BIOLOGY

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BIOLOGY
INTRODUCTION:
The study of living organisms is called Biology (greek, bios =
life; logos = discourse) or Life Science. Living forms, whether they
are simple or complex, they are known as organisms. All diverse
things on this globe are divided into three kinds: living, non-living,
and dead.
Living beings exist along with non-living objects on this earth.
Further, it is very much interesting to note that living and non-
living objects consists of the same elements and more over, they
also subject to the same physical laws, such as those of
gravitation, magnetism, action and reaction.
It is difficult to define life in exact words. One can easily
understand the concept of life, if we observe some of the
important characteristics of living organisms. These
characteristics distinguish living organisms from non-living things.
They are:
1. Life history: Every living organism shows a distinct life cycle
in the form of birth, growth, reproduction, old age and death.
2. Protoplasm: All living organisms are made up of a substance,
called Protoplasm which may be termed as “living matter”.
This Protoplasm is never stable but changes constantly.
3. Metabolism: All the Physical and Chemical processes taking
place in living cells are known as metabolism. This includes
both a constructive phase (anabolism) and a destructive phase
(catabolism). Thus food manufacture in the plants would be
anabolic while the oxidation – of protein, carbohydrates or fat
would be catabolic.
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4. Movement: Locomotion or movement from one place to

another is a characteristic feature of living organism and is
very well marked in animals but not so readily observed in
plants.
5. Irritability: It is the property by which all living organisms
respond to various external environmental stimuli.
6. Reproduction: The power of reproduction is common to all
living organism whether they are plants or animals or
microbes. It is the property by which all living organisms give
rise to next generation i.e. off springs. There are several
means of reproduction but off springs always resemble their
parents.
INTRODUCTION TO CELL AND 5 KINGDOMS OF LIVING

ORGANISMS
The body of every living organism is made up of small
compartments called the cells. Organisms such as bacteria and
Protozoa are made up of just one cell unicellular. Fungi plants
and animals are made of many cells (multi cellular).
No matter to which organism, the cells belong it have some
basic structure common to the cells of almost all organisms.
Historical Background:
In 1665, Robert Hooke, an English biologist, observed cells in
a section of cork. These were dead and empty cells. The term
‘cell’ was coined by him (Latin cell = small room). In 1672, a
Dutch Scientist, Anton Van Leeuwenhoek, observed some
Protozoa, bacteria, red blood cells and Spermatozoon. In 1831,
an English Scientist, Robert Brown, observed that all cells contain
nucleus.
Two German Scientists M.J.Schleiden (1838) and Theodore
Schwann (1839) studied plant and animal cells, respectively and
considered cell as a unit of life. They together formulated the cell
theory or cell Doctrine.
Cell Theory:
1. All organisms are composed of cells.
2. The cell is the structural and functional unit of life.
3. Cell arise only from pre-existing cells.
The cells vary considerably, in shape and size. Nerve cells
have long extensions. They can be several feet in length, muscle
cells are elongated. The supporting cells of plants have thick walls
where masses of cells are simply packed together.
A cell may be defined as a unit of protoplasm, bounded by a
membrane known as plasma membrane or cell membrane. Each
and every cell contains certain parts in it. These cell parts are
known as organelles.
One of the important cell organelle is the nucleus. Based on
the presence or absence of a well organized nucleus (and on
other basis), the cells present in all living organisms can be
classified into two basic types.
Prokaryotic Cells :
All cells which have a primitive type of nucleus (pro = primitive,
karyon = nucleus) are called Prokaryotic cells. The organisms
which have prokaryotic cells in their structure are called

Prokaryotic organisms or simply Prokaryotes.
Eg: Bacteria, Blue green algae.
Eukaryotic Cells :
All cells which have a real type of nucleus (Eu = real, Karyon =
nucleus) are called eukaryotic cells. The organisms which have
eukaryotic cells in their structure are called eukaryotic organisms
or simply eukaryotes.
Eg : Green algae, Fungi, Plants, Animals.
TABLE
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EUKARYOTIC AND
PROKARYOTIC CELL
EUKARYOTIC CELL PROKARYOTIC CELL
(eu = real, karyon = nucleus) (pro = primitive /
early)
1. Nucleus distinct, with well formed 1. Nucleus not distinct,
it is in the form
nuclear membrane. of nuclear zone, ‘Nuceoid’.
Nuclear mem brane absent.
2. Double-membraned cell 2. Single-membraned cell bodies
like
organelles present, like mesosomes present.
Mitochondria,
mitochondria, endoplasmic endoplasmic reticulum
and golgibody
reticulum, golgibody etc., absent.
3. Ribosomes are 80s type. 3. Ribosomes are 70stype.
4. Distinct compartments in the 4. No compartments.
cell – i.e. the cytoplasm and the
nucleus.
After knowing the differences between Prokaryotic cells and
eukaryotic cell, we now classify all the living organisms into
groups known as Kingdoms.
All living organisms can be classified into 5 Kingdoms basing

on the simplicity or complexity of their cell’s structure.
All Prokaryotic organisms are classified into one Kingdom
known as Monera and all eukaryotic organisms into 4 kingdoms
viz; Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
VIRUSES :
One type of things which cannot be included into any of the
above 5 kingdoms are viruses. Viruses are structures which
possess characteristics of both living and non-living organisms.
Viruses are obligate (complete) parasites. They survive in the
body of host only. Outside the host they are simply particles
called virions.
Viruses don’t have any cellular organization like those of either
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes.
Viruses were discovered by Iwanowsky (in 1892). The term
‘virus’ was coined by Beijernick (1898). Study of viruses is called
Virology.
The size of viruses varies from 10 nm to 300 nm. Even the

largest viruses are smaller than smallest bacteria. Viruses shows
different types of shapes.
They are:
1. Rod shaped Eg : Tobacco Mosaic Virus
2. Rectangular Eg : Vaccinia Virus.

3. Polyhedral Eg : Adeno Virus.
4. Spherical Eg : Influenza virus and Polio Virus.
5. Tadpole shaped Eg : Bacteriophages.
TYPES OF VIRUSES :
Based on the type of host, viruses are of different types.
1. Plant Viruses: (Phytophages Phyto = Plant Phage =
Virus) These viruses principally attack plants. These viruses
possess single stranded RNA.Cauliflower mosaic virus,
however, contains DNA.
2. Animal Viruses (200 phages) : These viruses principally
attack animals. These viruses possess double stranded DNA.
Polio virus and Influenza virus however contain RNA.
3. Bacterio phages : These viruses infect bacteria. They
contain DNA as the genetic material.
4. Cyano phages : These viruses infect cyanobacteria. They
contain DNA as the genetic material.
5. Zymo phages : These viruses attack yeasts. They contain
DNA as genetic material.
STRUCTURE OF VIRUSES:
Viruses lack cellular organization. They have only nucleic acid
(DNA or RNA) and protein.
The nucleic acid forms the central core of a virus. The protein
coat of virus is called capsid. It is made up of many sub units
called “capsomeres”.
VIRAL DISEASES
PLANT DISEASES HUMAN DISEASES
ANIMAL DISEASE
(Cattle)
Tobacco mosaic disease Small pox, Chicken pox,
Chicken Sarcoma
Tobacco necrosis Rabies, Colds,
Chicken Polyoma
Peach Yellow disease Polio, Measles, Foot &

Mouth Disease Vein clearing of bhindi Mumps,
Encephalitis,
Swollen shoot of cocoa Dengu Fever, Conjunctivitis,
AIDS
I. KINGDOM MONERA :
All prokaryotes belong to Kingdom Monera. Bacteria and
Cyanobacteria (earlier called Blue green algae) are included in
this Kingdom.
Prokaryotes lack true nucleus in their cells (no nuclear
membrane).
The following parts can be seen in a single bacterium:-
Cell Wall: All prokaryotes have a cell wall, which protects
and gives shape to the cell. The cell wall typically contains a
chemical, peptiloglycan.
Pili: Pili are short and thin thread like structures projecting
out from the cell wall in some bacteria.
Flagella: Some bacteria move with the help of one or two
flagella. Flagella are longer and thicker than pili.
Plasma membrane : Plasma membrane encloses the
cytoplasm lying beneath the cell wall. It is made up of lipids and
proteins.
Genetic Material: One circular Chromosome made of DNA
is located in a region of the cytoplasm called nucleoid. Apart from
the chromosome many species of bacteria possess rings of DNA
called plasmids.
Prokaryotes have no cell organelles. They have only the
ribosomes.
Basing on nutrition, there are 4 categories of bacteria:
Figure : Five kingdom Concept

(i) Autotrophs – Synthesize their own organic food.
(ii) Saprotrophs – Feed on dead and decaying matter.
(iii) Symbionts – Use food from other living organisms with

which they are associated for mutual benefit.
(iv) Parasites – Absorb food from living organisms and
cause harm to them.
Respiration in bacteria may be either (i) aerobic i.e. using
oxygen for respiration or (ii) anaerobic i.e. respire in the absence
of oxygen.
Bacteria reproduce both asexually and sexually. Asexual

reproduction is by binary fission, in which one bacterium simply
divide into two. A primitive mode of sexual reproduction which is
different from sexual reproduction in higher forms is seen in
bacteria. It is called conjugation. The steps in conjugation are
(a) Two conjugating bacteria are held together by Pili.
(b) A segment of DNA is transferred from one bacterium to
another bacterium.
Beneficial and Harmful Bacteria:
Bacteria harm us and plants causing many diseases on the
other hand some bacteria are very useful.
Human Diseases caused by Bacteria
BACTERIUM DISEASE
1. Vibrio Cholera Cholera
2. Salmonella typhi Typhoid

3. Clostridium tetani Tetanus
4. Corigne bacterium diphtheria Diphtheria
5. Mycobacterium tuberculosis Tuberculosis
Plant Disease Caused by Bacteria
BACTERIUM DISEASE
Xanthomonas oryzae Blight of paddy
Xanthomonas citri Citrus canker
Agrobacterium tumafaciens Tumors in plants
Pseudomanas Wilting of tomato
BENEFICIAL ACTIVITIES OF BACTERIA

NAME OF BACTERIUM ACTIVITIES
1. Rhizobium Found in roots of legumes (peas, grams,
pulses etc) fixes atmospheric nitrogen as
ammonia, which is then converted into
useful aminoacid.
2. Azotobacter Makes the soil fertile. It fixes the
atmospheric nitrogen in the soil.
3. Streptomycetes Produces streptomycin antibiotic.
4. Lactobacillus Ferments lactose (milk sugar) to
lactic acid. This helps in setting of milk
into curd.
II. KINGDOM PROTISTA (Unicellular Eukaryotes):

Protista are unicellular eukaryotes. Protozoa and diatoms and
certain unicellular algae are included in it. They have membrane
bound organelles such as nucleus with nuclear membrane,
mitochondria, chloroplast (in photosynthetic protists only),
golgibodies and endoplasmic retuculum. Protists are either
photosynthetic or parasitic or saprophytic. For locomotion, protists
may have cilia or flagella. They reproduce both asexually and
sexually. Some protists are beneficial to humans and others are

harmful.
Kingdom Protista includes 6 classes:
1. Rhizopoda Eg : Amoeba
2. Sporozoans Eg : Plasmodium
3. Flagellata Eg : Euglena
4. Ciliata Eg : Paramecium
5. Diatoms Eg : Chlorella
6. Algae Eg : Chlamydomonas
Plasmodium is a malarial parasite and causes malarial fever.
Amoeba is commonly found in the mud, in fresh water ponds
and ditches containing decaying leaves.
Diatoms are found in both fresh and salt water and in most
soil. Thousands of species of diatoms form food for aquatic
animals. Diatoms are either unicellular, colonial or filamentous
ores and occur in a wide variety of shapes.
Unicellular algae like chlamydomonas are included in Protista.
Multi cellular algae are included under Kingdom plantae.
Algae can prepare their food by photosynthesis as they contain
chlorophyll. Some algae have other pigments also e.g. blue
pigment (phycocyanin), a brown pigment (Fucoxanthin) or a red
pigment (Phycoerythrin). Depending on the pigment present, the
algae are called, blue, green, brown or red algae. Colour of the
Red Sea is due to the dominant occurrence of red algae.
Structurally the algae have a definite cell wall, cell membrane,
a nucleus, cytoplasm and chloroplast. The chloroplast is cup-
shaped in chlamydomonas and ribbon shaped in spirogyra.
Pyrenoid bodies are attached to chloroplasts and starch.
Usefulness of Algae:
Provide food for fishes.
These are rich sources of Vitamins A & E.
Many marine forms are important sources of iodine,
potassium and other minerals.
Some algae can fix atmospheric nitrogen, so they are a
source of natural fertilizer for the plants.
Note :Some Diatoms deposit Silica in their walls. After their
death these diatoms are preserved as fossils. Their
deposits in large amounts are used as filters, and for lining
of furnaces.
III. KINGDOM FUNGI:

Majority of the fungi have the following characteristics:
Fungi exist as slender filaments called hyphae. These
hyphae entangle to form mycelium. But yeast is single
celled.
A hyphae may be divided into cells by partitions called
septa.
A group of hyphae is called mycelium (mycetos = fungus).
Mycelia spread out on the substrate or on the ground and

even extend up to several kilometers.
Reproduction in fungi is both asexual and sexual.
Fungi are eukaryotic, multicellular saprotrophs having filaments
which grow through soil, wood and other substrates.
The fungi are of four main kinds:
1. Yeasts, which are unicellular.
2. Slime moulds, which have irregular shape.
3. Mushrooms and toads tools, which are large enough to be
seen with naked eyes.
4. Lichens and mycorrhizae which exist in symbiotic
association.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI

A. Harmful Fungi:
Several agricultural plants like sugarcane, maize, cereals,
vegetables, suffer from diseases caused by fungi.
Eg: Wheat Rust by Puccini a graminis, Red Rot of

Sugarcane by Collectotrichum.
In humans skin disease like ringworm and athlete’s foot are
caused by fungi. Some ear infections are also caused by fungi.
B. Beneficial Fungi:
Certain mushrooms (such as Agaricus campestris) are
edible.
Yeasts are used for fermentation during manufacture of
bread, beer, Soya sauce, cheese and wine.
Myccorhizae are fungi associated with roots of plants.
Roots benefit in getting minerals from the environment
while fungi gets food from the plant in return through such
association.
Neurospoora has been a favorite experimental material in
genetics.
Various antibiotics are derived from fungi Pencillin B
obtained from pencillium notatum. Its antibiotic effect was
discovered by chance by Alexander Fleming in 1927.
LICHENS:
Lichen is an autotrophic, thallophytic composite organism
which consists of both an algal and fungal plant living together in
symbiotic (mutual) relationship. The fungus component of the
lichen is known as the myocbiont (Greek, mykes = fungus bios =
life) and the algae component is known as phycobiont (phykos =
algae, bios = life). In this symbiotic relationship both the partners
(algae and fungal members) derive mutual benefit. The fungus
derives food from the algae cells and in return protects the algae
from unfavorable conditions, especially from drought. The two
components (algae and fungus) remain in a close contact and
appear to be a single plant. The Lichen thallus differs from its
components i.e., neither it resembles algae nor fungus, but the
reproductive organs, however resemble to those of fungi.
IV. KINGDOM PLANTAE: (Study of Plants = BOTANY)

All multicellular eukaryotes which are photosynthetic
autotrophs are grouped under kingdom plantae. Multicellular
algae and all green plants are included under this kingdom. Plants
have cellulose in their cell wall and store their carbohydrates as
starch.
The plant kingdom is conventionally divided into two major
groups or sub-kingdoms based on the presence or absence of
flower. These are CRYPTOGAMS and PHANEROGAMS.
CRYPTOGAMS (Cryptos = hidden):
Cryptogams are flowerless or non flowering plants. These are
the plants having hidden reproductive structures (cryptos =
hidden, Gamos = reproductive organs). As they reproduce by
spores and do not produce seeds, cryptogams are also known as
spore plants. Cryptogams are divided into two divisions.
They are:
1) BRYOPHYTA
2) PTERIDOPHYTA
PHANEROGAMS (Phaner = Visible):
Phanerogams are flowering plants. They produce flowers

which contain non essential organs surrounding the essential
organs. They produce seeds. All the phanerogams are included in
a single division known as Spermatophyta (seed plants).
Spermatophytes are divided into two sub-divisions –
Gymnospermae and Angiospermae.
Pteriodyphyta, gymnospermae and Angiospermae can be
grouped under Trachaeophyta. Trachaeophyta is characterized
by the presence of vascular tissue.
ALGAE:
The term ‘Algae’ was coined by Linnaeus. Study of algae is
known as phychology. The mode of nutrition is autotrophism.
They live mainly in water. Large marine algae are generally
known as sea weeds or kelps. The body of Algae is called
Thallus. A simple plant body not differentiated into root, stems
and leaf is known as Thallus.
Algae are classified into different classes based on type of
pigments, nature of reserved food material and mode of
reproduction.
Green algae or grass green algae mainly live in fresh water.
Main reserve food is starch. It is stored around a proteinaceous
core known as pyrenoid. Chromatophores contain green pigment,
Chlorophyll.
Eg : Chlamydomonas, Desmids, Ulothrix.
Brown algae are marine forms. Brown colour is due to a
carotenoid pigment known as fircoxanthin – Reserve food
material is in the form of laminarin (a polysaccharide) and
mannitol (an alcohol).
Eg: Dictyota, Laminaria, Macrocystis etc.,
Red algae are mostly marine forms. They have characteristic
phycobilin pigments – r-phycoerythrin (red) and r- phycocyanin
(blue). The main reserve food material is floridean starch.
Eg: Gelidium, Batrochosphermum, gracillaria. etc.
BRYOPHYTA (Bryophytes): (Bryon = Moss, Phyton = Plant):

