PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING
A Manual of Diploma in Electrical Engineering

ER. NIRAJ KANDEL

[email protected]
 4.6 Electric potential, potential difference and potential gradient
Contents 15
Syllabus (2014) .......................................................................................iii
4.7 Capacitors and capacitance and Factors affecting
Marks Distribution .................................................................................iv
capacitance ...................................................................................... 16
Unit 1: Basic Concept of Electricity .................................................... 1
4.8 Series and parallel connection of capacitors ....................... 17
1.1 Electric charge and current .................................................... 1
3.9 Energy stored in charged capacitor ..................................... 17
1.2 Conventional versus electron flow ........................................ 1
3.10 Charging and discharging of capacitor, time constant for
1.3 Potential difference and electromotive force........................ 2 charging/discharging ........................................................................ 18
1.4 Conductors, insulators and electron flow .............................. 2 Unit 4 Magnetism and Electromagnetism ...................................... 20
1.5 Resistance and its variation with temperature ...................... 4 4.1 Definition of magnetic field, magnetic flux, flux density and
1.6 Difference between Direct and Alternating current .............. 7 filed intensity.................................................................................... 20

Unit 2 Electric Circuit Fundamentals ............................................... 8 4.2 Permeability and relative permeability of magnetic material
20
2.1 Voltage and current sources .................................................. 8
4.3 Permanent magnets and electro-magnets .......................... 21
2.2 Independent and dependent sources .................................... 9
4.4 Dia-magnetic, para-magnetic and ferro-magnetic materials
2.3 Series and parallel circuits ..................................................... 9
21
2.4 Ohm’s law............................................................................. 10
4.5 Domain Theory of magnetism.............................................. 22
2.5 Kirchhoff’s Laws ................................................................... 11
4.6 Magnetic field due to current carrying conductor, force on a
2.6 Electric power and energy (work) ........................................ 11 current carrying conductor .............................................................. 23
Unit 3 Electrostatics ........................................................................ 13 4.7 Hysteresis loop for magnetic material, hard and soft
4.1 Laws of electric forces .......................................................... 13 magnetic material ............................................................................ 24

4.2 Electric field and electric field intensity ............................... 13 Unit 5 Electro Magnetic Induction .................................................. 25

4.3 Electric fluxes and flux density ............................................. 14 5.1. Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction, direction of
induced emf & current. .................................................................... 25
4.4 Dielectrics, permittivity and relative permittivity ................ 15
5.2. Lenz's law, dynamically induced emf, statistically induced
4.5 Electrostatic induction phenomena ..................................... 15
emf. 25

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 5.3. Mutual coupling. .................................................................. 28
5.4. Energy stored in a current carrying inductor ....................... 30
5.5. Inductance in series, inductance in parallel. ........................ 30
Unit 6 Electrolysis and its Application ............................................ 32
6.1. Faraday’s law of electrolysis and its applications ................ 32
6.2. Primary and secondary cells: definitions and examples,
internal resistance of cell ................................................................. 32

