal should be italicized, and there should be a comma between
the journal name and volume number. Note that the issue number is NOT italicized (the (2) in the
example), and that there is not a space between the volume number and the issue number. Also note
that only the first word of the title is capitalized; all other words begin with lower case letters (unless
it’s the first word after a colon or a proper noun).

Kernohan, L. (2008). Access opportunities and issues for students with disabilities at one Ontario
college. College Quarterly, 11(2). Retrieved from http://www.senecac.on.ca/quarterly/2008-
vol11- num-spring/kernohan.htm

References
After you have completed writing your work, create a list of references that contains the sources that
you have cited in the body of your paper at the end of your document under the heading “References”.
Any other information that you may have read about the problem but did not mention in the paper is
not included in this section but under Bibliography section.

Here are some general rules to follow when writing your reference page:
1. Start the reference section on a new page.

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2. The word “References” should be centered at the top of the page in boldface, but should not be
underlined or capitalized.
3. List citations alphabetically by the author’s last name. If you have more than one citation for the
same author, order them from oldest to most recent.
4. If you have more than one citation from the same author for the same year, arrange them
alphabetically by title (excluding A or The). The exception to this is if the articles are in a series, in
which case they are differentiated by using a lower case letter immediately after the year, within the
parenthesis.
5. References shall never be numbered or bulleted.

On the next page, are examples of various types of citations in this module, separated into five
categories: Books, Periodicals, and others.

Unit summary
In this unit, you have learnt about study skills, how to prepare for examinations, write a good essay,
quote from literature source and finally, how references are written. Therefore, since you are now
through with communication and study skills, you are expected to be a very good communicator.

45
 References

American Psychological Association. (1992). Publication Manual of the American Psychological

Association. (6th Ed.). American Psychological Association. Washington, D.C, Author.

Mwansa, D.M., and Moonga, A.L. (2005). Module EDG1: Study and communication skills. Zambian
Open University, School of Education.

Tembo, V.M. (2001). The writing of college and undergraduate assignments in the social sciences.
(Unpublished)

Theodore, T. (1993). College Study Skills.

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