Bryophytes are amphibians of plants, as they complete their
life cycle in water and land.
There are two main types of bryophytes:
(1) Flat, ribbon like – Liverworts
(2) Small leafy stems – mosses
In both types of bryophytes, the main plant body is a
gametophyte, which bears the sex organs. The male sex organs
are antheridia and female sex organs are archegonia. The
gametes (sex cells) are produced in the sex organs. Therefore the
plant body of liverwort and moss plant body is a gametophyte.
Male and female gametes fuse to give rise to a body which
develops into a sporophyte. Sporophyte remains attached to
gametophyte. The sporophyte bears spores. The spores
germinate to give rise to a gametophyte again.
The two phases gametophyte and sporophyte, alternate in

bryophytes. The phenomenon is called Alternation of generations.
Bryophytes grow well in cold and humid places.
Eg: Liverwort (Riccia)
Mossplant (Funaria)
PTERIDOPHYTA (Pteridophytes): (Pteron = feather, Phyton =

Plant).
These are commonly known as Vascular Cryptogams. These
are first plants having vascular tissues:
1) Xylem mainly consists of tracheid and
2) Phloem mainly consists of sieve cells and lacks companion
cells.
These are terrestrial plants thriving well in moist and shady
habitats.
On the under surface of the leaves, develop spore producing
bodies called sporangia. As the plant body of pteridophytes
produces spores, they are sporophytes.
The spores germinate into an independent thallus like body,
the gametophyte called prothallus. The prothallus bears
antheridia and archegonia which produce male and female
gametes. The gametes fuse and zygote develops into a
sporophyte. The two phases alternate as in bryophytes.
Eg: Lycopodium, Adiantum, Selaginella.
GYMNOSPERMAE (Greek Gymnos = naked, sperma = seed):

Together with flowering plants angiosperms, the gymnosperms
form the group spermatophyte (sperma = seed; phyte = plant) i.e.
seed producing plants.
Pinus, deodar are common gymnosperms. The gymnosperms
bear seeds, which are exposed on leaves. The seeds are not
enclosed in fruit. In gymnosperms there is no fruit formation.
Characteristics of Gymnosperms:
The adult plant (sporophyte) is tall, woody, perennial tree or
shrub. The stem is usually branched, but rarely so in cycas.
Vascular bundles in stem are arranged in a ring.
Leaves may be dimorphic or of one kind only. Foliage
leaves are large and few as in cycas or small and
numerous as in pinus. Leaves of pine are called needles.
Plants are ever-green, leaves may be simple (as in pinus)
or compound (as in cycas).
Gymnosperms bear cones which are always unisexual
(either male or female).
Pollen grains are produced by male cones and each has
two male gametes.
Ovules are not enclosed in ovary as in Angiosperms, but
are borne naked on leafy megasporophylls of female cone,
so the term gymnosperms or ‘naked seeds’ for this group.
Male gamete fuses with female gamete, the ovule. The
ovule then develops into a seed.
Some common gymnosperms are Pine (Pinus), Red wood
(Seluoia), Juniper (Juniperus), Cedar (Cedrus). any
gymnosperms yield timber, resins, turpentine and many other
products.
ANGIOSPERMAE(Angiosperms) (Angios = Vessel (Sac),

Sperma = seed):
Angiosperms are highly evolved plants and form the dominant

vegetation of present day earth. In Angiosperms, the seeds are
always enclosed in a fruit
.
In Angiosperms, the plant is clearly demarcated into root
system and shoot system.
Root System: This part of the plant remains underground. It
helps in anchorage and in absorption of water and minerals from
the soil.
Shoot : The plant body above the soil level i.e. aerial is called
shoot. The shoot system consists of stem, branches, leaves,
buds, Inflorescence, flowers etc.
Leaf : It is the vegetative appendage of the stems and
branches. Leaves are the chief photosynthetic organs and
prepare food material.
Bud : Bud is undeveloped shoot consisting of highly
condensed axis with many immature leaves arranged in a folded
manner.
Inflorescence : A group of flowers on a common axis. The
axis of inflorescence is called Peduncle.
Flower : The stalk of flower is called Pedicel and its swollen
end is called thalamus or receptacle. The flower of Angiosperms
are both essential and non-essential organs. The essential organs
are sex organs and are covered by non essential organs in a
flower.
Figure : Parts of Typical Flower

Non essential organs – 1) Calyx – Sepals
– 2) Corolla – Petals
Essential organs – 1) Gynoecium (carpel)
(sex organs) (Female sex organ)
– 2) Androecium (Stamens)
(Male sex organ)
The Gynoecium consists of 3 parts – ovary, style and stigma.
Ovary enclose ovules (female sex cells).
Androecium consists of stamens. The stamens at their tips
contain anthers. The anthers bear pollen grains (Male sex cells or
male gametes).
Pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to
the stigma is called pollination. There are many agents which
carry pollen from one flower to the stigma of another flower.
These are called pollinating agents. Wind, insects, bats, birds,
etc. act as pollinating agents.
Pollination by wind = Anemophily
Pollination by insects = Entomophily
Pollination by birds = Ornithophily
Pollination by bats = Chiropteriphily
The flower with their showy and attractive petals try to attract
insects and others for pollination. Nectaries also help in attracting
insects, birds etc.
Fertilization : The union of male and female gametes during
sexual reproduction is called fertilization. In angiosperms the
pollen grain falls on stigma and penetrates through stigma,
passes through style and enters ovary where the sperms of pollen
grain fertilize the ovules present in ovary.
Fertilization in Angiosperms is called Double Fertilization,
where both zygote and endosperm are formed.
After fertilization, ovary turns into fruit, ovules turn into seeds.
Primary Endousperm nucleus (PEN) turns into Endosperm.
All angiosperms can be classified into two groups, basing on
whether seeds contain one or two cotyledons – monocotyledons
(moncots) and Dicotyledons (Dicots).
Cotyledons are nothing but embryonic storage forms of food
for the growing embryo.
DICOTS MONOCOTS
1. Dicots posses taproot system. 1. Monocots possess
adventitious root system. 2. Stem shows
collateral or 2. Stem shows collateral and closed
biocollateral and open vascular vascular bundles.
bundles.
3. Leaves show reticulate venation. 3. Leaves show
parallel venation
(Arrangement of veins in a leaf)
4. Flowers are generally 4. Flowers are trimerous.
tetramerous or pentamerous.
5. Seeds posses two Cotyledons. 5. Seed possess a
single Cotyledon
Eg: bean; hibiscus, mango. Eg: oryza, triticum,
sorghum (grasses) etc. V.
KINGDOM ANIMALIA (Study of animals – zoology):

All animals belong to the Kingdom Animalia. Few General
features of Animal kingdom:
Animals are multi cellular eukaryotes.
They have ingestive, heterotrophic nutrition.
They have the power of locomotion.
They show increased sensitivity through nervous system.
Basis of classification of animals : Organisation, Symmetry,
body cavity, number of embryonic cell layers and presence or
absence of notochord are the features used for the distinguishing
broad categories of animals.
Organization : Bodies or animals are multi cellular. But cells
may or may not be organized into tissues and organ systems.
Animals such as sponges are aggregates of cells. They are at
cellular level of organization. Cnidarians have groups of cells
performing specialized functions. They are at tissue level of
organization. All other animals have organisms and systems for
performing body functions. They are at organ-system grade.
Symmetry :Means dividing the body into equal and identical
parts. Sponges are asymmetrical Cnidaria and Echinoderm
larvage are radially symmetrical. All other animals are bilaterally
symmetrical.
Examples of Symmery:
1.
2.
radius) will divide the body into two similar halves. i.e.
radially Symmetrical.
4.
halves only, through one plane i.e. along the middle axis.
The house fly is bilaterally symmetrical (i.e. right and left
halves are similar).
5.
(Almost all the vertebrates and a large number of
invertebrates are bilaterally symmetrical).
Body Cavity or Coelom :
It is a cavity between body wall and food canal. It is not
present in Acoelomates (a = no, coelom = body cavity) and
present in Eucoelomates (eu = true). Pseudocoelom (pseudo =
false) is not a true body cavity. It is found in round worms.
Embryonic Layers:
Three layers of cells, ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm in
the embryo (germinal layers) gives rise to parts of the body of
animals. Sponges and Cnidaria do not have mesoderm in their
embryos. They have two germinal layers ectoderm and endoderm
(diploblastic). Other have three germinal layers (triploblastic).
Notochord :
Is a solid rod found in embryonic stage or adults of some
animals which are grouped as Phylum Chordata. All animal
groups lacking notochord are termed non-chordates.
ORGANIZATION
a) Tissue grade of organization a) Organ system grade of
organization
b) Two embryonic germ layers b) Three

embryonic germ layers
Germinal (diploblastic) (triploblastic)
layers
Phylum Cnidaria All other
Phyla
SYMMETRY
Asymmetrical Radial Symmetry Bilateral

Symmetry
Phylum Porifera Phylum Cnidaria All

other Phyla
BODYCAVITY
Acoelomates Pseudocoelomates
Eucoelomates
Phyla Porifera Phylum Aschelminthes All other

Phyla
Cnidaria
Platyhelminthes
Presence of or no notochord
Notochord at some
absence of notochord stage of life
Non-Chordata
Phylum PORIFERA (Includes Sponges)
Main Characters:
1. Body with many pores, canals or chambers through which
water flows called the canal system.
2. Large aperture is called osculum and is at the upper end.
3. The body encloses a large cavity called spongocoel.
4. No organs, movable parts or appendages. Different kinds
of cells perform different functions.
5. The body is usually with an internal skeleton of calcareous
spicules, or of sponging fibres or both.
6. Reproduction is asexual by budding and also sexual.
7. Almost all sponges are marine except some fresh water
sponges.
There are 3 classes of phylum porifera:

Class Calcarea : Have calcareous spicules
Eg: Sycon
Class Hexactinellida : Have six rayed Silicious
spicules.
Eg: Euplectella (Venus flower basket)
Class Demospongiae : Have Silicious spicules (not
six rayed) or / and sponging
fibres. May be without skeleton.
Eg: Spongilla (fresh water sponge)
Phylum CNIDARIA (Includes hydroids, jelly fishes, sea

anemone, corals):
Main Characters of phylum cnidaria:
1. Body with no head and segmentation.
2. Body wall two layered : external epidermis and inner
gastrodermis, jelly like non cellular mesoglea in between.
3. Nematocysts, special stinging cels are present.
4. Skeleton is slimy, horny or none.
5. Asexual reproduction by budding in the sessile (polyp)
stage, and sexual reproduction in free swimming (medusa)
stage.
6. The cnidarians have radial s
ymmetry.
Phylum Cnidaria is classified into 3 classes

1. Hydrozoa : Solitary or colonial organisms. They are either
only polyps or asexual polyps and sexual medusae. These are
mostly marine and few fresh water. The mouth opens directly
into cavity called coelenteron.
Eg: Hydra.
2. Scyphozoa: They are solitary. Medusoid forms with lot of jelly
like mesoglea. Polyloid stage reduced or absent. They are
exclusively marine. Mouth is surrounded by four oral arms and
leads to manubrium.
Eg: Aurelia.
3. Anthozoa (Atinozox): They are colonial or solitary. All are
polyps but no medusae. All the marine forms and sessile.
Mouth opens into a pharynx that leads into gastro vascular
cavity which is partitioned by septa.
Eg: Sea anemone and corals.
Corals are diverse animals. Some corals build coral reefs
which are one of the rich ecosystems.
PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES (Flatworms):

Main Characters:
1. The body is elongated, soft and dorsoventrally flattened
without true segmentation
2. Suckers or hooks or both are present in parasitic forms for
attachment to the body of the host.
3. Sexes are usually united. Mostly undergo sexual
reproduction, with asexual reproduction in some.
The three classes of the phylum platyhelminthes are
1. Turbellaria: It includes all free living forms which are

carnivourous. Hooks and suckers are absent.
Eg: Planaria.
2. Trematoda: Includes all parasitic forms, which have leaf like
body. Ventral suckers or hooks or both are present. Eg:
Fasciola (Liver fluke)
3. Cestoda: Includes all parasitic forms with ribbon like narrow

body with a scolex (head), neck and a series of segments
called proglattids. Suckers and hooks are present. Both
marine and fresh water forms.
Eg: Taenia (Tape worm).
Phylum ASCHELMINTHES (Round worms):
Main Characters are:

1. They are aquatic, terrestrial or parasitic elongated round
worms (or thread worms).
2. Body cavity is a pseudocoelom.
3. These round worms never contain cilia.
4. Sexes are separate Males are smaller than females.
Round worms are included in class nematoda. Ascaris is a
common round worm, parasitic in the intestine of human.
Phylum ANNELIDA (Includes earthworms, leeches, neries

etc.):
1. They are elongated segmented eucoelomate worm like
animals.
2. Body is provided with setae for locomotion.

3. Excretory organs are called nephridia.
4. Sexes are united or separate.
5. Regeneration is quite frequent.
6. Mostly aquatic, some are terrestrial and some living in
tubes.
Annelida is classified into 3 classes.

1. Polychaeta: Mostly marine, some live in fresh water. Head is
distinct with eyes, pulps and tentacks The lateral locomotory
appendages, parapodia are present. Sexes are separate.
Development is indirect with a larval stage.
Eg: Neries
2. Oligochaeta: Mostly terrestrial, some live in fresh water. Head
is indistinct parapodia are absent, but few setae are present.
Sexes are united. Development is direct without any larva.
Eg: Pheretima (Earthworm).
3. Hirudinea: They are usually aquatic, fresh water or marine.
The body is with fixed number of segments. Each segment is
subdivided. Parapodia is absent. Suckers are present at both
anterior and posterior ends of the body. Sexes are united.
Development direct. Generally include blood sucking
ectoparasites.
Eg: Hirundinaria (Leech).
Phylum ARTHROPODA (Arthro = jointed, Podos = feet):

This is the largest phylum of the animal kingdom and includes

animals like insects, crab, scorpion, spiders etc.
1. Body B segmented and can be differentiated head, thorax
and abdomen.
2. The head and thorax are often fused to form
cephalothoraxes.
3. Locomotion is performed by jointed legs.
4. The exoskeleton is present in the form of chitinous cuticle,
which is shed at intervals. 5. Sexes are usually
separate.
Phylum MOLLUSCA (Soft bodied animals):

The phylum includes conch, snails etc.

1. They are unsegmented, tenestrial or aquatic, soft bodied
animals.
2. Exoskeleton is in the form of a shell. When present, shell is
usually univalve or bivalve. Internal shell is present in
some.
3. Sexes are separate or united.
Phyllum mollusca is classified into the following classes.