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 3.2 Electric field and electric field intensity
Syllabus (2014) 3.3 Electric fluxes and flux density
3.4 Dielectrics, permittivity and relative
permittivity
Principles of Electrical Engineering 3.5 Electrostatic induction phenomena
3.6 Electric potential, potential difference and
EG 1215 EE potential gradient
3.7 Capacitors and capacitance
Updated 2014 3.8 Series and parallel connection of capacitors
3.9 Factors affecting capacitance
Year: I Lecture: 4 hours/week 3.10 Some constructional examples of practical
capacitors
Semester: II Tutorial: hours/week 3.11 Energy stored in charged capacitor
3.12 Charging and discharging of capacitor, time
Unit 1: Basic Concept of Electricity constant for charging/discharging
1.1. Matter, molecule and atom Unit 4 Magnetism and Electromagnetism
1.2. Electric charge and current
1.3. Conventional versus electron flow 4.1. Definition of magnetic field, magnetic flux, flux
1.4. Potential difference and electromotive force density, filed intensity and permeability of
1.5. Conductors, insulators and electron flow magnetic material, domain theory of magnetism
1.6. Resistance and its variation with temperature 4.2. Permanent magnets and electro-magnets
1.7. Direct and alternating current 4.3. Permeability and relative permeability of
Unit 2 Electric Circuit Fundamentals magnetic material
4.4. Dia-magnetic, para-magnetic and ferro-
2.1 Definitions of Electric current and voltage magnetic materials
2.2 Circuit elements: Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor 4.5. Magnetic field due to current carrying
2.3 Voltage and current sources conductor, force on a current carrying
2.4 Independent and dependent sources conductor
2.5 Series and parallel circuits 4.6. Hysteresis loop for magnetic material, hard and
2.6 Ohm’s law soft magnetic material
2.7 Voltage divider circuits and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Unit 5 Electro Magnetic Induction
Law (KVL)
2.8 Current divider circuits and Kirchhoff’s Current 5.1. Relation between electricityand magnetism,
Law (KCL) production of induced emf& current
2.9 Electric power and energy 5.2. Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction,
Unit 3 Electrostatics direction of induced emf& current.
5.3. Lenz's law, dynamically induced emf,
3.1 Laws of electric forces statistically induced emf.

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 5.4. Self-inductance, coefficient of self-inductance 1. A textbook of Electrical Technology by B.L Theraja and A.K.
(L), Mutual inductance, coefficient of mutual Theraja
inductance (M), coefficient of coupling. 2. Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering by J. B. Gupta
5.5. Energy stored in a current carrying inductor
5.6. Inductance in series, inductance in parallel.
5.7. Magnetic circuit concept, analogy to electric
circuit Marks Distribution
Unit 6 Electrolysis and its Application

6.1. Faraday’s law of electrolysis and its applications Practical

Theory
6.2. Primary and secondary cells: definitions and Course Title Total
examples, internal resistance of cell Asst. Final Asst. Final
6.3. Lead acid cell: construction, chemical reaction Marks Marks Marks Marks
during charging and discharging, methods of Principles of Electrical
20 80 30 20 150
charging (constant voltage and constant current Engineering
charging)
6.4. Dry cell, Mercury cell, Ni-Cd cell, Li-ion cell
6.5. Series and parallel connection of cells

Practical Exercises:

1. Use of Ammeter and Voltmeter to measure current and

voltage. Identify and scale and range settings of such meters.
2. Verification of Ohm’s law
3. Verification of Kirchhoff’s current and voltage laws
4. Resistance and resistivity of wire
5. Wheatstone bridge
6. Charging and discharging of capacitor
7. B-H Curve for hard and soft magnetic materials
8. Basic application of electromagnets
9. Electromagnetic induction
10. Inductance and capacitance in DC circuits
11. Measurement of internal resistance of batteries
12. Charging and discharging of lead acid battery

References:

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 Where Q is the electric charge transferred through the surface over a time
Unit 1: Basic Concept of Electricity t. If Q and t are measured in coulombs and seconds respectively, I is in
1.1 Electric charge and current amperes. (A)
Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to 1.2 Conventional versus electron flow
experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field.
In a conductive material, the moving charged particles which
There are two types of electric charges: positive and negative. Like constitute the electric current are called charge carriers.
charges repel and unlike attract.
A flow of positive charges gives the same electric current, and has
The SI derived unit of electric charge is the coulomb (C). In electrical the same effect in a circuit, as an equal flow of negative charges in
engineering, it is also common to use the ampere-hour (Ah), and, in the opposite direction.
chemistry, it is common to use the elementary charge (e) as a unit.
Since current can be the flow of either positive or negative charges,
The symbol Q denotes charge notation. or both, a convention is needed for the direction of current that is
The coulomb is defined as the quantity of charge that has passed through independent of the type of charge carriers. The direction of
conventional current is arbitrarily defined as the same direction as
the cross section of an electrical conductor .
negative charges flow.
The SI unit of quantity of electric charge is the coulomb, which is
equivalent to about 6.242×1018 e (e is the charge of a proton). The consequence of this convention is that electrons, the charge
carriers in metal wires and most other parts of electric circuits, flow
Hence, the charge of an electron is approximately −1.602×10−19 C in the opposite direction of conventional current flow in an
electrical circuit.
An electric current is a rate of flow of electric charge. In electric circuits
this charge is often carried by moving electrons in a wire.

