ST GABRIEL COLLEGE

GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
GRADE 11 CHAPTER 5 FORMULA MASS AND THE MOLE CONCEPT

Formula Mass
Formula Mass for Covalent Substances
For covalent substances, the formula represents the numbers and types of atoms composing a single
molecule of the substance; therefore, the formula mass may be correctly referred to as a molecular mass.
Molecular mass is the sum of atomic masses of the elements present in a molecule. It is obtained by
multiplying the atomic mass of each element by the number of its atoms and adding them together. For example,
molecular mass of methane which contains one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms can be obtained as follows :
Molecular mass of methane,
(CH4) = (12.011 u) + 4 (1.008 u)
= 16.043 u
Similarly, molecular mass of water (H2O) = 2 × atomic mass of hydrogen + 1 × atomic mass of oxygen
= 2 (1.008 u) + 16.00 u
= 18.02 u

Formula Mass for Ionic Compounds

Ionic compounds are composed of discrete cations and anions combined in ratios to yield electrically
neutral bulk matter. The formula mass for an ionic compound is calculated in the same way as the formula mass for
covalent compounds: by summing the average atomic masses of all the atoms in the compound’s formula. Keep in
mind, however, that the formula for an ionic compound does not represent the composition of a discrete molecule,
so it may not correctly be referred to as the “molecular mass.”

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The Mole
The mole is an amount unit similar to familiar units like pair, dozen, gross, etc. It provides a
specific measure of the number of atoms or molecules in a bulk sample of matter. A mole is defined as the
amount of substance containing the same number of discrete entities (such as atoms, molecules, and ions)
as the number of atoms in a sample of pure 12C weighing exactly 12 g. One Latin connotation for the
word “mole” is “large mass” or “bulk,” which is consistent with its use as the name for this unit. The mole
provides a link between an easily measured macroscopic property, bulk mass, and an extremely important
fundamental property, number of atoms, molecules, and so forth. The number of entities composing a
mole has been experimentally determined to be 6.02214179 × 1023, a fundamental constant named
Avogadro’s number (NA) or the Avogadro constant in honor of Italian scientist Amedeo
Avogadro. This constant is properly reported with an explicit unit of “per mole,” a conveniently rounded
version being 6.022 × 1023/mol. Consistent with its definition as an amount unit, 1 mole of any element
contains the same number of atoms as 1 mole of any other element. The masses of 1 mole of different
elements, however, are different, since the masses of the individual atoms are drastically different. The
molar mass of an element (or compound) is the mass in grams of 1 mole of that substance, a property
expressed in units of grams per mole (g/mol)
Mole = weight of substance__
Molecular weight or Formula mass
Deriving Moles from Grams for an Element
According to nutritional guidelines from the US Department of Agriculture, the estimated average
requirement for dietary potassium is 4.7 g. What is the estimated average requirement of potassium in
moles?
Solution
The mass of K is provided, and the corresponding amount of K in moles is requested. Referring to
the
periodic table, the atomic mass of K is 39.10 amu, and so its molar mass is 39.10 g/mol. The given mass
of K (4.7 g) is a bit more than one-tenth the molar mass (39.10 g), so a reasonable “ballpark” estimate of
the number of moles would be slightly greater than 0.1 mol.
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The molar amount of a substance may be calculated by dividing its mass (g) by its molar mass
(g/mol):The factor-label method supports this mathematical approach since the unit “g” cancels and the
answer has units of “mol:”
weight ∈grams
Moles =
MW ∨FM
Where MW= Molecular Weight
FM= Formula Mass

The factor-label method supports this mathematical approach since the unit “g” cancels and the
4.5∈grams
answer has units of Mole = = =.12 mole
39.1 g/mole
The calculated magnitude (0.12 mol K) is consistent with our ballpark expectation, since it is a bit greater
than 0.1 mol.
Check Your Learning
Beryllium is a light metal used to fabricate transparent X-ray windows for medical imaging
instruments. How many moles of Be are in a thin-foil window weighing 3.24 g?
Answer: 0.360 mol
Deriving Number of Atoms from Mass for an Element
Copper is commonly used to fabricate electrical wire . How many copper atoms are in 5.00 g of copper
wire?

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CHEMICAL FORMULA
A chemical formula tells us the number of atoms of each element in a compound. It contains the symbols
of the atoms of the elements present in the compound as well as how many there are for each element in
the form of subscripts.
To write the formula for a molecular compound, write the symbols for the elements in the order
the elements appear in the name. molecule. The prefixes appear as subscripts in the formulas. of that
element in the molecule.
Rules For Naming And Writing Compounds
Step 1: First, you have to decide the type of the bond.
If the prefixes are used, then it is a covalent bond. In case there are no prefixes, it is an ionic bond.
After that is decided move to Step number 2.
Step 2: Now, write down the symbol of the polyatomic ion or the element.
Step 3: Now, if the prefix was used, you’ll have to add a subscript. You’ll also have to add a
subscript in order to balance the charge.

(REVIEW) NOMENCLATURE OF COMPOUNDS

1. Naming Binary Compounds
A binary compound is one that consists of only two elements (no polyatomic ions). To name a binary
compound, the following rule is used:
Name the first element in the formula (the one with the positive oxidation number) followed by the
stem name of the second element (the one with the negative oxidation number) with an -ide ending.

