MODULE: Criminology Integration 2 (Crime c.

Grapevine Sources – these are information coming

Detection, Investigation andPrevention, from the underworld characters such as prisoners and
Criminalistics) ex-convicts.

2. INTERVIEW AND INTERROGATION

CHAPTER I
INTERVIEW – Is a conversation with a purpose,
FUNDAMENTALS OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION motivated by a desire to obtain certain information
from the person being interviewed as to what was
done, seen, felt, heard, tasted, smell or known.

This is the questioning of a person believed to possess

knowledge that is in official interest to the investigator.

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS

I.R.O.N.I.C. FORMAT

The interview of a witness can be described by its

acronym ‘IRONIC’ which stands for Identity, Rapport,
Opening Statement, Narration, Inquiry, and conclusion.
CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION – is an art which deals with
Identity – prior to the commencement of an interview,
the identity and location of the offender and provides
the investigator should identify himself to the subject
evidence of guilt through criminal proceedings.
by name, rank and agency.
INVESTIGATION DEFINED: The collection of facts to
Rapport – it is good to get the positive feeling of the
accomplish a three-fold aim:
subject towards the investigator.
a. to identify the guilty party;
Opening Statement – the investigator must have to
b. to locate the guilty party; and indicate why the subject is being contracted.

c. to provide evidence of his guilt. Narration – the witness should be allowed to tell all he
knows with little interruptions from the investigator.

Inquiry – after all information have been given by the

THREE TOOLS OF INVESTIGATION subject, that is the time for the investigator to as
1. INFORMATION question to clarify him about the case under
investigation.
It is the knowledge/data which an investigator acquired
from other persons and records. Conclusions – after the interview, it is but proper to
close the interview with outmost courtesy and thanking
the subject for his cooperation.
Classes of Information INTERROGATION –is a questioning of a person
a. Regular Sources – records, files from government and suspected of having committed an offense or a person
non-government agencies, news items. who is reluctant to make full disclosure of information
in his possession which is pertinent to the investigation.
b. Cultivated Sources – information gathered upon
initiative of the investigator from informants, vendors,
taxicab driver, GRO, and others. INTERROGATION TECHNIQUES
Emotional Appeal May be applied to calm and nervous subjects by
constantly observing the suspects, the investigator
Analyze the subject’s personality and decide what
chooses a propitious moment to shout a pertinent
motivation would prompt him to tell the truth, and then
question and appear as though he is beside himself with
provide those motives through appropriate emotional
rage. The subject may be unnerved to the extent of
appeals.
confessing:

CUSTODIAL INTERROGATION /INVESTIGATION – is the

questioning of a law enforcement officer on a person
under custody and otherwise deprived of his freedom
Sympathetic appeal or liberty. This is the stage in investigation where there
The suspect may feel the need for sympathy or is strict observance of the Miranda Doctrine.
friendship when he is apparently in trouble. Gestures of
friendship may win his cooperation.

Kindness
MIRANDA DOCTRINE – this case which entitled Miranda
The simplest technique is to assume that the suspect vs. Arizona, is a US Supreme Court Jurisprudence which
will confess if he is treated in a kind and friendly laid down the constitutional rights of the accused
manner. during custodial investigation. It was incorporated in
Extenuation our 1973 Constitution and later in the 1987 Constitution
of the Philippines.
The investigator indicates he does not consider his
subject’s indiscretion a grave offense. 3. INSTRUMENTATION

Shifting the blame It is the application of instruments and methods of

physical science to the detection of crimes. In cases
The interrogator makes clear his belief that the subject where there are no significant physical evidence to be
is obviously not the sort of person who usually gets found, then the use of instrumentation is relatively
mixed up in a crime like this unimportant.
Mutt and Jeff PHASES/STAGES OF CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION
Two (2) Agents are employed. 1. Identification of criminals
- Mutt, the relentless investigator, who is not going to 2. Tracing and locating the criminal
waste any time because he knows that the subject is
guilty. 3. Gathering of evidence to prove the guilt of the
criminal
- Jeff, on the other hand, is obviously a kind-hearted
man.

Bluff on a Split Pair 1. IDENTIFICATION OF CRIMINALS

This is applicable when there is more than one suspect.

The suspects are separated and one is informed that METHODS OF IDENTIFYING CRIMINALS
other has talked.
a. By confession or admission of the criminal himself
Pretense of Physical Evidence
b. Identification by accounts or testimonies of
The investigator may pretend that certain physical eyewitnesses
evidence has found by laboratory experts against him.
c. Identification by circumstantial evidence
Jolting
d. Identification by associative evidence
e. Identification by the Method of Operation (Modus What are the procedures of identification by
Operandi) eyewitness?

a. Physical line-up – is a means of selecting a suspect

from a group of innocent persons usually composed of
CONFESSION– is the direct acknowledgement of guilt
seven to ten persons. The purpose of line-up is to
arising from the commission of a crime.
eliminate the power of suggestion.

b. Physical show-up – only one person is shown to the

Types of Confession witness usually at the scene of the crime and made
immediately after the arrest of the suspect.
a. Extra-Judicial Confession – those made by the suspect
during custodial investigation.

b. Judicial Confession– those made by the accused in CIRCUMSTANTIAL EVIDENCE - facts or circumstances
open court. The plea of guilt may be during arraignment from which, either alone or in connection with other
or in any stage of the proceedings where the accused facts, the identity of the person can be inferred.
changes his plea of not guilty to guilty.
PHYSICAL EVIDENCE TO IDENTIFY CRIMINALS

1. CORPUS DELICTI– is the body of the crime or fact of

specific loss or injury sustained. It constitutes the
essential parts or elements in the commission of the
ADMISSION– is a self-incriminatory statement by the crime.
subject falling short of an acknowledgement of guilt. It
is an acknowledgement of a fact or circumstances from
which guilt maybe inferred. It implicates but does not
incriminate. It is also an acknowledgement that a fact,
action or circumstances are true which strongly infer or 2. ASSOCIATIVE EVIDENCE – these are the pieces of
directly admit guilt but lacks the detail of the elements evidence that will link the suspect to the crime scene.
of the crime. The suspect may leave some clues at the scene such as
weapons, tools, garments or prints.

3. TRACING EVIDENCE – articles which assist the

KINDS OF CRIMINALS IDENTIFIED BY WITNESSES
investigator in locating the criminal. Stolen goods in the
a. Known criminals possession of the suspect in an example of tracing
evidence.
b. Unknown criminals
MODUS OPERANDI – is the method of operation by a
Methods of Identification by witness specific criminal or criminal syndicate. It is a distinct
a. Verbal description pattern of how a crime is committed and is established
by a series of crimes under one classification. The
b. Photographic files (Rogues Gallery) modus operandi of one criminal is distinct and different
c. General Photograph from the other. It is a criminal trademark, logo or brand
name.
d. Artist sketch (Composite Criminal Illustration)

The value of identification by eyewitness depends on:

a. The ability to observe and remember distinct

appearance of suspect; 1. TRACING AND LOCATING THE CRIMINALS

b. Prevailing condition of visibility;

c. The lapse of time.

INFORMANT – is a person who gives information to the
police relevant to a criminal case about the activities of
TAILING OR SHADOWING – is the act of following a
criminals or syndicates.
person, depends on the number of surveillant available,
TYPES OF INFORMANTS volume of pedestrian traffic and importance of
concealing the surveillance.
a. Anonymous informant – do not wish to be identified.
METHODS OF SHADOWING
b. Rival elimination informant – to eliminate
competition. a. One man –extremely difficult and should be avoided,
if unavoidable keep subject in view at all times.
c. False informant – reveals information of no
consequence or value. b. Two man – two agents are employed to follow the
subject.
d. Frightened informant – motivated by anxiety.
c. ABC method – reduces the risk of losing the subject,
e. Self-aggrandizing – hangs about the fringes of the
affords greater security agents detection.
criminals.
d. Progressive/Leap from method – poor chances of
f. Mercenary informant – gives information for a price.
obtaining good results, agents are stations at a fixed
g. Double crosser informant – to get more information point assuming that subject followed the same general
from the police. route each day.

h. Woman informant – female associate of the e. Combined foot-auto surveillance – employment of

criminals. surveillants on foot and agents in an automobile.

i. Legitimate informant – operators of legitimate

business establishments.
UNDERCOVER INVESTIGATION – is a form of
SURVEILLANCE – is the secret observation of persons, investigation in which the investigator assumes a
places,and vehicles for the purpose of obtaining different and unofficial identity in order to obtain
information concerning the identities or activities of the information
subject.
DEFINITIONS
a. Surveillance of Place (fixed/ stake-out)
a. Undercover- an investigative technique in which the
b. Shadowing Agent’s/Investigator’s official identity is concealed to
accomplish an investigative mission.
c. Roping
b. Natural cover- using the individual’s true identity,
occupation or profession.
SURVEILLANT – is the person who maintains the c. Artificial cover- the manufacture of documents, false
surveillance or performs the observation. documents, passports, or forged documents.

CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATION PROPER

SUBJECT – the person or place being watched or A. Receipt of Briefing and Designation of Command Post
surveyed.
Command Post – an area which, is ideally located
KINDS OF SURVEILLANCE adjacent to the Crime Scene where the CSI Evidence
1. Surveillance of places Custodian stays and receives the pieces of evidence
turned over to him for safekeeping by the other
2. Tailing or shadowing evidence collectors.
3. Undercover investigation or roping
B. Initiation of Preliminary Survey (Team Leader of CSI straight line from two widely separated fixed reference
or SOCO) points.

a. Makes a general assessment of the scene;

b. Takes a cautious walk- through of the crime scene;

c. Takes down extensive note to document important 3. Baseline method– a sketching method that makes
factors; measurements along from a single reference line, called
a baseline, which can be established by using a length of
d. Establishes the evidence most likely to be
string, chalk line, or some other convenient means.
encountered;
4. Compass point method– a sketching method that
e. Defines the extent of the search area;
requires a protractor or some method of measuring
f. Determines the personnel and equipment needed and angles between two lines. One point is selected as the
makes specific assignments; and origin and a line extending from the origin becomes an
axis from which the angles can be measured.
g. From his assessments, he develops a general theory
of the crime scene. 5. Cross projection method – a sketching method in
which the ceiling appears to open up like a lid of a
C. Preparation of Narrative Report hinged box, with the four walls opening outward.
The Team leader uses the systematic approach in Measurements are then indicated from a point on the
making a narrative report. floor to the wall.

D. Documentation of the Crime Scene

The photographer begins taking photographs as soon as CRIME SCENE SEARCH

possible. The evidence collectors do not touch or A crime scene search could only be started after it has
moved any evidence once it is located until it has been been photograph and sketched to systematically look
identified, measured and recorded. for physical evidence that may prove useful in
SPECIFIC KINDS OF SKETCHES establishing that a crime has been committed and to
determine what method of operation the perpetrator
a. Sketch of Locality- give picture of the scene, the crime may have used.
and its environs, including neighboring buildings, roads,
etc. METHODS OF SEARCH

b. Sketch of the Ground- picture of the scene of the a. Strip or Line Search Method – the searchers will
crime with its nearest physical surrounding. proceed at the same pace along the path parallel to one
side of the rectangle.
c. Sketch in Details – the immediate scene only.
b. Double Strip or Grid Method – is a combination of the
d. Exploded/ cross projection – gives the clear strip search and is useful for large crime scene.
impression of the scene in cases where blood stains or
bullet holes are found. c. Spiral or Circular Method – the searchers will follow
each other in the path of a spiral, beginning in the
outside and spiraling towards the center or vice versa in
TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS a clockwise or counter clock-wise direction.

1. Rectangular coordinates method – a sketching d. Quadrant of Zone Method – the area to be searched
method that involves measuring the distance of an is divided into four quadrants and each searcher is
object from two fixed lines at right angles to each other. assigned to one quadrant.

2. Triangulation method – a sketching method that e. Wheel, Radial or Spoke Method – is applicable for
requires measuring the distance of an object along a area which is considered to be approximately circular or
oval. The area is then divided into six quadrants in a pie- CHAIN OF CUSTODY
like fashion.
It is the number of persons who handled and possessed
the pieces of evidence the moment they were collected,
marked and tagged, up to the time of the final
PHOTOGRAPHING THE CRIME SCENE
disposition of the case.
The main objective crime scene photography is to
create an accurate objective visual record of the crime
scene before any item is moved as possible physical
evidence.
CHAPTER II
CRIME SCENE SKETCHES
SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION
A rough sketch is prepared indicating the actual
Special Crime Investigation
measurement of things with scale and proportion
observed and oriented to the North Pole. All necessary It deals with the study of major crimes based on the
information is placed in the sketch. application of special investigative technique.
Collection of Physical Evidence The study concentrates more on physical evidence, its
collection, handling, identification and preservation in
The competence to recognize and properly collect
coordination with the crime laboratory. Special Crime
physical evidence is critical to both solving and
Investigation involves a close relationship between the
prosecuting crimes.
prober in the field and the crime laboratory technician.
The team leader is always informed of significant They work together as a team, reacting to and
evidence located. The evidence collectors shall put his extending one another’s theories and findings both
initial, location and date of collection on the item and working patiently and thoroughly to solve a crime from
turn it over to the evidence custodian for their investigative discoveries.
documentation and safekeeping.
The present criminal justice system in our country, the
court relies more on physical evidence rather than
extra-judicial confession.

Title Eight
PHYSICAL EVIDENCE – these are the articles and
materials which are found in connection with the CRIMES AGAINST PERSON
investigation and which aid in establishing the identity
(Destruction of Life)
of the perpetrator or the circumstances under which
the crime was committed or which, in general assist in Art. 246. Parricide – Any person who shall kill his father,
the prosecution of criminal. It embraces any object, mother, or child, whether legitimate or illegitimate, or
living or inanimate, solid, liquid, or gas state. any of his ascendants or descendants, or his spouse,
shall be guilty of parricide.
What are the procedures needed for the care of
physical evidence? Art. 247. Death or physical injuries inflicted under
exceptional circumstances–
In order to introduce physical evidence in court, three
important factors must be considered: Any legally married person who, having surprised his
spouse in the act of committing sexual intercourse with
a. The article must be properly identified
another person, shall kill any of them or both of them in
b. Chain of custody must be proved the act or immediately thereafter, or shall inflict upon
them any serious physical injury, shall suffer the penalty
c. The evidence must be material and relevant
of destierro.
If he shall inflict upon them physical injuries of any kind, 6. With cruelty, by deliberately and inhumanly
he shall be exempt from punishment. augmenting the suffering of the victim, or outraging or
scoffing at his person or corpse.

TREACHERY
These rules shall be applicable, under the same
circumstances, to parents, with respect to their Plain and simple, there is treachery if the offended
daughters under eighteen years of age, and their party was not given opportunity to make a defense.
seducer, while the daughters are living with their
MEANING OF PREMEDITATION
parents.
Premeditation is the act of mediating in advance;
Any person who shall promote or facilitate prostitution
deliberation upon a contemplated act; a design form to
of his wife or daughter, or shall otherwise have
do something before it is done.
consented to the infidelity of the other spouse shall not
be entitled to the benefits of this article.

The essence of premeditation is that the execution of

the criminal act must be preceded by COOL THOUGHT
Penalty: Destierro(prohibition to enter the place or
and REFLECTION upon the resolution to carry out the
places designated in the sentence, nor within the radius
criminal intent during the space of time SUFFICIENT to
therein specified, which shall be not more than 250 and
arrive at a calm judgment.
not less than 25 kilometers from the place designated.
There is no evident premeditation without proof of
planning.
Art. 248. Murder– Any person who, not falling with the
EVIDENT – Clear to the eye or judgment.
provisions of Article 246, shall kill another, shall be
guilty of murder and shall be punished by reclusion ART. 249. Homicide –
perpetua to death, if committed with any of the
following attendant circumstances: Any person who, not falling within the provisions of
Article 246 (Parricide) shall kill another, without the
1. With treachery, taking advantage of superior attendance of any of the circumstances enumerated in
strength, with aid of armed men, or employing means the next preceding article (Article 248), shall be deemed
to weaken the defense or of means or persons to insure guilty of homicide.
or afford impunity;

2. In consideration of a price, reward or promise;

ART 255 .Infanticide
3. By means of Inundation, fire, poison, explosion,
shipwreck, stranding of vessel, derailment or assault The killing of a child less than three days of age,
upon a railroad, fall of an airship, or by means of motor whether the killer is the parent or grandparent, any
vehicles or with the use of any other means involving other relative of the child, or a stranger.
great waste and ruin;

4. On occasion of any of the calamities of an

earthquake, eruption of a volcano, destructive cyclone,
epidemic or other public calamity; HOMICIDE INVESTIGATION

5. With evident premeditation;

It is the official inquiry made by the police on the facts A determination of the time of death should be
and circumstances surrounding the death of a person attempted in all homicide investigations. This fact is
which is expected to be unlawful. significant because of its investigative importance in
corroborating or disputing alibis, or in establishing the
The cadaver is often of prime importance as an
victim’s movements prior to death. Determining death
investigative factor. The victim’s body can reveal much
is not an exact science.
through examination of wounds and other types of
tracing clues that may be present.