1. Gastropoda: They have well developed head with eyes and
tentacles. Foot is large and flat. The shell
is univalve and usually coiled. They are mostly marine and
some are fresh water and terrestrial.
Eg: Pila (applesnail).
2. Pelecypoda (Bivalvia or lamellibranchiata): They have no
distinct head, tentacles or eyes. Body is laterally compressed
and enclosed in a bivalve shell. They are mostly marine and
some in fresh water. Eg: Unio (Fresh water mussel).
3. Cephalopoda: Head is distinct and large with well developed
eyes and tentacles. The body is elongated, shell external,
internal or absent. All are marine forms. Eg: Sepia

(cuttle fish).
Phylum ECHINODERMATA (Spiny skinned animals) (echnios

=spines, derma = skin):
The phylum includes star fishes, brittle stars, sea urchins and
sea cucumbers.
Main characters are:
1. Marine animals with unsegmented body.
2. Head is absent. Body surface marked with 5 radiating
arms.
3. Exoskeleton of dermal ossicles with spines.
4. The movement is by tube feet.
5. Sexes are usually separate.
6. Adults are radially symmetrical, while larvae are bilaterally
symmetrical.
The different classes of phylum Echinodermata are:
1. Asteroidea: Arms are 5 or more or not sharply marked off
from the central disc. Tube feet provided with suckes are used
for locomotion. They are free living slow creeping, predaceous
and scavengers. Eg: Star fish.
2. Ophiuroidea: The body is star like with arms sharply marked
off from the central disc. They are free living and creeping.
Eg: Brittle star.
3. Echinoidea: The body is discoid, oval or semi spherical. The
tube feet are with suckers. They are free living. Eg: Sea
Urchins.
4. Holothuroida: The body is elongated on oral aboral axis. Arms absent

and no spines. The tube feet are with suckers. They are free living or
few buried in mud or sand.
Eg: Sea – cucumber.
5. Crinoidea: Body is attached during part or whole life by an aboral
stalk. The tube feet are without suckers. They are normally sessile
(fixed). Eg: Antedon.
Phylum CHORDATA:
1. Notochord is present at some or the other stage of life.
2. There is a dorsal tubular nerve cord.
3. Gill slits are present at some stage of life.
Phylum Chordata is divided into 3 sub phylums.
1. Urochordata
2. Cephalochordata
3. Vertebrata
CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUM CHORDATA
Subphylum Vertebrata is divided into two super classes, which are

further divided into classes
CLASS PIECES
Main characters of this class are

1.Skin covered in scales
2.Ectothermic, cold blooded
3.Soft shelled eggs that must be laid in water
4.External fertilization
5.All members are fully aquatic
6.Limbs modified into fins
7.Gas exchange through gills
Agnatha - jawless fish

 Cyclostomata - no jaw so the mouth cannot close, retractable teeth -
hagfish and lampreys
Gnatha-fishes with jaws.

They are put into the two subclasses chondrichthyes and osteichthyes.
Chandrichthyes (Chondra = cartilage, ichtheys = fish):
These fish have cartilaginous skeleton. Mouth is ventral in position.
The tail is heterocercal type. 5 to 7 pairs of gills are present. Operculum
(gill cover0 is absent.
Eg: Scoliodan (dog fish), Skates, Ray fishes.
Osteichthyes (os = bone, ichthyes = fish):
These fish have bony skeleton. Mouth is terminal in position. The tail is
of homocerceal type. 4 pairs of gills are present operculum or gill cover is
present.
Eg: Labeo (Rohu), Catla etc.,
Study of fish is called Ichthyology.
CLASS AMPHIBIA (Amphi = double or both, bios = life):
Main characters of this class are
1. They partly live in water and partly on land.
2. Skin is smooth or rough, rich in glands and moist.
3. Two pairs of limbs are present. The digits are without claws.
4. Body with distinct head and trunk. Neck is absent.
5. Two nostrils open into biconcavity.
6. Tympanum is present on the surface of body wall.
7. Larval stage is with tail and it is aquatic.
8. Heart is 3 chambered with 2 curricles and 1 ventricle.
The class Amphibia is divided into 3 orders.

1. Urodela: It includes tailed amphibians. The limbs are equal in size and
weakly developed.
Eg: Salamandra, proteus.
2. Anura: This body is short, broad ad tail is absent in anurans. The fore
limbs are short and hind limbs are long.
Eg: Rana (frog), Bufo (Toad)
3. Apoda: Body is elongated, snake like, without tail. Limbs are
completely absent (A = no, poda = limbs).
Eg: Ichthyophis (Blind snake)
CLASS REPTILIA (Reptere = to crawl):

It includes animals like turtles, lizards, snakes and crocodiles.
Dinosaurs, the giant animals which are extinct now belong to this class.
Main features of Reptilians are
1. They are either terrestrial (live on land) or aquatic (live in water).
2. Body is covered with horny scales. Skin is dry.
3. Paired limbs with five digits (pentadactyle limbs) are present (except
in snakes). Digits are clawed.
4. Tympanum is small and depressed (Absent in snakes).
5. The respiration is by lungs.
6. The chief nitrogen is excretory material is uric acid.
7. Heart is partly divided 3 chambered in crocodiles.
Reptilia is divided into 4 orders:

1. Chelonia: It includes tortoises, turtles and terrapins. They are all
aquatic. The trunk is short but broad and enclosed in a shell. The tail is
short.
Eg: Tortoise.
2. Lactertilia: It includes lizards. The body is elongated usually with 2
pairs of limbs. Tympanum is present. Tail is slender and tapering.
Eg: Garden lizard (calotes), wall-lizard (Hemidactylus).
3. Ophidia: It includes snakes. Most of the snakes are non poisonous.
They are both aquatic and terrestrial. The body is elongated. Limbs,
girdles and sternum are absent in snakes. Eyelids are not movable. Ear
opening an tympanum are absent. Tail is slender and cylindrical.
Eg: Poisonous – cobra (naja naja)
Krait (Bungarus)
Viper (Vipera russels)
Non Poisonous – Pythan,
Dryophis, Anaconda.
4. Crocodilia: They are amphibious in nature. Skin is tough with horny
scales and bony plates. Snout is elongated with external nostrils at the
tip. This is powerful, laterally compressed. One peculiarity of crocodilia
is that, they are the only reptiles with 4 chambered heart.
Eg: Crocodile (Crocodilus)
Gharial (Gavialis)
Reptiles are first complete kind animals. They developed certain special
characters which made them suitable for a complete terrestrial life. They
are.
1. Development of internal fertilization (getting rid of water as agent).
2. Development of extra embryonic membranes which protect the egg
on land. This type of eggs are cledoic eggs.
3. Formation of uric acid as the main nitrogenous excretory material,
which require less water for its excretion.
CLASS AVES (Avis = Bird):

Certain important general features of Aves are
1. They are first warm blooded (homothermal i.e. body temperature
remains constant) animals.
2. Body is covered with feathers, scales are present only on hind limbs.
3. Body is divisible into 3 parts, head, neck, trunk.
4. Jaws with horny beak. Teeth are absent in modern birds.
5. Hind limbs with four digits adapted for perching, walking or
swimming.
6. Bones of birds are provided with air spaces (hollow) to make the
skeleton light. These type of bones are called pneumatic bones.
7. Fore limbs are modified into wings for flight.

8. Heart is 4 chambered, lungs for respiration connected with air-sacs.
9. Voice box or syrinx is present. It is present at the junction of
trachea and bronchi.
10. All birds are oviparous (lay eggs), eggs are with much yolk and
calcareous shell.
This class has been divided into two sub-classes:

1. Sub class-Ratitae: These are flightless birds.
Eg: Struthio Camelus (Ostrich), Abteryx (Kiwi).
2. Sub class-Carinatae: These are flying birds.
Eg: Peacock Columba (Pigeon), Corvus (Crow).
Since birds have aerial mode of life, they don’t depend on their smell
(olfactory) organs much. Hence their power of vision is very much
increased. Birds possess a comb like structure called ‘pecters’ in their eyes.
MAMMALIA (Mamma = breast):
Mammals are at the top of animal kingdom. They are highly evolved
animals.
Characteristic features:
1. The body is covered with hair.
2. Mammary glands are present, which secrete milk, on which the

young ones are fed.
3. Sweat and oil glands are present in the skin.
4. Body is divisible into head, neck, trunk, tail. Tail is absent in some.
5. Projecting external ears (pinna) present.
6. Digits usually end in claws, nails or hoofs.
7. Teeth are present mainly four types of teeth are present. They are
incisors, canines, premolars and molar. The teeth arrangement is
called dentition. Teeth are thecodont (teeth in sockets of jaw bones)
and generally heterodant.
8. Heart is 4 chambered with 2 auricles and 2 ventricles. They are
homothermal, warm blooded animals.
9. Most mammals are viviparous (give birth to young ones). Some
primitive mammals are oviparous.
10. Foetus is nourished by mother through placenta.
Classification of class mammalia:
Mammals are classified into 3 subclasses. They are Prototheria,
Metatheria and Eutheria.
1. Sub class Prototheria: External ear is absent. Teeth are found in only
young ones. Placenta is absent. Mammary glands are devoid of nipples.
Females are oviparous.
Eg: Duck-bill platypus (ornithorhynchus) Echidna.
2. Sub class Metatheria: External ears are present. Teeth are found in
both young and adults. No placenta for nourishment to embryo.
Mammary glands are present. Immature young ones are born. They are
placed in pouch in females and nourished. This pouch is called
marsypium.
Eg: Kangaroo (Macropus)
3. Sub class Eutheria: These are real placental animals. External ears are
well developed. Teeth are present in both young and adults. Placenta is
present. Mammary glands are present. Mature young ones are born.
Eg: Lion, tiger, deer, dog, monkey, manatee.
Sub class Eutheria has been divided into many orders. There are 27
living orders. Some important orders are as follows:
Order 1 Chiroptera: These are flying mammals. Forelimbs are adapted

for flight. Skin fold i.e. Patagium works as wing. Hind limbs thin and
short. They are nocturnal (active at night times).
Eg: Bat.
Order 2 Primates: They have a very highly developed brain. The neck
is mobile. Limbs have five digits with flat nails. Two thoracic mammal
are present.
Eg: Monkey, Apes, Man.
Order 3 Rodentia: They are herbivorous (plant eating) and terrestrial.
Incisor teeth are long, sharp and chisel-shaped. Fore limbs are shorter
than hind limbs.
Eg: Squirrel, Rat.
Order 4 Cetacea: These are primarily aquatic animals. The fore limbs
are changed into paddles. Neck is absent which helps in swimming.
They have a fish like shape but they respire by lungs.
Eg: Whale.
Order 5 Carnivora: These include flesh eating animals. They have
large pointed and sharp canines which help in tearing the flesh. Fingers
are with sharp claws. The mammal are abdominal.
Eg: Lion, Tiger, Cat, Dog.
Order 6 proboscidea: These animals are large herbivorous (plant
eating) and terrestrial. They have a characteristic trunk, which is long
and mobile. It is formed by fusion of upper lip and nose. There are
only one pair of incisors in the upper jaws. Lower incisors in males
form huge tasks.
Eg: Elephant.
Order 7 Ungulata: These are called hoofed animals. They are
herbivorous. They are usually domesticated by man. Mammal are
abdominal with teats.
Eg: Deer, Cows, Sheep etc.,
CELL BIOLOGY
The study of cell structure and function is known as Cell Biology. We

already discussed some basics of cell – cell theory, prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells earlier. The discussion under this chapter refers to
columnar cells – both Plant and animal cells.
The cell vary widely in shape both in animals and plants. The cell may
be spherical, edumnar, flat, cylindrical, triangular, tubular, rod shaped,
spiral etc.
The size of the cells also varies considerably in different organisms. The
variation in size is largely due to the specialization of different cell types
according to their functions. The largest cell is the egg of ostrich, which
measures for about 3 inches or 75 mm in diameter after the shell is
removed.
There is also wide variation in the number of cells in different
organisms. Body of a cellular organism such as bacteria and protozoa is
made of a single cell. In almost all multi cellular forms, there is an
indefinite number of cells. The adult human body is estimated to contain
about 1014 cells.
Gross Structure of the Cell:
The cell is bounded by the plasma membrane (or cell membrane or
plasma lemma). This is the living outer boundary of the cell. In plant cells,
the cell wall, made up of cellulose, is present outside the plasma membrane.
The nucleus is present more or less in the centre of the cell. The nucleus is
enveloped by the nuclear membrane. The protoplasm which is present
within the cell but outside the nucleus is called Cytoplasm. The
protoplasm inside the nucleus is called nucleoplasm. Thus protoplasm can
be divided into cytoplasm and nucleoplasm.
Figure : Animal cell

TABLE
Differences between Plant Cell and Animal Cell
PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL
Cellulose cell wall is present. Cell wall made up of cellulose is
absent.
Vacuoles (large sac like structure) Generally vacuoles are

absent.
are present.
Chloroplast are present. Chloroplasts are absent in
animal cells.
Centriole is absent in higher plants. Centrioles are present.
CELL ORGANELLES:
The protoplasm of the cell which is found between plasma membrane
and the nuclear membrane is called cytoplasm. There are many living
components found in the cytoplasm. These are of different size and shape
and are called organelles. The major organelles of the cell are plasma
membrane, cell wall, mitochondria, Endoplasmic Reticulum, peroxisomes,
Chloroplast etc.
CELL WALL:
Structure: It is outer most non-living layer present in all plant cells,
but absent in animal cells. It is secreted by the cell itself. It is made of
cellulose but may also contain other chemical substances such as pectin
and lignin. Large qualities of lignin cause the hardness of wood.
Functions: The cell wall protects the delicate inter parts of the cell.
Being rigid, it gives shape to the cell. It gives turgidity to the cell. It freely
allows the passage of water and other chemicals into and out of the cells. It
binds adjacent cells by means of its sticky glue like substance pectin.
PLASMA MEMBRANE:
Structure: It is a living membrane, outer most in animal cells but next
to cell wall in plant cells. The fluid-mosaic model given by Singer and
Nicholson (1972) explains the structure of plasma membrane. Plasma
membrane is made up of proteins and lipids. The lipid is present in the
form of a bi layer and proteins arranged in the lipid bi layer. Proteins which
are attached to the outer side lipid bi layer are called peripheral proteins.
The proteins which get deeply embedded with the lipid bi layer are integral
proteins.
Functions: The plasma membrane enclose the cell contents. It
provides cell shape (in animal cells) e.g. the characteristic shape of red
blood cells, nerve cells, bone cells etc.,
It allows transport of substances into and outside the cell.
It is a selectively permeable membrane by which it selectively allows
substances either to enter or exit the cell.
MITOCHONDRIA : (Singular mitochondrion)
They are present in both plant and animal cells. They appear as tiny
thread like structure under light microscope. Approximately 0.5 - 1.00 mm.
Structure : It is enclosed by a double membrane. The inner membrane
is rared to form projections called crystale as full or incomplete partitions.
Functions : They oxidise pyruvic acid (break down product of
glucose) to release energy which get stored in the form of ATP for ready
use. This process is called cellular respiration.
Fate of glucose in the release of energy is shown below:
CHLOROPLAST:
It is found in all green plant cells in the cytoplasm. The shape is usually
disc shaped or spherical as in most plants.
Structure : Covered by a double membrane i.e. outer and inner
membrane. There are numerous stack like (piles) groups called grana
(singular = granum) inter connected by lamellae. Granum is consists of leaf

like thylakoids, which pile to form it. The fluid medium in which grana and
thylakoids are present is called stroma.
Function : Chloroplasts are the seat of photosynthesis (Production of
sugar from Co2 and water in the presence of Sunlight).
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER):
It is a network of membranes which are unit of membrane structure.
Two types of ER are there. Rough ER and Smooth ER. Rough ER has
ribosome’s attached to it and hence Rough in appearance. Smooth ER is
devoid of Ribosomes. Endoplasmic reticulum is distributed throughout the
cytoplasm.
The main function of ER is it provides internal framework. It is major
site of protein synthesis is because ribosomes which are attached to it carry
out the actual process of photosynthesis.
GOLGIBODY:
It is a stack of membrane sacs of same thickness as ER. It is diverse in
its size and shape. In animal cells it is around the nucleus, 3 to 7 in number.
In plant many golgi bodies are present, scattered through out the cell called
dictyosomes.
Function: It is involved in secretion process of cell. It is involved in
the formation of membranes of lysosome and also involved in the
synthesis acrosome of sperm.
RIBOSOMES:
Ribosomes are spherical organelles and are made up of RNA and
proteins. They are present either as free particles in cytoplasm or attached
to ER. Also found stored in nuclelolus inside the nucleus. 80s type of
ribosome’s are present in eukaryotes, where as 70s type are present in
prokaryotes (S-svedberg unit of measuring ribosome’s)
The main function of ribosomes, is that they act as sites for protein
synthesis.
LYSOSOMES (LYSO = Breaking down, SOMA = Body):
Lysosomes are present in almost all animal cells and some non-green
plant cells. They are membranous sacs which are produced from golgi
body. There may be hundreds in a single cell. They perform intra cellular
digestion during starvation period. This process is called

authophagocytosis. Such lysosomes are called auhophagic. Hence they are
known as “smicida bags” of cell.
PEROXISOMES:
They are found both in plant and animal cells. They often contain a
central core called a nucleoid. They are closely associated with ER. They
are concerned with process of ‘photorespiration’ in plant cells. They bring
about fat metabolism in both animals and plants. Glyoxisomes are special
Peroxisomse in germinating seeds. The above two organelles lysosomes
and peroxisomes are called micro bodies (small sized bodies).
CILIA AND FLAGELLA:
Cilia and flagella are protoplasmic projections and membrane. Both are
similar in structure but different in size and number. Cilia are shorter and
more numerous, while flagella are much longer and present in 1 or 2
numbers per cell. Both Cilia and flagella are made of a contractile protein
called tubulin in the form of microtubules.
CENTROILE:
It is present in all animal cells, located just outside the nucleus. They are
cylindrical and contains microtubules. The centroile has 9 sets of peripheral
microtubules and no one in the centre.
Centroiles are involved in cell division.
NUCLEUS:
Nucleus is cell’s controlling centre. All cell activities are controlled by
the nucleus. It is mostly spherical. It has a covering called nuclear
membrane enclosing nucleoplasm which contains chromatin network and a
nucleolus.
The nuclear membrane is a double membrane.
CHROMOSOME:
Chromosomes are filamentous bodies present in the nucleus of a
dividing cell. The chromosomes are packed forms of DNA. They can be
observed only during cell division or in other words the chromatin
organizes itself into chromosomes during cell division.
Each species has a fixed number of chromosomes in its body cells.