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There are two different types of binary compounds, those formed from a metal and a non-metal and those
formed from two non-metals.
A. Binary compounds formed from a metal and a non-metal.
These compounds consist of a metal and a non-metal in an atom ratio determined by their oxidation
numbers. It is customary to write the metal first and the non-metal second. The rule for naming these
compounds is:
Name the metal followed by the stem name of the non-metal with an -ide ending.
Examples: (the stem name of the non-metal is underlined)
NaCl = sodium chloride AgI = silver iodide
CaO = calcium oxide
If the metal exhibits more than one oxidation state, the oxidation state of the metal, in the
compound of interest, is indicated by a Roman numeral placed in parentheses following the name
of the metal. (This number in parentheses is part of the metal name and is included in the list in Table 1)
Examples:
HgBr is named mercury(I) bromide mercury can have oxidation states of +1 and +2
HgBr2 is named mercury(II) bromide
CoCl2 is named cobalt(II) chloride, cobalt can have oxidation states of +2 and +3
CoCl3 is named cobalt(III) chloride
B. Binary compounds formed from two non-metals.
In compounds that occur between non-metals, the positive and negative oxidation numbers are assigned
to the elements according to their electronegativities. The element with the lowest electronegativity is
named first. The common non-metals, arranged in order of increasing electronegativity are:
Si, B, P, H, C, S, I, Br, N, Cl, O, F
When naming these compounds, prefixes are often used to indicate the number of atoms of each element
present in the compound. A list of common prefixes used is given in Table 4.
Table 4. Common Latin and Greek prefixes used in naming compounds.
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Prefix Number Prefix Number
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
mono- 1 hexa- 6
di- 2 hepta- 7
tri- 3 octa- 8
tetra- 4 nona- 9
pent-/penta- 5 deca- 10
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
To name a binary non-metal compound name each element in the order they appear in the formula
using the appropriate prefix to indicate the number of atoms of the element in the compound. The
second element uses an -ide ending. The prefix mono- is generally omitted unless it is needed to -
distinguish between two or more compounds of the same elements.
Examples:
CO carbon monoxide CO2 carbon dioxide.
PCl3 phosphorus trichloride PCl5 phosphorus pentachloride
NO nitrogen oxide NO2 nitrogen dioxide
N2O dinitrogen monoxide N2O3 dinitrogen trioxide
N2O5 dinitrogen pentoxide
There is an alternate method to naming binary non-metal compounds. Instead of using numerical

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prefixes, this method uses the oxidation numbers of the first element in parentheses, similar to the method
used for binary compounds composed of a metal and a non-metal. Using this method, the above examples
would be named:
CO carbon(II) oxide CO2 carbon(IV) oxide.
PCl3 phosphorus(III) chloride PCl5 phosphorus(V) chloride
NO nitrogen(II) oxide NO2 nitrogen(IV) oxide
N2O nitrogen(I) oxide N2O3 nitrogen(III) oxide
N2O5 nitrogen(V) oxide
2. Naming of Bases
Bases are compounds which consist of a metal ion combined with the hydroxide polyatomic ion (OH). To
name a base, name the metal (include the oxidation number in parentheses if the metal is one which has
more than one oxidation state) followed by the word hydroxide.
Examples:
NaOH is named sodium hydroxide Ba(OH)2 is named barium hydroxide
Fe(OH)2 is named iron(II) hydroxide Fe(OH)3 is named iron(III) hydroxide
NOTE: There is no molecular form of ammonium hydroxide, NH 4OH. An aqueous solution of ammonia,
NH3, contains ammonium ions, NH4+, and hydroxide ions, OH-
3. Naming of Acids
An acid is a compound consisting of hydrogen combined with a non-metallic element or with a polyatomic
ion that has a negative oxidation number. In the formula for an acid, hydrogen is always listed as the first element.
(The only exception to this is water, H2O)
There are several types of acids encountered in chemistry: binary acids, oxygen containing acids, and
organic acids. Their names are well established in traditional origins and there has been no acceptable systematic
scheme for naming these substances.
A. Binary or Non-oxygen Acids
Binary acids consist of hydrogen combined with a non-metal element. Binary acids are named by using the
prefix hydro- followed by the stem name of the non-metal element (the second element in the formula) with an -ic
ending. The name is followed by the word acid.
Examples:
HCl is named hydrochloric acid HBr is named hydrobromic acid
HI is named hydroiodic acid H2S is named hydrosulfuric acid
B. Oxygen-containing Acids
Oxygen-containing acids consist of three elements: hydrogen, a non-metal, and oxygen. If there are only
two common forms of the acid, suffixes -ous and -ic are used to denote different oxidation states of the non-metal.
Oxygen-containing acids are named by using the stem name of the non-metal element (the middle element) with an
-ous ending if the element is in its lower oxidation state or an -ic ending if the element is in its higher oxidation
state, followed by the word acid.
Examples:
HNO2 is named nitrous acid (the oxidation number of N = +3)
HNO3 is named nitric acid (the oxidation number of N = +5)
(NOTE: Nitrogen only forms these two acids.)
H2SO3 is named sulfurous acid (the oxidation number of S = +4)
H2SO4 is named sulfuric acid (the oxidation number of S = +6)
(NOTE: These are the most common oxygen acids of sulfur.)
H3PO3 is named phosphorous acid (the oxidation state of P = +3)
H3PO4 is named phosphoric acid (the oxidation state of P = +5)

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(NOTE: These are the most common oxygen acids of phosphorus.)