When a metal wire is connected across the two terminals of a DC voltage

source such as a battery, the source places an electric field across the
conductor. The moment contact is made, the free electrons of the
conductor are forced to drift toward the positive terminal under the
influence of this field. The free electrons are therefore the charge carrier
in a typical solid conductor.

For a steady flow of charge through a surface, the current I (in amperes)
can be calculated with the following equation:
I is defined to represent that current, the direction representing
𝑄 positive current ie flow of positive charge must be specified,
𝐼= usually by an arrow on the circuit schematic diagram. This is called
𝑡

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the reference direction of current I. If the current flows in the The volt (symbol: V) is the derived unit for electric potential, electric
opposite direction, the variable I has a negative value. potential difference (voltage), and electromotive force.

1.3 Potential difference and electromotive force In a device without internal resistance, if an electric charge Q passes
The voltage between two points is equal to the work done per unit of through that device, and gains an energy W, the net emf for that device
charge against a static electric field to move the test charge between two is the energy gained per unit charge, or W/Q. Like other measures of
points and is measured in units of volts (a joule per coulomb). energy per charge, emf has SI units of volts, equivalent to joules per
coulomb.
Voltage can be caused by static electric fields, by electric current through
a magnetic field, by time-varying magnetic fields, or some combination Difference between Potential difference and emf:
of these.
Potential difference emf
Electric potential is electric potential energy per unit charge, measured 1. The potential difference is the 1. Emf is the total voltage in the
in joules per coulomb ( = volts). work done in moving a battery or voltage induced in
"Electric potential" must be distinguished from "electric potential charge against the electric a rotating machines like
field between two specific motors or generators.
energy" by noting that the "potential" is a "per-unit-charge" quantity. points in the circuit.
2. Potential difference is always 2. Emf is always greater than the
Current flow from higher voltage to lower voltage, due to source of smaller than the emf. potential difference.
energy present to "push" it against the opposing electric field. This is the
case within any electric power source. 3. The potential difference is 3. The concept of emf is
For example, inside a battery, chemical reactions provide the energy applicable to magnetic, applicable only to an
needed for ion current to flow from the negative to the positive terminal. gravitational, and electric electrical field
fields.
Thus,
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒐𝒓 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝑾
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 = =
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝑸 1.4 Conductors, insulators and electron flow
Conductors are those materials that permit electrons to flow freely from
Electromotive force, also called emf is the voltage developed by any particle to particle.
source of electrical energy such as a battery or dynamo.
An object made of a conducting material will permit charge to be
Emfs convert chemical, mechanical, and other forms of energy into transferred across the entire surface of the object. If charge is transferred
electrical energy. to the object at a given location, that charge is quickly distributed across
The word "force" in this case is not used to mean mechanical force, the entire surface of the object.
measured in newtons, but a potential, or energy per unit of charge,
measured in volts. The distribution of charge is the result of electron movement. Conductors
allow charge transfer through the free movement of electrons.

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Insulators are materials that impede or block the free flow of electrons A noteworthy observation may be made here. As each electron moves
from atom to atom and molecule to molecule. The particles of the uniformly through a conductor, it pushes on the one ahead of it, such that
insulator do not permit the free flow of electrons; subsequently charge is all the electrons move together as a group. The starting and stopping of
electron flow through the length of a conductive path is virtually
seldom distributed evenly across the surface of an insulator.
instantaneous from one end of a conductor to the other, even though the
motion of each electron may be very slow.