Somatic cells (body cells) contain 2 sets of chromosomes while gametes
(sex cells) contain one set of chromosomes (haploid).
TABLE
CHROMOSOME NUMBER IN
DIFFERENT ORGANISMS
Name of Organism Chromosome number
Ophioglossum (fern) 1262
Chimpanzee 48
Man (Homo Sapiens) 46
Onion 16
Wheat 42
Ascaris (round worm) 02
CHROMOSOMES AND SEX DETERMINATION:
In some diploid organisms, specific chromosomes have a role in sex
determination. Such chromosomes are called sex chromosomes (or
allosomes or heterosomes) and the rest of chromosomes of a set are called
autosomes.
If sex chromosomes are morphologically similar (i.e. X X) in an
individual, it is called homogametic. Such individuals produce only are kind
or gametes (containing X). For ex: Human female.
If sex chromosomes are morphologically dissimilar (i.e X Y) in an
individual, it is called heterogametic. Such individuals produce two types of
gametes (one containing X and the other containing Y). For eg: Human
male.
Thus the sex of the off spring depends on whether X-bearing sperm or
the Y-bearing sperm of the father fertilizes the egg.
and is connected to ER. It has very special pore complexes to transport
large molecules. The chromatin network is thread like network. The
chromatin network contains DNA and proteins. Nucleolus is the dense
region with in the nucleus, which is spherical. It is involved in the
formation of ribosomes.
Functions : The nucleus is the cell’s controlling centre by which it
coordinates the functions of different cell organelles. It participates directly
in cell division to produce genetically identical daughter cells (mitosis). It

also participates in the production of gametes through another type of cell
division called meiosis.
Note: The chromatin contains the hereditary material DNA
(Deoxyribo nucleic acid). The chromatin is seen as a network in a non
dividing cell. It gets condensed to form distinct bodies called chromosomes
during cell division. The number of chromosomes is fixed in an organism;
chromosomes can be seen as duplicated structures in cell division so that
each daughter cell receives identical amounts of hereditary matter.
DNA (DE OXYRIBO NUCLEIC ACID):
The molecule DNA is the main hereditary molecule. It is a nucleic acid.
It is a polymer which consists of many monomeric units. Each monomeric
unit in DNA is known as nucleotide. Several such nucleotides are arranged
one to one to form a long chain (Polynucleotide) i.e. DNA.
Each nucleotide contains 3 constituents – a nitrogenous base, sugar
molecule and a phosphate molecule i.e.
Base + Sugar + Phosphate  Nucleotide.
Nucleotide without phosphate is called Nucleoside i.e.
Base + Sugar  Nucleoside
Thetype of sugar in the DNA nucleotide is de oxyribose DNA
molecule will be in the form of two Polynucleotide chains arranged
themselves in a helical manner; i.e. DNA is a double helix.
There are 4 types nitrogen bases in DNA. They are Adenine, Guanine,
Cytosine and Thymine which are abbreviated as A, G, C & T respectively.
Chemically speaking Adenine and Guanine belong to a class known as
purines; and cytosine and Thymine belong to a class known as Pyrimidines.
Figure : DNA molecule (Spiral arrangement of two chains)

One important aspect in DNA structure is that Adenine is always
paired with Thymine and Guanine is always paired with cytosine. This
pairing is facilitated by hydrogen bonds. Two hydrogen bonds are formed
between Adenine and Thymine (A = T) and three hydrogen bonds are
formed between Guanine and cytosine (G = C).
In the DNA molecule, these 4 nucleotide molecules are arranged in a

sequence. The sequence of nucleotides varies as there are many possible
combination with the four nucleotides (A, G, C and T). For example if
DNA chain consists of 100 nucleotides, there may be 25 A’s, 25 G’s, 25
C’s, and 25 T’s (or) in any proportion. The way they are arranged also
differs.
Since a nucleotide contains a base, sugar and phosphate and the sugar
and phosphate are common for all nucleotides, each and every nucleotide
differ only in the Base.
Further, if the nucleotide sequence of DNA strand is known (in a
double helix), the sequence of nucleotides on the other strand is also
known (because A will always pairs with T and G with C).
RNA (RIBONUCLEIC ACID):

Ribonucleic acid is another type of nucleic acid, like DNA. But the
difference is – DNA is a double stranded molecule, whereas RNA is a
single stranded molecule. Further, RNA has 3 nitrogenous basis – Adenine
(A), Guanine (G) and Cytosine (C) in common with DNA, but Thymine is
absent in RNA, instead of which Uracil is present. The type of sugar
present in RNA nucleotide is a ribose sugar. Thus RNA is a single stranded

molecule with only one Polynucleotide chain (consisting of A, G, C and U
basis).
The RNA molecules are synthesized inside the nucleus. The DNA and
RNA both contains the nucleotides. DNA molecule is the main nucleic
acid from which RNA molecule is produced. The process of RNA
synthesis from DNA is known as “TRANSCRIPTION”(means copying)
i.e. DNA carries information, which is copied into RNA.
(1) Ribosomal RNA or rRNA : This is found in ribosomes. rRNA along
with proteins are made to ribosomes at the site nucleolus in the
nucleus. Ribosomes are involved in protein synthesis.
(2) Messenger RNA or mRNA: This RNA carries information for a
protein molecule. This mRNA acts an intermediate molecule between
DNA and protein.
(3) Transfer rRNA or tRNA: These RNA molecules act as adapter
molecules which bring amino acids to the site of protein synthesis.
TRANSLATION:
Translation is the process of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. When
mRNA comes out of the nucleus, it is attacked by ribosomes. Ribosomes
(containing rRNA) read the message on mRNA and try to build proteins.
The raw materials for proteins (i.e. amino acids) are brought to this site by
tRNA molecules.
GENE:
Gene is a portion of DNA which carries information for a protein or
RNA molecule.
The portion of DNA which carries information for one polypeptide
chain (protein) is known as “cistron”. So, Transcription and Translation
are two process by which the information carried on DNA molecule is
ultimately conveyed to the formation of a protein molecule.
CELL DIVISION
All sexually reproducing animals have their starting stage of life, the
zygote. Zygote is formed by the union of male and female sex cells
(gametes). The zygote divides sand produces 2 cells which further divide
and so on. In this way billions of cells are produced, which result in the
development of a human being, for example.
All cells are products of the division of the preexisting cells. During cell
division, the mother cell gives the same amount of genetic information
(DNA) to the daughter cells. This equal distribution of genetic information
is done by the formation of chromosomes, structure which try to distribute
the genetic material equally to the two daughter cells. The number of
chromosomes (packed forms of DNA) is constant for a particular species
(eg: In human 46 or 23 pairs). The same number of chromosomes are seen
usually in almost all the cells of the body. At the same time the same
number of chromosomes should be present in generations after
generations.
Hence, there are 2 types of cells in the body. Cell which show a division
process, in which the same number of chromosomes are given to the
daughter cells. These are known as somatic cells. Somatic cells divide by
the process of mitosis (equational cell division). The other types of cells are
known as germ mother cells (or gamete mother cells). These gamete
mother cells divide by a process in which the number of their
chromosomes are reduced to half and then given to daughter cells. This
type of cell division is known as Meiosis (Reductional cell division).
In sexually reproducing animals (for eg. Human)the male human being
contain the sperm mother cells which produce sperms which have half the
number of chromosomes. The female consists of egg mother cells which
produce eggs (ova) contain half the number of chromosomes. When such
sperm gets united with egg (during sex), a single cell (called zygote) is
formed having the equal number (46) of chromosomes as the normal
somatic cell contains. This zygote divides then by mitosis (equational cell
division) and all the cells
coming from the zygote will be having 46 number of chromosomes. The

condition in which a single set of chromosomes are present in a cell is
called haploid (n) and such cells are called haploid cells. e.g. gametes, male
gametes (sperm) and female gamete (ovum).
The condition in which 2 sets of chromosomes are present in a cell is
called Diploid (2n) and such cells are called Diploid cells e.g. all body cells
except gametes (that is all somatic cells) including gamete mother cells.
SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS:
Mitosis is responsible for normal growth of multi cellular organisms
where cells divide and give rise to new cells and contribute to growth.
In healing process, the healthy cells which are present around the
wound region divide and produce new cells, which replace the dead cells.
SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS:
1) One of the important significance of meiosis is that it is responsible
for maintaining constant chromosomal number in all sexually
reproducing organisms.
2) ‘Crossing over’ – an event which is mainly responsible to causing
variations (difference) occurs during meiosis.
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY:
SOIL(Substratum for growth of plants):

Soil is the superficial layer of earth’s crust. Soil is formed form the
parent rock by the process known as weathering. Study of soils is known as
pedology or edaphology. The process of soil formation is known as
pedogenesis.
There are five essential components of soil. They are mineral matter,
soil water, soil organic matter, soil organisms and soil air.
Generally in a unit volume of soil solid matter (organic and inorganic)
constitutes 50%, liquids 25% and organisms plus air the remaining 25%.
Soil is mainly classified into various types. Some of the important types
are loam soil, sandy soil and clayey soil. Loam soil is the best type of soil
for the growth of the plants. Loam is the mixture of sand, silt and clay.
Capillary water is the water which occupies the capillary spaces present
in between the soil particles. It is the water mostly available to the plants.
Humus is the completely decomposed organic matter. Humus is
formed from plant debris contains cellulose, lignin and their degradation
products. Humus formed from animal debris chiefly contains peptides and
their breakdown products. The process of humus formation is known as
humification.
MINERAL NUTRITION IN PLANTS:
Plants require minerals for various purposes such as synthesis of
hormones, enzymes and proteins. Soil is the main source for supply of
mineral nutrients to the plants.
Minerals needed in large quantities are called macronutrients, whereas
those needed in small quantities are called micronutrients. Minerals are very
important components and their deficiency may result in deficiency
symptoms.
Macronutrients are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, potassium,
phosphorous, calcium, magnesium and sulphur.
Micronutrients are iron, manganese, zinc, chloride, boron, molybdenum
and boron.
TABLE
NUTRIENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
NUTRIENT ROLE IN PLANTS
MACRONUTRIENTS:
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen These are required for the

entire structure of
(structural elements) plant. In their absence
plant dies.
Nitrogen Component of protein, amino
acids, chlorophyll, DNA,
RNA and ATP.
Phosphorous Component of ATP and
phospholipids, DNA
and RNA.
Potassium For growth, formation of
chlorophyll and stomatal
activity.
Calcium Development of root and shoot
apex, formation of middle
lamella.
Magnesium Constituent of chlorophyll,
activation of enzymes.
Sulphur Component of amino acids
MICRONUTRIENTS:
Iron It is a part of cytochrome which is
needed for respiration and
photosynthesis.
Zinc Activation of enzymes
Manganese Activates enzymes for
photosynthesis and
respiration
Chlorine Evolution of O2 during
photosynthesis.
Copper Component of cytochrome.
Molybdenum Activator of enzymes.
Boron Translocation of organic solutes.
WATER RELATIONS OF PLANTS:
60% to 80% of total weight plant body is water. Most of the minerals
needed by the plants can be easily dissolved in water. Molecules of water
are smaller than the pores in plasma membrane, so they can easily move
across plasma membrane.
The absorption of water in roots is carried out by two processes.
A) Passive Absorption – does not require energy.
B) Active Absorption – requires energy.
A) Passive Absorption is of two types
(i) Diffusion: It is the movement of molecules from the region of higher
concentration to lower concentration till an equilibrium is reached in
both the regions.
(ii) Osmosis: The movement of water molecules from the region of their
higher concentration to lower concentration to the region of their
through a semi permeable membrane is called osmosis.
B) Active Transport: The passage of ions or molecules from the region
of their lower concentration to their higher concentration. For
achieving active absorption, the following two conditions are required.
a) Energy which is derived from ATP.
b) Special carriers to carry the molecules.
NOTE:
Imbibition is the process of increase in the volume of solids due to
absorption of water or a liquid. Thin type lichens, dry seeds and velamen
roots absorb water by imbibition. Roots are the main structures through
which plants absorb water from the soil. Root hairs of roots absorbs water
by the process of endosmosis. The water absorbed by the root hair makes
cells turgid (a condition in which no more water can enter it and the
contents of the cell swell to the maximum).
The water from this cell now passes to the next cell due to osmosis as
well as due to pressure caused by turgidity. The sequence of cell to cell
osmosis continues till the water reaches xylem vessels to flow upward.
TRANSPIRATION:
Roots absorb a lot of water but only a very small portion of it is utilized
by the plant. The remaining water is evaporated from the plant surface
through a process called transpiration. The loss of water in the form of

water vapour from plant surface is called transpiration.
Transpiration from plants occurs through 3 areas.
a) Stomata: (tiny pores in the epidermis of leaves)95-98 per cent of total
transpiration occurs through stomata.
b) Cuticle : (general surface of plants) up to 2% of transpiration occurs
through cuticle.
c) Lenticels: (Pores on woody stems & fruits) 0.1% of total transpiration
occurs through lenticels.
Significance of Transpiration:
1. Transpiration builds optimum turgidity in the cells.
2. Transpiration allows movement of water & mineral salts through
the plant.
3. Transpiration keeps the plant and the leaves cool even at high
temperature.
Chemical substances used to reduce transpiration in plants are called
anti-transpirants.
Loss of water in the liquid form as droplets is called Guttation. This
water loss takes place through special structures called hydathodes.
RESPIRATION:
Respiration is process in which organic molecules (usually
carbohydrates or fats) are broken down step by step in the cell to release
energy. This process is carried out with the help of enzymes and the energy
released is stored in ATP molecules.
Respiration is of two types depending on the utilization of O2 or non-
utilization O2. Anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of O2. It is
known as Fermentation.
Aerobic respiration occurs in the presence of oxygen. Gaseous
exchange in plants takes place through
(i) General body surface.
(ii) Lenticels (opening in bark of tree).
(iii) Stomata, present in leaves and young stems.
Plants do not need any oxygen – carrier molecule (like the haemoglobin
in humans) to distribute O2 to different parts. Their O2 requirement is
very much less than of animals. And this oxygen gets directly transported
from cell to cell by diffusion.
The overall equation for aerobic respiration can be written as
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ® 6CO2 + 6H20 + 38 ATP (glucose)
 Upto glycolysis (from glucose – pyruvic acid) the reactions are the
same as in anaerobic respiration.
 Pyruvic acid enters Kreb’s cycle and step by step is completely
broken down (oxidised) to CO2, H20 with release of energy.
 The reactions in Kreb’s cycle occur in mitochondria.
 Most ATP molecules are formed during the step-wise transfer of H
ions (formed due to break down of pyruvic acid molecules) to
oxygen and there by forming water.
Hydrogen cannot be transferred directly to oxygen, as a lot of heat will
be generated, and thus a lot of chemical energy will be wasted as heat. That
is why the transfer requires several intermediate agents like NADP, FAD
and iron containing, pigments called cytochromes and is carried out in
several steps.
NOTE:
Substances like carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulphide acts as poison
because they block H – transfer system and stop ATP release.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
Photosynthesis is the only process by which autotrophic organisms on
earth, capture light energy and convert it into food for themselves and all
other heterotrophic organisms. It is important to note that photosynthesis
the only natural process, which liberates oxygen for the use of all other
living organisms. An amount of oxygen equivalent to that present in
Earth’s entire atmosphere, is produced by photosynthesis every two years.
Photosynthesis (photo = light, synthesis = together) is the process by
which green plants in the presence of light combine water and
carbondioxide to form carbohydrates, oxygen is released as a by product.
Photosynthesis is represented by the following overall chemical
equation.
6CO2 + 12H20 C6H12O6 + 6H20 + 6O2
It occurs in the chloroplasts of the green leaves or those of any other