Establishing the Facts of Death POST-MORTEM CHANGES

The first essential step of the homicide investigation is

to establish that the victim is, indeed, dead. Police
1. POST-MORTEM LIVIDITY (Livor Mortis)–
officers do not have the legal authority to pronounce
death, only physicians/medical doctor can establish the Discoloration of the body after death; setting of blood
fact of death. For this reason, the police officer should in the dependent portions of the body following death).
never assume death unless the condition of the victim’s
body demonstrates death in a totally obvious manner. It is a reddish purple to purple coloration in dependent
areas of the body due to accumulation of blood in the
small vessels of the dependent areas secondary to
gravity. This pooling of blood begins immediately after
A. Death – death is defined as the absence of life in a
death and becomes fixed in approximately 8-12 hours.
living matter.
The investigator can press on the skin in the dependent
B. Kinds of Death regions and if the skin blanches, death has probably
occurred less than 12 hours. This becomes fixed after a
1. Somatic Death – Clinical Death
while and can tell if the body has been moved. This is
not a reliable indicator of time of death. This is a better
indicator of whether the body has been moved since
death.
It is a complete, continuous, persistent cessation of
respiration, circulation and almost all brain functions of
an organism. It is usually pronounced by a physician or The Color of Lividity may Indicate the Cause of Death:
other members of the family.
1. Carbon monoxide poisoning/ cyanide – cherry red to
2. Molecular Death- Cellular Death pinkish color

It is the cessation of life of the individual cells in the 2. Asphyxia – dark lividity
whole body, which occurs one at a time after somatic
death.

3. Apparent Death – State of Suspended Animation

3. Phosphorous poisoning – dark brown
It is the state of temporary cessation of vital activities of
the body or vital processes were depressed to the
minimum compatible with life. This condition is not
TYPES OF LIVIDITY
actually death although classified under the kinds of
death, because the person or organism is still alive 1. Hypostatic – Blood is still in fluid form inside blood
although it seems that there are no signs of life. vessel; change as position of the body changes. Blood
remains fluid in the blood vessel for 6- 8 hours.
Determination of Time of Death (Death Estimates)
2. Diffusion– Coagulated inside blood vessel; Change in - Involves all muscles the same time at the same rate.It
position will not change its location. appears first in the smallermuscles such as the jaw and
then gradually spread to upper and lower extremities.

- Instantaneous rigidity can also be found following

Importance of Post-Mortem Lividity
ingestion of cyanide and strychnine poison.
1. It is a sign of death
Rigor Mortis has duration of 24 to 48 hours in the
2. It enables the investigator to estimate the time of Philippines and other tropical countries and 36 to 48
death hours during summer in the same.

3. It determines the position of the body after death

4. It may indicate the cause and manner of death

3. ALGOR MORTIS(Cooling of the body)

Characteristics of Post-Mortem Lividity The body cools following death at approximately 1.5
degrees F per hour, under normal conditions and
1. It occurs in the most extensive areas of the most assuming the body’s temperature at death is 98.6
dependent portion of the body. degrees F (37 degrees C).
2. It involves the superficial layer of the skin, lungs, Factors Affecting AlgorMortis:
intestines, kidneys, and brain.
1. Illness
3. Color is uniform in the tissues.
2. Clothes
4. It is not elevated from the skin, lungs, intestines,
kidneys and brain. 3. Obesity

5. There is no injury to the tissues. 4. Room temperature

6. The color may appear and disappear in the tissues by

shifting the position of the body in the earlier stages of
4. ONSET AND STAGE OF DECOMPOSITION
death.
Decomposition is the action of bacteria on the dead
body. The onset of decomposition is 1 to 2 days after
2. POST MORTEM RIGIDITY (Rigor Mortis) death and then finally the dead body becomes skeletal
remains in months considering the factors that
Stiffening of the body which occurs 2-6 hours after influence the rate of putrefaction.
death and is characterized by hardening of the muscles;
the chemical reaction that causes rigidity in the muscle 5. LIFE CYCLE OF FLIES
groups or stiffening of the body after death due to the
The eggs of ova laid by the flies on the dead body will
disappearance of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) from
hatch to form maggots within 24 hours. The maggots
the muscle.
will feed vigorously on the damaged dead body, then
- Rigor mortis disappears with decomposition. transform into pupal stage and finally into adult flies
within a few days.
- Cold and/or freezing will delay the onset of rigor
mortis as well as prolong its presence 6. CHANGES IN THE BLOOD

The blood remains fluid in the body after death after 6-

8 hours. After which it gradually clotted or coagulated in
a slow process until 12 hours wherein the lividity is
already fully developed.

7. CHANGES IN STOMACH
 2. Presence of blood stains and other injuries to the
body of the victim.

3. Presence of signs of struggle in the clothing,

It usually takes three to four hours for the stomach to
furniture, beddings, and others.
empty its contents after meals.
4. Nature of the window, curtains, and doors.
Gunshot Wounds
C. Accidental hanging is not common.
All gunshot wounds result from the entry of a projectile
into the body, and the frequent presence of
undispersed explosive gases. The relative size and
appearance of the wound will be affected by the
distance from which the weapon was discharged. 2. Strangulation
The location of the wound may also serve to rule out Strangulation by ligature is usually homicidal and is
suicide. If the wound is located in an area of the body done by tying the ligature around the neck and the two
that is relatively inaccessible to the victim, homicide is ends pulled in the opposite direction in such a manner
indicated. that tightens the ligature. Ligature used may be rope,
chain, wires, vines, rolled clothing.
Two Types of Wounds:

1. entrance wound (POE)

2. exit wound (POX)

ACCIDENTAL DEATH

Is death which occurs beyond the sway of ones will and

DEATH BY HANGING AND STRANGULATION
although it comes about through some act of will, lies
Determination whether hanging is suicidal, homicidal, beyond the bounds of human forceable consequences.
or accidental

1. Hanging – is a state of injury or death of the body

ROBBERY INVESTIGATION
whereby the ligature tightened around the neck by the
suspension of the body. Article 293 – Robbery in General

Any person who, with intent to gain, shall take any

personal property belonging to another by means of
A. Suicidal Hanging – in death by hanging, it is usually
violence or intimidation of any person, or by using force
suicidal unless proven otherwise. Some evidence to
upon anything shall be guilty of robbery.
prove are the following:
Type of Robbers
1. Accessible materials used for ligature like rope, rolled
beddings, or wires. 1. Amateurs – motivated by greed, the desire for a thrill
and self-testing.
2. Identification of the fibers from the rope in the hands
of the victim. 2. Professionals – are those person who worked as
robbers as a trade making it their living and having no
3. Evidence of movement of the rope on the beam or
other means of income.
anchorage from upward and downward as the body has
been suspended.

B. Homicidal Hanging Note: Robbery – This is the taking or personal property

belonging to another, with intent to gain, by means of
1. Presence of defense wound in the body of the victim.
violence against, or intimidation of any person, or using
force upon anything.
 Anti-fencing law of 1979 (P.D. 1612)

Robbery and Theft, compared. Fencing – is the act of any person, who, with intent to
gain, for himself or for another shall buy, possess, keep,
a. Both robbery and theft involved unlawful taking as an
acquire, concealed, sell or in any other way, deal on any
elements;
articles, items, objects, or anything of value which he
b. Both involve personal property belonging to another; knows to have been derived from the proceeds of crime
or robbery or theft.
c. In both crimes, the taking is done with intent to gain;
Fence – includes any person, firm, organization,
d. In robbery, the taking is done either with the use of association or corporation or partnership and other
violence or intimidation of person or the employment organization who/ which commits the act of fencing.
of force upon things; whereas in theft, the taking is
done simply without the knowledge and consent of the Article 267 – Kidnapping and Serious Illegal Detention
owner. Elements:

1. That the offender is a private individual;

2. That the kidnaps or detains another, or in any other

manner deprives the latter of his liberty;
Anti-Piracy and anti-highway robbery law of 1974 (P.D.
532) 3. That the act of detention or kidnapping must be
illegal;
Piracy – any attack upon or seizure of any vessel, or
taking away of the whole or part thereof or its cargo,
equipment or the personal belonging of its
complements or passengers, irrespective of value
thereof, by means of violence against or intimidation of 4. That in the commission of the offense, any of the
persons or force upon things, committed by any following circumstances is present:
persons, including a passengers or member of the
a. That the kidnapping of detention lasts for more than
compliments of said vessels in Philippine waters.
3 days
Highway Robbery/ Brigandage – the seizure of any
b. That is committed simulating public authority
person for ransom, extortion or other unlawful
purposes, or the taking away of the property of another c. That any serious physical injuries are inflicted upon
by means of violence against or intimidation of persons person kidnapped or detained of threats to kill him are
or force upon things of other unlawful means made; or
committed by any person or any Philippine highway.
d. That the persons kidnapped is a minor, female, or a
Anti-Cattlle Rustling Law of 1974 (P.D. 533) public officer.
Cattle Rustling – Is the taking away by any means,
methods or scheme, without the consent of the
owner/raiser, or any of the above animals (cow, Any private individual who shall kidnap or detain
carabao, horse, mule or other domesticated member of another, or in any other manner deprives him of his
the bovine family) whether or not for profit or gain, or liberty.
whether committed with or without violence against or
intimidation of any person or force upon things. It
includes the killing of large cattle, or taking its meat or
hide without the consent of owner/raiser.
 3. ENGINEERING

- The science of measuring traffic and travel, the study

of basic laws relative to the traffic law and generation;
CHAPTER III
the application of these knowledge to the
TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT AND ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

TRANSPORTATION
professional practice of planning, deciding, and
• It is an act or process of conveying from one place to operating traffic system to achieve safe and efficient
another, from the Latin word “Terans” meaning across transportation of persons and goods
or and move and “Portare” means to carry.
4. TRAFFIC ECOLOGY/ ENVIRONMENT

- The study of potentially disastrous population

RAILWAYS explosion, changes in urban environment due to the
scale and density of new urban concentration and new
activities carried out, air pollution, water pollution and
crowding, transport congestion which result therein

5. TRAFFIC ECONOMY

TRAFFIC - It deals with the benefits and adverse effects of traffic

to our economy MANAGEMENT. It is an executive
function such as planning, organizing, Directing and
supervising, coordinating operating recording and
budgeting traffic affairs
• The channel of transportation wherein a parallel line
of irons were used as roads BIORHYTHM

• The first railroad is the Stockton and Darlington line - This theory asserting that man exhibit constant
(1925). variation of energy and mood states.

LICENSING PROCEDURE

• It refers to the movement of persons, goods, or REQUISITES FOR ISSUANCE OF LICENSE

vehicles, either powered by combustion system or - At least 16 years old for student’s permit
animal drawn vehicle, from one place to another for the
purpose of safe travel. - 17 years old for sub-professional

- 18 years old for professional

THE 5’Es OF TRAFFIC 1. ENFORCEMENT KINDS OF DRIVER’S LICENSE

- The action taken by the police, such as arresting, 1. Student permit

issuing traffic citation ticket and providing warning to 2. Non-professional
the erring driver for the purpose of deterring and
discouraging and or preventing such violation. 3. Professional

2. EDUCATION 4. Military

- The process of giving training and practice in the actual 5. International

application of traffic safety knowledge.
RESTRICTION CODE 6. A police or fire on call

1. Restriction Code No 1 - limited to drive motor

motorcycles
RIGHT OF WAY RULE
2. Restriction Code No 2 - limited to drive vehicle
- the right to proceed ahead of another vehicle or
weighing not more than 4500 kg
pedestrian
3. Restriction Code No 3 - limited to drive vehicles
weighing more than 4500 kg
1. Intersection- when two or more vehicle is entering an
intersection the one on the left will give way to the right
vehicle.

4. Restriction Code No 4 - limited to drive weighing 2. Pedestrian- drivers should yield to pedestrian
4500 kg and with automatic transmission only crossing except at intersection whereas the movement
of vehicles is regulated by a police officer.
5. Restriction Code No 5 - limited to drive vehicle with
automatic clutch and weighing more than 4500 kg

DRIVER 3. Through highway/ railroad crossing- the driver shall

bring to a full stop before traversing to an intersection.
- Licensed operator of a vehicle
If there is no hazard the driver may slowdown to 5mph.
CONDUCTOR
4. Police /emergency vehicle- all drivers should yield to
- Licensed person allowing limited number of emergency to emergency vehicle except as directed by
passengers, freight or cargo in public utility truck or traffic enforcer. Fire trucks are accepted to speed limit
buses but they are prohibited to have unnecessary speed.

5. From private road to highway- vehicle from private

road must yield to that on a highway.
TEN COMMANDMENTS OF TRAFFIC

1. KEEP RIGHT - (two lanes, two ways) in case of one

way the left lane shall be the fast lane and the slow lane 3. PROHIBITED PARKING
is the right.
Places where parking is prohibited:
2. OBSERVE ROAD COURTESY- yield to emergency
1. Near an intersection
vehicle, pedestrians, trains, vehicle with right of way,
vehicles ahead, large vehicles, uphill traffic, vehicles 2. Crosswalk/ pedestrian lane
with momentum, straight traffic, and traffic signs.
3. Within 6 meters from drive way of any response
installation, fire hydrant and private roads

Emergency Vehicles: 4. Double parking

1. Vehicle with physician 5. Sidewalks, alleys, foot of the bridge

2. Ambulance on emergency call 6. Places wherein official signs are posted

3. Vehicle with wounded or sick person 4. WHEN IN DOUBT, DO NOT OVERTAKE.

4. AFP/ PNP vehicle on official call - overtaking lane is the lane to the left of overtaken
vehicle going in the same direction, overtaken vehicle is
5. Vehicle in pursuit of criminals
the privileged vehicle
 - Motorist should observe equity of the lead vehicle,
doctrine of the last clear chance on rotunda drive.
CONSIDER THESE IF YOU OVERTAKE:

1. Signal the intention.

9. ON PEDESTRIAN
2. Make sure that the overtaking lane is clear and free
of oncoming vehicle for sufficient distance to facilitate - Keep off the roadway except when crossing on
proper overtake. crosswalk. Wait embark and alight at bus or jeepney
stop.
3. Maneuver at own risk, the vehicle being overtaken is
the privileged vehicle. Drivers keep his lane, maintain
speed and yield to overtaking vehicle.
10. REMEMBER THE INTERNATIONAL SAFETY
4. He shall increase his speed until the overtaken REMINDER- “SAFETY FIRST”
vehicle has cleared the way

5. In a two lanes, on a divided roadway, they may use

either of the lanes.
TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT
6. In an expressway with fast and slow lanes, on a
divided roadway, they may use either of the lanes. - the action taken by the police to compel obedience to
traffic laws and ordinance regulating the use and
7. Overtaking is prohibited at crest of a grade curve,
movement of motor vehicle for the purpose of creating
railway crossing, at the intersection and between
a deterrent to unlawful behavior by all potential
construction and caution.
violators

5. THE BUS STOP RULE

TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCER
1. The buses queue up in a single file in their order
- a person duly deputized by an agency of government
arrival.
authorized by law to enforce traffic laws, rules and
regulations

2. Lead bus moving toward the center of column of POLICE TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT
busses lining on the bus stop zone, and remain until
- the part performed by the police and other agencies
zone is filled with busses, but longer than three
with police power including deterrent to law violations
minutes.
created by the presence of uniformed

6. RULE TO PREVENT OR UNTANGLE TRAFFIC JAMS

- Keep lanes and intersection open in heavy and slow

police officer and their special equipment, special
traffic to avoid overtaking. In a construction, vehicles
assistance to court and prosecutor and incidental
should merge alternately.
service to highway users

7. OBSERVE TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT MEASURES

COURT TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT
- Observe and obey traffic notices sign like notices and
- the performed by the court through adjudication and
pavement markings.
penalization
8. THE PHILOSOPHY OF PINOY DRIVER
POLICE COURT ENFORCEMENT PROCESS FIVE ESSENTIAL
STEPS
3. Written warning - combination of two preceding
1. DETECTION - wholly police activities and entails types with written note of citation.
looking for defects in the behavior motorist, pedestrian,
vehicle, equipment and roadway condition.
TRAFFIC PATROL
2. APPREHENSION - a police responsibility wherein the
police are required action to prevent continued and - part of traffic supervision by patrolling to ensure
future violation. public obedience
3. PROSECUTION - it is a court function, the police also TYPES OF PATROL
provides corresponding influence through preparation
and introduction of evidence or close contact with the 1. Line patrol- it is assigned to a particular place
prosecution office. 2. Area patrol- type of patrol assigned to an area of
4. ADJUDICATION - it is court function, the police vicinity
provides influence on this step by as a witness to the
prosecution by supplying additional evidence. It
determines the guilt or innocence of the accused. TRAFFIC OBSERVATION