If we want electrons to flow in a certain direction to a certain place, we

must provide the proper path for them to move, just as a plumber must
install piping to get water to flow where he or she wants it to flow. To
facilitate this, wires are made of highly conductive metals such as copper
or aluminum in a wide variety of sizes.
Here are a few common examples of conductors and insulators:

Conductors: Insulators:
• silver • glass Now, with the Electron Source pushing new electrons into the wire on
• copper • rubber the left-hand side, electron flow through the wire can occur (as indicated
• gold • oil by the arrows pointing from left to right). However, the flow will be
• aluminum • asphalt interrupted if the conductive path formed by the wire is broken:
• iron • fiberglass
• steel • porcelain
• brass • ceramic
• bronze • quartz
• mercury • (dry) cotton
• graphite • (dry) paper
• dirty or impure water • (dry) wood
• concrete • plastic
• impure water • air
• diamond
• pure water

The uniform motion of electrons is called electricity. The motion

of electrons through a conductor is often referred to as a “electron
flow.”

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 1.5 Resistance and its variation with temperature

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 1.6 Difference between Direct and Alternating current
Particular AC DC
Definition Alternating current (AC) is defined DC refers to Direct Current in
as the current or voltage which which electrons or charge flow
changes direction of its polarity steadily in a single direction or
periodically in reverse and forward forward direction.
path of circuit.
Direction It reverses its direction while It flows in one direction in the
flowing in a circuit. circuit.
Cause of the Rotating magnet along the wire. Steady magnetism along the
direction of wire.
flow of
electrons
Frequency The frequency of alternating The frequency of direct current
current is 50Hz or 60Hz is zero.
depending upon the country.
It is never zero.
Current It is the current of magnitude It is the current of constant
varying with time magnitude.
Flow of Electrons keep switching Electrons move steadily in one
Electrons directions - forward and backward. direction or 'forward'.
Obtained A.C Generator and mains. Cell or Battery.
from
Passive Impedance. (Z) (Inductive and Resistance only
Parameters capacitive reactance property)
Power Lies between 0 & 1. It is always 1.
Factor

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 Types Sinusoidal, , Triangular, Square,
Trapezoidal,etc.
Pure and pulsating. Unit 2 Electric Circuit Fundamentals
2.1 Voltage and current sources

Amount of Safe to transfer over longer city Voltage of DC

energy that distances and can provide more cannot travel very
can be power. far until it begins to
carried lose energy.

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 2.2 Independent and dependent sources 2.3 Series and parallel circuits

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 2.4 Ohm’s law
Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points, is directly
proportional to the voltage across the two points where the constant of proportionality,
the resistance, and one arrives at the usual mathematical equation that describes this
relationship.

𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼

Where I is the current through the conductor in

units of amperes, V is the voltage measured
across the conductor in units of volts, and R is
the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms.
More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in
this relation is constant, independent of the
current.

The interchangeability of the equation may be

represented by a triangle, where V (voltage) is
placed on the top section, the I (current) is placed
to the left section, and the R (resistance) is placed
to the right. The line that divides the left and right
sections indicate multiplication, and the divider
between the top and bottom sections indicates division

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 2.5 Kirchhoff’s Laws 2.6 Electric power and energy (work)
Electric power is the rate at which electrical energy is transferred by
an electric circuit. The SI unit of power is the watt, (one joule per
second.)

From the standpoint of electric power, components in an electric circuit

can be divided into two categories:

Passive devices or loads: These components or loads consume electric

power from the circuit, converting it to other forms of energy such as
mechanical work, heat, light, etc.

Active devices or power sources: Devices which produces electrical

power are called active devices or power sources; such as electric
generators and batteries.

Some devices can be either a source or a load, depending on the voltage

and current through them. For example, a rechargeable battery acts as a
source when it provides power to a circuit, but as a load when it is
connected to a battery charger and is being recharged.

As we know that current is the rate of flow of charge. i.e.

I=Q/t where, Q= Charge in Coulumbs

T=time in sec.