part of the plant exposed to Sunlight. The chloroplasts capture light energy
and convert it into chemical energy. The chloroplasts contain a pigment
known as chlorophyll. This pigment absorb light energy, there by
converting it into chemical energy.
QUANTOSOME:
The photosynthetic unit is called quantosome. It is a group of pigment
molecules required to effect a photochemical reaction.
PLANT GROWTH HORMONES:
A Hormone is a growth regulator that is produced in one part of the
plant and induces a response at some other location of the plant.
Growth regulators are substances other than nutrients which promote,
inhibit or otherwise, modify growth, development or differentiation in
plants.
Growth regulators can be divided into two groups
a) Growth Promoters
b) Growth inhibitors
a) Growth Promoters:
(i) Auxins : The response to auxins is different in different organs of
plant. In roots, low concentration stimulates growth but its increase in
concentration retards growth. On the other hand higher concentration
of auxinspromote growth in stems.
E.g.: Indole Acetic Acid. (IAA).
(ii) Functions : suppress lateral bud growth. If the tip if a plant is
removed, the lateral branches begin to grow.
(iii) Bring about profuse rooting.
(iv) Delay fall of leaves.
2. Gibberellins : They were initially identified and isolated from a
fungus.
Functions:
(i) It causes stem elongation in certain plants. Even dwarf plants
become tall.
(ii) It breaks the dormancy of seeds and tubers.
(iii) Induces parthenocarpy (production of fruits without fertilization).
3. Cytokinins : They are produced in actively growing tissues such as

embryos, developing fruits and roots.
Their main function include
(i) Cause cell division.
(ii) Retard ageing
b) Growth Inhibitors:
1) Abscissic Acid : It is a naturally occurring growth inhibitor. It is also
known as dormancy hormone. Its functions includes
(i) Inhibits the action of auxins.
(ii) Promotes leaf fall.
(iii) Promote bud dormancy.
2) Ethylene: It is a gaseous phytohormone. Almost all plants tissues
produce ethylene gas in minutest quantities.
Its functions are
(i) It promotes cell enlargement.
(ii) It induces senescence (ageing) and abscission (falling) of leaves,
flowers etc.
(iii) Ripening of fruits is mainly due to ethylene.
NOTE:
Photperiodism is the response in growth, reproduction (flowering) of a
plant to the duration of light which falls on it per day.
VERNALISATION:
Is the effect of low temperature on flowering of plants. In nature many
plants such as cereals, rose, require a period of cold treatment before they
bear flowers.
NITROGEN METABOLISM:
Nitrogen is an essential constituent of protein which is a building block
of all livings both plants and animals. It is also the major constituent of the
atmosphere, being about 79%. But in gaseous state this nitrogen is not of
much use to most animals and plants.
Animals need it in the form of amino acids, and plants in the form of
soluble nitrogen salts (nitrates); from these nitrates they can manufacture
their amino acids and proteins.
As per one estimate, every year 140-700 mg/m2 amount of nitrogen is

fixed biologically where as a little amount (35 mg/m2/year) is fixed non-
biologically.
Biological fixation of nitrogen (90%) is accomplished by symbiotic
bacteria (Rhizobium, Nitrosomoras) and blue green algae living in
association with roots of legume plants and other non legume plants.
In non biological fixation, cosmic radiation, lightening, electrification
provide energy required to combine atmospheric nitrogen with oxygen and
water. As a result ammonia and nitrates are formed which are carried to the
earth along with rain water.
Nitrogen cycle is completed in following 5 steps:
1. The nitrogen compounds of dead and decaying organisms enter
into the environment.
2. These organic compounds are broken down into Ammonia by
decomposers (Ammonification).
3. The ammonia is again converted into soluble ammonium
compounds and are ionised into NH4+ and NH2– ions.
4. The nitrifying bacteria (chemo synthetic autotrophs) like
nitrosomonas convert ammonia into nitrite and Nitrobacter convert
into nitrates (nitrification).
GROWTH MOVEMENTS:
Plants show movements such as unfolding of buds, opening and
closing of flowers, twining of tendrils, bending towards light. Most
movements in plants are very slow and one is unable to actually see them
moving.
The growth movements are also called tropic movements (tropic-
turning) that occur in response to unidirectional stimulus.
(i) Geotropism: Induced by gravity. E.g. growth of roots towards
gravity.
(ii) Phototropism: induced by light. E.g. bending of stems towards
light.
(iii) Movements due to contact (thigotropism): Movement
caused by contact. E.g. twining stem and tendril and the drooping
of leaves of sensitive plant by touch (touch-me-not).
(iv) Movement due to humidity: (Hydrotropism) Roots grows

towards source of water.
SEED GERMINATION:
The activation and growth of the embryo (in seed) into a seedling
during favourable conditions called germination.
There are 2 methods of seed germination. They are
(1) Epigeal : In this type cotyledons are brought out of the soil. This
happens due to the elongation of the hypocotyls.
E.g. Castor, Bean.
(2) Hypogeal : Cotyledons do not come out of the soil but remain
underground. Hypocotyl doesn’t elongate.
E.g. Maize, Pea.
During seed germination, the seeds first swell up by taking up of water
by a process known as imbibition. Enzymes get activated and bring about
the degradation of reserve food materials. The growing embryo uses these
simpler food molecules. Meanwhile the seed coat ruptures and the growing
embryo is exposed to air and light.
Seeds of majority of plants remain inactive or dormant for a specific
period of time. Such seeds germinate after the completion of the dormancy
period. Seeds germinate in presence of sufficient moisture and aeration.
Seeds usually do not germinate either under water or in dry air.
Temperature and light also influence seed germination.
ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY:
FOOD & NUTRITION:

Food is any substance which perform many important functions in the
body such as
 It yields energy or heat
 It builds up new cells
 Repairs worn out tissues
 Regulates body processes to maintain life and
 Aids in the production of useful body compounds.
Food can be classified into three categories mainly based on the function.
They are
(i) Energy giving foods : These are rich in carbohydrates and fats.
Eg: Cereals, sugar, fats, oils, roots and tubers.
(ii) Body building foods : These are rich in proteins, vitamins and
minerals.
Eg: milk, egg, meat, fish pulses, nuts and oil seeds.
(iii) Protective/regulatory foods : These are rich in minerals and
vitamins, roughage and water.
Eg: whole cereals, green leafy vegetables, fruits.
NUTRITION
Autotrophic
(Holophytic), (Auto = self trophe = food) Prepare their own foody by
photosynthesis e.g. green plant.
Heterotrophic
(Hetero = different) obtaining food from other sources Eg ; animals.
Saprotrophic
(Sapro = dead) obtaining food from dead and decaying matter e.g.
certain fungi & bacteria.
Note:
Holozoic nutrition = eating whole animals or their parts.
NUTRITION:
It is the sum of the processes by which an organism takes in,
metabdites and utilises food substance. Nutrition is mainly of 3 types.
Nutrients are the substances which help in maintaining proper health
and are required for the survival of a living being.
Nutrients are classified on the basis of quantity, required by the body
into two groups. They are macro nutrients and micro nutrients.
Macro nutrients : These nutrients are required in bulk amount. The

macro nutrients include carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
Micro nutrients : These are as important as macro nutrients but are
required in less amount. These include vitamins and many minerals.
CARBOHYDRATES:
Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They

release energy on oxidation. Complete oxidation of one gram of
carbohydrate yields about 17 kilo joules of energy (1 kilo joule = 1/4.18 x
1000 calories). Three important carbohydrates that we consume in out
food are sugars, starch and cellulose.
FATS:
They are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Fats are the richest
source of energy. One gram of fat on oxidation gives about 27 kilo joules
of energy.
Sources:
Animal sources : ghee, butter, fish, oil, meat, egg.
Plant sources : vegetable oil from the seeds of coconut, mustard,
sunflower, safflower etc.
NOTE:
Doctors advise intake of oils (rich in unsaturated fatty acids) instead of
ghee (rich in saturated fatty acids) to prevent cardiovascular diseases.
PROTEINS:
Proteins are complex organic compounds rich in carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen. Sometimes phosphorous and sulphur also occur in
varying amounts. Proteins are needed by the body for growth and
development, repair and maintenance and the synthesis of antibodies,
enzymes and hormones.
Proteins are made of simpler substances the amino acids. Nutritionally,
amino acids belong to two classes.
(a) Essential amino acids – which cannot be synthesized in the animal
body and must be supplied with food. e.g. leucine.
(b) Non essential amino acids – which can be synthesized particularly from
carbohydrates and need not be supplied in diet. e.g. alanine.
Protein sources:
Animal sources :milk, egg, fish, meat, liver etc.
Plant sources : cereals, pulses and nuts.
One protein on complete oxidation produces 4.1 keal of energy.
VITAMINS:
Vitamins are complex chemical substances required by the body in very

small amounts. They do not yield energy but
 are essential for good health.
 Protect the body from various diseases.
 Essential for the utilization of other nutrients.
Vitamins are classified into two groups:
(a) Water soluble vitamins – vitamins B complex and C.
(b) Fat soluble vitamins – vitamins A, D, E and K.
Since vitamins cannot be made in our body except for vitamin D, they
have to be supplied through food that contain them. The below table list
the vitamins and their sources as well as the deficiency diseases and
symptoms for the growing children.
MINERALS:
Minerals and nutrients required in varying amounts for proper
functioning, normal growth and keeping good health of our body.
Minerals perform the following functions:
 Essential for development of bone and teeth-calcium phosphorus.
 Regulate the fluid balance and acid-alkalinity of body fluids-sodium,

potassium, chlorine.
 Iron is a major component of hemoglobin, which help in transport
and release of oxygen.
 Iodine is required for the synthesis of thyroid hormone-thyroxin,
which regulates the oxidation rate within cells.
 Zinc, copper and magnesium regulate a host of vital reactions in
our body.
BALANCED DIET:
A balanced diet is one that contains all essential nutrients in suitable
proportion and concentration to produce the necessary energy and keep
the body in a healthy state.
A balanced diet has the following qualities:
 Meets the nutrient requirement of the body.
 Consists of different types of food items.
 Provides adequate amount of energy.
MALNUTRITION:
The condition resultin from lack of nutrients is called malnutrition
A large number of people in our country and other developing
countries, suffer from malnutrition. Malnutrition affects the health of
children adversely as it results in physical and mental retardation.
Generally the growing children suffer from Protein Energy
Malnutrition (PEM) as the required amount of proteins needed for their
growth and development is not available.
Low protein diet leads to a disease called kwashiorkor and the
deficiency of carbohydrates in diet leads to Marasmus in children.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
Digestion is breaking down of complex organic food by enzymes into
simpler soluble substances that can be absorbed. During the process of
digestion the bonds between units of complex food molecules are broken
down so as to liberate, their simpler units which can be absorbed easily.
Digestion can be of two types:
(a) Intracellular digestion: The digestion process which occurs within

the cell is called intracellular digestion.
Eg: All free living unicellular protozoa.
(b) Extracellular digestion: Digestion occurs outside the cell. All animals
(excluding sponges) carryout extracellular digestion.
They have either a cavity, a tube or a food canal which receives the
ingested food, and in which the digestion takes place. The food canal
sometimes is called Alimentary canal.
HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
Diagram Showing Different Parts of “Digestive System”

The human alimentary canal is a muscular tube having the following parts.
1. Mouth and associated structures (teeth, tongue).
2. Pharynx: A cavity at the back of the mouth. A common passage for
the air inhaled and the food swallowed.
3. Oesophagus: A narrow tube arising from pharynx continuing through
the chest and ending in the stomach.
4. Stomach: An elastic bag with highly muscular walls located below the
diaphragm.
5. Small intestine: A tube about 7 mts long and about 2.5 cm wide. It is
much coiled and contains 3 parts – Duodenum, Jejunum and ileum
6. Large intestine: It is about 15 mts long and shows three parts –
caecum, colon and rectum. The rectum endsin anus.
DIGESTIVE GLANDS:
Digestive glands are tissues which secrete digestive enzymes. (Enzymes
are in general proteins which carry out chemical reactions by acting as
catalysts).
There are two sources of digestive enzymes.
(1) The glandular cells of the gut epithelium of stomach and intestine,
which directly pour their secretion into the lumen of the gut.
(2) Special glands such as the salivary glands, the liver and the pancreas
which pour their secretions into the gut through their ducts.
Saliva is the secretion of salivary glands. It cleans the mouth cavity and
tends to destroy germs that cause teeth decay. It also acts as a solvent,
dissolving some food particles to stimulate taste buds of the tongue.
DIGESTIVE PROCESS:
Digestion involves two kinds of processes:
(a) Mechanical process that includes cutting, grinding, swallowing and
pushing the food along the food canal. Smaller particles expose greater
surface area for action by enzymes.
(b) Chemical process which includes the enzymatic breakdown of complex
food into simpler absorbable form.
Teeth mainly help in the mechanical digestion. Teeth are useful in
mastication process.
Chemical process in Digestion:
1. In mouth : Saliva contains only a single enzyme amylase which act on
starch in two ways.
Amylase
(i) Raw uncooked starch Dextrins.
(ii) Cooked starch Maltose.
2. In Stomach : Gastric glands present in the mucosa of stomach secrete
gastric juice. The gastric juice is a mixture of hydrochloric acid (HCL),
the lubricant mucin and the enzyme pepsin.
Pepsin is secreted in its inactive form, the proenzyme pepsinogen,
which is activated by HCL.
Pepsin acts on protein and breaks down them into proteoses and
peptones. pepsin
Proteins proteoses and peptones.

3. In Small Intestine : In small intestine the food which is partially
digested in the stomach and called chyme is acted upon by 3 main
digestive juices.
(1) Bile juice from the liver.
(2) Pancreatic juice from the pancreas.
(3) Intestinal juice secreted from special cells in the intestinal epithelium at
the bases of intestinal villi.
The Bile juice and pancreatic juice are poured into the duodenum by
their respective ducts, both opening at the same point. The intestinal juice
directly mixes with the food.
Bile is yellowish, green, alkaline liquid. It consist of water, sodium
carbonate and bile salts. Bile salts are involved in the emulsification of fats.
Bile has no digestive enzymes.
Pancreatic juice contains six major categories of enzymes, which act in
an alkaline medium.
(i) Amylase – completes conversion of starch into maltose.
Amylase
Starch Maltose (a disaccharide)
(ii) lipase (steapsin) acts on emulsified fats to produce fatty acids and
glycerol.
Lipase
Emulsified Fats Fatty acids glycerol.
(iii) Nucleases digest nucleic acids i.e. DNA and RNA content of food
and break them into nucleotides.
Nucleases
DNA & RNA Nucleotides.
(iv) Trypsinogen is the inactive precursor of trypsin. It is activated into
trypsin by the hormone enterokinase. The trypsin acts on remaining
proteins and proteoses and peptones to produce peptides and
amino acids.
Trypsin
Proteins + proteoses + peptones
Peptides and amino acids.
(v) Carboxy peptidases acts on peptides to produce small peptides and

amino acids.
4. Disgestion by intestinal juice or succus entericus:
The intestinal juice contains the following categories of enzymes:
(i) Glycosidases (including maltase, sucrase and lactase). These
hydrolyze the disaccharides maltose (malt sugar), sucrose (cane
sugar) and lactose (milk sugar) into simpler absorbable
monosaccharides (glucose, fructose and galactose).
Maltase
Maltose glucose + glucose
Surcase
Sucrose glucose + fructose
Lactase
Lactose glucose + galactse
(ii) Lipase completes the digestion of any lipid (fat) not digested by
pancreatic juice.
(iii) Peptidases (amino peptidases and dipeptidase) act on peptides and
dipeptides to produce smaller peptides and amino acids.
(iv) Nucleases breakdown nucleotides into phosphate sugar and
different nitrogenous bases.
ABSORPTION OF FOOD:
Some absorption occurs in mouth itself some in stomach but most
absorption occurs in the intestines.
Minute quantities of water, water-soluble vitamins and simple sugars
like glucose are absorbed in mouth.
Water, glucose, ethanol, certain minerals, vitamins and certain drugs
may be absorbed into the cells lining the stomach.
Most absorption of digested food occurs in small intestine. The
absorption rate of intestine is increased by the development of villi (fold in
the small intestine).
Most water of the food is absorbed in colon by diffusion. Some mineral
ions are absorbed by the colon by active transport.
ASSIMILATION:
The final conversion of the absorbed nutrients into the living substance
i.e. their utilization by the cells is called the assimilation.
The digested food after absorption from the food canal is assimilated
by the body in the following manner.
(i) Fatty acids and glycerol are again converted into fats, that may be
used or stored (in adipose tissue)
(ii) Simple sugars (monosaccharides) which are in excess are converted
into complex polysaccharide (glycogen) in liver.
(iii) Amino acids are utilized in the synthesis of proteins for building up
the body tissues and enzymes.
EGESTION (Defaecation):
The undigested part (plant fibres) and the unabsorbed digested
substances pass into the the rectum. Such food remnants are temporarily
stored in rectum. More water is absorbed and the remnants become semi
solid to form faeces.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
The body of almost all the animals, which we see around us, has some
form of fluid circulating in their body. Such fluids constitute the
distributing system (to supply substances like O2,food) as well as collecting
system 9to pick-up substances like CO2, excreta) from the various parts of
the body.
Thus, circulation of fluids is required for the transportation of

nutrients, gases, wastes and other substances from one part of our body to
the other part.
The flow of an extracellular fluid through various organs of the body
constitutes the circulatory system.
The human circulatory, system consists of the following:
(1) Heart – The pumping organ.
(2) Blood Vessels – The connecting tubes.