5. PENALIZATION - the imposition of penalty upon the 1. Stationary traffic observation - officer is assigned at
accused. Penalty can be influenced by previous records specific place
of conviction as provided by the police. 2. Conspicuous traffic observation - officer attracts
attention

KINDS OF ENFORCEMENT ACTIONS 3. Visible traffic observation - stationary observation

that the observer is in full view
1. Traffic arrest - the taking of a person into custody of
the law. It is made when: 4. concealed traffic observation - observer is not visible
to the public
a) the offense is serious;

b) detection is needed to avoid continued violation; and

TRAFFIC JAM
c) there is reasonable doubt that violators may not
appear in court. • It is caused by such factors as vehicular accident,
stalled vehicle, absence of traffic enforcer and road
construction.
2. Traffic citation - made to compel violators to appear
in court in absence of arrest.
DRUNKEN DRIVERS
3. Traffic warning - an act reminding the driver of his
violation in order for him to not do it again. No arrest or • it is a driver who drives under the influence of alcohol
citation is made. with 10% of intoxicating level

TYPES OF WARNING TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

1. Visual warning - using gestures and signals. - defined as calculating manipulation or direction. It
includes forecasting of future traffic demands.
2. Verbal warning - oral warning made when there is
newly enacted law
TYPES OF TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICE
• traffic or road sign 2. Red ring with diagonal line connotes prohibition

• pavement markings 3. Blue/ green provides information

4. Signs on blue disc give positive instruction

• traffic light INTERNATIONAL SIGNS

• traffic island 1. Round and red; regulatory movement

2. Round black yellow sign, warning sign

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF TRAFFIC CONTROL 3. Equilateral triangle red sign, directing to yield the
DEVICES right of way

1. Regulatory devices

2. Warning devices

3. Guiding devices 4. Octagon red and white, STOP

5. Red triangle and black sign, approaching danger zone

AIMS OF SIGNAL CONTROL

1. Reduce traffic conflict and delay TRAFFIC LIGHTS

2. Reduce accident 1. Red- stop

3. Economize police time 2. Amber- slowdown

3. Green- go

CLASSES OF TRAFFIC SIGNS

a. DANGER WARNING SIGNS PAVEMENT MARKINGS

b. REGULATING SIGNS 1. Arrows point to direction

• priority signs 2. Straight lines means no overtaking

• prohibitory signs 3. Broken lines means overtaking is allowed

• mandatory signs

ROAD CLASSIFICATION

c. INFORMATIVE SIGNS ACCORDING TO POLITICAL SUBDIVISION

• advance sign 1. National road- right of way 20 to 120 meters

• place identification sign 2. Provincial road- link between to municipalities, 15 to

60 meters
• confirmatory sign
3. City road- interlink in the city, 15 meters

4. Municipal road- within town proper 10 meters

PRINCIPLES OF SIGNS
5. Barangay road- from market to town 2 meters
1. Red triangle connotes hazard
SIDEWALK 3. MOTOR VEHICLE TRAFFIC ACCIDENT

• It is the portion of the road that answers the safety of - Any motor vehicle accident occurring on a traffic way
pedestrians (ex. Collision between automobiles on a highway)

ACCIDENT

• That occurrence in a sequence of events which usually CHAIN OF EVENTS IN A VEHICULAR ACCIDENT
produces unintended injury, death or property damage
1. PERCEPTION OF HAZARD – it is seeing, feeling or
TRAFFIC ACCIDENT hearing and understanding the usual or unexpected
movement or condition that could be taken as a sign of
• An accident involving travel transportation on a traffic
an accident about to happen
way
2. START OF EVASIVE ACTION – it is the first action
taken by a traffic unit to escape from a collision course
MOTOR VEHICLE ACCIDENT or otherwise avoid a hazard

- event resulting in unintended injury or property 3. INITIAL CONTACT – the first accidental touching of an
damage attributable directly or indirectly to the action object collision course or otherwise avoids a hazard
of a motor vehicle or its load
4. MAXIMUM ENGAGEMENT – it is the greatest collapse
or overlap in a collision; the force between the traffic
unit and the object collided with are greatest at
KINDS OF TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS maximum engagement

5. DISENGAGEMENT – it is the separation of a traffic

unit in motion from an object with which it has collided;
the force between the object ceases at this time
In the investigation of traffic accidents, it is imperative
for the traffic investigator to know the kinds of 6. STOPPING – this is when the traffic units involved
accidents occurred in order to map out the necessary come to rest; it usually stabilizes the accident situation
activities to be done when responding and 7. INJURY – it is receiving bodily harm; this event does
investigating. not necessarily occur after the accident but within any
of the chain of events; it may also happen

right after the evasive action taken by the drivers

involved or during the initial contact.
1. NON-MOTOR VEHICLE TRAFFIC ACCIDENT

- refers to any accident occurring on a traffic way

involving persons using the traffic way or travel or COMMON WORDS AND PHRASES USED IN TRAFFIC
transportation, but not involving a motor vehicle in ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION
motion (ex. Pedestrian and a cyclist in a traffic way) 1. MOTOR VEHICLE – any device which is self-propelled
2. MOTOR VEHICLE NON-TRAFFIC ACCIDENT and every vehicle which is propelled by electric power
obtained from overhead trolley wires, but not operated
- Any motor vehicle accident which occurs entirely in upon rails
any place other than a traffic way (ex. Accident on a
private driveway) 2. KEY EVENT – an event on the road which
characterizes the manner of occurrence of a motor
vehicle traffic accident
3. DEBRIS – the scattered broken parts of vehicles, of an accident or the most easily modified condition
rubbish, dust and other materials left at the scene of factor.
the accident caused by a collision
14. CAUSE – the combination of simultaneous and
4. SKID MARKS – these are marks left on the roadway by sequential factors without any one of which result could
tires which are not free to rotate, usually because not have occurred.
brakes are applied strongly and the wheels locked
15. ATTRIBUTE – any inherent characteristics of a road,
5. TRAFFIC UNIT – any person using a traffic way for a vehicle, or a person that affects the probability of a
travel, parking or other purposes as a pedestrian or traffic accident.
driver, including any vehicle, or animal.
16. MODIFIER – a circumstance that alters an attribute
6. HAZARD - a hazard is generated when a critical space- permanently or temporarily.
motion relationships between a traffic unit and another
object develops due to the movement of either or both
(ex. A curve in the path is a hazard; another traffic unit
in the path is a hazard.)

7. SAFE SPEED – the speed adjusted to the potential or

possible hazards or the road and traffic situation ahead;
safe speed on the road is determined by the road rather
than the particular driver of a vehicle (ex. A curve ahead
is a hazard and a safe speed for it is a speed at which it
can be taken comfortably

8. STRATEGY – the adjusting of speed, position on the CHAPTER IV

road, and direction of motion, giving signals of intent to
turn or slow down, or any other action in situations DRUG EDUCATION AND VICE CONTROL
involving potential hazards

9. TACTIC – any action taken by the traffic unit to avoid

hazardous situations like steering, braking or
accelerating to avoid collision or other accident.

10. IMPACT – the striking of one body against another Drugs

or a collision of a motor vehicle with another motor
• A chemical substance that affects the functions of
vehicle.
living cells and alters body or mind processes when
11. CONTACT DAMAGE – damage to a vehicle resulting taken into the body or applied through the skin.
from direct pressure of some foreign object in a
• Any chemical substance, other than food, which is
collision or roll over; it is usually indicated by striations,
intended for used in the diagnosis, treatment, cure,
rub-off of material or puncture.
mitigation or prevention of disease or symptoms.
12. FACTOR – any circumstance contributing to a result
Drug Abuse
without which the result could not have occurred or it is
an element necessary to produce the result, but not by • Overuse or consumption of drugs other than for
itself sufficient. medical reasons.

• Any non-medical use of drugs that cause physical,

psychological, legal, economic, or social damage to the
user or to the people affected by the user’s behavior.
13. PRIMARY CAUSE – a misnomer loosely applied to
DRUGS COMMONLY ABUSED
the most obvious or easily explained factor in the cause
1) STIMULANT
- Drug that excite the central nervous system, increasing means the "sleep-bringing poppy", referring to the
alertness, decreasing fatigue, delaying sleep, also sedative properties of some of these opiates.
impale appetite and cause weight loss.
b) Morphine – is a potent opiate analgesic drug that is
a) Shabu – street names, poor man’s cocaine, S, ice, used to relieve severe pain. It was first isolated in 1804
Shabs, Ubas, bato, Siopao by Friedrich Serturner, first distributed by him in 1817,
and first commercially sold by Merck in 1827.
Methamphetamine hydrochloride/SHABU - a type of
amphetamine also known as “poor man’s cocaine”. It took its name from the Greek god of dreams
Other names are Shabu, Ubas, Siopao, Sha and Ice. Morpheus.

• Shabu is a white, odorless crystal or crystalline C) Heroin – is processed from morphine, a naturally
powder with a bitter numbing taste. occurring substance extracted from the seed pod of
certain varieties of poppy plants.

• It is typically sold as a white or brownish powder or as

the black sticky substance known on the streets as
b) Cocaine – an agent that produces a temporary "black tar heroin”.
increase of the functional activity or efficiency of an
Organism or any of its parts.

Street names – Coke, Snow, Flake, Bow

3) Hallucinogens
Cocaine - is a drug from the leaves of the Coca plant, a
shrub that originated in South America. This drug - Drugs that are derived from plants chemical
affects the central nervous system as a stimulant. substances which affects the perception, sensation,
behavior and produces hallucination on the user.
The name comes from "coca" and the alkaloid suffix -
ine, forming cocaine. It is a stimulant, an appetite Marijuana - is the term used to describe all the plant
suppressant, and a topical anesthetic. material like leaves, tops, stems, flowers and roots from
a cannabis plant (Cannabis sativa), dried and prepared
2) Opiates/Narcotic
for smoking or taken orally as “brownies”.
- Group of drugs that are used medically to relieve pain,
-The mind altering component is the
but have a high potential for abuse.
tetrahydrocannabinol; THC for short, which is
-In medicine, the term opiate describes any of the concentrated in the resin.
narcotic opioid alkaloids found as natural products in
4) Depressants/Sedatives
the opium poppy plant, Papaver somniferum.
- Drugs that have mild-calming or sleep-producing effect
Narcotic – substance that lessens pain and/or induces
upon the central nervous system.
stupor.
- e.g. Valium
a). Opium – is the dried latex obtained from the opium
poppy (Papaver somniferum). Opium contains up to 5) Inhalants - drugs whose volatile vapors are taken in
12% morphine, an alkaloid, which is frequently via the nose and trachea.
processed chemically to produce heroin. The latex also
- includes solvents, bases and aerosol, rugby, gasoline,
includes codeine.
hair spray, lighter fluid and air freshene
Opium poppy, Papaver somniferum, is the species of
6) Opiates/Narcotics
plant from which opium and poppy seeds are derived.
Opium is the source of many narcotics, including Opiates, sometimes called narcotics, are a group of
morphine (and its derivative heroin), thebaine, codeine, drugs that are used medically to relieve pain, but have a
papaverine and noscapine. The Latin botanical name high potential for abuse. Some opiates come from a
resin taken from the seedpod of the Asian poppy.
Opiates that are commonly abused are Opium, OVERDOSE
Morphine, Codeine, and synthesized or manufactured
• The inadvertent of deliberate consumption of much
opiates.
larger doses that the habitually used by the individual in
Opium - refers to the coagulated juice of the opium question and resulting in serious toxic reaction or
poppy (Papaver Somniferum L.) and embraces every death.
kind, class and character of opium, whether crude or
REHABILITATION
prepared; the ashes or refuse of the same.

• Restoration of an optimum state of health by medical,

OTHER DANGEROUS DRUGS
physical, psychological, social and peer group support
Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) or for a chemically dependent person and his significant
commonly known as "Ecstasy", "X-TC", "Adam", "Eden others.
Tablet", or by its any other name - refers to the drug
TOLERANCE
having such chemical composition, including any of its
isomers • Physiological adaptation to the effects of drugs so as
diminish the effects with constant dosages or to
or derivatives in any form;
maintain the intensity and duration of effects through
Sedatives - Sedative-hypnotics such as tranquilizers, increased dosage.
sleeping pills, and sedatives are drugs, which depress or
DEN, DIVE, RESORT
slow down body functions. These
• Place where any dangerous drug and essential
chemical is administered, delivered, stored for illegal
purposes.

drugs can be dangerous when not taken according to

physician's instructions.

Ketamine - is an anesthetic that is abused for its

DRUG SYNDICATE
hallucinogenic properties. Its predominant legitimate
use is as a veterinary anesthetic. • Any organized group of two or more persons forming
or joining together with the intention of committing any
Amphetamines
offense prescribed in RA 9165.
Drug that is stimulant to the central nervous system. It
PRACTITIONER
is colorless and maybe inhaled, injected or swallowed. It
may be used medically to treat depression, and obesity. • Any person who is a licensed physician, dentist,
chemist, medical technologist, nurse, midwife,
veterinarian or pharmacist in the Philippines.

ILLEGAL TRAFFICKING
DEFINITION OF TERMS DRUG
• Illegal cultivation, culture, delivery, administration,
• Any substance that enters the human body and can dispensation, manufacture, sale trading, transportation,
change either the function or structure of the human distribution, importation, exportation and possession of
organism. any dangerous drugs.

MEDICINES PLANTING OF EVIDENCE

• Drugs used in the diagnosis, cure, treatment, and • Willful act by any person of maliciously and
prevention of disease or for the relief of pain or surreptitiously inserting, placing, adding or attaching
discomfort. directly or indirectly, through any overt or covert act
any dangerous drugs in the person, house, effects or in • -Created by virtue of Republic Act 6425 otherwise
the immediate vicinity of an innocent individual for the known as Dangerous Drug Act of 1972 subsequently
purpose of implicating, incriminating or imputing the repealed by RA 9165.
commission of any violation of RA 9165.
• -the policy-making & strategy-formulating body in the
PUSHER planning & formulation of policies & programs on drug
prevention & control.
• Any person who sells, trades, administers, dispense,
delivers or gives away to another, distributes, • -It shall develop and adopt a comprehensive,
dispatches in transit or transports dangerous drugs or integrated, unified and balanced national drug abuse
who acts as a broker. prevention and control strategy.

USE • -DDB composed of 17 members wherein 3 of which

are permanent members, the other 12 members are ex-
• Any act of injecting, intravenously or intramuscularly,
officio capacity and 2 regular members.
of consuming any dangerous drugs.

CONFINEMENT
DRUG MULES or “DRUG COURIERS”
• Refers to the residential treatment and rehabilitation
of trainees, clients and patients in a center. • Individuals who transport dangerous drugs in
exchange for a huge amount of money, depending on
CONFIRMATORY TEST
the amount of drugs to be delivered and the
• An analytical test using a device, tool or equipment route/distance to be traveled.
with different chemical or physical principle that is
• Women are usually targeted by syndicates since they
more specific which will validate and confirm the result
generally generate mild suspicion from authorities and
of the screening test.
the female body has more cavities possible to insert the
PROTECTOR/CODDLER drugs in, therefore posing less detection risk.

• Any person who knowingly and willfully consents to

the unlawful acts provided in RA 9165 and uses his/her
THE FOUR PILLARS OF ANTI-DRUG CAMPAIGN
influence, power or position in shielding, harboring,
screening or facilitating the escape of any person 1. Drug Supply Reduction Drive

Reduce the supply of drugs

Drive the prices high and create acute shortage of

drugs
he/she knows or has reasonable grounds to believe on
or suspects, has violated the provisions of RA 9165 in Neutralize sources of drugs
order to prevent the arrest, prosecution and conviction
of the violator.
2. Drug Demand Reduction Drive

Reduce the demand side of the drug chain

SCREENING TEST

• A rapid test performed to establish

potential/presumptive positive result.

Concentrates on anti-drug advocacy efforts – public

information and treatment and rehabilitation
DANGEROUS DRUG BOARD (DDB)
Targets non-users, casual drug users and
addicts/recovering persons
 • A chronic loss of control over the consumption of
alcoholic beverages despite obvious psychological or
3. Alternative Development/Reform Programs
physical harm to the person. Increasing amount are
Development/livelihood program required overtime and abrupt discontinuance may
precipitate a withdrawal symptoms.
Education program
DRUNKARD
Family solidarity/development program
• A person who habitually takes or use any intoxicating
Good governance program alcohol liquor and while under the influence of such, or
Legal reforms in consequence of the effect thereof, is either
dangerous to himself or to others.