NOTE: There is no molecular form of carbonic acid, H 2CO3. An aqueous solution of carbon dioxide,
CO2, contains hydrogen carbonate ions, HCO3 - , and hydrogen ions, H+.
Sometimes an element may form more than two oxygen-containing acids. In these cases, additional prefixes hypo-
and per- are used. An example of this is chlorine which forms the acids: HClO, HClO 2, HClO3, and HClO4. The
most common oxygen acids of chlorine are:
HClO2 which is named chlorous acid HClO3 which is named chloric acid
In the case of HClO, which contains one atom of oxygen less than chlorous acid, HClO 2, (the -ous ending
acid) chlorine has a lower oxidation number and the prefix hypo- is added to the -ous acid name. This results in the
name hypochlorous acid for HClO.
In the case of HClO4, the acid contains one more oxygen than chloric acid, HClO 3, (the acid with the name
ending in -ic) chlorine has a higher oxidation number and the prefix per- is added to the -ic acid name. This results
in the name perchloric acid for HClO4.
Similar names are used for the acids formed by bromine and iodine, the two elements that are found in the
same family below chlorine in the periodic table.
HBrO = hypobromous acid HIO = hypoiodous acid HBrO3 = bromic acid HIO3 = iodic acid
HBrO4 = perbromic acid HIO4 = periodic acid
(Note: HBrO2 and HIO2 are not stable and do not exist.)
Occasionally, there are other forms of oxygen acids that may require additional prefixes. An example of
this is:
H5IO6 para periodic acid
Naming of Salts of Oxygen Acids
A salt of an oxygen containing acid results from the reaction of the acid with a metal hydroxide or an
aqueous ammonia solution. These salts consist of a metal or ammonium polyatomic ion combined with a
negative polyatomic ion which contains one or more atoms of oxygen. To name these compounds, name the
metal (be sure to include the oxidation number in parentheses when needed) followed by the name of the
acid polyatomic ion. If the polyatomic ion comes from an acid that has an -ous ending, then the polyatomic
ion name will end with -ite. If the polyatomic ion comes from an acid that has an -ic ending, then the name
of the polyatomic ion ends in -ate. Prefixes such as hypo- and per- remain as part of the polyatomic ion
name.
Examples:
KClO potassium hypochlorite
(The ClO polyatomic ion comes from hypochlorous acid.)
KClO2 potassium chlorite
(The ClO2 polyatomic ion comes from chlorous acid.)
KClO3 potassium chlorate
(The ClO3 polyatomic ion comes from chloric acid.)
KClO4 potassium perchlorate
(The ClO4 polyatomic ion comes from perchloric acid.)
FeSO3 iron(II) sulfite
(The iron has an oxidation number of +2. The SO3 polyatomic ion comes
from H2SO3, sulfurous acid.)
Fe2(SO4)3 iron(III) sulfate
(The iron has an oxidation number of +3. The SO4 polyatomic ion comes from
H2SO4, sulfuric acid.)
If a salt is formed from an acid that contained two or more acid hydrogen atoms without replacing all of the

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hydrogens, then a hydrogen salt is formed. Such salts contain the word hydrogen, or the prefix bi-, in the
middle of the salt names. (The use of hydrogen is currently preferred.) Prefixes are also used to distinguish
compounds where three hydrogens were replaceable.
Examples:
NaHCO3 sodium hydrogen carbonate or sodium bicarbonate
(The HCO3 polyatomic ion is formed from a hydrogen carbonate ion, HCO 3-
Carbonic acid, H2CO3, does not exist in the molecular form.)
KHSO4 potassium hydrogen sulfate or potassium bisulfate
(The HSO4 polyatomic ion is formed from sulfuric acid, H2SO4 )
NaH2PO4 sodium dihydrogen phosphate
Na2HPO4 disodium hydrogen phosphate These hydrogen phosphate
Also known as sodium hydrogen phoshate ions are formed from
phosphoric acid, H3PO4
Na3PO4 trisodium phosphate
Also known as sodium phoshate.
Organic Acids
Naming of organic acids, for use in general chemistry, follows nonsystematic or trivial names, although
these acids do have systematic names in organic chemistry. Some important organic acids, with their common or
nonsystematic names and their systematic names, are:
Formula Common Name Systematic (IUPAC) Name
HCHO2 formic acid methanoic acid
HC2H3O2 acetic acid ethanoic acid
H2C2O4 oxalic acid ethandioic acid
H2C4H4O6 tartaric acid 2,3-dihydroxybutanedioic acid
Determining Empirical and Molecular Formulas
Percent Composition
The elemental makeup of a compound defines its chemical identity, and chemical formulas are the
most succinct way of representing this elemental makeup. When a compound’s formula is unknown,
measuring the mass of each of its constituent elements is often the first step in the process of determining
the formula experimentally. The results of these measurements permit the calculation of the compound’s
percent composition, defined as the percentage by mass of each element in the compound.
For example, consider a gaseous compound composed solely of carbon and hydrogen. The percent
composition of this compound could be represented as follows:
% H = mass H mass compound × 100% %
C = mass C mass compound × 100%
If analysis of a 10.0-g sample of this gas showed it to contain 2.5 g H and 7.5 g C, the percent
composition would be calculated to be 25% H and 75% C:
% H = 2.5 g H 10.0 g compound × 100% = 25%
% C = 7.5 g C 10.0 g compound × 100% = 75%
Calculation of Percent Composition
Analysis of a 12.04-g sample of a liquid compound composed of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen showed
it to contain 7.34 g C, 1.85 g H, and 2.85 g N. What is the percent composition of this compound?
Solution

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To calculate percent composition, we divide the experimentally derived mass of each element by the
overall mass of the compound, and then convert to a percentage:
%C= 7.34 g C__________ × 100% = 61.0%
12.04 g compound

