Sense of the Self IV. “It is good if I say it is good.

”
 we get to the heart of the problem of
3 Theories about Ethics that Center on the Self:
subjectivism
1. Subjectivism  The problem now becomes: “What is
 individual thinking person (subject) is at my basis for saying it is good?”
the heart of all moral valuations  renders subjectivism an untenable view
 the one who is confronted with the for someone who is interested in ethics
situation and is burdened with the need  takes the fact that I am the subject
to make a decision or judgment making the valuation and uses this fact
 leaps to the more radical claim that the as the very basis for that valuation
individual is the sole determinant of  But when “I”, as subject, am asking
what is morally good or bad, right or what is right or wrong, good or bad,
wrong with subjectivism, there is no other basis
that I can look toward

Problems Of Subjectivism
2. Psychological Egoism
I. “No one can tell me what is right and o “Human beings are naturally self-centered, so all
wrong” our actions are always already motivated by self-
 there is some validity to this interest. “
 No one can compel another to accept a o theory that describes the underlying dynamic
certain value judgment if she herself behind all human actions
does not concur with it o As a descriptive theory, it does not direct one to
 cannot be taken as absolute act in any particular way.
- We realized, in many instances, that we had o it points out that there is already an underlying
maintained an idea or an opinion that further basis for how one acts
discussion reveals it was actually erroneous o The ego or self has its desires and interests, and
- We realize that we can be mistaken and that we all our actions are geared toward satisfying these
can be corrected by others interests
o an irrefutable theory because there is no way to
try to answer it without being confronted by the
II. “No one knows my situation better than challenge that, whatever one might say, there is
myself” self-serving motive at the root of everything.
 there is some validity to this
 person who is put in a certain situation,
which calls for a decision, has 3. Ethical Egoism
knowledge of the factors that affect her o differs from psychological egoism in that it does
situation and decision not suppose all our actions are already inevitably
 to take this fact as a ground for not self-serving
listening to others is to have a mentality o Prescribes that we should make our own
that imagines that one’s own situation or interests, as the single overriding concern
concern is so personal and unique that o may act in a way that is beneficial to others, but
there is no way another person can we should do that only if it ultimately benefits us
possibly understand her and give her any o should consider herself as the priority and not
meaningful advice
allow any other concerns, such as the welfare of
 But does not it make greater sense to other people, to detract from this pursuit
recognize the reality that many human
experiences are common and that others
may have something useful to suggest?