PROSTITUTION
4. International Cooperation
• Act or practice of providing sexual services to another
Neutralize transnational drug syndicates person in return for payment. It is the exchange of
Minimize drug trafficking to and from the country money for the performance of sexual act.

Exchange of information and technologies PROSTITUTE

Multilateral, regional, sub-regional and bilateral • Customarily used, to refer to a female person who
assistance and cooperation engages in sex in exchange for money as profession.

VAGRANTS AND PROSTITUTES (under RPC)

Vices – is any immoral conduct or habit, the indulgence • -Any person having no apparent means of
of which leads to depravity, wickedness and corruption subsistence, who has the physical ability to work and
of the minds and the body. who neglects to apply himself or herself to some lawful
calling.
Different Forms of Vices:
• -Any person found loitering about public or semi-
1) Drug addiction public building or places, or tramping or wandering
about the country or to the streets without visible
2) Alcoholism
means of support.
3) Prostitution
• -Any idle or dissolute person who lodges in houses of
4) Gambling ill-fame, ruffians or pimps and those who habitually
associate with prostitutes.
ALCOHOLIC

• A person who has experienced physical, psychological,

social or occupational impairment as consequence of PROSTITUTES
habitual, excessive consumption of alcohol.
• Women, who for money or profit, habitually indulge
ALCOHOL ABUSE in sexual intercourse or lascivious conduct.

• Use of ethyl alcohol or liquor in a quantity and with a

frequency that causes the individual significant
Republic Act No. 10158
physiological, psychological, or sociological distress or
impairment.

• Signed last March 27, 2012, amended Article 202 of

the Revised Penal Code removing vagrancy from the
country's list of crimes amid concerns it only targets the
ALCOHOLIC DEPENDENCE poor and the disadvantaged.
• Although the poor or homeless people can no longer
be hauled to jail for vagrancy, the new law continued to
penalize women engaged in prostitution.
CHAPTER V ORGANIZED CRIME INVESTIGATION
• RA 10158, defined prostitutes as "women who for
money or profit, habitually indulge in sexual intercourse
or lascivious conduct."
WHAT IS ORGANIZED CRIME?
• A person found guilty of prostitution is punished by
imprisoned from one to 30 days or a fine not exceeding - An organized criminal group shall mean a structured
P200. group of three or more persons, existing for a period of
time and acting in concert with the aim of committing
• In case of recidivism, they are punished by arresto one or more serious crimes or offences in order to
mayor in its medium period to prison correccional in its obtain, directly or indirectly, a financial or other
minimum period or a fine ranging from P200 to P2,000, material benefit
or both, depending on the court.
- (UN, PALERMO ITALY, 2000)
• With the enactment of the law, all pending vagrancy
cases meantime shall be dismissed and all persons - All illegal activities engaged in by members of criminal
serving sentence for violating the vagrancy law shall syndicates operatives throughout the United States and
immediately be released all illegal activities engaged in by known associates and
confederates of such members. (U.S Department of
Justice)
GAMBLING For Organized Group to Work usually it has at least the
following:
• Wagering of money or something of material value on
an event with an uncertain outcome with the primary 1. AN ENFORCER
intent of winning additional money and/or material
goods. 2. A CORRUPTER

JUETENG 3. A CORRUPTEE

• Illegal numbers game that involves the combination of

numbers as a form of local lottery where bets are AN ENFORCER
placed and accepted per combination.
The one who makes for the arrangements for the killing
(injuring or carrying out the task physically,
economically or psychologically) the members or non-
members.

A CORRUPTER

The one who corrupts or bribes, intimidate or

threatens, negotiate or “sweet talks” into a relationship
with public officials, law enforcement officer, or anyone
who would be of help in obtaining security and
immunity from possible arrest, prosecution and
punishments.
 VORY V ZAKONE

- aka “ thieves with code of honor”

A CORRUPTEE

ORGANIZED CRIME IN ASIA

A public officials, law enforcement officers or anybody China Organized Criminal Groups
who not a member of the organization who can helps
the organization.
1. Gangs (Triad) = work in cooperative ventures
involving black market activities, burglaries and thefts,
Scale of Organized Criminal hijackings and extortions.

2. Criminal Syndicates = commonly involved in

sophisticated crimes such as prostitutions, human
MAFIA
trafficking and other organized form of both are
- is a term used to describe a number of criminal
organizations around the world.

- the first organization to bear the label was the Sicilian

Mafia based in Italy, known to its members as Cosa involved in drug trafficking particularly of heroin from
Nostra. the golden triangle as well as Exploitation of women
and children and smuggling of illegal immigrants vices.
- in sum, mafia means protection against arrogance of
the powerful, remedy to any damage, sturdiness of
body, strength and serenity of spirit, and the best and
Dragon Syndicates is another name for the Chinese
exquisite part of life.
Triads, a name popularized by Martin Booth’s much
- apparently Sicilian-Arabic derived from terms meaning acclaimed study “The Dragon Syndicates: the Global
to protect and to act as guardian; a friend or Phenomenon of the Triads (New York: Carroll and Graf,
companion; to defend; preservation, power, integrity, 2000).
strength, and a condition that designates the remedy of
The Triad came from the symbolic triangle in their flag
damage and ill.
which indicates the three (3) elements: The Heaven,
OMERTA The Earth and the Man.

- is a code of silence and secrecy that forbids Mafiosi

from betraying their comrades to the authorities.
Hong Kong Organized Criminal Groups
- Ideal of manliness
Triads, such as “Wo Sing Wo” and 14K are two of the
- Noncooperation with authorities many triads in Hongkong. They are involved in various
activities ranging from drug trafficking to corruption.
- Self-control in the face of adversity
ICAC- Independent Commission Against Corruption is
- Vendetta-blood washes blood
one of the most active Criminal Justice Unit involved in
- Neither government nor church to be trusted controlling illicit activities of these triads

RUSSIAN ORGANIZED CRIME JAPAN

Yakuza (8-9-3) or Boryokudan

- It is the most influential organized crime group in Transnational Crimes

Japan.
1. Trafficking in Persons
- Yakuza makes billions of dollars through corporate
2. Terrorism
extractions and the
3. Drug Trafficking
Sokoiya (shareholders meeting men).
4. Cybercrime
- Other activities that they are involved include
exploitation of women, prostitutions (mostly coming 5. Money Laundering
from the Philippines, Thailand and Taiwan) and
gambling den. 6. Environmental Crime

TAIWAN 7. Economic crime

Taiwan organized crime has close connection with the 8. Intellectual Property Theft
Chinese Triads and Hong Kong particularly the United 9. Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships
Bamboo Gang. They are involved in drug trafficking,
prostitution, women and child trafficking. 10. Illicit Trade (smuggling) of Small Arms and Light
Weapons
SINGAPORE

This is the country with the lowest cases of organized

activities due to stringent laws and severe penalties and CYBER CRIME IN THE PHILIPPINES The LOVE BUG
the government’s strong will power for the By far the most popular incidence of cybercrime in the
implementation of laws. Philippines is the “ILOVEYOU Virus” or the LOVE BUG.
The suspect in the case, a 23-year old student from a
popular computer university in the Philippines drafted
the virus with the vision of creating a program that is
THAILAND capable of stealing passwords in computers, ultimately
to have free access to the internet.
The country considered to be the most notorious in the
world in terms of sex industry. Supplies or imports
about one (1) million women in different countries in
Asia.
Identity theft
VIETNAM
• defined as the criminal act of assuming person’s
“Nam Cam Gang” is one of the most noted organized name, address, social security number, and date of birth
crime group in Vietnam and known for drug trafficking in order to commit fraud
and one of the major transit point of drugs in Laos,
Myanmar, China and Taiwan from Cambodia.

PHILIPPINES Phishing

The country considered as the heaven for the sex • sending fraudulent e-mails or website pop-ups, to get
industry. A number of women are sent abroad as victims to divulge sensitive financial information such as
entertainers but later end-up as prostitutes. Thailand, credit card numbers or social security numbers
Japan and other Asian Countries are common places of
their destination. Young children for pedophiles are also
being catered. TERRORISM
• the word terror derives from the Latin word terrere,
meaning “to frighten” the use or threatened use of
force design to bring about political change. (Brian
Jenkins of the Rand Corporation) IDEOLOGY
• the unlawful use of force or violence against persons • body of ideas affecting the social needs and
or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the aspirations of an individual or group, a class or a
civilian population, or any segment thereof, in culture”
furtherance of political or social objectives (FBI)
• Bovier defines it as “a set of doctrines or beliefs that
• Al Qaeda from the basis of a political, economic and other
systems”.
• in Arabic, this means The Base that founded by Osama
bin Laden in 1980

Types of bombers
Osama bin Laden 1. Amateur
Organized al Qaeda that responsible for truly heinous - can be described as experiments
terrorist incidents, including the 2001 destruction of the
World Trade Center (WTC) died killed in Pakistan on 2. Professional
May 2, 2011 (Operation Neptune Spear) - builds or bombs or does both for profit
ABU SAYYAF GROUP (ASG) 3. Psychopathic
Aliases: Al-Harakat Al-Islamiyyah, Bearer of the Sword, - acts without rhyme or reason
Father of the Swordsman
4. Suicidal
Founding Philosophy
- major attack weapon in recent years, particularly
The Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) was formed in 1991 during among Islamic terrorist groups
the peace process between the Philippine government
and the nationalist/separatist terrorist group, the Moro R.A. 9372
National Liberation Front (MNLF). Angered by the Human Security Act of 2007, Approved on March 6,
movement toward a peaceful resolution, certain MNLF 2007 Effective on May 15, 2007
members formed Abu Sayyaf.
Terrorism
ROOT CAUSES OF TERRORISM
• Any person who commits an act punishable under any
1. Political Ideologicalism of the following provisions of the RPC: (Sec. 3)
2. Religious Fanaticism MONEY LAUNDERING

IT IS ALSO THE WORLD’S THIRD LARGEST INDUSTRY BY

VALUE.

“Money Laundering” is called what it is because the

term perfectly describes what takes place, illegal or
Jihad dirty money is put through a cycle of transactions, or
“washed”, or “laundered”, so that it comes out the
other end as legal, or clean money.

The term which refers to the holy war waged by

members of the Islamic religion against the Jews.
Money laundering is not a single act but is in fact a The transfer could be to another object or to another
process that is accomplished in three basic steps or portion of the same object.
stages:
CONVECTION
a. Placement
Heat transfer by the movement of liquids or gasses.
b. Layering
RADIATION
c. Integration
Heat transfer by electromagnetic waves.

CHAPTER VI

FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

FIRE
-
- A rapid, self-sustaining oxidation process accompanied
NATURE OF FIRE
by the evolution of heat and light of varying intensity.
Pyrolysis

ELEMENTS OF FIRE OR TRIANGLE OF FIRE FUEL

- anything that will burn when heated with sufficient ⚫ It refers to the chemical process whereby fire
oxygen consumes the most solid part of the fuel.

⚫ It is the chemical decomposition of a solid fuel

through the action of heat.
OXYGEN

- aids in combustion; comes from the atmosphere we

breathe; the atmosphere contains: 21% oxygen, 78% Dangerous/ fatal behavior of fire:
nitrogen and 1% impurities Backdraft
HEAT If room is not properly ventilated, highly flammable
- source of ignition vapors maybe accumulated such that when a door or a
window is suddenly opened, the room violently sucks
the oxygen and simultaneously, a sudden combustion
MODES OF HEAT: may occur which may happen as an explosion
(combustion explosion).
CONDUCTION
FLASHOVER
It is the sudden burning of accumulated free radicals,
which is initiated by a spark/flash produced when
B. ACCIDENTAL FIRE
temperature rises until flash point is reached.
• Electrical Accidents
When accumulated volume of radical gases suddenly
burn, there will be a very intense fire that is capable of • Short-circuit – unusual or accidental connection
causing flames to jump at a certain distance in the form between two points at different potentials (charge) in
of FIREBALLS. Fireballs can travel to a hundred yards an electrical circuit or relatively low resistance.
with in a few seconds.

BITEBACK is a fatal condition that takes place when the

fire resists the extinguishment operation and becomes
stronger and bigger instead. • Arcing- production of sustained luminous electrical
discharge between separate electrodes; an electrical
hazard that results when electrical current crosses the
gap between 2 electrical conductors.
FLASHFIRE is better known as dust explosion. • Sparking- production of incandescent particles when
two different potentials (Charged conductors) come in
This may happen when a metal post that is completely
contact; occurs during short-circuits or welding
covered with dust is going to be hit by lightning. The
operations.
dust particles covering the metal burn simultaneously
thus creating a violent chemical reaction that produces • Induced current – induced line surge – increase of
a very bright flash followed by an explosion. electrical energy flow or power voltage; induced
current; sudden increase of electrical current resulting
to the burning of insulating materials, exploding of the
CLASSIFICATIONS OF FIRE fuse-box, or burning of active electrical appliances.

I. BASED ON CAUSE • Overheating of electrical appliances- increase or rising

of amperage while electric current is flowing in a
a. Natural fire/ providential
transmission line resulting to the damage or destruction
b. Accidental fire of insulating materials; maybe gradual or rapid; internal
or external.
c. Intentional Fire/Incendiary
C. INCENDIARY FIRE
d. Undetermined
• is one deliberately set under circumstances in which
A. NATURAL FIRE the person knows that the fire should not be set
- involves fires without direct human intervention D. UNDETERMINED FIRE CAUSE
Examples:
• whenever the cause cannot be proven, the proper
• Earthquake classification is undetermined
• Typhoon II. BASED ON BURNING FUEL CLASS A
• Lightning - ordinary solid materials such as wood, paper, fabrics,
• Spontaneous combustion arising from the storage of etc.
combustible materials in poorly ventilated places - this will be indicated by deep cited fire, leaves ashes
• Explosion from petroleum products, alcohol and other and embers (glowing coals) after burning
substances CLASS B
• Sun rays focused on glasses which may serve as a
convex lens
- flammable liquids such as gasoline, lube oil, kerosene, of salvage cover or by removing materials out from the
paint thinner, etc. burning building

CLASS C ARSON

- electrical appliances; causes electric shock - the willful and malicious burning of all kinds of
buildings and structures including personal properties
CLASS D
INVESTIGATION
- metal fire such as magnesium (white element burning
with dazzling light), sodium (a silver white metallic - an art that deals with the identity and location of the
element), etc.; creates violent reaction offender and provides evidence of his guilt in criminal
proceedings
CLASS E
ELEMENTS OF ARSON
- flammable gases such as LPG, LNG, etc.; also creates
violent reaction 1. Actual burning took place

2. Actual burning is done with malicious intent

3. The actual burning is done by person(s) legally and

criminally liable
EXTINGUISHING AGENT

1. Class A – water (all agents)

2. Class B – foam/carbon dioxide (all agents)

3. Class C – carbon dioxide/powder (never use water,

soda acid and foam)

4. Class D – special powder What is Attempted Arson?

5. Class E – all agents In attempted arson, it is not necessary that there be a

fire before the crime is committed. No hard and fast
METHODS OF EXTINGUISHMENT
rule is laid down by the law as to the requirements for
1. COOLING – heat absorption. attempted arson. The peculiar facts and circumstances
of a particular case should carry more weight in the
2. SEPARATION – the removal of the fuel. decision of the case. Thus, a person intending to burn a
3. SMOTHERING – by expelling oxygen wooden structure, collects some rags, soaks them in
gasoline and places them beside the wooden wall of the
4. Inhibition or the interruption of chemical chain building. When he is about to light a match to set fire to
reaction ADDITIONAL BASIC TACTICS USED IN the rags, he is discovered by another who chases him
EXTINGUISHING FIRE away.
1. RESCUE - any action taken by the firefighters to
remove occupants/ persons from building/ hazards to a
safety place The crime committed is attempted arson, because the
offender begins the commission of the crime directly by
2. OVERHAUL - a complete and detailed checked of the overacts (placing the rags soaked in gasoline beside the
structures and materials involved in the fire to make wooden wall of the building and lighting a match) but
sure that every spark and ember has been extinguished he does not perform all the acts of execution (the
and to have assurance against re-ignition setting of the fire to the rags) due to the timely
3. SALVAGE - an action taken by the firefighters in intervention of another who chases away) the offender.
preventing excessive damage by fire, water with the use
What is Frustrated Arson? quickly on wood will show a large alligatoring pattern
that has not penetrate the wood to any extent. Fire
In frustrated arson, the fact of having set fire to some
burning for a long period of time on wood will show
rags and jute sacks soaked in kerosene oil and placed
small alligatoring pattern but the char will go deep into
near the partition of the entire soil of an inhabited
the wood. The direction of fire can also be taken into
house, should not be qualified as a consummated arson,
consideration with charring. The exposed side of
in as much as no part of the house had begun to burn,
combustible will have a deeper char than the
although fire would have started in the said partition
unexposed side.
had it not been extinguished on time. The crime
committed was frustrated arson.