% H = _______1.85 g H________× 100% = 15.4%_

12.04 g compound
% N = ______2.85 g N_______× 100% = 23.7%
12.04 g compound

Determination of Empirical Formulas

The most common approach to determining a compound’s chemical formula is to first
measure the masses of its constituent elements. . However, we must keep in mind that chemical formulas
represent the relative numbers, not masses, of atoms in the substance. Therefore, any experimentally
derived data involving mass must be used to derive the corresponding numbers of atoms in the compound.
To accomplish this, we can use molar masses to convert the mass of each element to a number of moles.
We then consider the moles of each element relative to each other, converting these numbers into a whole-
number ratio that can be used to derive the empirical formula of the substance.
STEPS
 Deriving the number of moles of each element from its mass
 Dividing each element’s molar amount by the smallest molar amount to yield subscripts for a
tentative empirical formula
 Multiplying all coefficients by an integer, if necessary, to ensure that the smallest whole-number
ratio of subscripts is obtained

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Determining an Empirical Formula from Masses of Elements

A sample of the black mineral hematite , an oxide of iron found in many iron ores, contains 34.97
g of iron and 15.03 g of oxygen. What is the empirical formula of hematite?
Solution
For this problem, we are given the mass in grams of each element. Begin by finding the moles of each:

Next, derive the iron-to-oxygen molar ratio by dividing by the lesser number of moles:

The ratio is 1.000 mol of iron to 1.500 mol of oxygen (Fe1O1.5). Finally, multiply the ratio by two to get
the smallest possible whole number subscripts while still maintaining the correct iron-to-oxygen ratio:

The empirical formula is Fe2O3.

Deriving Empirical Formulas from Percent Composition

. The bacterial fermentation of grain to produce ethanol forms a gas with a percent composition of
27.29% C and 72.71% O. What is the empirical formula for this gas?
Solution :
Since the scale for percentages is 100, it is most convenient to calculate the mass of elements
present in a sample weighing 100 g. The calculation is “most convenient” because, per the definition for
percent composition, the mass of a given element in grams is numerically equivalent to the element’s
mass percentage. This numerical equivalence results from the definition of the “percentage” unit, whose
name is derived from the Latin phrase per centum meaning “by the hundred.” Considering this definition,
the mass percentages provided may be more conveniently expressed as fractions:

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The molar amounts of carbon and hydrogen in a 100-g sample are calculated by dividing each
element’s mass by its molar mass:

Coefficients for the tentative empirical formula are derived by dividing each molar amount by the
lesser of the two:

Since the resulting ratio is one carbon to two oxygen atoms, the empirical formula is CO2.

Derivation of Molecular Formulas

Molecular formulas are derived by comparing the compound’s molecular or molar mass to its
empirical formula mass. As the name suggests, an empirical formula mass is the sum of the average
atomic masses of all the atoms represented in an empirical formula. If we know the molecular (or molar)
mass of the substance, we can divide this by the empirical formula mass in order to identify the number of
empirical formula units per molecule.
molecular or molar mass ( amu or g /mol ) =n formula units/molecule
empirical formula mass (amu or g/mol)

Determination of the Molecular Formula for Nicotine

Nicotine, an alkaloid in the nightshade family of plants that is mainly responsible for the addictive
nature of cigarettes, contains 74.02% C, 8.710% H, and 17.27% N. If 40.57 g of nicotine contains 0.2500
mol nicotine, what is the molecular formula?
Determining the molecular formula from the provided data will require comparison of the
compound’s empirical formula mass to its molar mass. As the first step, use the percent composition to
derive the compound’s empirical formula. Assuming a convenient, a 100-g sample of nicotine yields the
following molar amounts of its elements:
(74.02 g C) ( 1 mol C ) = 6.163 mol C
12.01 g C
(8.710 g H)( 1 mol H ) = 8.624 mol H
1.01 g H
(17.27 g N)( 1 mol N) = 1.233 mol N
14.01 g N

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Next, we calculate the molar ratios of these elements.

40.57 g nicotine = 162.3 g mol
0.2500 mol nicotine
The C-to-N and H-to-N molar ratios are adequately close to whole numbers, and so the empirical
formula is C5H7N. The empirical formula mass for this compound is therefore 81.13 amu/formula unit, or
81.13 g/ mol formula unit.
We calculate the molar mass for nicotine from the given mass and molar amount of compound:
40.57 g nicotine ==162.3 g/mol
0.2500 mol nicotine
Comparing the molar mass and empirical formula mass indicates that each nicotine molecule
contains two formula units:
162.3 g/mol = 2 formula units/molecule
81.13 g/formula unit
Thus, we can derive the molecular formula for nicotine from the empirical formula by multiplying
each subscript by two:
(C5 H7 N)6 = C10 H14 N2
Check Your Learning
What is the molecular formula of a compound with a percent composition of 49.47% C, 5.201% H,
28.84% N, and 16.48% O, and a molecular mass of 194.2 amu?
Answer: C8H10N4O2
SUMMARY
The formula mass of a substance is the sum of the average atomic masses of each atom represented
in the chemical formula and is expressed in atomic mass units. The formula mass of a covalent compound
is also called the molecular mass. A convenient amount unit for expressing very large numbers of atoms
or molecules is the mole. Experimental measurements have determined the number of entities composing
1 mole of substance to be 6.022 × 1023, a quantity called Avogadro’s number. The mass in grams of 1
mole of substance is its molar mass. Due to the use of the same reference substance in defining the atomic
mass unit and the mole, the formula mass (amu) and molar mass (g/mol) for any substance are
Numerically equivalent (for example, one H2O molecule weighs approximately18 amu and 1 mole of H2O
molecules weighs approximately 18 g).
Determining Empirical and Molecular Formulas
The chemical identity of a substance is defined by the types and relative numbers of atoms
composing its fundamental entities (molecules in the case of covalent compounds, ions in the case of ionic
compounds). A compound’s percent composition provides the mass percentage of each element in the
compound, and it is often experimentally determined and used to derive the compound’s empirical
formula. The empirical formula mass of a covalent compound may be compared to the compound’s
molecular or molar mass to derive a molecular formula.
Percent Composition by Mass (Weight)
Experimentally, the mass percentage of a compound is obtained by means of combustion analysis
or other types of elemental analysis. We can use mass percentages to determine empirical formulas, but
not molecular formulas.