(3) Blood – The circulating fluid.
(4) Lymphatic system.
1. Heart: The fist sized organ, the heart is the principal pumping organ of
the blood vascular system. Heart consists of 4 chambers. Upper two
chambers – the Auricles and lower two chambers – the Ventricles. Heart is
a muscular organ made of cardiac muscle tissues. It is able to perform its
functions by coordination between its contraction, relaxation and opening
and closing of a number of valves present inside the heart.
Ventricles have thick muscular walls for pumping blood to longer
distances. Heart is covered by a membrane called pericardium.
Figure : Control of the heart heat.

The beating of heart goes on by itself as long as one is alive. Each heart
beat consists of 2 steps. Systole or contraction, followed by Diastole or
relaxation. The systolic and diastolic pressure of a normal adult human
being is 120/80. The difference between these two pressures is called the
“Pulse Pressure”.
Heart beat originates at the Sino-Atrial Node or S.A.Node (cardiac
muscle tissue) and travels as follows:
Sino-atrial Node (S.A.Node) in upper corner of right auricle.
Atrio-Ventricle Node (A.V.Node) in the inter auricle septum.
Bundle of His lying in the inter ventricular septum.
Purkinje Fibres lying in the walls of ventricles.

Since Sino-atrial Node initiates and regularizes the heartbeat, it is also
called the pacemaker. The pacemaker is influenced by nerves, hormones,
CO2 and O2 content of blood, heat etc. Since the heart beat starts from
the SAN, the heart is said to be myogenic.
2. Blood Vessels :The tubes transporting blood are called blood vessels.
The wall of blood vessel has 3 layers, tunica externa, tunica media and
tunica interna. There are 3 kinds of blood vessels.
(i) Artery (ii) Capillaries (iii) Veins
Arteries transport blood towards the heart. De oxygenated blood flows
in veins except pulmonary vein. Capillaries link arteries to veins. They are
the site of exchange of materials between blood and tissues.
Blood that has been circulated through the body has lost much of the
O2, it carried. This de-oxygenated blood returns to the heart by the two
major veins.
1. Superior Vena Cava – brings blood from head and shoulder region.
2. Inferior Vena Cava – brings blood from the lower parts of the
body.
These venae cavae open in the right auricle. Contraction of right auricle
forces this blood into the right ventricle. Contraction of right ventricle
pumps blood into pulmonary artery which goes to the lungs. Blood gets
oxygenated in the lungs and returns to the left through the pulmonary vein.
Blood then passes from left auricle into the left ventricle. Left ventricle
pumps blood into the aorta. The aorta turns round on the left and
distributes blood throughout the body.
The flow diagram below summarizes the path of blood through the
entire circulatory system. It is possible to summarize the path taken by the
blood as it passes twice through the heart (Double circulation).
Double Circulation:
(i) Deoxygenated blood from body to heart and oxygenated blood

from heart to body.
(ii) Deoxygenated blood from heart to lungs and oxygenated blood
from lungs to heart.
In one circulation, the blood passes through the heart twice. Once from
body to heart to lungs and second time from lungs to heart to body.
Path of circulating blood: VENAE CAVAE
(Carry blood from tissues with very little oxygen and lot of CO2)
RIGHT AURICLE
RIGHT VENTRICLE
PULMONARY ARTERIES
(carry blood to lungs to give up CO2 and to collect O2 from lungs)
PULMONARY VEINS
LEFT AURICLE
LEFT VENTRICLE
AORTA
(carries blood with a lot of oxygen and distributes to the body)
3. Blood: Blood is a red coloured, thick, and slightly alkaline, fluid which
keep circulating through the blood vessels in our body. The main functions
of blood are:
(a) It transports substances in the body such as O2, food, CO2 and
hormones. It also carries wastes to the kidney.
(b) It protects body against disease.
(c) It maintains normal body temperature.
Blood is fluid connective tissue made of plasma and blood cells.
PLASMA:
It is a pale yellow liquid consisting of water and certain organic and

inorganic substances. These include glucose, fatty acids, amino acids,
vitamins, O2, CO2 and waste products such as urea, uric acid etc. Plasma
also contains like albumen, globulin and fibrinogen.
BLOOD CELLS:
The cells of blood are Red Blood Corpuscles (RBC) or Erythrocytes,
White Blood Cells (WBC) or Leucocytes and Blood Platelets. Blood cells
are formed in the bone marrow. Their formation is termed
HAEMOPOIESIS.
TABLE
TYPE ORIGIN NO. OF CELLS/mM
FUNCTION Erythocytes Bone Marrow 5,000,000
Transport of oxygen
(Red Blood and some CO2
Corpuscles)
Leucocytes Bone Marrow 4000-8000
(White Blood
Corpuscles)
Granulocytes Bone Marrow 4400 Engulf bacteria
(72% of total 105 Anti-histamine
properties
WBC) 34 Produce histamine
i. Neutrophils (70%) and
heparin
ii. Acidophils (1.5%)
iii. Basophils (0.5%)
Agranulocytes (28%)
i. Monocytes (4%) Bone Marrow 280 Engulf
bacteria
phagocytosis
Lymphoid tissue spleen Production of
antibodies,
cellular immunity
(provide immunity)
Platelets Bone Marrow 250,000 Initiate blood-

clotting
mechanism.
NOTE:
1. Abnormal increase in RBC – Polycythemia.
2. Abnormal decrease in RBC – Anaemia
3. Abnormal increase in WBC – Leukemia.
4. Abnormal decrease in WBC – leucopenia.
COAGULATION OF BLOOD (Blood clotting):
When blood vessels are injured, (say by a cut on the finger), blood
oozes out for some time and thickens later. This process of thickening of
blood, by forming a lump is called Blood coagulation or blood clotting.
When blood vessels are injured, sequence of reactions takes place to
prevent loss of blood. Steps involved are as follows:
HAEMOPHILIA:
A genetic disease that results in a condition where blood fail to clot.
BLOOD GROUPS:
The blood may chemically be identified belonging to any one of the
four main groups A, B, AB and C. Blood types remain constant throughout
lifetime. These blood groups are due to the presence of special protein
present on the membrane of RBCs, called Antigen. Antigens present could
be A, B both A and B or no antigen at all. Blood plasma, on the other
hand, contains antibodies a, b or both a and b or neither of the two.
Blood Group Antigen Antibody
A A b
B B a
AB A,B –
O – a, b
BLOOD TRANSFUSION:
When excessive blood is lost form the body either due to an accident,
hemorrhage or during an operation, doctors transfer blood from a healthy
person (donor) to the patient (recipient). This is called blood transfusion.
When a blood transfusion is needed, the red cells of the blood selected
must belong to a group which will not be affected by any antibody in the
patients plasma. Clumping of donor’s blood (Agglutination) may take place
on transfusion if the blood group of donor does not match with that of the
recipient.
The person with blood group A can receive blood from other persons
whose group is also A. He can also receive blood from a person who
belongs to group O because O group blood does not contain antigens.
Like wise person with B can receive blood from B, and O. Persons with
blood group AB can receive blood from A, B, AB or O, and is called
universal recipient; person with blood group O can give blood to any one
because no antigens are found in this. Hence O group is called universal
donor.
Rh FACTOR:
Presence or absence of another blood protein in addition of A B O
antigen makes a person Rh+ or Rh–.
Rh factor in expectant mother can sometimes cause problems. The
blood of an Rh+ embryo whose mother is Rh– is in danger of severe
clumping. The antibodies are produced in the mother against the Rh+
blood cells of the embryo. This condition is called Erythroblastosis foetalis.
LYMPH:
The clear, colourless fluid that collects in a blister to provide protection
to the underlying tissue is lymph. The lymphatic system consists of a large
number of lymph ducts, lymph nodes and lymph vessels. It lacks a
pumping heart. Fluid is pushed by muscle movement. The lymph nodes are
scattered throughout the body. They are more concentrated in the neck,
armpits and groins. The main functions of lymph include:
a) Supplies nutrition and oxygen to those parts where blood cannot
reach.
b) Drains away excess tissue fluid from extra-cellular spaces back into
the blood.
c) Absorbs and transports fats absorbed from small intestine.
d) Collects nitrogenous waste.
e) Lymphocytes and antibodies present in it help in removing bacteria.
IMMUNITY
The body’s ability to resist or protect itself from the harmful effects of
disease producing substances (organisms) is called Immunity.
Any substance that causes this type of response in the body is known as
antigen. Antigens may be bacteria, viruses or allergens. Antigens enable the
body to protect itself through the antibodies produced by lymphocytes.
Immunity could be natural or acquired. Natural immunity is by birth.
Acquired immunity develops during life time. It develops due to exposure
to a disease or by vaccination.
A vaccine is a sample of an antigen, too small to cause a disease, but
enough to produce antibodies. Vaccines have been developed for a number
of diseases like polio, mumps, measles, tetanus, diphtheria, cholera etc.
Cells of Immune system:
There are two major types and develop in Bone marrow.
T-Cells: They mature in thymus gland. They identify antigens and
destroy them by making a number of copies. They attack directly.
B-Cells: They mature in lymphoid tissues. They recognize antigen
with the help of surface receptors. They produce a large number of
antibodies for attacking antigens.
IMMUNO DEFICIENCY DISORDERS:
Hereditary, congenital, or acquired defects in immune response are
called Immuno Deficiency disorders. SCID and AIDS are two common
examples of such disorders.
SCID : (Severe combined Immuno-Deficiency) is caused due to
absence of both T-cells and B-cells. This defect is present by birth.
AIDS : (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) causes
considerable reduction in T-cells and ultimate destruction of Immune
system. It is caused by HIV (Human Immuno Deficiency Virus).
AIDS may be caused by:
1. Sexual contact with a person infected with HIV.
2. Blood transfusion with a person infected with HIV.
3. Sharing of contaminated needles with HIV sufferers or Drug
addicts.
4. From infected mother to foetus through placenta.
RESPIRATION
The cells of our body need and use oxygen to liberate energy from food
molecules. When such energy is liberated, the CO2 is produced as a by
product. “This cellular process of oxygen use, energy liberation and carbon
dioxide (CO2) release is called respiration. In short the process associated
with the energy release in a living organism are included under respiration.
In certain organisms like bacteria, cyanobacteria energy from food
molecules is released in the absence of O2. This process is called
Anaerobic respiration (fermentation).
In most of the organisms energy release from the food molecules is
done in the presence of oxygen (Aerobic respiration). The burning of
molecules in presence of oxygen is called oxidation.
The exchange of gases in our body is completed in two main steps:
1. Breathing external respiration is just inhaling and exhaling of air so
that O2 can be taken in and CO2 released sent out and
2. Cellular respiration is the oxidation of food molecules (e.g. glucose)
to release biochemical energy inside the cells.
The main organs of respiration are lungs. Air reaches the surfaces of
the lungs by passing through the different air passages. The sequence is as
follows:
AIR  NOSTRILS  NASAL CAVITY  PHARYNX 
LARYNX  TRACHEA (wind pipe)  BRONCHI 
BRONCHIOLES  ALVEOLI (Air sacs in lungs).
Epiglottis is flap like valve that protects the passage to the lungs, when
food is being swallowed and thus prevents the entry of food into the wind
pipe (trachea).
One single complete breath consists of two parts:
(i) inspiration  drawing air into lungs.
(ii) expiration  expelling the air out from the lungs.
Normally breathing is involuntary (not under our will or control).
Human lungs have a large surface area for gaseous exchange due to
presence of Alveoli. Alveolar membrane is thin, moist and richly supplied
with blood capillaries.
GASEOUS TRANSPORT:
(i) Oxygen transport (lungs to tissues): Efficient transport of O2 is by
a complex protein called HEMOGLOBIN. This iron-rich protein is
packed in Red Blood Corpuscles. Hemoglobin can carry 67 times
more O2 than plasma alone. Oxygenation of blood takes place in
lungs 4 molecules of O2 form a reversible bond with hemoglobin.
(ii) Carbon dioxide transport (from tissues to lungs). Active tissues

constantly produce CO2. This CO2 has to be transported to the
lungs for elimination. This transportation of the CO2 occurs in 3
ways.
a) physically dissolved in plasma (only 8% of total CO2 transported).
b) Directly combined with hemoglobin to form carbamino
hemoglobin (about 11% only).
c) As bicarbonates dissolved in plasma, but produced in RBCs (about
81%).
CELLULAR RESPIRATION:
Oxygen taken in the blood is utilized in all the living cells during
cellular respiration. It is a complicated process that is completed in the
mitochondria. During cell respiration, glucose is oxidized to release energy.
Energy released is stored in ATP (Adenosine tri phosphate) molecules
and is readily available for cell use. The process can be summed up as
follows:
MITOCHONDRIA
C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 ———-à 6CO2 + 6H20 + ATP
CELL RESPIRATION (energy)
Respiration that takes place in the presence of O2 is called Aerobic
Respiration. It is more efficient as it releases 38 molecules of ATP on the
oxidation of one glucose molecule.
Absence of oxygen for sometime may lead to Anaerobic Respiration. It
is inefficient as only 2 molecules of ATP are produced from one glucose
molecule.
NOTE:
Asthma: Difficulty in breathing because of narrowing of bronchioles.
Sometimes caused due to certain factors present in the environment.
Pneumonia: Lungs shows inflammation due to bacterial infection.
Visual symptoms are fever, pain and severe cough.
Tuberculosis: Lumps of tissue are formed in the lungs caused by
bacteria. It is an infectious disease. In extreme cases blood may come out
while coughing.
EXCRETION
Excretion can be defined as “the process of removing wastes and
excess substances from the internal environment of the body. During
different metabolic reactions in the body, certain waste substances are
produced. These substances can be harmful if retained in the body. These
wastes are CO2 – the end product of respiration; water and slats – the
products of many body reactions; faeces – the undigested food; urea,
ammonia and uric acid – the nitrogen containing wastes formed of protein
reactions in the cells.
The term excretion is often applied to the nitrogenous excretion – the
waste products of protein metabolism. The chief nitrogenous excretory
products comprise ammonia, urea and uric acid. No animal is known
which produces only one of these three excretory products. Usually a
certain amount of all three is excreted, but with one predominating over
the other. On the basis of this, animals are classified as ammonotelic –
those mainly excrete ammonia; ureotelic – those mainly excrete urea; and
uricotelic – those mainly excrete uric acid.
Man is ureotelic, i.e. urea is the main nitrogenous waste in human body.
It is formed by the breakdown of surplus amino acids in the liver. Blood
transports it to the kidneys for filtration and removal.
The human excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of
ureters, a urinary bladder and urethra. Kidneys filter metabolic wastes from
the blood and excrete them in a liquid called urine. As kidneys form urine,
they also maintain normal composition of blood and fluid balance
throughout the body tissues.
Urine formed in the kidneys is brought to the urinary bladder by two

hollow muscular tubes called ureters. Urethra is the small tube that leads
urine to the outside of the body.
NEPHRONS:
Kidney is made up of excretory units called nephrons and the
associated blood vessels and capillaries. There are about 1 million nephrons
in each kidney and filter out about 180 liters of fluid per day.
Nephrons carryout excretory and osmoregulatory functions in three
steps – ultra filtration, selective reabsorption and tubular secretion.
URINE:
The undesirable substances consisting of urea, dissolved salts, bile