Pyromania

What is Consummated Arson? • It is the uncontrollable impulse of a person to burn

anything without motivation. Pyromaniacs usually do
The offender did in fact set fire to the roof of the
not run away from the scene of the crime, usually alone
house and said house was partially burned. The crime
and feel satisfied watching the flame
was consummated arson, notwithstanding the fact that
the fire afterwards extinguished for once it has been
started, the consummation of the crime of arson does
Types of Pyromaniacs:
not depend upon the extent of the damage caused.
1. Abnormal Youth – Epileptics, imbeciles and morons
Setting fire to the contents of a building constitutes
may set fire without knowing the seriousness of the act.
the consummated crime of setting fire to a building
even if no part of the building was burned. 2. The Hero Type – a person may set fire on a building,
subsequently pretends to discover it and turn in the
alarm so that he will appear a hero to the public. A
person may burn a building and endeavor to achieve
spectacular rescue in order to attract the attention of
spectators.

Basis of Liability in Arson:

1. Kind and character of the building, whether of public

3. Alcoholics and Drug Addicts – persons who subject
or private ownership.
themselves to intense artificial stimulants such as
2. Its location, whether in an uninhabited place or in a narcotics sometimes develop a strong urge toward
populated place. incendiaries.

3. Extent of damage caused; and 4. Sexual Deviates – some sex perverts derive sexual
stimulation from setting a fire and watching the flame.
4. The fact of its being inhabited or not. Frequently, he is chronic masturbator who stimulates
Charring pattern may indicate fire characteristics. The and enhances his sexual gratification by means of arson.
fact that the fire feeds on combustible while
propagating itself, indicates that the char will generally
be deepest from where the fire originates. When a fire FIRE CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES
is extinguished quickly, the charring is only slightly
Republic Act No. 9514
below the surface. Fire burning for a longer period of
time will indicate a char that is deep and pronounced. - Approved on December 19, 2008
These facts are most apparent in the charring of wood
- Repealed PD 1185
as a fire burns. The charring from fire on woods looks
like the hide of a black alligator. Fire extinguished - known as the "Revised Fire Code of the
Definition of terms

Abatement - Any act that would remove or neutralize a

fire hazard.

Fire Alarm - Any visual or audible signal produced by a

device or system to warm the occupants of the building
or fire fighting elements of the presence or danger of
fire to enable them to undertake immediate action to
save life and property and to suppress the fire.

Fire Door - A fire resistive door prescribed for openings CHAPTER VII
in fire separation walls or partitions. FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES
Fire Hazard - Any condition or act which increases or
may cause an increase in the probability of the
occurrence of fire, or which may obstruct, delay, hinder
or interfere with fire fighting operations and the Fingerprints- It is an impression design by the ridges on
safeguarding of life and property. the inside of the last joint of the finger or thumb on any
Fire Lane - The portion of a roadway or public way that smooth surface through the media of an ink, sweat or
should be kept opened and unobstructed at all times for any reagents capable of producing visibility.
the expedient operation of fire fighting units. Dactyloscopy - derived from the Latin words Dactyl =
Fire Protective And Fire Safety Device - Any device finger and Skopien – to study or examine)
intended for the protection of buildings or persons to • It is the practical application of the science of
include but not limited to built-in protection system fingerprints. Dactylography – is the scientific study of
such as sprinklers and other automatic extinguishing fingerprint as a means of identification.
system, detectors for heat, smoke and combustion
products and other warning system components, Dactylomancy – is the scientific study of fingerprint for
personal protective equipment such as fire blankets, purposes of personality interpretation.
helmets, fire suits, gloves and other garments that may
Dermatoglyphics = is the science which deals with the
be put on or worn by persons to protect themselves
study of skin pattern.
during fire.
• It is derived from two Greek words, Derma which
means Skin and

Glype which means Carve.

Sprinkler System - An integrated network of
Friction Skin – is an epidermal hairless skin found on the
hydraulically designed piping installed in a building,
ventral or lower surface of the hands and feet covered
structure or area with outlets arranged in a systematic
with ridges and furrows.(Also called as Papillary skin).
pattern which automatically discharges water when
activated by heat or combustion products from a fire.

Standpipe System - A system of vertical pipes in a Components of the Friction Skin

building to which fire hoses can be attached on each
1. Ridge surface- is that component of the friction skin
floor, including a system by which water is made
that sctually forms the fingerprint impression.
available to the outlets as needed.
a. Ridges – the elevated or hill like structure/ the black
lines with tiny white dots. (Located in our fingers)
b. Furrows – the depressed or canal like structure/ the a. Radial Loop (RH=/. LH=\) is a type of loop pattern in
white space between ridges. (Located in our fingers) which the slanting or looping ridge flows towards the
thumb finger.

b. Ulnar Loop (RH=\, LH=/) is a type of loop pattern in

Some Attempts of Destroying Ridges and Disguised John
which the slanting or looping ridge flows towards the
Dellinger
little finger.
He is known U.S. public enemy number one who
attempt to destroy his own prints using corrosive acids.
*Left hand use in this example
Robert James Pitts – works on Surgery to forged his own
fingerprints and was named “Man without fingerprint”

3. The Whorl (35%) – It is a form of circular or spiral

patterns, like tiny whirlpools.
THE FINGERPRINT PATTERNS
Basic Elements of Whorl
The Fingerprint Patterns
1. Two or more Deltas

2. At least one complete circuiting ridge

a. Plain Whorl (W) (concentric circles)

At least one circuiting ridge is touched or crossed by the

1. The Arch (5%) (Create a wave-like pattern)
imaginary line traversing between the two deltas.
a. Plain Arch (A) – is a pattern in which the ridges flows
from one side to the other side with a slight raise at the
center.

b. Tented Arch (T) – is a type of pattern having either an

angle, uptrust or an incomplete loop form.

b. Central Pocket Loop Whorl (a loop with a whorl at the

end)

Plain Arch (A) Tented Arch (T) No circuiting ridge within the pattern area is touched or
cross by an imaginary line drawn between the two
deltas.

2. The Loop (60%) - prints that recurve back on

themselves to form a loop shape.
c. Double Loop Whorl (two loops that create an S-like
Elements of loop
pattern)
1. A core 3. A sufficient Recurve
1. Two separate loop formation
2. A delta 4. At least one Ridge count
2. Two Separate and distinct shoulder

3. Two deltas
d. Accidental Whorl (irregular shaped) denominator Plus the pre-established fraction of l/1 to
complete the primary.
1. A combination of two different patterns with the
exception of the plain b. Secondary – Represented by Capital and small letter
combination based on interpretation made during the
arch.
blocking.
2. Two deltas

Capital letter – derived from the index fingers which can

be (A, T, U, R, W, C, D or X).

Small letter – derived from the thumb, middle, ring and

little fingers.
Ridge Counting-
It only includes the radial loop (r), plain arch (a) and
It is the process of counting the ridges that touch or tented arch (t).
cross an imaginary line drawn between the delta and
core of a loop. c. Sub-secondary Division – derived by ridge counting of
loop and ridge

Tracing of whorl found at the index, middle ring fingers

only.
Ridge Tracing

It is the process of tracing the ridges intervening c.1 Ridge Counting of Loop
between the tracing ridge (flows from the left delta to
the right delta Index Finger 1 to 9 Ridge Count = I

10 or more = 0 Middle Finger 1 to 10 Ridge Count = I

11 or more = 0 Ring Finger 1 to 13 Ridge Count = I

1. CLASSIFICATION FORMULA 14 or more = 0

a. Primary Division. Always represented by a numerical

value assigned to whorl patterns depending on what
c.2 Ridge Tracing of Whorl
finger they appear.
Inner Whorl (I) When the tracing goes above or inside
Arch and Loop are non-numerical patterns.
the right delta and there are three (3) or more
A, T, / \ = Zero (0) Whorl patterns.(WCDX) intervening ridges.

Finger 1 and 2 Right Thumb and Right Index (16) Finger

3 and 4 Right middle and Right Ring (8) Finger 5 and 6
Outer Whorl (O) when the tracing ridge goes below or
Right little and Left Thumb (4) Finger 7 and 8 Left Index
outside the right delta and there are three (3) or more
and Left middle (2) Finger 9 and 10 Left Ring and Left
intervening ridges.
Little (1)

Meeting Whorl (M) when there are only two or less

The sum of the numerical value assigned to even
intervening ridge/s
number of finger represent the numerator and the sum
of the assigned value to odd number represent the

c.3 Plain Arch and Tented Arch are always dash (-)
 Molded prints or Prints made by contamination with
colored substance.
d. Major Division (Taken from Thumb fingers only)
2. Invisible prints = prints that are generally made by
d.1 Whorl = Ridge tracing = I, O, or M.
sweat or perspiration that requires developing for
d.2 Loop = Ridge Counting = S, M or L Table 1 Table 2 visibility.

1 to 11 = S 1 to 17 = S

12 to 16 = M 18 to 22 = M

17 or more = L 23 or more = L

d.3 Arch = dash (-)

e. Final Division (derived from the little fingers only).

e.1 Loop and Whorl are both subject to ridge counting.

Radial or Ulnar

Plain or Central pocket loop Whorl = will be treated as

an ulnar loop.
CHAPTER VIII FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY
Double loop Whorl – get the ridge count of the top loop
Accidental Whorl = get the least ridge count.

e.2 Arch = dash (-)

f. Key Division = derived by getting the ridge count of

the first (l) loop except the little fingers. In the absence
of the loop, the first whorl will be ridge counted for the
purpose.

Reference Classification Formula = is an additional

formula serve as a reference in case of doubtful prints.
Place the bottom of the classification formula.

Latent Prints - prints found at the scene of the crime. Photography

Derived from the Greek word “Phos” or “Photos” which

means “light”
Types of latent prints
and “Grapho” means “Writing” or “Graphia” meaning
1. Visible prints - are those prints which are readily “to Draw”. Sir John
visible to the naked eye. It can either be:
F. W. Herschel coined the word photography when he
first wrote a letter to Henry Fox Talbot.
It is the art and science of reproducing image by means 2. Camera - a light tight box designed to block
of light through some sensitized material with the aid of unwanted or unnecessary light from reaching the
a camera, Lens and its accessories and the chemical sensitized material.
process required in order to produced a photograph.
3. Lens It is the light gathering mechanism of the
camera that collect the reflected light coming from the
object to form the image.
Police Photography
4. Sensitized material
It Is the application of the principles of photography is
relation to the police work and in the administration of It is composed of a highly sensitized chemical
justice. compound which is capable of being transformed into
an image through the action of light and with some
chemical processes. ( Film and Photo Paper).
Photograph
5. Chemical Process
It is the mechanical and chemical result of Photography.
It is the process necessary for reducing silver halides
Picture and photograph are not the same for a picture is
into a form so as a latent image and a positive image be
a generic term is refers to all kinds of formed image
made resulting to what we called Photograph.
while a photograph is an image that can only be a
product of photography.

Different Views in photographing 1. Types of Light

a. General View Lights can largely be classified into visible and invisible
light.
= taking an over-all view of the scene of the crime. It
shows direction and location of the crime scene. a. Visible Light

b. Medium View It is the type of light that produces different sensation

when reach the human eye. It is the type of light, which
It is the taking of the photograph of the scene of the
is capable of exciting the retina of the human eye.
crime by dividing it into section. This view will best view
the nature of the crime. b. Invisible Light

c. Close-up View The lights in which their wavelength are either too short
or too long to excite the retina of the human eye i.e. X-
ray, Ultrat-violet and Infra- red lights.

2. Photographic Rays
It is the taking of individual photograph of the evidence
a. X-ray
at the scene of the crime. It is design to show the details
of the crime.

d. Extreme Close-up View

Commonly designed in laboratory photographing using Light with the wavelength between .01 to 30
some magnification such as Photomacrography and millimicrons. It is produced by passing an electric
photomicrography. current through a special type of vacuum tube. It was
incidentally discovered by Conrad Welhelm Roentgen.
ESSENTIALS OF PHOTOGRAPHY
This type of light works in the principle of shadow
1. Light - is an electromagnetic energy that travels in a photography.
form of a wave with the speed of 186, 000 miles per
b. Ultra-violet ray (Before the violet)
second.
Radiation having a wavelength of 30 to 400 nanometers This is expressed in arithmetic value system. The bigger
designed to photograph fingerprints in multi colored the number the more sensitive the film is.
background, documents that are altered, decipherment
of erase writing and developing invisible writing. It is
commercially known as “black Light”.

c. Visible Light ASA 10, 20 , 30 , 40,50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1000
It refers to the type of radiation having a wavelength of 2. DIN ( Deutche Industre Normen)
400 to 700 millimicrons designed for ordinary
photographing purposes. Thus expressed in Logarithmic value system. Used in the
same principle as the ASA.
d. Infra-red (Beyond the Red)
Din 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33 etc.
Considered as the photographic rays with the longest
wavelength ranging from 700 to 1000 millimicrons. It is 3. ISO (International Standard Organization) expressed
designed to take photograph of over-written as combination of ASA and DIN rating.
documents, obliterated writing, and charred documents
or for black out photography. It is sometimes referred
to as heat rays). Photographic Paper

SENSITIZED MATERIAL It is that sensitized material that will record the visible
image in the final development and become the
It refers to the film and photographic paper that photograph.
basically composed of emulsion containing Silver
Halides suspended in gelatin and coated on a
transparent or reflective support. Types of Photographic Papers
Parts of the Sensitized Material A. According to Emulsion Used (Silver halides content)
1. Emulsion 1. Silver Chloride paper
It is that part of the film or photographic paper which It is used for contact printing, the size of the positive
contains the silver grains which is the one sensitive to print is the same as the size of the negative used.
light. In a colored film this emulsion surface can be Sensitivity to light is low and give blue-black tones when
composed of three layers (Blue, Green and Red) with properly developed.
filters intervening.
2. Silver Bromide paper
2. Anti Halation Backing
It is used projection, printing and enlarging process. This
It is the one designed to hold back the light and is one of the most ideal photo paper used for police
prevents halation. photography. Will give a black tone when properly
3. Base = Support the emulsion developed.

3. Silver Chlorobromide paper

FILM SPEED (Emulsion Speed) It is used both for projection and contact printing. Slow
emulsion.
This refers to the degree of sensitivity of the film to
light.
4. Variable contract paper

1. ASA (American Standards Association) It combines the contrast range in one paper it uses a
special chlorobromide emulsion that produces varying
contrast responses upon exposure to different colors of reaching the sensitized material. It is usually expressed
light. in a fraction of a second.

CAMERA 1/1 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/15 1/30 1/60 1/125 1/250 1/500

It is a light tight box with light gathering device and a etc.

means of blocking unwanted or unnecessary light from
reaching the sensitized material.
• The speed number in the left is always two times
Basically, camera can produce image with its four-(4)
powerful in terms of light gathering than that of the
basic parts such as light tight box, lens, and shutter,
right number
Holder of sensitized material.
• Using a fast shutter speed the photographer can stop
or “freeze” the action of a person provided that
necessary adjustment on the lens opening be made in
order to maintain normal exposure.
Essential Parts of a Camera
D. Lens Aperture
1. Light Tight Box – a box designed to keep light out and
serve as a frame to hold other parts. The ratio between the diameter of the whole lens in
relation to the focal length of the lens. It is the light
2. Lens – designed to collect or to focus the reflected
gathering power of the lens. Otherwise known as lens
light from an object to form an image on the film.
opening or relative aperture and it is expressed in F-
3. Shutter – designed to control the time during which number.
the light reaches the film

4. Holder of the sensitized material – located at the

opposite side of the lens designed to hold firmly the
sensitized material to prevent the formation of the f 2.8 f-4 f-5.6 f-8 f-11 f-16
multiple or blurred image

5. View finder – designed to determine the field of view

The lower the f-number, the bigger the lens opening
of the camera or the extent of the coverage of the given
and the bigger the lens opening the greater the volume
lens
of air that will passed through the lends and reach the
OTHER PARTS OF A CAMERA sensitized material.

A. Viewing System

It is that part of the camera which provides the means If the objective of a photographer is obtain the widest
of showing to the photographer the entire scene possible coverage of the lens in which objects are all
coverage that can be recorded in the sensitized sharp, It will be advisable to used a smaller lens
material. opening.