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Empirical Formula
The empirical formula is the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in the compound. For iso-
octane, the empirical formula is C4H9. Notice that the molecular formula is twice that of the empirical
formula. All molecular formulas are an integer multiple of the empirical formula for a compound
Molecular Formula
The molecular formula specifies the number of atoms of each element in one molecule.
Structural Formula

What is a Chemical Reaction?

A chemical reaction is in which the bonds are broken within reactant molecules, and new bonds
are formed within product molecules in order to form a new substance.
Chemical reactions are all around us, from the metabolism of food in our body to how the light we
get from the sun is the results of chemical reactions. Before beginning with chemical reactions, it is
important to know about physical and chemical changes.
Basic Concepts of Chemical Reactions
 A Chemical Reaction is a process that occurs when two or more molecules interact to form
a new product(s).
 Compounds that interact to produce new compounds are called reactants whereas the newly
formed compounds are called products.
 Chemical reactions play an integral role in different industries, customs and even in our
daily life. They are continuously happening in our general surroundings; for example,
rusting of iron, pottery, fermentation of wine and so on.
 In a chemical reaction, a chemical change must occur which is generally observed with
physical changes like precipitation, heat production, colour change etc.
 A reaction can take place between two atoms or ions or molecules, and they form a new
bond and no atom is destroyed or created but a new product is formed from reactants.
 The rate of reaction depends on and is affected by factors like pressure, temperature, the
concentration of reactants.
Chemical Equations
A chemical equation is nothing but a mathematical statement which symbolizes the product
formation from reactants while stating certain condition for which how the reaction has been conducted.
In a chemical reaction, a new substance is formed which is completely different in properties from
the original substance, so in a chemical reaction, a chemical change takes place.
Only a rearrangement of atoms takes place in a chemical reaction.
The substances which take part in a chemical reaction are called reactants.
The new substances produced as a result of a chemical reaction are called products.

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The reactants are on the left-hand side whereas products formed on the right-hand side connected by a
one-headed or two-headed arrows. For example, a reaction
A+B→C+D
Here, A and B are the reactants, which react to form the products C and D. In an actual chemical
equation, reactants are denoted by their chemical formula. In order to assure the law of conservation of
mass, a chemical equation must be balanced i.e. the number of atoms on both sides must be equal. This is
the balancing of the equation.
Word equation
A word equation is a chemical reaction expressed in words rather than chemical formulas. It helps
identify the reactants and products in a chemical reaction.
For example,
Sodium + Chlorine → Sodium chloride
The above equation means: “Sodium reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride.”
Symbols of elements and their valencies
A symbol is the chemical code for an element. Each element has one or two-letter atomic symbol,
which is the abbreviated form of its name.
Valency is the combining capacity of an element. It can be considered as the number of electrons
lost, gain or shared by an atom when it combines with another atom to form a molecule.
Writing chemical equations
Representation of a chemical reaction in terms of symbols and chemical formulae of the reactants
and products is known as a chemical equation.

For solids, the symbol is “(s)”.

• For liquids, it is “(l)”.
• For gases, it is “(g)”.
• For aqueous solutions, it is “(aq)”.
• For gas produced in the reaction, it is represented by “(↑)”.
• For precipitate formed in the reaction, it is represented by “(↓)”.

Balancing of a Chemical Reaction

Conservation of mass -According to the law of conservation of mass, no atoms can be created or
destroyed in a chemical reaction, so the number of atoms for each element in the reactants side has to
balance the number of atoms that are present in the products side.
In other words, the total mass of the products formed in a chemical reaction is equal to the total mass of
the reactants participated in a chemical reaction.

Balanced chemical equation

The chemical equation in which the number of atoms of each element in the reactants side is equal
to that of the products side is called a balanced chemical equation.
Steps for balancing chemical equations

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Hit and trial method: While balancing the equation, change the coefficients (the numbers in front
of the compound or molecule) so that the number of atoms of each element is same on each side of the
chemical equation.
The Traditional Balancing Method
The first step that must be followed while balancing chemical equations is to obtain the complete
unbalanced equation. In order to illustrate this method, the combustion reaction between propane and
oxygen is taken as an example.
Step 1
The unbalanced equation must be obtained from the chemical formulae of the reactants and the
products (if it is not already provided). The chemical formula of propane is C3H8. It burns with oxygen
(O2) to form carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O)
The unbalanced chemical equation can be written as C3H8 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Step 2
The total number of atoms of each element on the reactant side and the product side must be
compared. For this example, the number of atoms on each side can be tabulated as follows.
Chemical Equation: C3H8 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

Reactant Side Product Side

3 Carbon atoms from C3H8 1 Carbon atom from CO2

8 Hydrogen atoms from C3H8 2 Hydrogen atoms from H2O

3 Oxygen atoms, 2 from CO2 and

2 Oxygen atoms from O2
1 from H2O
Step 3
Now, stoichiometric coefficients are added to molecules containing an element which has a
different number of atoms in the reactant side and the product side. The coefficient must balance
the number of atoms on each side.
Generally, the stoichiometric coefficients are assigned to hydrogen and oxygen atoms last.
Now, the number of atoms of the elements on the reactant and product side must be updated.
It is important to note that the number of atoms of an element in one species must be obtained by
multiplying the stoichiometric coefficient with the total number of atoms of that element present in 1
molecule of the species.
For example, when the coefficient 3 is assigned to the CO2 molecule, the total number of oxygen
atoms in CO2 becomes 6. In this example, the coefficient is first assigned to carbon, as tabulated below.
Chemical Equation: C3H8 + O2 → 3CO2 + H2O