pigments and excess of water forms the solution called urine.
NOTE:
Kidney Failure: An abnormal condition in which the kidneys fail to
form urine. It may be caused by hypertension, injury, bacterial infection or
exposure to toxins.
Kidney Stones: Accumulation of various mineral crystals in the
kidneys cause obstruction in urinary passage.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Every organism must somehow become aware of what is going around
it and perform scores of muscular and other activities for its survival.
Besides, several actions occur inside the body that to be properly timed and
well coordinated. Such coordination is the outcome of 2 systems in the
body. They are nervous system and endocrine system. First we discuss, the
nervous system.
Nervous system makes our body operate as a whole in coordination.
Neuron or Nerve cell is the basic unit of nervous system. Each Neuron has
3 parts – cyton, axon and dendrites. Several axons running together in a
bundle form a nerve. A nerve is a bundle of nerve fibres (axons) enclosed
in a tubular sheet. The axon at its end is branched to form teledentrites.
Two neurons are connected in such a way that teledentrites of one neuron
come in contact with dendrites of another neuron. The area of contact
between two neurons is known as “synapse”. The teledentrites contain
vesicles which store the neurotransmitter substance (e.g. acetylcholine,
adrenaline) when a nerve impulse travels along the axon terminal, the
vesicles release the neurotransmitter into the synapse. The neurotransmitter
diffuses through the synapse and reaches the membrane of next neuron.
This results in transmission of nerve impulse along the next neuron.
Nervous system consists of 3 major divisions:
Both Brain and Spinal cord are protected by 3 coverings (meninges) –
outer duramater, middle arachnoid and innermost piamater. The space
between the membranes is filled with a fluid cerebrospinal fluid. There are
cavities (empty spaces) in the brain with the same fluid. This fluid acts like
a cushion and protects the central nervous system against injury and shock.
Cranium or brain box encloses the Brain. The Brain is divided into
Forebrain, Midbrain and Hindbrain. The Hindbrain continues into spinal
cord.
Forebrain consists of cerebrum, the largest portion of human brain. It
is divided into two lobes, the cerebral hemispheres. The two cerebral
hemispheres are joined by thick band of nerve known as ‘corpus callusum’.
The cerebrum is the seat of intelligence, consciousness, will power and it
controls the voluntary actions. The cerebrum surface shows many
convolutions called gyri and depressions called ‘sulci’.
The midbrain contains many groups of neurons. Some of which are
mainly involved in controlling muscle tone and other functions. The
Hindbrain contains ‘cerebellum’ – a smaller region located at the box. It
has numerous furrows instead of convolutions. Its main function is to
maintain balance of the body and coordinate muscular activity. The brain
stem consists of pans varoli and “Medulla oblongata”. Medulla oblongata is
the last part of the brain which is connected to the spinal cord. It is center
for breathing, coughing, swallowing etc. It also controls heartbeat,
peristalsis of the alimentary canal and many other involuntary actions.
Figure : Outline showing different parts of brain

A few parts of brain not visible externally include Thalamus – It is
located in the center below cerebrum. It is a relay center for sensory
impulses (e.g. pain and pleasure) going to the cerebrum.
Hypothalamus lies below the thalamus. It controls homeostasis

(regulation of body temperature body fluids). 12 pairs of cranial nerves
arise from the brain.
Spinal cord passes through the neural canal of the vertebral column
(backbone). At regular distances the spinal cord gives rises to 31 pairs of
spinal nerves.
Brain can be easily differentiated into two regions. Grey matter contains
nerve cells and is situated on the surface and white matter containing nerve
fibres located deep inside the brain.
The peripheral nervous system contains the nerves arising from brain
(cranial nerves) and that arising from spinal cord (spinal nerves).
Autonomous nervous system consists of two parts – Sympathetic
nervous system and Para sympathetic nervous system. The two differ in
their effect on different organs. The automatic nervous system takes care
of emergencies and adapts the body to face them.
SENSE ORGANS:
Sense organs are the organs through which we sense, or detect changes
in the external environment. Sense organs have special sensory cells which
receive stimuli and pass them on to the brain through the concerned
nerves. In the brain the impulses are sorted out and interpreted the right
response. There are 5 important sense organs – eye (vision), ear (hearing),
nose (smelling), skin (touch, pain, heat), and tongue (taste).
EYES:
Eyes are the sense organs which are mainly involved in vision.
Conjunctiva is a thin membrane covering the entire front surface of the
eye. Wall of the eye ball consists of three tissue layers:
Figure : Horizontal section of Eye ball

a) Sclera :The outermost tough layer on the front it forms transparent
cornea.
b) Choroids : Middle layer rich in blood vessels on the front it is
continued as iris, the dark coloured circular part visible through the
cornea. It has a hole in the centre called pupil.
c) Retina :Inner most sensitive layer.
The retina contains 2 kinds of sensory cells – rods (sensitive to dim
light) and cones (sensitive to colours). Yellow spot lying at the visual axis is
the spot of best vision in the normal eye. It contains maximum number of
sense cells and particularly the cones. The rest of the retina has fewer cones
and more roots.
Just below the yellow spot is the blind spot. This is the point at which
the nerve fibres from all the sensitive cells of retina converge to form the
optic nerve that leaves the eye ball. There are no sensory cells at the blind
spot and hence it is the point of no vision (i.e. the part of the image falling
on it will not be perceived).
The lens is biconvex and held in position behind the pupil by
suspensory ligaments. Aqueous humour is a watery fluid which fills the
space between cornea and the lens. Behind the lens is a jelly – like clear
substance vitreous humour (ritreous – glassy, humor fluid). This is a sort of

circular curtain in-front of the lens. It is brown, black or blue and contains
circular muscles (for narrowing the pupil) and radiating muscles (for
dilating the pupil0. The size of the pupil is adjusted involuntarily to control
the amount of light entering the eye.
How we see:
Reflected light rays from the object enter the eyes through the
transparent structures i.e. conjunctiva, cornea, aqueous humour, lens and
vitreous humour.
The curvature of the cornea bends the rays to some extent and the lens
bends them further to form an image on retina. The image is inverted and
real.
Light energy of the image produces chemical changes in the sensory
cells (rods and cones). These changes produce nerve impulses which travel
through optic nerve and reach the brain.
Our brain interprets the image in many ways, e.g. it ‘sees’ the object
upright although the image on the retina is inverted.
Focusing the image on retina is called accommodation. A normal eye is
constantly accommodating while walking, playing or just looking around.
Binocular Vision :
In all primate mammals including humans, both the eyes are placed
forward. This enables overlapping of images in the brain giving a
perception depth.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Endocrine (endo = internal, crine = pouring) glands pour their
secretions directly into the blood. Such glands have no ducts and hence are
called ‘ductless’ glands. The secretions of endocrine glands are called
hormones.
A hormone is a chemical substance secreted by cells in one part of the
body and carried by the blood to some other part where it is effective in
regulating and coordinating the activities of the cells of that part.
Figure : Location of endocrines in A = Women and D = Man

The mammalian endocrine system includes the pituitary, thyroid,
parathyroid, adrenal, testis (male), ovaries (female), thymus, pineal and islet
cells of pancreas.
Pituitary gland : It is most important of all endocrine glands. It is
named as master gland of endocrine system because it controls the activity
of other endocrine glands. But itself, it is under the control of secretion
(known as releasing factors) of hypothalamus of the brain. The pituitary
gland is divided into 3 lobes.
The anterior pituitary lobe secrets Thyrotropin (which stimulates
Adrenal cortex), Follicle stimulating hormone, FSH (which stimulates egg
formation by ovaries and sperm formation by testis), Luteinizing
hormone (stimulates release of egg from ovary in females and in males
it stimulates testis to produce testosterone) and prolactin (stimulates milk
production in mammary glands). Anterior pituitary lobe also secretes
growth hormone (GH) which stimulates the general growth of tissues.
Deficiency of GH in children causes DWARFISM. Over secretion of
GH in children causes GIGANTISM. Over secretion of GH in adults
causes ACROMEGALY.
Posterior pituitary lobe secretes 2 hormones. ‘Oxytocin’ – stimulates
vigorous contractions of the uterus in a pregnant mother leading to the
birth of the baby and ‘vasopressin’ – also called antidiuretic hormone
(ADH) which constricts blood vessels with rise in blood pressure. It also
acts on kidney increasing reabsorption of water from the kidney tubules.
Deficiency of vasopressin leads to diabetes insipidus in which urine is
diluted with high loss of water.
Middle Pituitary lobe produces Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone
(MSH) which stimulates pigment cells in skin to produce the dark pigment
melanin.
THYROID:
It is located in the neck region and is ‘H’ shaped. It secretes thyroxine
hormone. This hormone regulates basal metabolism (rate of cellular
oxidation) resulting in heat production. Undersecretion of thyroxine in
children causes a mental retardation condition called ‘cretinism. Hypo
secretion of Thyroxine in adults produce myxoedema (person becomes
sluggish with swelling on face and hands).
In sufficient quantity of iodine leads to ‘simple goitre’ in which thyroid
gland swells. Over secretion of Thyroxine may cause exophthalmic goitre.
A person with this condition shows a marked increase in metabolic rate,
rapid heart beat, shortness of breath and protruded eyes.
PARATHYROIDS:
They are 4 smaller endocrine glands located very close to thyroid. They
secrete parathormone. The primary function of parathormone (PTH) is to
maintain the metabolism of phosphate and calcium with particular
reference to their blood levels and bone formation. Deficiency of PTH
leads extra calcium deposition in the bones making them thick and brittle.
It leads to muscle cramps or tetany.
THYMUS:
It is located in the upper part of chest behind breast bone. It is
prominent in childhood up to about 14 to 15 years, but in adult it is usually
shrunken and difficult to locate. This gland secretes hormone Thymosin. It
stimulates the production of T-lymphocytes.
ADRENALS (ad-near renal = Kidney):
They are two glands situated like caps above the kidney. Each adrenal
gland consists of 2 parts – a central medulla and a peripheral cortex.
Medulla secretes adrenalin (also called epinephrine). Adrenalin is released
into blood in times of emotional stress. It increases heart beat, blood

supply to visceral organs. This hormone prepares the body to meet any
emergency situation for “fight or flight” i.e. to face or to runaway from it.
Cortex secretes minerals, sex and gluco Corticoids. Mineral corticoids
increase the retention of Na+ ions in body and elimination of K+ ions
from the body. Sex corticoids develop secondary sexual character in males
and females. Gluco corticoids regulate the carbohydrate, fat, protein
metabolism.
PANCREAS:
It is both exocrine and endocrine gland. The exocrine part secretes
pancreatic juice rich in digestive enzymes. The endocrine part of pancreas
contains a group of cells called “Islets of Langerhans”. This tissues consists
of two types of cells. Alpha (a) cells secrete the hormone glucagon and beta
(b) cells secret the hormone Insulin. Both glucagon and insulin are known
as antagonistic hormones. Their activities are exactly opposite glucagon
tries to increase the glucose levels of blood where as insulin tries to
decrease and maintain the constant blood glucose level.
Deficiency of insulin causes increased blood sugar (glucose) levels. The
condition is known as Diabetes mellitus. The person with this condition
excretes large amount of urine, becomes weak, feels thirsty and losses
weight.
GONADS (Testis and Ovary):
In addition to producing sperms and ova, the testis and ovary release
certain hormones called sex hormones. Their effect is conspicuous at the
time of puberty when secondary sexual characters begin to appear.
Changes during puberty in both sexes include the development of hair on
pubic region and armpits.
In male :The testis has two types of tissues – the semniferous tubule
which produce sperms and interstitial cells which produce the male
hormones called androgens. The most common androgen is testosterone,
which stimulates the development of male characters. The boys at puberty
begin to develop facial hair and their voice cracks and deepens.
In female:The ovary produces two kinds of hormones:
a) Oestrogens :They stimulate the development of breast and fat

deposition in hips. In a mature woman oestrogen prepares the wall
of uterus for receiving a fertilized egg.
b) Progesterone : It is secreted by corpus luteum. It brings out the
final changes in the uterus for the retention and growth of the
foetus during pregnancy.
Placenta of a pregnant woman also produces certain hormones.
REPRODUCTION
Every living species has in born tendency to exist for all times to come.
This is fulfilled through the process of reproduction. It is the process by
which a species continues generation after generation. The young ones
replace the old and dying individuals.
Reproduction is the production of new individuals of one’s own kind.
There are two modes of reproduction:
(i) Asexual reproduction : No sex cells (sperms and ova) are
involved. It may occur in two ways:
a) direct division of parent body or
b) specialized parts off from the parent to grow into new individuals.
(ii) Sexual (Gametic) reproduction : In this case, the sex cells or
gametes (sperms and ova) are produced which normally fuse
(fertilization) to produce a new individual (off spring). The product
of fertilization is called zygote.
The human male reproduction system of human beings consists of 2

testes, suspended in the pouches called scrotal sacs, and a duct system
which includes vasa efferentia, epididymis, vasa deferentia and urethra.
Male reproductive system also consists of certain other accessory
organs such as 2 seminal vesicles, prostrate gland, cowper’s gland and
urethra glands. Testes produce male sex gametes called sperms. Prostrate,
cowper’s and urethra glands secre a fluid which mixes with sperm to form
the semen. In humans the amount of semen discharged per ejaculation
varies from 2.5 to 3.5ml, which contains 2 millions to 4 million sperms.
Human female reproductive system consists of a pair of (i) ovaries (ii) a
pair of oviducts (fallopian tubes) (iii) uterus (iv) vagina (v) vulva (vi)
accessory gland. Ovaries produce ova by process of ovulation and also
secrete hormones like oestrogens and progesterones. The fallopian tubes
are the sites of fertilization and from there, fertilized eggs are conducted to
the uterus. The uterus receives the fertilized egg, forms placenta for the
development of the foetus and expels the young one at birth (parturition).
Menstrual cycle:
Periodic elimination of blood, mucus and endometrial tissue of the

uterus, which starts at the particular age (13 – 16 years in human females)
and continues through out the reproductive period is known as
menstruation.
The menstruation for the first time in life is called menarche. Since then
menstruation continues to occur approximately every 28 days throughout
reproductive age (normally 13 – 45/50 years of age) of a female if not
interrupted by pregnancy. At the end of the reproductive life the store of
primary follicles is exhausted and menstruation ceases to occur for the rest
of life. Cessation of menstrual cycle is called menopause.
The timing of the phases of ovarian cycle which follows the menstrual
phase (bleeding) are as follows:
(i) menstrual phase – 3 to 5 days
(ii) follicular phase – about 10 days.
(iii) ovulation around 14th day and
(iv) luteal phase about 14 days.
NOTE:
Fertilization is the process by which the male gamete (motile sperm)
fuses with the female gamete (passive egg) to form a single zygote.
Amenorrhea is the non-occurrence of menstruation that may be caused
due to abnormal hormonal regulation.
GENETICS:
INTRODUCTION
It is common observation that off springs of mango trees are all mango
plants and human beings are all human beings. The young ones of dogs are
puppies and not kittens. This tendency of organisms to inherit parental
characteristics is called heredity. Heredity in other words can be defined as
the transmission of characters from are generation to other generation”.
Even though the off springs are produced from parents, they are not
exactly similar to that of the parents. Like wise all the offspring of same
parents are not identical (except identical twins). These differences between
parents and off springs and between off springs are known as variations.
The study of these two i.e. “heredity and variations” is known as
Genetics. Variations are said to be the raw materials for evolutionary
process.
The mechanism of heredity was first founded and demonstrated by
Gregor John Mendel (Father of Genetics). Mendel was an Austrian monk.
He worked with garden Pea (Pisum Sativum) and published the most
important priciples of genetics in 1865. But the importance of his work was
established only in 1900, when his work was rediscovered by 3 scientists,
Tschermark, Correns and Hugo de vries. Realising the importance of his
pirneering work Mendel is called “Father of Genetics”.
Mendel while working on Pea plant suggested that each character (for
e.g. height of plant) is controlled by 2 factors. (The term ‘gene’ is given
later to this factor by Johanson). These 2 factors will be separated during
gametogenesis (process of gamete formation) and are given to the next
progeny.
MENDEL’S LAWS OF INHERITANCE:
(i) Principle of Segregation: The two members of a pair of factors
separate during the formation of gametes. They do not blend but
segregate out into different gametes. The gametes again combine
together by random fusion at the time of zygote formation. This is also
called principle of purity of gametes and is universal.
(ii) Principle of Dominance: Out of a pair of contrasting forms of a
character (e.g. Tall and Dwarf are two contrasting forms of a single
character height). Only one is able to express itself phenotypically
(phenotype = external appearance) while other remains hidden in the
presence of former. The form of a character which expresses (say
tallness) is termed dominant and other (dwarfness) is termed recessive.
(iii) Principle of Independent Assortment: This principle states that
the factor for each pair of characters (for e.g. factors controlling the
character height (2 forms tall and dwarf)) assorts i./e. independently of
the other pair of factors (for e.g. factors controlling the character
colour of seed coat (2 forms yellow and green)).]
Mendel could state the first 2 principles by carrying out a monohybrid