B. Film Advancer (film advance lever or knob) =designed E. Focusing

to transfer the exposed film to the other side or to the
It is that mechanism of a camera designed to control
take up spool and the unexposed film will be the
the degree of sharpness of the object to be photograph.
opposite side of the lens for another exposure.
It is usually obtained by estimating the distance from
C. Shutter speed the camera and that of the object that will make a sharp
or clear image.
It is that part of the camera which regulates the time
exposure of the film thus, affecting the amount of light
 With focal length longer than twice the diagonal half of
the negative. Best used in long distance photographing
TYPES OF THE CAMERA
but with narrow area coverage.
1. View Finder Type – it is considered as the smallest
d. ZOOM lens
and the simplest type of camera
Lens with variable focal length or that which can be
2. Single Lens Reflex Camera – it is a type of camera
adjusted continuously by the movement of one or more
best suited for police work due to its interchangeability
elements in the lens system.
of the lens
2. Relative Aperture – the light gathering power of the
3. Twin Lens Reflex Camera – A type of camera with
lens expressed in F- number
dual lens, one for focusing and the other for forming the
image. a. Depth of Field – is the distance measured from the
nearest to the farthest object in apparent sharp focus
4. View or Press type – is considered the biggest and
when the lens
expensive type of camera, used for movie making
b. Hyperfocal distance - It is the nearest distance at
5. LENS
which when a lens is focused with a given particular
It is the image-forming device of the lens that actually diaphragm opening will gives the maximum depth of
has a greater effect on the quality of the image to be field.
formed.
3. Focusing – It is the setting of the proper distance in
It is a medium or system which converge or diverge order to form a sharp image. The one that controls the
light rays passing through it to form an image. degree of sharpness of the object.

Can be a glass or transparent material, which permit

light to pass through and change the direction of light.
Other chemicals used:

Acetic Acid and Boric acid = serves as neutralizer

Daniel Barbaro = first to introduce the use of lens in the
Sodium Sulfate = serves as the preservative
camera.
Potassium Bromide = restrainer or hardener

Sodium bicarbonate and borax powder = serves as

accelerator
LENS CHARACTERISTICS
Dodging
1. Focal Length – is the distance measured from the
the process of eliminating unwanted portion of the
optical center of the lens is set to focus at infinite
negative during enlarging.
position. As according to focal lenses may be classified
as: Cropping

a. Wide Angle or Short Focus

With focal length not longer than the diagonal half of

the negative. Useful in taking photograph at short
the process of omitting an object during the process of
distance with wider area coverage.
enlarging and printing.
b. Normal or Medium Focus

With focal length approximately equal but not longer

Vignetting
than twice the diagonal half of the negative.
• The gradual fading of the image towards the side
c. Long or Telephoto Lens –
through skillful adjustment on the dodging board.
Burning-In 3. Translational is the action of bullet once it hits a
target and subsequently ricocheted.
• It refers to additional exposure on a desired portion of
the negative used for purposes of making a balance
exposure.

Origin of the Word Ballistics

The word Ballistics was derived from two Greek words.

The word “ballo”

and the word “ballein” which literally mean, “to throw”.

The term also said to have been derived from the

Roman war machine called “Ballista”, a gigantic catapult
that was used to furl missiles or large object at a
distance like stone, dead animal or even dead person.

Branches of Ballistics

CHAPTER IX FORENSIC BALLISTICS 1. Interior (Internal) Ballistics treats of the motion of the
projectile while it is still inside the firearm (chamber
Ballistics is the science of the motion of the projectile /barrel) which extends from the breech to the muzzle.
and the condition that affects their motion. It is a
science in itself for it is an orderly arranged knowledge, 2. Exterior (external) Ballistics treats of the attributes or
which is a product of series of experimentation, movement of the projectile after leaving the gun
observation and testing muzzle.

Motion refers to the mobility or movement of the Trajectory

projectile from the time it leaves the shell empty, it
Refers to the parabola-like flight of the projectile from
leaves the gun muzzle and until it reach its target or fall
the time it leaves the muzzle until it hits the target. It is
in the ground. A projectile is any metallic on non-
also described as the actual curve path taken by a bullet
metallic ball which is propelled from a firearm. Its
during its.
motion can be categories into three general types:
Direct motion, Rotatory motion and Translation motion.

d. Range

It refers to the imaginary straight distance between the

muzzle of the gun and the target.
Three Types of Motion
Accurate Range the distance within which the shooter
1. Direct Motion is the forward motion of the bullet or
or gunner has control of his shots.
shots out of the shell by the action of the expansive
force of gases from a burning gunpowder. Effective Range the distance within which when the
bullet was fired it is still capable of inflicting fatal injury.
2. Rotatory motion is the action of the bullet passing
through a rifled bore barrel firearm which is either Maximum Range the distance that a projectile can be
twisted to the left or to the right. propelled from a firearm. The farthest distance the
bullet could travel.
e. Velocity B. Main Types of Firearms

Refers to the rate of speed of the bullet (during its (According to the Caliber of the projectile propelled)
flight) per unit of time usually express is feet per second
1. Artillery Refers to those type of firearms that propels
(ft/sec.)
projectile with more than one inch diameter.
3. Terminal Ballistics it is that branch of Ballistics which
Examples: Cannons, Mortars and Bazookas:
deals with the effects of the impact of the projectile on
the target. 2. Small Arms Are firearms that propels projectile with
less than one inch diameter and it can be handled,
4. Forensic Ballistics is defined as the study of the
moved and operated by one man.
motion of the projectile as applied to law or simply the
science of firearm identification by means of the Examples: Machine gun, shoulder arms and handguns.
ammunition fired through the
2.1 Machine guns

Machine gun is a type of firearm that is primarily

designed for military use. Even in investigation of
shooting cases done in the city, it is
Firearms

Legal Definition of Firearm

Firearms or arms as herein used, includes rifles,

muskets, carbines, shotgun, pistol, revolvers, and all not usual or common to encounter this type of firearm
other deadly weapons, to which a bullet, ball, shot, having been used. It can be grouped in three general
shell, or other missiles maybe discharge by means of types:
gun powder or other explosives. This term also includes
air rifle, except such of being of small caliber and limited Sub Machine Gun
range used as toys. The barrel of any firearm shall be Is a light, portable form of machine gun, utilizing a pistol
considered a complete firearm for all purposes hereof. size ammunition, having a shoulder stock that may or
(Sec 877 Revised Administrative Code/ Sec. 290 national may not be folded and designed to be fired with both
Internal Revenue Code). hands.
Technical Definition Shoulder Arms
Firearm is an instrument used for the propulsion of Shoulder Arms are those types of firearm that were
projectile by means of the expansive force gases coming normally fired from the shoulder.
from burning gunpowder. (FBI manual of Firearms
Identification). Rifles A shoulder weapon designed to fire a projectile
with more accuracy through a long rifled bore barrel,
Classification of Firearms usually more than 22 inches.
A. Two General Classification of Firearms (According to Carbine A short barrel rifle, with its barrel rifle,
Interior Barrel Construction) measuring not longer than 22 inches. It fires a single
1. Smooth Bore Firearms = Firearms that have no rifling projectile though a rifle-bore either semi-automatic or
(lands and grooves) fully automatic, for every press of the trigger.

inside their gun barrel. Muskets It is an ancient smoothbore and muzzle loading
military shoulder arms designed to fire a shots or a
Examples: Shotguns and Musket single round lead ball. A more detailed discussion of
musketeers can be found on chapter 8 in the discussion
2. Rifled Bore Firearms = Firearms that have rifling
of ignition system.
inside their gun barrel. Examples: Pistols, Revolvers, and
other modern weapons.
Shotgun A smooth bore and a breech loading shoulder Examples: Single shot pistols, Revolvers and shotguns.
arms designed to fire a number of lead pellets or a shots
2. Repeating Arms = A type of firearms designed to fire
in one charge (FBA Manual)
several loads (shot) in one loading.
The barrel construction of shotgun may also be found in
Examples: Automatic pistols revolvers rifles and
different bore construction.
shotguns.
A. cylinder bore type which the bore size is the same
3. Automatic F/A = type of firearms that constitutes a
through out the barrel
continuous firing in a single press of the trigger and
B. choke bored gun designed with a diminishing or while the trigger is press.
reducing bore diameter type towards the muzzle. This
Examples: Machine guns and rifles
type is designed to cause an effect to the travel of the
shots. It makes the shots travel longer before it spreads. 4. Slide Action type = types of firearms in which loading
take place by back and forth manipulation of the
C. “Paradox gun” in a very rear occasions another type
under/over forearms of the gun.
of shotgun can be observed to be having rifling only a
few inch from its muzzle points. Examples: Shotgun and pistols
2.3 Handguns = those type of firearms that are designed 5. Bolt Action Type = Type of firearms in which
or intended to be fired using one hand. reloading takes place by manipulating the both back
and forth.
Ex. Pistols and Revolvers
Examples: Rifles, shotguns and machine guns.
a. Pistol
6. Lever type (Break type) = loading takes place by lever
action on the firearms.

Examples: Rifles and shotguns.

In early firearm history, all handguns are generally
called as pistols. There were three classes of pistols in
the period. The single shot pistol, the semi automatic
and the revolving pistols now known as the revolver.

b. Revolver

Revolver is a type of firearm designed to position

cartridge into position for firing with the aid of a
rotating cylinder serving as its chamber. There are two
types of revolvers according to its mechanical firing
action.

Single action, a type of revolver that needs a manual

cocking of the hammer before squeezing the trigger and Ammunition
the other is Double action, a type of revolver that does
not need manual cocking. Just press the trigger and it
both cocked and released the hammer causing a much
Legal Definition
faster firing.
Ammunition refers to loaded shell for rifles, muskets,
C. Types of Firearms
carbine, shotgun, revolvers and pistols from which a
(According of Mechanical Construction) ball, shot shell or other missiles maybe fired by means
of gun powder or other explosive. The term also
1. Single shot firearms = types of firearms designed to includes ammunition for air rifles as mentioned
fire only one shot every loading.
elsewhere in the code. (Chapter VII, Sec.290 of NIRC as a. Rimmed Case type.
well as Sec 877 RAC)
b. Semi-Rimmed type
Technical Definition
c. Rimless type
Ammunition refers to a group of cartridge or to a single
d. Rebated type -it refers to the cartridge with rimless
cartridge. Cartridge is a complete unfired unit consisting
pattern, but which has a rim diameter smaller than the
of bullet (ball), primer (cap), cartridge case (shell) and
body of the case
gunpowder (propellant).
e. Belted type a cartridge with a prominent raise belt
Origin
around its body just in front of the extraction groove.
The word cartridge was derived from the Latin word
Shotgun Cartridge
“Charta” meaning – a “paper” and also from the French
word “Cartouche” meaning – a rolled paper. This only It refers to a complete unit of unfired cartridge
indicates that the first type of cartridge was made up of consisting of the pellets, primer, case, wads and
a rolled paper. It was about the turn of the 16th century gunpowder .
that the term “cartridge” comes to use.
Types of Shots
A. General types of Ammunition
1. Soft or Drop Shots = made by pure or nearly pure
a. Dummy ( used as a model) lead, to which a small amount of arsenic has been
added to make it take on the form of a spherical drop as
b. Drill Ammunition (without gun powder)
it falls down the shot tower. This type is easy to
c. Black Ammunition (without bullet) deformed or flattened, loose their velocity quicker, low
penetrating power and string out more.
d. Live Ammunition
2. Chilled or Hard Shot = is a type of shot with a small
B. Classification of Cartridge
amount of antimony mixed with lead to increase
I. According to the Location of the Primer hardness. It does no deform easily, better patterns, less
string and more uniform velocity and penetration.
a. Pin-Fire it is a type of cartridge in which the ignition
cap (primer) is concealed inside the cartridge case and 3. Coated or Plated Shot = also called as “lubaloy” shot.
has a pin resting upon it. A chilled shot coated with thin copper through
electroplating design for greater strength and elasticity,
great resistance to deformation and leading and better
pattern.

b. b. Rim fire it is a type of cartridge in which the Buck Shot = a large size lead shot for used in shotgun
priming mixture is located at the hallow rim of the case
can be fired if the cartridge is tuck by the firing pin on
the rim of the case (cavity rim).

c. Center fire it refers to a cartridge in which primer cup Bullets

(ignition cap) is centrally placed in the base of the
The word “Bullet” was derived from French word
cartridge case and the priming mixture is exploded by
“Boullette” which means a small ball. This term is
the impact of the firing pin and with the support of the
generally used when we are referring to projectile fired
anvil.
from any small arms, which has a variety of form,
especially during the earlier history. In a more technical
sense, bullet refers to a metallic or non-metallic
cylindrical ball propelled from a firearm it is sometimes
II. According to Rim Diameter called as shots or slugs.
Bullets have various types depending upon their specific The Boxer on the other hand, was developed by Col.
nature and purpose. In general bullet can be classified Edward M. Boxer of the Royal Laboratory at Woolwich
as either Lead or Jacketed. Arsenal in the year 1866

Gun Powder

Gunpowder (also called as propellant or Power Charge)

is that mixture of chemicals of various compositions
designed to propel the projectile by means of its
According to their Maximum Effect to their targets expansive force of gas when burned.

1. Ball Type – Is a type of bullet, which is intended for Two of the most popular individual whose name is
anti-personnel and general use. always attached to gunpowder discovery were Roger
Bacon and Berthold Schwartz. Let’s take a short
2. Armor piercing – is a type of military bullet designed description of how their names are always mentioned in
to penetrate light steel armor. Its mechanical the history.
construction makes it capable of penetrating through
some light vehicles. Roger Bacon, (1242 A.D.) a Franciscan monk, who wrote
the ---“De Mirabili Potestate Artis et Naturae” (On the
3. Explosive Bullet - Is a small bullet containing a charge Marvelous Power of Art and Nature), including an
of explosive, which will detonate on impact. anagram.
4. Incendiary Bullet –Type of military bullet used to Berthold Schwartz (whose real name was Constantin
cause fire in a target, generally designed to use by Anklitzen), a mysterious monk of Freiburg, who
aircraft armament in order for the fuel tanks to ignite. according to legend that is supported by an engraving
5. Tracer Bullet – a type of military bullet capable of dated 1643, while experimenting on some powder in a
leaving visible marks or traces while in flight giving the cast iron vessel, he ignited a charge and thus blew off
gunner the chance to observe the strike of the shot or the lid, and from this deduced the principle of
make adjustments in the event of a miss containing a charge in a tube and propelling a shot
(Encyclopedia of ammunition).

Marks found of Fired Bullets

Cartridge Case
1. Land Marks marks left on a fired bullet caused by its
It is the metallic or non-metallic tabular container contact to the elevated portion (lands) of the bore of
usually of brass (70% copper and 30% zinc) designed to the firearm. It appears as slight depressions or scratches
unite the bullet, primer and the gunpowder into one the cylindrical surface of the fired bullet.
unit. It is also known as shell or casing.
2. Groove Marks marks found on a fired bullet caused
Primer by the grooves of the barrel which is the same number
Primer (also called CAP) is the ignition system of the as that of the landmarks.
cartridge used in a center fire type, containing a highly 3. Skid Marks Marks that are generally found on fired
sensitive chemical compound that would easily ignite or bullet from a revolver. It is more or less located at the
bursts into flame when struck by the firing pin. It may anterior portion of thGerofoivreed bullet due to its
either be Berdan or Boxer type. It is also known as the forward movement from the chamber to the barrMel of
percussion cup. the gun before it initially rotates.

4. Stripping Marks marks found on those bullet fired

from a “loose-fit” barrel wherein the rifling are already
been badly worn-out.
The Berdan is a type of primer construction, which was
designed in 1860s by Colonel Hiram S. Berdan of the U.S
Army Ordinance Department.
Worn-out in the rifling of the firearms can be cause by 11. Shadowgraph- an image formed by the shadow of
either chemical reaction brought about by rust an object on a surface. It is an image formed when light
(corrosion) or through excessive use (erosion) shone through a fluid

5. Shaving Marks marks commonly found on bullet fired

from a revolver cause by its forward movement to the
barrel that is poorly aligned to the cylinder.
is refracted differently by regions of different density. It
6. Slippage Marks = marks found on fired bullets passing
refers to a radiograph.
through either on oily or oversize barrel.
12. Stereoscopic Microscope- an optical microscope
Scientific Instrument Used in Firearms Identification
variant designed for low magnification observation of a
1. Analytical or Torsion Balance-it is used to determine sample, typically using light reflected from the surface
weights of bullets or shot gun pellets for possible of an object rather than transmitted through it.
determination of type, caliber and make firearms from
13. Taper Gauge- It refers to an instrument related to
which fired.
firearms that is used solely to measure the bore
2. Bullet Comparison Microscope - it is a device used to diameter of firearm.
analyze side- by-side specimens. It consists of two
microscopes connected by an optical bridge, which
results in a split view window enabling two separate
objects to be viewed simultaneously.

3. Bullet Recovery box- It is used to obtain test fired

bullets or test fired shells for comparison and
examination to the questions bullets or shells.

4. Chronograph- is an instrument used to measure the

velocity of a projectile fired by a gun.