Reactant Side Product Side

3 Carbon atoms from C3H8 3 Carbon atoms from CO2

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8 Hydrogen atoms from C3H8 2 Hydrogen atoms from H2O

7 Oxygen atoms, 6 from

2 Oxygen atoms from O2
CO2 and 1 from H20
Step 4
Step 3 is repeated until all the number of atoms of the reacting elements are equal on the reactant
and product side. In this example, hydrogen is balanced next. The chemical equation is transformed as
follows.
Chemical Equation: C3H8 + O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O

Reactant Side Product Side

3 Carbon atoms from C3H8 3 Carbon atoms from CO2

8 Hydrogen atoms from C3H8 8 Hydrogen atoms from H2O

10 Oxygen atoms, 6 from CO2 and 4

2 Oxygen atoms from O2
from H2O

Now that the hydrogen atoms are balanced, the next element to be balanced is oxygen. There are
10 oxygen atoms on the product side, implying that the reactant side must also contain 10 oxygen atoms.
Each O2 molecule contains 2 oxygen atoms. Therefore, the stoichiometric coefficient that must be
assigned to the O2 molecule is 5. The updated chemical equation is tabulated below.

Chemical Equation: C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O

Reactant Side Product Side

3 Carbon atoms from C3H8 3 Carbon atoms from CO2

8 Hydrogen atoms from C3H8 8 Hydrogen atoms from H2O

10 Oxygen atoms, 6 from CO2 and 4

10 Oxygen atoms from O2
from H2O

Step 5

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Once all the individual elements are balanced, the total number of atoms of each element on the
reactant and product side are compared once again. If there are no inequalities, the chemical equation is
said to be balanced.
In this example, every element now has an equal number of atoms in the reactant and product side.
Therefore, the balanced chemical equation is C3H8 + 5O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O.
The Algebraic Balancing Method
This method of balancing chemical equations involves assigning algebraic variables as
stoichiometric coefficients to each species in the unbalanced chemical equation. These variables are used
in mathematical equations and are solved to obtain the values of each stoichiometric coefficient. In order
to better explain this method, the reaction between glucose and oxygen that yields carbon dioxide and
water has been considered as an example.
Step 1
The unbalanced chemical equation must be obtained by writing the chemical formulae of the
reactants and the products.
In this example, the reactants are glucose (C6H12O6) and oxygen (O2) and the products are carbon
dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O)
The unbalanced chemical equation is C6H12O6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Step 2
Now, algebraic variables are assigned to each species (as stoichiometric coefficients) in the
unbalanced chemical equation. In this example, the equation can be written as follows.
aC6H12O6 + bO2 → cCO2 + dH2O
Now, a set of equations must be formulated (between the reactant and product side) in order to
balance each element in the reaction. In this example, the following equations can be formed.
The equation for Carbon
On the reactant side, ‘a’ molecules of C6H12O6 will contain ‘6a’ carbon atoms.
On the product side, ‘c’ molecules of CO2 will contain ‘c’ carbon atoms.
In this equation, the only species containing carbon are C6H12O6 and CO2.
Therefore, the following equation can be formulated for carbon: 6a = c
The equation for Hydrogen
The species that contain hydrogen in this equation are C6H12O6 and H2
‘a’ molecules of C6H12O6 contains ‘12a’ hydrogen atoms whereas ‘d’ H2O molecules will contain ‘2d’
hydrogen atoms.
Therefore, the equation for hydrogen becomes 12a = 2d.
Simplifying this equation (by dividing both sides by 2), the equation becomes:
6a = d
The equation for Oxygen
Every species in this chemical equation contains oxygen. Therefore, the following relations can be
made to obtain the equation for oxygen:
For ‘a’ molecules of C6H12O6, there exist ‘6a’ oxygen atoms.
‘b’ molecules of O2 contain a total of ‘2b’ oxygens.
‘c’ molecules of CO2 contain ‘2c’ number of oxygen atoms.
‘d’ molecules of H2O hold ‘d’ oxygen atoms.

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Therefore, the equation for oxygen can be written as:

6a + 2b = 2c+ d
Step 3
The equations for each element are listed together to form a system of equations. In this example,
the system of equations is as follows:
6a = c (for carbon); 6a = d (for hydrogen); 6a + 2b = 2c + d (for oxygen)
This system of equations can have multiple solutions, but the solution with minimal values of the
variables is required. To obtain this solution, a value is assigned to one of the coefficients. In this case, the
value of a is assumed to be 1. Therefore, the system of equations is transformed as follows:
a=1 c = 6a = 6*1 = 6 d = 6a = 6
Substituting the values of a,c, and d in the equation 6a + 2b = 2c + d, the value of ‘b’ can be
obtained as follows:
6*1 + 2b = 2*6 + 6 2b = 12; b=6
It is important to note that these equations must be solved in a manner that each variable is a
positive integer. If fractional values are obtained, the lowest common denominator between all the
variables must be multiplied with each variable. This is necessary because the variables hold the values of
the stoichiometric coefficients, which must be a positive integer.
Step 4
Now that the smallest value of each variable is obtained, their values can be substituted into the
chemical equation obtained in step 2.
Therefore, aC6H12O6 + bO2 → cCO2 + dH2O becomes: C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
Thus, the balanced chemical equation is obtained.
The algebraic method of balancing chemical equations is considered to be more efficient than the
traditional method. However, it can yield fractional values for the stoichiometric coefficients, which must
then be converted into integers.
EXERCISES (To be Submitted)
In order to practice different methods of balancing chemical equations, the following unbalanced
equations can be worked on.