III. “I am entitled to my own opinion.”

 valid point that is often misused
 each person has the right to believe what
she believes and has the right to express
this
 this right is often stubbornly
misconstrued as immunity from
criticism and correction. Ex. A bigoted
racist has an opinion against anyone
who is dark skinned
 these opinions are highly problematic
because there is no basis for considering
any of these groups of people as inferior
 Utilitarianism  Abolition of slavery, death penalty, and
corporal punishment for children.
 ethical theory that argues for the goodness of
 Denied individual legal rights nor agreed with
pleasure and the determination of right behavior
natural law.
based on the usefulness of the action’s
 Equates happiness with pleasure.
consequences
 Provides a framework for evaluating pleasure
 pleasure is good
and pain – FELICTIC CALCULUS
 goodness of an action is determined by its
 FELICTIC CALCULUS – calculates pleasure
usefulness.
that some actions can produce.
 one’s actions and behavior are good in as much
 Intensity or strength of pleasure
as they are directed towards the experience of
 Duration or length of the experience of pleasure
the greatest pleasure over pain for the greatest
 Certainty, uncertainty, or likelihood that the
number of persons.
pleasure will occur
 UTILITY – refers to the usefulness of the
 Propinquity, remoteness, or how soon there will
consequences of one’s action and behavior.
pleasure
Like, some individual rights can be sacrificed
 When we are to evaluate our tendency to choose
for the sake of the greater happiness of many.
these actions, two more dimensions need to be
considered:
 JEREMY BENTHAM & JOHN STUART
FECUNDITY - chance it has of being followed
MILL – two foremost utilitarian thinkers.
by sensations of the same kind.
 Their system emphasizes the consequence of
PURITY – chance it has of not being followed
actions.
by sensations of the opposite kind.
 goodness or the badness of an action is based on
 EXTENT – considering number of persons who
whether it is useful in contributing to a specific
are affected by pleasure of pain, another
purpose for the greatest number of people
dimension is to be considered.
 It is consequentialist
 Pleasure and pain can only ”quantitatively”
 The moral value of actions and decision is
differ from other experiences of pleasure and
based solely or greatly on the usefulness of
pain
their consequences; it is the usefulness of
results that determines whether the action is
good or bad
JOHN STUART MILL
 UTILITARIAN VALUE – pleasure and
happiness  1806-1873
 BENTHAM & MILL – understand happiness  His father, James Mill was a student of Jeremy
as the experience of pleasure for the greatest Bentham
number of persons, even at the expense of some  Wrote a history of Roman Law at age eleven
individual’s rights  Suffered a nervous breakdown at age of twenty
 supports Bentham’s principle of utility
 reiterates that moral good as happiness and,
The Principle of Utility consequently, happiness as pleasure
 What makes people happy is intended pleasure
 JEREMY BENTHAM – our actions are
and what makes us unhappy is privation of
governed by two “sovereign masters” –
pleasure
PLEASURE AND PAIN.
 The things that produce happiness and pleasure
 The principle refers to the motivation of our
are good; whereas, those that produce
actions as guided by our avoidance of pain and
unhappiness and pain are bad
our desire for pleasure
 We act and do things because we find them
 We do what is pleasurable and we do not do
pleasurable, and we avoid doing things because
what is painful
they are painful
 pleasure is good if, and only if it produce more
 theory of life
happiness than unhappiness
 Dissents from Bentham single scale of pleasure
 It is not enough to experience pleasure, but to
 The principle of utility must distinguish pleasure
also inquire whether the things that we do makes
"qualitatively" and not merely quantitatively
us happier
 thinks that there are higher intellectual and lower
and lower base pleasures
 “We undermine ourselves if we only and
JEREMY BENTHAM primarily desire sensuality because we are
 (1948-1832) capable of higher intellectual pleasurable
 wrote about the greatest happiness principle of goods.”
ethics  CRUDE BESTIAL PLEASURES - which are
 Known for a system of vi management called appropriate for animals, are degrading to us
PANOPTICON because we are by nature not easily satisfied by
 Advocate of: pleasures only for pigs.
 Economic freedom  pare qualitatively different from animal
 Women’s rights pleasures
 Separation of church and state  recognizes that there are different kinds of
 Animal rights pleasures
 Quality is preferable than quantity
  excessive quantity of pleasure might result in o Mill creates a distinction between legal rights
pain and their justification.
 In deciding over two comparable pleasures, it is  He points out that when legal rights are not
important to experience both and discover which morally justified in accordance to the
one is actually more preferred than the other greatest happiness principle, then these
 no other way of determining which of the two rights need neither be observed, nor be
pleasures is preferable except by appealing to respected.
the actual preferences and experiences  Mill thinks that it is commendable to endure
 Higher intellectual pleasures are preferable than legal punishment for acts of civil
purely sensual appetites disobedience for the sake of promoting a
 ”It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than higher moral good.
a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied
than a fool satisfied. And if the fool, or the pig, o Moral rights take precedence over legal rights
is of a different opinion, it is because they only o While it can be justified why others violate legal
know their own side of the question. The other rights, it is an act of injustice to violate an
party to the comparison knows both sides." individual’s moral rights
o The principle of utility can theoretically oblige
us to steal, kill, and the like..
PRINCIPLE OF GREATEST NUMBER o “theoretically”- tough experiment and need not
be actualized
o Equating mdoes not aim to describe the
o what matters is the assessment of what we do is
utilitarian moral agent alone and independently
the resultant happiness, the anything may be
from others
justified for the sake of producing the greatest
o This is not only about our individual pleasures,
happiness of the greatest number of people
regardless of how high, intellectual, or on other
o For Mill, justice can be interpreted in terms of
ways noble it is, but it is also about the pleasure
moral rights because justice promotes the greater
of the greatest number affected by the
social good
consequences of our actions
o Utilitarianism cannot lead to selfish acts
o Neither about our pleasure nor happiness alone
o It cannot be all about us DEONTOLOGY
o If we are the only ones satisfied by our actions,  moral theory that evaluates actions that are done
it does not constitute a moral good because of duty
o If we are the only ones who are made happy by  DEON – Greek word which means being
our actions, then we cannot be morally Good necessary
o Utilitarianism is interested with the best  The study of duty and obligation
consequence for the highest number of people.
not interested with the intention of the agent
o actions are based only on the greatest happiness IMMANUEL KANT
of the greatest number, is it justifiable to let go
of some rights for the sake of the benefit of the  Main proponent of deontology
majority?  German Enlightenment Philosopher who wrote
one of the most important works on moral
philosophy, Groundwork towards a Metaphysics
of Morals (1785)
JUSTICE AND MORAL RIGHTS
 Kant brings our attention to the fact that human
o JUSTICE - respect for rights directed toward beings, have the faculty called rational will
society’s pursuit of the greatest happiness which is the capacity to act according to
of the greatest number principles that we determine for ourselves
o RIGHTS - a valid claim on society and are
justified by utility
o right to due process, the right for free speech or ANIMALS VS HUMANS
religion, and others are justified because they
contribute to the general good
o means that the society is made happier if its Animals
citizens are able to live their lives knowing that
- Sentient organism
their interests are protected and that society (as a
- SENTIENCE – the ability to perceive and
whole) defends it
navigate the external environment
o Animals have rights as well because the effect as
- Constantly react in their surroundings
such principles on the sum total of happiness
that follows as a consequence of instituting and Humans
protecting their interests
o RIGTH TO LIFE – individuals most vital - Sentient but also rational
- Rationality – consists of mental faculty to
interest
construct ideas and thoughts that are beyond our
o We are treated justly when our legal and moral
immediate surroundings
rights are respected
- Capacity for mental abstraction which arises
o Rights are subject to some exceptions
from the operations of the faculty of reason
 - Ability to stop and think about what we are
doing
- We can remove ourselves mentally from the
immediacy of our surroundings and reflect on
our actions and how such actions affect the
world
- We can imagine a different and better world,
and create mental images of how we interact
with other people in that world
- Through the capacity for imagination and
reflection, we conceive of how we could affect,
possibly even change, the world we live in

- RATIONAL WILL - faculty to intervene in a

world, to act in a manner that is consistent with
our reason

 Animals only act according to impulses,

based on their natural instincts
 thus, animals “act” with the immediacy
with nothing that intervenes between the
impulse and the action. They do not and
cannot deliberate on their actions
 From Latin medium or “no middle”

Humans have reason, which intervenes between impulse

and act.

•We can stop and think about what we are doing to

evaluate our actions according to principles.
•We are not only reacting to our surroundings and
internal impulses but are also conceiving of ways to act
according to certain rational principles.
•ex. you feel hungry. the corresponding impulse is to eat,
but you you’re not yet done with your work, so you
continue working until you’re finish and be able to eat.
•This demonstrates the triumph of your rational will base
on your base impulse to eat.
•The triumph clarifies the meaning of rational will, the
capacity of the person to be the cause of her actions