5. Caliper- is a device used to measure the distance

between two opposite sides of an object. CHAPTER X QUESTIONED DOCUMENT

6. CP-6 Comparison Projector – it is similar to bullet

comparison microscope in which two fired shells can be
compared simultaneously by projecting the image on a
large screen and is observed at a vertical and
comfortable viewing.

7. Electronic Gun maker- it is used in laboratory for

marking fired bullets, shells and firearms submitted for
examination.

8. Helixometer

9. Micrometer- This is used in making measurements

such as bullet diameter , bore diameter ,barrel length
and other important details.
Document
10. Onoscope- it is a small instrument that is used in
examining the internal surface of the gun barrel with a Any material that contains a mark symbol or sign, either
tiny lamp at the terminal portion and this is inserted visible, partially visible or invisible that may presently or
inside the bore for internal examination. ultimately convey a meaning or a message to someone.
It is any written statement by which a right is 3. Private Document - A deed or instrument executed
established or an obligation extinguished. (People vs. by a private person without the intervention of a notary
Moreno, C.A., 38 O.G. 119) public or other person legally authorized, by which
documents, some disposition or agreement is proved,
evidenced or set forth. (US Vs. Orera, 11 Phil 596) e.g.
Two Categories of Document Theater Ticket.

1. Questioned Document – Document to which an issue 4. Commercial Document = any document defined and
has been raised or which is under scrutiny. The focal regulated by the Code of Commerce ( People Vs. Co
point of the examination and to which the document Beng, C.A. 40 OG 1913) or any other commercial law.
examiner relies as to the extent of the problem. (also
referred to as disputed document).
Writings and Signature:
2. Standard Document – Document in which the origin
is known can be proven and can legally be used as System of Writing – is the combination of the basic
sample to compare with other things is questioned. shape and designs of letter and the writing movement
which was taught in school.

Copy book form – is an illustration of the basic designs

Types of Standards
of letters that is fundamental to the writing system.
a. Collected/Procured Std. – Standard specimen
Writing movement – refers to factors relative to the
executed in the regular course of man’s activity or that
motion of the pen such as, pressure, rhythm, pen lifting,
which are executed on the day to day writing activity.
etc.
b. Requested/Dictated (Post litel motam std.) – a
Writing – is the visible result of a very complicated
Standard document which are executed upon request,
series of acts, being as a whole or a combination of
they are prepare at one time.
certain forms which are the very visible result of mental
and muscular habits acquired by long continued
painstaking effort.
Contemporary document documents which are not
more than five (5) years before or after. Handwriting – is a visible effect of bodily movement
which is an almost unconscious expressions of fixed
muscular habits, reacting from fixed mental impression
Legal Classification of Documents: of certain ideas associated with script form.

Writing Habits – refers to any repeated elements of

once handwriting which serves as an identifying
characteristics.
1. Public Document a document created, executed or Significant Writing Habits – elements of one’s writing
issued by a public official in response to the exigencies that are sufficiently unique and well-fixed to serve as a
of the public service, or in the execution of which a strong basis of individuality.
public official intervened.
Slant- refers to the relative degree of writing inclination
• It is any instrument authorized by a notary public or a relative to the baseline.
competent public official, with the solemnities required
by law ( Cacnio , et.al. vs. Baens, 5 Phil. 724). Baseline- an imaginary or straight line in which the
writing rest.
2. Official Document a document which is issued by a
public official in the exercise of the functions of his Types of Handwritings
office. An official document is also a public document as 1. Cursive – Writing in which the letters are for the most
a larger classification. part joined together.
 Methods of tracing

a. Carbon outline process – used of carbon paper.

2. Handlettering – refers to writing characterized by a b. Indention process- used of considerable pressure,

disconnected style. Canal-like process.

3. Natural Writing – a specimen of writing that is c. Projection or transmitted light process- used of light
executed normally and without any attempt of altering from the back or bottom.
its usual writing habits.
d. Laser method – used of hologram.
4. Disguised – a specimen of writing executed
deliberately with an attempt of changing its usual
writing habits in the hope of hiding one’s identity.

5. Guided/assisted – a specimen of writing executed CHARACTERISTICS IN WRITING:

while the writer’s hand is at steadied. Usually employed
by beginners in writing. Characteristics – refers to any property, marks or
elements which distinguishes. Also referred to as
identifying details.
Signature – a name of person signed by himself on a
document as a sign of acknowledgement.
Types of characteristics:
Model signature – genuine signature which has been
used in preparing a simulated or traced forgery. 1. Class Characteristics – characteristics or properties
which are common or which can be found in the
Evidential Signature – specimen signature which was specimen writing of other person. Gross characteristics.
executed in particular date, particular time and place,
under a particular writer’s condition and for a particular 2. Individual Characteristics – characteristics which are
purpose. highly personal or peculiar. That which is unlikely to
occur in other’s handwriting.

Elements of Forms in Writing:

Forgery – is an act of falsifying or counterfeiting any
treasure or bank notes, paper bills or any documents 1. Arc – the rounded inner part of an upper curve, bend
which are payable to the bearer. or crook,

- is an act of simulating or tracing somebody’s signature 2. Beard – is an introductory up and down strokes found
without the latter’s consent for profit. in some capital letters. Also called as double hitch.

3. Blunt – is a part of a stroke characterized by an

abrupt beginning or end at which the pen does not
Major types of Forgery creates a diminishing strokes.
1. Simple forgery – a forges signature where no attempt 4. Buckle Knot is a horizontal or loop strokes used to
has been made to make a copy or facsimile of the complete letters A, H, F and D.
genuine writing of a person purported to sign the
document. Also known as spurious signature 5. Central Part – is the body of the letter. Characterized
by a small rounded or circular strokes.
2. Simulated or Copied forgery – a forged signature
which resembles the genuine signature written in free- 6. Ductus-link, Ductus-broken- refers to the connection
hand. Considered as the most skillful type of forgery. between letters, either joined or disconnected.

3. Traced Forgery – forged signature which closely 7. Eyelet/ eyeloop – refers to small oblong strokes.
resembles the genuine made by some tracing process or 8. Hitch – an introductory backward strokes found in
outline form. most capital letters and in some small letters.
9. Hiatus - an obvious gap between letters. Miscellaneous Document Problem

10. Humps – is the outer portion of an upper curve 1. Detection of Alteration

bend or crook, (see arc)
Alteration - refers to any form of changes either an
11. Knob – is a tiny pool of an ink at the beginning or addition or a deletion to the original content of the
ending strokes. document which is not a part of its original preparation.

12. Loop – is an oblong strokes 2. Decipherment of Erased Writings

13. Stem/shank/staff – is considered as the backbone of Erasure – refers to removal of a writings or any part of a
the letter characterized by a long downward strokes document either by mechanical or chemical process.

14. Initial/terminal Spur – a long running initial or Mechanical Erasure – done by means of abrasive
terminal strokes. method through rubbing or scrapping.

15. Through – refers to any garland form of a letter Chemical Erasure – done with the aid or use of
strokes bleaching agent called ink eradicator.

16. Whirl – is the long upward strokes usually found Usually examined with the aid or fuming, transmitted
opposite the stem light,

oblique light and ultra-violet light examination.

Embellishments – added strokes that serves as an 3. Decipherment of Obliterated writing

ornamental or flourish to the design of the letters. They
Obliteration – is the process of smearing over an
considered unnecessary to the legibility of the writing.
original writing to make it undecipherable or illegible.
Diacritics - strokes added to complete certain letters.
Done with the used of superimposing inks. Usually
They are necessary to the legibility of the letters.
examined with the used of Infra-red light.

4. Examination of Charred Document and water soaked

document

Writing Movement – refers to all factors relative to the Charred Document – refers to partly burned or brittle
motion of the pen. document. Decipherment is usually accomplished with
the used of infra-red light examination.

5. Development of Invisible writing

Line Quality – is the visible records in the written
strokes of the basic movements and manner of holding Invisible writing – writing that has no readily visible ink
instrument. It is derived from a combination of factors, strokes. Made by Sympathetic inks such as acids, juice
including writing skill, speed, rhythm, freedom of and others. They are possible of
movement, shading and pen emphasis.

Types of movement:
development depending on the ink used. Methods of
1. Finger (used by beginners) development can be by heat. Water, chemical fuming or
by ultra-violet light process.
2. Hand (wrist serves as the point of pivotal & of limited
freedom) 6. Decipherment of Contract writing

3. Forearm (most skillful type of movement) Contact writing – refers to partially visible ink strokes
cause by sudden contact between a sheet of paper with
4. Whole arm (used for ornamental or large writings)
another paper containing fresh ink. Can be enhanced
through fuming or ultra-violet light process.
 justice but notion of decency and delicacy may cause
inhibition of its presentation.

b. Repulsive Objects to those Offensive to Sensibilities-

Foul Smelling objects, persons suffering from highly
infectious and communicable disease, or objects which
when touch may mean potential danger to the life and
health of the judge may not be presented.
CHAPTER XI FORENSIC MEDICINE II. Testimonial Evidence:

A physician may be commanded to appear before a

Legal Medicine court to give his testimony. While in the witness stand,
he is obligated to answer the question propounded by
It is that branch of medicine which deals with the the counsel and presiding officer of the court. His
application of medical knowledge to the purposes of testimony must be given orally and under oath or
law and in the administration of justice. affirmation.
Forensic Medicine a. Ordinary Witness:
It is use of medical science to elucidate legal problems A physician: who testifies in court on matters be
in general without specific reference or application to a perceived from his patient in the course of physician-
particular case. patient relationship is considered as an ordinary
It encompasses a variety of fields in forensic science witness.
such as pathology, anthropology, odontology, b. Expert Witness:
toxicology, entomology, and others.
A physician on account of his training and experience
Medical Jurisprudence a branch of law which concerns can give his opinion on a set of medical facts. He can
with the aspects of law and legal concepts to medical deduce of infer something, determine the cause of
practice. It includes rights, duties, and liabilities of death or render opinion pertinent to the issue and
physician, patient and health institution. medical in nature.
Medical Evidence III. Experimental Evidence:
Evidence is the means, sanctioned by the Rules of the A medical witness may be allowed by the court to
Court, of ascertaining in a judicial proceeding the truth confirm his allegation or as a corroborated proof to an
respecting a matter of fact. opinion he previously stated.

IV. Documentary Evidence:

Types of Medical Evidence: A document is an instrument on which is recorded by
I. Autoptic or Real Evidence: means of letters, figures or marks intended to be used
for purpose of recording that matter which may be
This is an evidence made known or addressed to the evidentially used. The term applies to writings, to words
senses of the court. It is not limited to that which is printed, lithographed or photographed; to seals, plates
known through the sense of vision but is extended to or stones on which inscriptions are cut or engraved; to
what the sense of hearing, taste, smell, and touch is photographs and pictures; to maps or plans.
perceived.
V. Physical Evidence:
Limitations to the presentation of Autoptic:
These are articles and materials which are found in
connection with the investigation and which aid in
establishing the identity of the
a. Indencency and Impropriety – Presentation of an
evidence may be necessary to serve the best interest of
perpetrator or the circumstances under which the crime shrunkening and preservation of the dead body.
was committed, or in general assist in the prosecution Mummification can be either natural of artificial
of a criminal. (embalming).

Types of Physical Evidences:

a. Corpus Delicti Evidence- Objects or substance which 2. Saponification (Adipocere formation) - is the
may be a part of the body of the crime. formation of a soft, friable and brownish- white greasy
substance in the soft fatty tissues of the body after
b. Associative Evidence- These are physical evidences
death. This substance is called adipocere that is formed
which link a suspect to the crime.
by hydrogenation of the body fats. It can be possibly be
c. Tracing Evidence- These are physical evidences which seen in the buttocks, trunk, limbs, breast and cheeks. It
may assist the investigator in locating the suspect. prevents or delays the putrefaction of the body.

Methods of Identification: 3. Maceration- It is a condition of the dead body, usually

the foetus, characterized by the softening and
1. By comparison – with the used of standard specimen, discoloration of the tissues as well as formation of
evidence under question can be compared in order to blisters in the skin due to the action of autolytic or
effect identification. proteolytic enzymes in the absence of utero is
2. By exclusion - is two or more persons have to be important in the consideration of legal live-birth which
identified and all but one is not yet identified, then the shows evidence of maceration by the following
one whose identity has not been established may be manifestations:
known by the process of elimination. 1) Reddish green to reddish-brown discoloration of skin;
POST- MORTEM DECOMPOSITION 2) Softness and limpness of the body; and
1.) Autolysis or autodigestive changes after death 3) Blebs formation and separation of the epidermis
This is facilitated by weak acid and higher temperature. from the underlying tissues.
This is also seen in the maceration of the dead fetus
inside the uterus. The stomach may be perforated,
glandular tissues become soft after death due to auto Pathological Classification
digestion and the action of autolytic enzymes. The
1. Death of Syncope (loos of consciousness, fall of blood
decomposition by enzymes
pressure, Cardiac Standstill, cerebral metabolism,
2.) Putrefaction hyperventilation, cardiac disease, Tussive Syncope
Hysterical syncope
- It is the breaking down of the complex protein into
simpler components associated with the evolution of 2. Death of Asphyxia (Respiratory Obstruction and
foul smelling gases and accompanied by the change of Circulatory Arrest, Inhalation of obnoxious gases fumes,
color of the body. drowning and electric shock, Compression of the neck
and strangulation, Compression of the chest and
decomposition by bacteria asphyxia in brain injury)
noted after 48 hours after death 3. Death of Coma (Is a profound stupor in sickness or
first appears as a greenish discoloration after severe injury)

Generalized swelling and reddish discoloration along

the lines of the superficial veins occur: called Marbling. DEATH BY ASPHYXIA
Special forms of Putrefaction • a condition resulting from a lack of oxygen in the air
1. Mummification- a condition at which the body fluids or from an obstructing mechanism to respiration.
is removed before decomposition sets in resulting to
• the general term applied to all forms of violent death • a comprehensive study of a dead body performed by
which results primary from the interference with the trained physician using recognized dissection
process of respiration or the condition in which the procedures and techniques, primary to determine the
supply of oxygen to the blood or to the tissues or both true cause of death
has been reduced below normal level.
• indicates that, in addition to an external examination,
the body is opened and internal examination is
conducted.
TYPES OF ASPHYXIA
POST MORTEM EXAMINATION

Refers to an external examination of a dead body

1) ANOXIC DEATH associated with the failure of the
without incision being made, although blood and other
arterial blood to become normally saturated with
fluids may be collected for examination.
oxygen.

2) ANEMIC ANOXIC DEATH due to a deceased capacity

of the blood to carry oxygen KINDS OF AUTOPSIES

3) STAGNANT ANOXIC DEATH brought about by the

failure of circulation.
1) HOSPITAL OR NON-OFFICIAL done on a human body
4) HISTOTOXIC ANOXIC DEATH due to the failure of the with the consent of the deceased person’s relatives for
cellular oxidative process, although the oxygen is the purpose of:
delivered to the tissues, it cannot be utilized properly.
a) determining the cause of death

b) providing correlation of clinical diagnosis and clinical

symptoms

TYPES OF MECHANICAL ASPHYXIA c) determining the effectiveness of therapy

1) STRANGULATION (THROTTLING) may be with the use d) studying the natural course of disease process
of hands or a ligature (such as rope)
e) educating students and physicians.
2) SMOTHERING OR SUFFOCATION occurs when
2) MEDICO LEGAL OR OFFICIAL an examination
entrance of air through the nose and mouth is blocked
performed on a dead body purpose of:
or severely restricted.
a) determining the cause, manner or mode and time of
3) HANGING the neck is tied while the body is
death
suspended common from suicide
b) recovering, identifying and preserving evidentiary
4) CHOKING there is blocking of the internal airway by a
material
foreign object inside or outside of the victim’s body.
c) providing correlation of facts and circumstances
5.) CRUSH OR TRAUMATIC ASPHYXIA brought about by
related to death
the mechanical compression of the chest by some
heavy object d) providing a factual, objective medical report for law
enforcement, prosecution and defense agencies
6) DROWNING
e) separating death due to disease from death due to
external cause for protection of the innocent.

f)
AUTOPSY
NEGATIVE AUTOPSY
• An autopsy which failed to establish cause of death • It remains of persons who died of dangerous
after all efforts have been exhausted communicable diseases may be disinterred after five (5)
years.
• An autopsy which after a meticulous examination with
the aid of other examination does not yield any definite
cause of death.
Physical Injury

Injury- Is the scientific impairment of the body structure

NEGLIGENT AUTOPSY or function caused by outside force or agent.

• An autopsy wherein no cause of death is found on Physical Injury- is an injury of the body caused by
account of imprudence, negligence, lack of skill and lack physical agents which is the application of stimulus to
of foresight of the examiner. the body producing damage or injury to the tissue.