1. FeCl3 + NaOH → NaCl + Fe(OH)3

2. Zn + HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
3. P2O5 + H2O → H3PO4
4. FeSO4 + NaOH → Na2SO4 + Fe(OH)2
5. Mg + HCl → MgCl2 + H2
Characteristics of Chemical Reactions :
(i) Evolution of gas: The chemical reaction between zinc and dilute sulphuric acid is characterised
by the evolution of hydrogen gas.
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g) ↑
(ii) Change in Colour: The chemical reaction between citric acid and purple coloured potassium
permanganate solution is characterised by a change in colour from purple to colourless.
The chemical reaction between sulphur dioxide gas and acidified potassium dichromate solution is
characterized by a change in colour from orange to green.

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(iii) Change in state of substance: The combustion reaction of candle wax is characterised by a
change in state from solid to liquid and gas (because the wax is a solid, water formed by the combustion
of wax is a liquid at room temperature whereas, carbon dioxide produced by the combustion of wax is a
gas). There are some chemical reactions which can show more than one characteristics.
(iv) Change in temperature: The chemical reaction between quick lime water to form slaked lime
is characterized by a change in temperature (which is a rise in temperature).
The chemical reaction between zinc granules and dilute sulphuric acid is also characterised by a change in
temperature (which is a rise in temperature).
(v) Formation of precipitate: The chemical reaction between sulphuric acid and barium chloride
solution is characterised by the formation of a white precipitate of barium sulphate.
BaCl2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) (ppt) + 2HCl(aq)
Types of Chemical Reactions
The basis for different types of reactions is the product formed, the changes that occur, the
reactants involved and so on. Different types of reactions are
A. Combustion reaction B. Decomposition reaction
C. Neutralization reaction D. Redox Reaction
E. Precipitation or Double-Displacement Reaction
F. Synthesis reaction
During a chemical reaction, the substances that react are known as reactants whereas the
substances that are formed during a chemical reaction are known as products. Six common types
of chemical reactions are discussed below.

Types of Chemical
Explanation General Reaction
Reactions

Two or more compounds

Combination reaction combine to form one A + B → AB
compound.

The opposite of a
combination reaction – a
Decomposition reaction AB → A + B
complex molecule breaks
down to make simpler ones.

Two solutions of soluble salts

are mixed resulting in an A + Soluble salt B  →
Precipitation reaction
insoluble solid (precipitate) Precipitate + soluble salt C
forming.

An acid and a base react with

each other. Generally, the Acid + Base → Salt +
Neutralization reaction
product of this reaction is a Water
salt and water.

Combustion reaction Oxygen combines with a A + O2 → H2O + CO2

compound to form carbon

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dioxide and water. These

reactions are exothermic,
meaning they give off heat.

One element takes place

Displacement reaction with another element in the A + BC → AC + B
compound.

A combination reaction, also known as a synthesis reaction, is a reaction in which two or more
substances combine to form a single new substance. Combination reactions can also be called synthesis
reactions .The general form of a combination reaction is:
A + B → AB
One combination reaction is two elements combining to form a compound. Solid sodium metal
reacts with chlorine gas to product solid sodium chloride.
2Na(s)+Cl2(g)→2NaCl(s)
Notice that in order to write and balance the equation correctly, it is important to remember the
seven elements that exist in nature as diatomic molecules ( H2 , N2 , O2 , F2 , Cl2 , Br2 , and I2 ).
One sort of combination reaction that occurs frequently is the reaction of an element with oxygen
to form an oxide. Metals and nonmetals both react readily with oxygen under most conditions.
Magnesium reacts rapidly and dramatically when ignited, combining with oxygen from the air to produce
a fine powder of magnesium oxide.
2Mg(s)+O2(g)→2MgO(s)
Decomposition Reactions
A decomposition reaction is a reaction in which a compound breaks down into two or more
simpler substances. The general form of a decomposition reaction is:
AB → A + B
Most decomposition reactions require an input of energy in the form of heat, light, or electricity.
Binary compounds are compounds composed of just two elements. The simplest kind of
decomposition reaction is when a binary compound decomposes into its elements. Mercury (II) oxide, a
red solid, decomposes when heated to produce mercury and oxygen gas.
2HgO(s) → 2Hg(l) + O2(g)
A reaction is also considered to be a decomposition reaction even when one or more of the
products is still a compound. A metal carbonate decomposes into a metal oxide and carbon dioxide gas.
For example, calcium carbonate decomposes into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s)+CO2(g)
Metal hydroxides decompose on heating to yield metal oxides and water. Sodium hydroxide decomposes
to produce sodium oxide and water.
2NaOH(s) → Na2O(s)+H2O(g)
Single-Replacement Reactions
A single-replacement reaction is a reaction in which one element replaces a similar element in a
compound. The general form of a single-replacement (also called single-displacement) reaction is:
A+ BC → AC + B