cross (A cross which involves only one pair of characters is called
monohybrid cross).He stated the 3rd principle by carrying out a dihybrid
cross (A cross which involves 2 pairs of characters is called dihybrid cross).
CHROMOSOMAL THEORY OF INHERITANCE:
It was observed by Sutton and Bovery in 1902 that –
1. Maternal and paternal characters come together in the progeny and
later on segregate during the formation of gametes by meiosis.
2. Similar to characters chromosomes from two parents comes to lie
in the same zygote as a result of the fusion of two gametes and
again separate out during the formation of gametes.
The above two observations proved that there is a remarkable similarity
between the behaviour of characters during inheritance and that of
chromosomes during reproduction.
This led Sutton and Boveri to propose ‘Chromosomal theory of
inheritance’ and its salient features are as follows:
1. The Somatic cells of an organism, which are derived by the repeated
division of zygote have two identical sets of chromosomes i.e. they
are diploid. Out of these, one set of chromosomes is received from
the mother (maternal chromosomes) and one set from the father
(paternal chromosomes). The two chromosomes of one type
constitute a homologous pair.
2. The Chromosomes of homologous pair separate out by meiosis at
the time of gamete formation.
3. The behaviour of chromosomes during meiosis indicates that
mendelian factors or genes are located linearly on the
chromosomes.
LINKAGE AND CROSSING OVER:
A group of genes present on the same chromosome tend to be
inherited together and this phenomenon is called linkages. Crossing over is
the physical exchange of parts of the non sister chromatics of
chromosomes of homologous pair. Crossing over leads to the formation of
variations or differences in the progeny.
CRIS – CROSS INHERITANCE (X-LINKED) INHERITANCE &
SEX-LINKED DISEASES:
Genes are located on chromosomes. The genes which are located on X

chromosomes (sex chromosomes) are called sex linked genes. These genes
show cris-cross inheritance.
If a male is having a defective sex linked gene located on X
chromosome; during reproduction male transmits his x chromosome to his
daughter only. The female who receives this gene transmits to her sons
and daughter both in equal probability. So the male passes on his recessive
sex linked trait to 50% of his grandsons through his daughter. The sex
linked trait being recessive is not expressed in female, but is expressed in
males. Therefore males suffer from genetic defect while females are only
carriers of defective genes. This type of inheritance of recessive sex linked
character from father to daughter and then from the daughter to grandsons
is known as criss-cross inheritance or sex linked inheritance.
CRISS-CROSS INHERITANCE IN MAN:
Red green colour blindness and Hemophilia are examples of sex linked
inheritance in man. The defective gene is located on X-chromosome. Thus
a single defective gene causes disease in male while two defective genes
(homozygous condition) can cause the disease in female. Females in
heterozygous condition are apparently normal but actually the carriers of
the disease. Carrier females pass this defective gene to 50 % of her sons.
The disease is expressed only in males because male does not have the
partners of the gene on Y-chromosome
ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF LIFE:
ORIGIN OF LIFE:
The earth was formed about 5 billion years ago. At that time it was
extremely hot. The existence of life in any form at that high temperature
was not possible. So, pertaining to life two question arise.
1. How did the first life originate on Earth?
2. How has the primitive life changed (evolved) into a variety of
organisms.
ORIGIN OF LIFE :
means the appearance of simplest primordial life from non-living

matter.
EVOLUTION OF LIFE :
means the gradual development of complex organisms from simple

ones.
Several theories were put forth to explain origin of life. The widely
accepted theory of origin of life proposed by A.I.Oparin is Chemosynthetic
Theory.
Chemosynthetic Theory:
1. The earth originated above 5 billion years ago.
2. It was initially made up of hot gases and vapors of various
chemicals.
3. Gradually it cooled down and a solid crust was formed.
4. The early atmosphere contained ammonia (NH3) water vapor
(H20), Hydrogen (H2), methane (H4). At that time there was no
free oxygen. This sort of atmosphere (with CH4, NH3, H2) is still
found on Jupiter and Saturn.
5. Heavy rains fell on hot surface of earth, and over a very very long
period the water bodies appeared that still contained hot water.
6. Methane and ammonia form the atmosphere dissolved in the water
of seas.
First Stage : Some source of energy – ultraviolet or electric discharge
(lightning) or heat or a combination of these caused reactions that
produced complex organic compounds (including amino acids) from a
mixture of NH3, CH4, H20 and H2. (The amino acids are the building
blocks of protein which are the main of components of protoplasm).
Second Stage : Simple organic molecules combined to form large
molecules which included peptides (leading to proteins) sugars, starches
and fat molecules.
Third Stage : The large molecules of different kinds combined
together to form multi molecular heaps or complexes. Some simple fat
molecules arranged themselves around this molecular complex in a sort of
membrane. When such complexes reached a certain size, they separated
from the surrounding solution in the form of “coacertive drops” of
microscopic size moving in the liquid with a definite boundary (coacervate
means ‘heap’ referring to the combining together of the molecules).
Coacervates were probably the precursors of the first living things.
With this coacervates, simpler type of metabolism lead to the synthesis
of certain substances and breakdown of others. The breakdown reactions
provided energy. Some of the earliest formed proteins might have acted
like enzymes and would have affected the rate of reactions.
Fourth Stage :Small nucleoproteins of nucleic acids may have evolved
by chance combinations which have provided two more properties to
coacervates.
1). Chemical reactions by order form the nucleic acids.
2). The capacity to reproduce through duplication of the nucleic acids.
Thus were produced the things that could be called the simplest
primordial life.
Steps of the events of which led to origin of life

The primitive “drop” all the heterotrophs (unable to manufacture their
own food but derived it from environment). As one of the innumerable
mutations (changes) occurring in the primitive heterotrophs, was the

production of chlorophyll molecules.
The chlorophyll bearing units of life for the first time started using the
solar energy for production of food as well as for the first time started
liberating free oxygen into the atmosphere. Therefore, there were four
main stages through which originated the simplest form of life.
Early atmosphere of earth has no free oxygen, the forms until then
could at best be only “anarchic” with the coming of chlorophyll bearing
organisms, free oxygen was available which gave greater possibilities for life
to evolve.
Stanely Miller and Harold Urey in 1953 set up an experiment with an
air tight apparatus in which four gases (NH3, CH4, H2, and H20) we
inoculated through an electric discharge for a week. On analyzing the liquid
they found a variety of organic substance in it like amino acids, urea, lactic
acids nucleotides etc., This experiments proves the theory of chemo
synthetic origin of life.
Organic Evolution:
The gradual development of complex organisms from simple ancestral
types over the course of geological time.
The process of slow and gradual change is called Organic Evulation.
According to theory of organic evolution:
1. The present day organisms were not created in the same form in
which they exist today, but have gradually evolved from much
simple ancestral forms of common ancestor.
2. The characteristics of organism had been changing in the past; they
are changing even today and will continue to do so in the future as
well.
3. Many living organisms of the past became extinct.
4. The origin of new forms new species a gradual and extremely slow
process, requiring hundreds or even thousands of years.
Thus, the theory of organic evolution states that “All living things on
earth are here as a result of descent, with modification from a common
ancestor”.
Evolution may be of two types:
(i) Progressive and

(ii) Retrogressive.
Progressive evolution is towards more complexity and better
development of body systems.
In Retrogressive evolution, the present or more complete forms
secondarily become simpler than the original ancestral forms. For example
parasitic animals such as tape worms with their present day simpler
organization are believed to have derived from ancestral forms which were
non-parasitic and more complex.
EVIDENCE OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION:
The evidences supporting organic evolution are derived from a number
of areas. The four major one are
1. Comparative anatomy
2. Embryology
3. Palaentology
4. Physiology
1. Comparative Anatomical Evidences:
(i) Homdogous organs: Homdogous organs are the organs which are
similar in structure and origin but may look very different and perform
different functions.
Eg: Forelimbs of vertebrates. They are built on same plan. (consisting
of bones – humerus, radius ulna, carpals, meta carpals and phalanges). The
same forelimbs (with same origin) helps a frog in leaping, man in gripping,
bird in flying.
(ii) Analogous Organs : The structures or organs which are functionally
similar but structurally different called analogous organs organs.
Eg: The wing of insect and that of bird.
(iii) Vestigeal organs: They are any small degenerate or imperfectly
developed (non-functional) organ or part which may have been
complete and functional in some ancestor. The only explanation for the
presence of these non functional organs is that they are inherited from
ancestors in which there were functional. There are 180 such vestigial
organs in man.
Eg: Vermiform appendix, nictitating membrane etc.,
(iv) Connecting links: The animals and plants which posses characters
of the two different groups or organisms are known as connecting
links. The connecting links establish continuity in the series of
organisms by proving that one group has evolved from the other. A
good example is that of a fossil bird, Archaeopteryx, which was a
connecting link between reptiles and birds.
Other examples: Lung fishes between fishes and amphibians.
Seymouria between amphibians and reptiles.
Egg laying mammals between reptiles and mammals.
Pteridophytes (ferns) between bryophytes and angiosperms.
2. Evidences from embryology:
Embryology is the study of development of an organism.
It is more conspicuous in vertebrates. The aspects of embryology which led

to the doctrine of organic evolution are:
(i) Similar early development in all the animals.
(ii) The embryos of all vertebrates are similar in shape and structure in
their early stages. This resemblance is so close that it is difficult to
tell them apart.
(iii) All the vertebrates start their life from a single cell, the zygote.
(iv) All of them during their life history pass through two-layered
gastrula stage and then through fish like stage with gill-slits.
All the different aspects of embryology strongly support the fact that
the different classes of vertebrates possess a common ancestry, and have
become differentiated from one another by the process of evolution.
3. Evidences from Palaeontogy:
Palaeontogy is the study of fossils. Fossils are the remains or traces of

animal and plant life of the past, founded embedded in rock either as
petrified hard parts or as moulds,, casts or trails.
The different types of fossils in different geological ages give the proof
of organic evolution as the fossils too progress from simple to complex
types in these ages.
The fossils of the earliest era were those of bacteria then invertebrates
and then successively of fishes, amphibians, reptiles and lastly of birds and
mammals. And in mammals lastly those of human beings. The ancestors of
individual animals like horse, camel etc are direct proofs of organic
evolution.
4. Evidence from Physiology:
In the case of vertebrates some types of enzymes have similar reactions
eg: trypsin acts on protein in all animals.
Blood protein tests have shown that man is closer to apes (chimpanzee
and gorillas) than to monkeys.
Hormones of ductless glands of all vertebrates show similar reactions.
MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION:
Various theories about the mechanism of evolution have been proposed:
(i) Lamarck’s theory of “Inheritance of acquired characters”.
(ii) Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection.
(iii) De vries theory of Mutation.
(iv) modern synthetic theory.
(i) Lamarck’s theory : (Inheritance of acquired characters) It was put
forward by a French Biologist Jean Baptist Lamarck (1744–1829). His
theory is based on three factors.
a. Influence of environment : The change in environment creates new
conditions and demands on an organisms that involve greater or less
use of certain organs of the body.
b. Use and disuse of organs: The organs used more, develop more and
get enlarged. The disuse of an organ makes it weaker and smaller and
finally it may disappear.
b. Inheritance of acquired characters: Those structures which are

modified by their use or disuse (i.e. acquired characters are inherited in
the next generation leading to a new species).
Criticism of the Lamarckism: Weismamn cut off tails of rats are
birth and continued this operation for generations but tailless rats were
never born.
(ii) Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection: An English Scientist Charles
Darwin (1809-1882) explained the mechanism of evolution through his
theory of natural selection. The six basic points in his theory are
(1) Over production of offspring.
(2) Variation
(3) Struggle for Existence
(4) Natural Selection
(5) Inheritance of desirable characters.
(6) Origin of new species.
During struggle of existence, organisms with advantageous variations
are protected and allowed to reproduce while the disadvantageous variants
are eliminated from nature. This is what was termed Natural Selection by
Darwin.
As the environment changes, new adaptations get selected and after
many generations sufficient characteristics will have been changed so as to
alter the species (origin of species).
Criticism of Darwin’s Theory : If nature selects only the suitable
forms, why were not the rest swept out of existence? We find many poor
or helpless species still surviving.
Eg: Kiwi
Neo-Darwinism or Modern Synthetic Theory:
According to this theory
1. The heritable genetic changes are basis of evolution.
2. Reproductive isolation plays the key role.
3. The variations occur due to small mutations in the genes or in the
chromosomes and their re combinations.
4. A change in the genetic contitution of a population is responsible
for evolution of a new species.
(iii) De Vries Theory of Mutation:

De Vries discovered mutation when saw white flower among a bed of
pink flowers of evening primrose. Seeds from the white flower gave white
flower. This sudden heritable change was termed mutation. De Vries stated
in evolution that all organisms have evolved by mutation.
Critisism : Mutation alone cannot explain all the different adaptations
in nature.

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www.OnlineIAS.com N.Kalyana Cakravarthy Kalyannuguri@gmail.

4. Movement: Locomotion or movement from one place to

INTRODUCTION TO CELL AND 5 KINGDOMS OF LIVING

which have prokaryotic cells in their structure are called

All living organisms can be classified into 5 Kingdoms basing

The size of viruses varies from 10 nm to 300 nm. Even the

2. Rectangular Eg : Vaccinia Virus.

Peach Yellow disease Polio, Measles, Foot &

Figure : Five kingdom Concept

(iii) Symbionts – Use food from other living organisms with

Bacteria reproduce both asexually and sexually. Asexual

2. Salmonella typhi Typhoid

BENEFICIAL ACTIVITIES OF BACTERIA

II. KINGDOM PROTISTA (Unicellular Eukaryotes):

sexually. Some protists are beneficial to humans and others are

III. KINGDOM FUNGI:

Mycelia spread out on the substrate or on the ground and

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI

Eg: Wheat Rust by Puccini a graminis, Red Rot of

IV. KINGDOM PLANTAE: (Study of Plants = BOTANY)

Phanerogams are flowering plants. They produce flowers

BRYOPHYTA (Bryophytes): (Bryon = Moss, Phyton = Plant):

The two phases gametophyte and sporophyte, alternate in

PTERIDOPHYTA (Pteridophytes): (Pteron = feather, Phyton =

GYMNOSPERMAE (Greek Gymnos = naked, sperma = seed):

ANGIOSPERMAE(Angiosperms) (Angios = Vessel (Sac),

Angiosperms are highly evolved plants and form the dominant

Figure : Parts of Typical Flower

KINGDOM ANIMALIA (Study of animals – zoology):

b) Two embryonic germ layers b) Three

Asymmetrical Radial Symmetry Bilateral

Phylum Porifera Phylum Cnidaria All

Phyla Porifera Phylum Aschelminthes All other

There are 3 classes of phylum porifera:

Phylum CNIDARIA (Includes hydroids, jelly fishes, sea

Phylum Cnidaria is classified into 3 classes

PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES (Flatworms):

1. Turbellaria: It includes all free living forms which are

3. Cestoda: Includes all parasitic forms with ribbon like narrow

Phylum ASCHELMINTHES (Round worms):

Main Characters are:

Phylum ANNELIDA (Includes earthworms, leeches, neries

2. Body is provided with setae for locomotion.

Annelida is classified into 3 classes.

Phylum ARTHROPODA (Arthro = jointed, Podos = feet):

This is the largest phylum of the animal kingdom and includes

Phylum MOLLUSCA (Soft bodied animals):

The phylum includes conch, snails etc.

Phyllum mollusca is classified into the following classes.

internal or absent. All are marine forms. Eg: Sepia

Phylum ECHINODERMATA (Spiny skinned animals) (echnios

4. Holothuroida: The body is elongated on oral aboral axis. Arms absent

Subphylum Vertebrata is divided into two super classes, which are

Main characters of this class are

Agnatha - jawless fish

Gnatha-fishes with jaws.

The class Amphibia is divided into 3 orders.

CLASS REPTILIA (Reptere = to crawl):

Reptilia is divided into 4 orders:

CLASS AVES (Avis = Bird):