And this current flows only when two terminals have certain potential
(voltage). Now this voltage is defined as follows:

Voltage is work done per unit charge inside an electric field.

i.e.

V= W/Q

Where W= work done by charge in Joules.

This work done is also called electrical energy (E).

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Now, electrical power is rate of flow of electrical energy per unit time. Horse Power (HP)

i.e. P = E/t = W/t 1HP = 746W

P= W/t = (W/Q)*(Q/t)= V*I

Thus,

P=V*I

Hence, electrical power of any electrical device is also defined as the

product of Voltage and current consumed by the device.

Since, V=IR (Ohm’s Law)

P=V*I = I2R =V2/R

Again, Energy (E) = P*t

Unit of Electrical Energy

The mechanical unit of energy is Joule and in general case, electrical

unit is measured in kilo-Watt hours or Unit or kWh

1kWh=1000W consumed for 1 hour

(energy) = (power) * (time)

1000Wh= 1000W * 1hr

=1000*60*60 W sec.

1000 *3600 J

Thus,

1 Unit = 1kWh =3.6 *106 Joules

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Unit 3 Electrostatics
4.1 Laws of electric forces

4.2 Electric field and electric field intensity

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 4.3 Electric fluxes and flux density

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 4.4 Dielectrics, permittivity and relative 4.6 Electric potential, potential difference and
permittivity potential gradient
Dielectric medium are those insulators having the property of
transmitting electric force without conduction. It is a medium or
substance that transmits electric force without conduction, an insulator.

4.5 Electrostatic induction phenomena

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 4.7 Capacitors and capacitance and Factors
affecting capacitance

Factors affecting the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor

The three factors which affect the capacitance of a parallel-plate

capacitor are the area of the plates, the distance apart of the plates and
the nature of the insulating material or dielectric between them. These
factors may be investigated by the following experiments.

(1) Area of plates (A)

An increase in the effective area of the plates is therefore seen to bring

about a decrease in potential difference between the plates, and hence
an increase in capacitance.

(2) Distance apart of the plates (d)

It is found that the closer the plates are together, the smaller is the
divergence, and hence the lower the potential. It follows that the
capacitance increases as the plates are moved closer together.

(3) Dielectric between the plates (€)

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The plates of the charged capacitor are placed a suitable fixed distance 3.9 Energy stored in charged capacitor
apart and slabs of various materials of equal thickness, e.g., polythene,
glass, paraffin wax, etc., are placed in turn, between the plates. In every
case a decrease in the leaf divergence is noticed. As before, this indicates
a decrease in potential, and hence an increase in capacitance.

4.8 Series and parallel connection of capacitors

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3.10 Charging and discharging of capacitor, time constant
for charging/discharging

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Unit 4 Magnetism and Electromagnetism
4.1 Definition of magnetic field, magnetic flux, flux density
and filed intensity
Magnetic field is the region around a magnetic material or a moving
electric charge within which the force of magnetism acts.

The magnetic flux (often denoted Φ or ΦB) through a surface is the

surface integral of the normal component of the magnetic field B passing
through that surface. The SI unit of magnetic flux is the weber (Wb) (in
derived units: volt-seconds), and the CGS unit is the Maxwell.

4.2 Permeability and relative permeability of magnetic

material
Permeability of magnetic material ( µ)

In electromagnetism, permeability is the measure of the ability of a

material to support the formation of a magnetic field within itself. Hence,
it is the degree of magnetization that a material obtains in response to an
applied magnetic field.

Magnetic Field Intensity (H)

Relative Permeability of magnetic material

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 its magnetic properties can be once again when the electric
only recovered by re- field is introduced.
magnetizing.
Magnetic Permanent magnet strength The strength of an
Strength depends upon the material electromagnet can be adjusted
used in its creation. by the amount of electric current
allowed to flow into it.
Advantages The main advantage of a However, an electromagnet’s
permanent magnet over an magnetic field can be rapidly
electromagnet is that a manipulated over a wide range
permanent magnet does not by controlling the amount of
require a continuous supply electric current supplied to the
of electrical energy to electromagnet.
maintain its magnetic field.