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In this general reaction, element A is a metal and replaces element B , also a metal, in the compound.
When the element that is doing the replacing is a nonmetal, it must replace another nonmetal in a
compound, and the general equation becomes:
Y+XZ → XY+Z
Y is a nonmetal and replaces the nonmetal Z in the compound with X .
Magnesium is a more reactive metal than copper. When a strip of magnesium metal is placed in an
aqueous solution of copper (II) nitrate, it replaces the copper. The products of the reaction are aqueous
magnesium nitrate and solid copper metal.
Mg(s) + Cu(NO3)2(aq) → Mg(NO3)2(aq) + Cu(s)
Many metals react easily with acids, and, when they do so, one of the products of the reaction is hydrogen
gas. Zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce aqueous zinc chloride and hydrogen (see figure below).
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Double-Replacement Reactions
A double-replacement reaction is a reaction in which the positive and negative ions of two ionic
compounds exchange places to form two new compounds. The general form of a double-replacement
(also called double-displacement) reaction is:
AB + CD → AD + CB
In this reaction, A and C are positively-charged cations, while B and D are negatively-charged anions.
Double-replacement reactions generally occur between substances in aqueous solution. In order for a
reaction to occur, one of the products is usually a solid precipitate, a gas, or a molecular compound such
as water.
A precipitate forms in a double-replacement reaction when the cations from one of the reactants
combine with the anions from the other reactant to form an insoluble ionic compound. When aqueous
solutions of potassium iodide and lead (II) nitrate are mixed, the following reaction occurs.
2KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → 2KNO3(aq) + PbI2(s)
Combustion Reactions
A combustion reaction is a reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen gas, releasing energy in the
form of light and heat. Combustion reactions must involve O2 as one reactant. The combustion of
hydrogen gas produces water vapor (see figure below).
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)
Notice that this reaction also qualifies as a combination reaction.
Many combustion reactions occur with a hydrocarbon, a compound made up solely of carbon and
hydrogen. The products of the combustion of hydrocarbons are always carbon dioxide and water. Many
hydrocarbons are used as fuel because their combustion releases very large amount of heat energy.
Propane (C3H8) is a gaseous hydrocarbon that is commonly used as the fuel source in gas grills.
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
Example
Ethanol can be used as a fuel source in an alcohol lamp. The formula for ethanol is C2H5OH .
Write the balanced equation for the combustion of ethanol.
Solution:
Step 1: Plan the problem.

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Ethanol and oxygen are the reactants. As with a hydrocarbon, the products of the combustion of an
alcohol are carbon dioxide and water.
Step 2: Solve.
Write the skeleton equations: C2H5OH(l) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(g)
Balance the equation.
C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g)
Step 3: Think about your result.
Combustion reactions must have oxygen as a reactant. Note that the water that is produced is in the
gas state rather that the liquid state because of the high temperatures that accompany a combustion
reaction.
Precipitation Reaction
A chemical reaction that involves the formation of an insoluble product (precipitate; solid) is
called Precipitation reaction.
The reactants are soluble, but the product formed would be insoluble and separates out as a solid.
The chemical equation by which a chemical change is described is adequate for reaction in solutions, but
for reactions of ionic compounds in aqueous solution (water), the typical molecular equation has different
representations.
A molecular equation may indicate formulas of reactants and products that are not present and
eliminate completely the formulas of the ions that are the real reactants and products.
If the substance in the molecular equation that is actually present as dissociated ions are written in the
form of their ions, the result is an ionic equation.
A precipitation reaction occurs when a solution, originally containing dissolved species, produces
a solid, which generally is denser and falls to the bottom of the reaction vessel.
Redox Reaction: To be discussed thoroughly in the next chapters
A redox (or oxidation-reduction) reaction is a type of chemical reaction that involves a transfer of
electrons between two species. Redox reactions happens all the time in our everyday life. For example
your body uses redox reactions to convert food and oxygen to energy + water and CO2 which we then
exhale.
Oxidation
Oxidation is defined as the addition of oxygen/electronegative element to a substance or removal
of hydrogen/ electropositive element from a subtance.
For example,

• Reduction
Reduction is defined as the memoval of oxygen/electronegative element from a substance or
addition of hydrogen or electropositive element to a substance.
For example,

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PREDICTING THE PRODUCTS

Here are some tips you may find handy in helping to predict the type of reaction that will occur if
you know only the reactants. Keep in mind that not all combinations of chemicals will result in a chemical
reaction—these tips are handy only for helping to predict what would happen should they happen to react.

 If two ionic compounds are combined, it's usually safe to predict that a double displacement
reaction will occur.
 If the chemicals mixed are oxygen and something containing carbon, it's usually a combustion
reaction.
 If we start with only one reactant, the reaction taking place is probably a decomposition reaction.
To predict the products of such a reaction, see what happens if the chemical breaks into smaller,
familiar products such as water, carbon dioxide, or any of the gaseous elements.
 When pure elements are combined, synthesis reactions are the frequent result.
 If a pure element combines with an ionic compound, a single displacement reaction may take
place.
 If a compound containing the hydroxide ion is involved, check the other compound to see if it
contains hydrogen. If it does, it may be an acid-base reaction.

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ACTIVITIES FOR SUBMISSION

NAME: _________________________ SECTION:________________

BALANCE THE FOLLOWING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS. SHOW SOLUTIONS Use your

periodic table
1. Fe2(SO4)3 + KOH → K2SO4 + Fe(OH)3
2. Ca(PO4)2 + SiO2 → P4O10 + CaSiO3
3. 4 NH4OH + KAl(SO4)2·12H2O → Al(OH)3 + 2 (NH4)2SO4 + KOH + 12 H2O
4. 2 Fe + 6 HC2H3O2 → 2 Fe(C2H3O2)3 + 3 H2
5. 2C5H11OH(g) + 15 O2(g) → 10CO2(g) + 12H2O(g

WRITE THE FORMULA, PREDICT THE PRODUCT, IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF REACTIONS,
AND BALANCE THE EQUATIONS

1. Aluminum sulfate + calcium Hydoxide → ________________

2. Iron + Copper (II) Sulfate → ___________________

3. Beryllium silicate decomposed → _______________

4. 2 Li + Cu(NO3)2 →

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