Method of Disposal of the Dead Body Wound- is a break or solution in the continuity of the
skin or tissues of the body.
1. Embalming- Artificial Mummification
Inflammation- Is a specific tissue response to injury by
2. Burial- Inhumation or Interment
the living or inanimate agents, or to electrical, chemical
Is a method of placing the dead body in the grave. etc., characterized by vascular dilatation, fluid
exudation and accumulation of leukocytes in the
Funeral- it is the procession of the dead body followed tissues.
by grieving relatives, friends and other persons to the
place of burial in accordance with the religion, custom
and traditions.
Classification of Wound or Physical injury
Persons in-charge; The Spouse(if married), The
A. As to Severity
descendant of the nearest degree and brother and
sisters.

1. Mortal Wound

3. Cremation- Is the burning of the dead body into ashes 2. Non-Mortal Wound
or pulverization of the body into ashes by the
B. As to Kind Instrument used
application of heat or flames. Requirement: permit for
cremation, Exact identification of the deceased and 1. Blunt instrument – lacerated
exact cause of death has been ascertained.
2. Sharp-edge instrument – incised
4. Disposal of the dead body to the Sea.

5. Use of the Dead body for Scientific Purpose.

3. Sharp-pointed instrument – punctured
Exhumation- It is the raising or disinterring of the Dead
body or remains from the grave. 4. Sharp-Edge and Sharp-Pointed – stab

EXHUMATION (DESINTERRING) 5. Rough object – abrasion

• It refers to the taking out of a body from its tomb or C. As to Manner of Infliction
gravesite D. As to the depth of the Wound
• It can be done only upon a lawful order, with E. As to the relation of the site of application of force
permission from the Department of Health. and injury
• It remains of persons who died of non- dangerous, a) Coup Injury- Injury at the side of application.
non-communicate diseases may be disinterred after
three (3) years.
b) Contre coup- injury found opposite the side of birth.
application.
DEFLORATION - the laceration or rupture of the hymen
c) Coup Contre Coup- injury both at the side and as a result of sexual intercourse.
opposite side of application.

d) Locus Minoris Resistencia- Injury is found on some

area offering the least resistance to the force applied.

e) Extensive Injury- involves a greater area of damage.

SEXUAL OFFENSES

Virginity - a condition of a female who has not

experienced sexual intercourse and whose genital
organs have not been altered by carnal correction.

Kinds of Virginity

1. MORAL VIRGINITY - state of not knowing the nature

of sexual life and not having experienced sexual
relation.

2. PHYSICAL VIRGINITY - a condition whereby a woman CHAPTER XII POLYGRAPHY

is conscious of the nature of the sexual life but not
experienced sexual intercourse. Applies to women who
have reached sexual maturity but not experienced Polygraphy – is scientific methods of detecting
sexual intercourse. deception done with the aid of a polygraph instrument.
TRUE PHYSICAL VIRGINITY

A condition wherein the hymen is intact, with the edges Polygraph - (derived from the Greek words Poly) many
distinct and regular, and the opening is small to barely or several and Graph = (writing chart) is a scientific
admit the tip of the smallest finger of the examiner instrument capable of recording simultaneously
even if the thighs are separated. changes in blood pressure, pulse rate, respiration and
FALSE PHYSICAL VIRGINITY skin resistance as indicative of emotional disturbance
especially of a lying subject when being questioned.
A condition wherein the hymen is unruptured but the
orifice is wide and elastic to admit two or more fingers
of the examiner with a lesser degree of resistance. Thomas Jefferson- first person known who used the
3. DEMI-VIRGINITY term Polygraph to described one of his inventions

A condition of a woman who permits any form of sexual

liberties as long as they abstain from rupturing the IMPORTANT PERSONS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF
hymen by sexual act. POLYGRAPH
4. VIRGO INTACTA Angelo Mosso - He made used of an instrument called
Applied to women who have had previous sexual act plethysmograph in his research on emotion and fear
but not yet given and its influence on the heart and respiration.
• He developed a scientific cradle capable of recording continually and simultaneously the
respiration and cardiovascular activities.
Cesare Lombroso- he relates the use of
hydrosphygmograph during interrogation of suspects. Today he is known as the Father of Scientific Lie
He called it blood pressure pulse test. Detection and at the same time the Father of Polygraph

• He is considered as the first person to conceive the

idea of lie detection and the first to apply the technique
in actual criminal suspects
Leonarde Keeler- in 1926, he made a modification of
Francis Galton- in 1879, introduced the Word
Larson’s instrument. He developed that metal bellows
Association Test using series of irrelevant questions and
and kymograph that pulled a chart paper at a constant
relevant question separated in time.
speed under recording pens from a roll of chart located
B. Sticker- believed that the origin of the galvanic skin inside the instrument.
phenomenon was under the influence of the exciting
in 1938, 1938, Keeler included the Psychogalvanometer
mental impressions and that the will has no effect upon
(PGR), a third measuring component of his instrument
it.
which was also known as Galvanic Skin Reflex (GSR)
invented by Italian Physiologist Galvani in 1791.

• He made the earliest application of = credited as the creator on Relevant-Irrelevant

Technique.
psychogalvanometer to forensic problems.
= today Keeler is known as the Father of Modern
Sir James Mackenzie- an English clinician and
Polygraphy.
cardiologist, constructed the Clinical Polygraph in 1892,
an instrument to be used for medical examinations with
the capability to simultaneously record undulated line
tracings of the vascular pulses (radial, venous and
arterial), by way of a stylus onto a revolving drum of
smoked paper.
Epinephrine = is the hormonal stimulator of the
Dr. William M. Marston- in 1915 was credited as the sympathetic nervous system. It acts to constrict
creator of the systolic blood- pressure test used in an peripheral blood flow, raise blood pressure, increase
attempt to detect deception during questioning, and cardiac activity, promote metabolic activity through the
using a standard blood pressure cuff and stethoscope, release of glucose, and inhibit digestive processes.
requiring repeated inflation of the pressure cuff to
obtain readings at intervals during examination. This = it is called Adrenaline in British
was called Discontinuous Technique.

Harold Burtt- In 1918, Burtt suggested that the changes

in respiration were an indication of deception.
Norepinephrine = is a hormone secreted by the adrenal
John A. Larson - encouraged by August Vollmer of the gland, it works alongside with epinephrine/adrenaline
Berkeley Police Department to conduct a research on to give the body sudden energy in times of stress,
deception. known as the "fight or flight" response.
-Cardio-Pneumo Psychogram was Larson’s first • it is called Noradrenaline in British.
instrument which was borrowed from Dr. Robert Jessel
and was invented by Earl Bryant

In 1921, Earl Bryant made an instrument for Larson in MAJOR COMPONENTS OF POLYGRAPH
which he used a breadboard as a base and from that it
became in the industry as Breadboard Polygraph –
1. Pneumograph = designed to detect and record 1. Relative Blood Volume/Pressure = is the changes in
changes in respiration of the subject which consists of the average value of the cardio tracing (waveform) with
the ff: respect to a baseline.

• Rubber Convoluted Tube = about 10 inches a. Diastolic Blood Pressure = refers to the downward
corrugated rubber attached to the body of the subject. blood pressure representing the low pressure to the
closing of the valves and heart relaxed.
• Beaded Chain = used to lock the rubber convoluted
tube. b. Systolic Blood Pressure = the upward blood pressure
as the apex of the curve caused by the contraction of
• Recording Pen Unit = consisting of two 5 inches
the heart, valves are open and blood is rushing into the
recording pen
arteries.
• Centering Knob = used to center the pen
2. Pulse Amplitude = is the changes in pulse amplitude
• Sensitivity Knob = used to adjust the desired size of (tracing height) independent of baseline.
tracings
3. Pulse Rate = changes in heart rate or time between
• Vent = used to release excess pressure from the pulses.
system
4. Dicrotic Notch = changes in relative position of the
• Pneumo Module = located inside the instrument that dicrotic notch or pulse waveform
receives the reactions detected by the corrugated tube
= short horizontal notch in a cardio-tracing located at
and moves the pen to record the reactions on the chart
the middle of the diastolic stem

2. Cardiosphygmograph- Designed to detect changes in

the cardiovascular activity of the subject. It consists of:
3. Galvanograph- designed to detect changes in skin
resistance of the subject. Consists of:
a. Blood Pressure Cuff = attached to the upper right arm
of the subject, above the brachial artery.
a. Finger Electrode Assembly consists of:
b. Sphygmamonometer = used to indicate the amount
of air pressure inflated to the system. Usually about 60 a.1. finger Electrode Plate and Retainer Bond- attached
mm of mercury for male subject. to the index and ring finger of the subject.

c. Recording Pen Unit = five (5) inches length a.2. Connecting Plug = attached the system to the
instrument
d. Air Pump/Pump Bulb = designed to supply air to the
system b. Recording Pen Unit = usually 7 inches

e. Cardio Module = located inside the instrument that c. Amplifier Unit = designed to support the
receives the reactions detected by the cuff and moves galvanometer in converting electrical to mechanical
the pen to record the reactions on the chart current.

f. Sensitivity Control = used to adjust the desired size of d. Sensitivity Control = used to adjust the desired size of
tracings tracings

g. Centering Control = designed to center the pen on e. Centering Control = designed to center the pen on
the chart the chart

h. Vent = Used to release excess pressure from the f. GSR Module = located inside the instrument that
system receives the reactions detected by the finger electrodes
and moves the pen to record the reactions on the chart
Cardiosphygmograph provides a record of the following:
 FORMULATION OF TEST QUESTIONS

1. Irrelevant Question - a question that has no

connection with the matter under investigation and
How does it Records?
deals with known facts that the subject cannot be
Galvanic Skin Response is the change in the body’s denied. It is designed to be emotionally neutral to
resistance to the passage of a minute electrical sensing examinees and usually answerable by “yes’. Also called
current. Neutral Question.

The electrodes electrically connect the subject to the 2. Symptomatic Question - is designed to ensure that
instrument. These provide a 5 microamp sensing the examiner will not ask un-reviewed questions or that
current to the subject, far below the threshold of the examinee is not afraid that the examiner will ask un-
feeling. reviewed questions.

Examples:

Kymograph - serves as the paper feed mechanism of the Do you believe me when I promised not to ask a
polygraph machine question in this test I have not gone over word for
word?
• It is a motor that pulls or drives the cart paper under
the recording pen simultaneously at the rate of five Even though I promised I would not, are you afraid I
seconds per vertical chart division or twelve divisions in will ask a question in this test I have not gone over word
one minute run. for word?

a. Chart- approximately 100 ft. rolled graph paper with 3. Sacrifice Relevant Question - it introduces the
approximately ¼ inch horizontal division and ½ inch relevant question to the subject Designed to absorb the
vertical division equivalent to 5 seconds run response generated by the introduction of relevant

b. Cutter Bar- used to cut the paper at the end of the question in the series
test
Example:
c. Rubber Roller- the one responsible for pulling the
Regarding the (matter under investigation), are you
paper out of the machine.
willing to answer the questions truthfully?
d. Pen Table- flat portion where the pen write on the
4. Relevant Question- a question deals with the matter
chart.
under investigation. Color coded red in computerized
instruments. It is designed to generate reactions from
deceptive subject.
e. Paper Rail Guide- serves as the security for the
unnecessary movement of the chart paper or to ensure
the paper’s forward movement without shaking.
Types of Relevant Question
f. Synchronous Motor- runs the chart paper at the
a. Primary Relevant (Strong Relevant) - addresses the
uniform rate speed regardless of the voltage change.
primary issue or direct involvement of the subject on
the matter under question. It is use primarily with the
single-issue examination.
Pen and Inking System - the one that provides for the
permanent record of the test Ex. Did you take that missing money?

Capillary Ink a water based ink intended for polygraph b. Secondary Relevant (Weak Relevant) - deals with the
instruments physical acts that support the primary issue. This is
usually use in multi-issue examination.
 Ex. Did you participate in the theft of that missing
money?
b. Exclusive - a comparison question separated in time,
c. Guilty Knowledge - designed to probe whether the place and category from the relevant question. It was
subject possesses information regarding the identity of introduced by Cleve Backster. He believes that this
the offender or the facts of the case under question. prevents the guilty suspect from perceiving the
comparison question as an ambiguous relevant
Ex. Do you know who took that missing money?
question.
d. Evidence Connecting Question - test question in
Example:
which the examinee is asked about a particular piece of
physical evidence that would incriminate the guilty • During the first years of your life, did you ever ?
person. It could be items left at the crime scene by the
• Prior to 2009, did you ever ?
perpetrator or stolen property.

Ex. Do you know where any of that missing money is

right now? Types of Polygraph Technique/Test
5. Comparison Question - a question which is the same 1. General Question Test - consist of series of relevant,
in nature with that of the relevant question but broad in irrelevant control questions in a planned order.
scope. Developed by John E. Reid
- is used for comparative purposes with the relevant 2. Relevant/Irrelevant Test - consists primarily of series
question. of irrelevant questions and relevant question pertaining
to the crime under investigation. Developed by Keeler.
- designed to generate reactions from truthful subject.
3. Peak of Tension Test - consist of only one relevant
Types of Comparison Question
and a series of irrelevant questions.
a. Directed Lie Comparison Question (DLC) - a
• Resemble, in every general way, the card test, for it
comparison question in which the examinee is
consist essentially of the asking of a series of question in
instructed by the examiner to answer the questions
which only one has any bearing upon the matter under
untruthfully.
investigation.
Some examiners actually get admission to comparison
• Padding questions before and after the relevant
questions and then instruct the examinee to lie to that
questions.
question when it is asked.
Two Types of POT Test
b. Probable Lie Comparison Question (PLC) - a question
to which it is likely that the examinee is untruthful with Known Solution Peak of Tension Test (KSPOT) - is used
his answer. to determine whether the examinee is aware of details
of a crime that have been kept from the general public
Broad in scope and usually based on actions
and would presumably only be known to the
categorically similar to that of the issue under
perpetrator of the crime or those with incriminating
investigation.
knowledge.
Types of Probable Lie
Searching Peak of Tension Test (SPOT) - is used to
a. Inclusive - a comparison question which include the determine details of a crime that are not known to
relevant time period under investigation. It was officials, such as the location of an unrecovered body,
originally designed by Reid. but would be known to a participant in the crime.

• This type of question usually starts with the phrase:

“In your entire life,…..”. Also termed as inclusionary.
4. Card test / Acquaintance Test / Stimulation Test - the Two Types of Polygraph Exam
subject is presented with seven (7) previously
1. Mixed Issue Exam - multiple-issue polygraph testing
numbered cards face down.
like screening of applicants or audit of employees or
persons with security clearances.

-he will be instructed to take one, look at it and return it 2. Diagnostic Exam - a test which involves specific case
with the rest of the cards. investigation.

-the examiner will shuffle the cards and each card will Types of Diagnostic Exam
be shown to him, with the instruction that he will
1. Single Issue Exam - a test which inquires direct
answer “NO” to all cards , even if the one being shown
involvement of subject into a specific case under
to him is the one he has seen earlier.
question.
5. Guilt Complex Test used primarily for overly
responsive subjects.
2. Mult-facet Exam - test format in which the relevant
- A totally fictitious incident but a similar nature to the
questions are targeted toward different elements of the
matter being investigated and make him believe it is
same crime.
real.

- The purpose is to compare the response with those

response made concerning the actual matter under
investigation
Chart markings - are annotations of the physiologic
6. Silent Answer Test - Subject is instructed not to give tracings to denote stimulus (question) onset and offset,
any verbal answer, the subject will only answer in his examinee’s answer, question number, question label,
mind. artifacts, and other details important to the
interpretation of the physiological data.
7. Comparison Question Test (CQT) - the reactions on
the control and relevant questions are compared via Admissibility of Result
numerical scoring.
In the Philippines, polygraph results are not admitted as
evidence. Many polygraph examiners and lawyers have
attempted presenting polygraph evidence in court but
all resulted to futile.
Polygraph Examiner is one who is capable of detecting
Philippines
deception and verifying the truthfulness of statement
through the use of a polygraph instrument. Rule 130 section 49 of the Rules on Evidence provides
that:
It is someone who has successfully completed formal
education and training in conducting polygraph “The opinion of a witness on matter requiring special
examination and is certified by his agency to conduct knowledge, skill, experience or training which he shown
such examination. to possess, may be received in evidence.”
Subject - is any person who undergoes polygraph U.S. United States v. Frye – 1923 – NOT ADMITTED AS
examination. EVIDENCE (First case in Polygraphy)
Polygraph Examination - a process that encompasses all
activities that take place between a polygraph examiner
and an examinee during a specific series of interactions.
For a valid polygraph examination to exist, respiration,
EDA, and Cardiovascular activity must be monitored and
recorded.