4.4 Dia-magnetic, para-magnetic and ferro-magnetic

4.3 Permanent magnets and electro-magnets materials
A permanent magnet is an object made from a material that is
magnetized and creates its own persistent magnetic field. As the name
suggests, a permanent magnet is 'permanent'. This means that it always
has a magnetic field and will display a magnetic behavior at all times.

An electromagnet is made from a coil of wire which acts as a magnet

when an electric current passes through it. Often an electromagnet is
wrapped around a core of ferromagnetic material like steel, which
enhances the magnetic field produced by the coil.

Description Permanent magnet Electromagnet

Magnetic A permanent magnet’s An electromagnetic magnet only
Properties magnetic properties exist displays magnetic properties
when the magnet is when an electric current is
(magnetized). applied to it.

Loss of If a permanent magnet loses Contrarily, an electromagnet

Magnetic its magnetic properties, as it loses its magnetic power every
Properties does by heating to a time an electric current is
(maximum) temperature, it removed and becomes magnetic
will be rendered useless and

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 4.5 Domain Theory of magnetism
A magnet has two poles - the North Pole and the South Pole. If freely
suspended it will orientate itself so that the end called the North Pole
points north. This is why it is called the North Pole - it seeks out the
north. See the Earth's Magnetic field

There are three magnetic elements: iron, nickel and cobalt. Only these
and their alloys (mixtures of metals containing them) will be attracted to
a magnet... all other metals will not.

The Domain Theory tries to explain why metals get magnetised. The
magnetic elements have little molecular magnets inside them. These are
randomly orientated in an unmagnetized piece of metal but point in a
particular direction in a magnetised piece.

Soft magnetic materials (e.g. iron) have domains that easily move into
line when the metal is placed in a magnetic field but as soon as the field
is removed the domains take on a random pattern again. It returns to
being unmagnetized straight away. very little energy is required to
magnetise a soft magnetic material

Hard magnetic materials (e.g. steel) have domains that do not easily
move into line when the metal is placed in a magnetic field, a strong field
is needed for some time, but then, when the field is removed the domains
retain the magnetic pattern. The metal stays magnetic for a long time. A
lot of energy is required to magnetise a hard magnetic material. That
energy is changed into heat within the material during the magnetism
process.

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4.6 Magnetic field due to current carrying conductor, force
on a current carrying conductor

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 4.7 Hysteresis loop for magnetic material, hard and soft
magnetic material
Hysteresis loops define the average magnetization, M, of a material in
the direction of an applied alternating magnetic field, H, as the field is
increased and then decreased.

A) Hard magnets are difficult to magnetize and demagnetize, and have

the largest hysteresis loops. Arrows indicate whether H was
increasing or decreasing as each part of the loop was measured.
B) Soft magnets become fully magnetized in a small magnetic field and
exhibit small hysteresis.

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Unit 5 Electro Magnetic Induction 5.2. Lenz's law, dynamically induced emf, statistically
induced emf.
5.1. Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction,
direction of induced emf & current.

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 5.3. Mutual coupling.

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5.4. Energy stored in a current carrying inductor

5.5. Inductance in series, inductance in parallel.

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Unit 6 Electrolysis and its Application 6.2. Primary and secondary cells: definitions and
examples, internal resistance of cell
6.1. Faraday’s law of electrolysis and its applications
A primary cell or battery is one that cannot easily be recharged after one
use, and are discarded following discharge. A primary battery is a
portable voltaic cell that is not rechargeable.

Most primary cells utilize electrolytes that are contained within

absorbent material or a separator (i.e. no free or liquid electrolyte), and
are thus termed dry cells.

A secondary battery is a portable voltaic cell that is rechargeable. A

secondary cell or battery is one that can be electrically recharged after
use to their original pre-discharge condition, by passing current through
the circuit in the opposite direction to the current during discharge. The
following graphic evidences the recharging process.

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